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Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Paraphilias

Overview
In this chapter we will discuss:
 * Learning objectives
 * What is Paraphilia?
 * What is the Diagnostic Criteria for Paraphilia?
 * What is the Motivation Behind Paraphilia?
 * What are the Treatments for Paraphilia?

Introduction
In the development of self-individuation, which takes place in childhood and adolescence, the young person becomes conscious of his or her sexual self and of the differences between themselves and the opposite sex. This is followed by sexual interests that are driven by biological needs and desires. Attraction to the another follows and the individual experiences his or her sexuality. This takes place not only because people are instinctually attracted to one another by desire but also because of a voluntary, purposeful choice to attain a psychosexual union. If you are like most people your sexual interest is towards other physically mature adults (or late adolescents) all of whom are capable of freely offering or withholding their consent. The above is the ‘normal process’ but what if you were sexually attracted to something or somebody other than another adult? For example, an animal such as a dog or horse or shoes? Or what if your only means of obtaining sexual satisfaction is to commit murder? Such patterns of sexual arousal and countless others exist in a large number of individuals. These disorders of sexual arousal are called paraphilias. Paraphilia is generally fetish-based in that both arousal and gratification is dependent on very specific objects, body parts and acts. It is when this fetish becomes the only method in which the person can find arousal and gratification that it becomes paraphilia. This chapter will focus specifically on the motivations behind paraphilia using theoretical models and evidence based research. The existing theories discussing the motivations behind paraphilia are biological explanations, psychoanalytic explanations and cognitive-behavioural and learning explanations.

Definition
Definition:

Paraphilias has been recognised as a mental disorder since 1905. The definition of paraphilia is derived from the Greek “Para” (deviation) and “Philia” (attraction) (Seligman & Hardenburg, 2000).

DSM IV: According to the revised fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), to diagnose a paraphilia, the patient must have recurring, intensely arousing fantasies, sexual urges or behaviors that involve nonhuman objects; that involve the suffering or humiliation of oneself, one's partner, children, or non-consenting others; and that occur over a period of at least 6 months (Criterion A). In addition, the behaviour, sexual urges, and fantasies must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (Criterion B).

Prevalence and Incidence
As a paraphilia offers pleasure, many individuals affected do not seek psychiatric treatment. Individuals who feel distressed may still avoid confiding in a doctor or psychiatrist out of shame (Raymond & Grant, 2008). Some paraphilias appear to be more common than others. Masochism, sadism and fetishism appear to be the most commonly encounter paraphilias.In comparison, within clinics that treat sex offenders who have criminal chargers, the most commonly encountered paraphilia are pedophilia, voyeurism and exhibitionism (Raymond & Grant, 2008). Given that the actually incidence of paraphilias involving non-consenting individuals or the number of paraphiliacs who fail to seek psychiatric help is not known, the incidence of any one of the paraphilias is underreported (Raymond & Grant, 2008). The prevalence of paraphilias is much higher in men than women. Abel and Osborne (2000) estimate the sex ratio of 30 to 1.

Types of Paraphilias: The DSM-IV defines the following paraphilias:
 * Exhibitionism: Includes fantasies, urges, or behaviours involving the exposure of one's genitals to strangers.
 * Fetishism: Is defined as sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviours that focus on nonliving objects.
 * Frotteurism: People diagnosed with frotteurism achieve arousal and orgasm by fantasising about or touching or rubbing against a non-consenting person.
 * Pedophilia: Involves sexual thoughts and behaviours focused on a child, generally age 13 or younger.
 * Sexual Masochism: Involves sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviours involving the act of being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer.
 * Sexual Sadism: Involves deriving sexual gratification from fantasies or behaviours that cause others physical or emotional suffering.
 * Transvestic Fetishism: People with this disorder derive sexual gratification from fantasising or actual dressing in women's clothing, usually accompanied by masturbation.
 * Voyeurism: Characterised by fantasies, urges, and behaviours that involve the act of observing an unsuspecting person who is naked, in the process of disrobing or engaging in sexual activity.
 * Paraphilia not otherwise specified: Sexual fantasies, urges and behaviours that meet the general criteria for paraphilias but involve objects of arousal other than those cited.

Etiology
What is the motivation behind paraphilia? The etiology of the paraphilias is not precisely known. Theories have been proposed and researchers have conducted experiments to examine the differences in individuals with these disorders compared with controls. The existing theories for paraphilia are biological explanations, psychoanalytic explanations and cognitive-behavioural and conditioning explanations (Weiderman, 2003).

Brain Imaging and Neuropsychological Testing
What effect does the brain have on perverse sexual behaviour? Can paraphilia be attributed to brain illness or damage? Research in this field has associated brain damage and hormonal problems to the motivation behind paraphilia (Kafka & Hennen, 1999). Clinicians have observed that after brain damage, whether it was due to an accident, surgery, epilepsy, or toxic substances, paraphilias may emerge (Briken, Habermann, Berner & Hill, 2005). Investigators have further observed a link between sexually abnormal behavior and temporal lobe impairment (Kafka & Hennen, 1999). Different theories have been proposed to explain what the connection might be between brain abnormalities and paraphilias. They include the idea that a brain abnormality reduces the individual's control over paraphiliac impulses, that it releases sexual motivations otherwise repressed, and that it leads to paraphiliac motivations (Briken, Habermann, Berner & Hill, 2005). Studies have examined brain differences in sex offenders based on the idea that the temporal lobes of sex offenders have some abnormalities. Kafka and Hennen (1999) examined 41 pedophiles using CT scanning and found that left temporal parietal pathology was distinguished more often in pedophiles than in controls. In another study Kafka and Hennen (1999) compared CT scans of 51 men who had sexually assaulted females with 36 nonviolent non-sex offenders and found that right-sided temporal horn dilatation took place significantly more often in the sadists than in the controls. Wright, Nobrega, Langevin and Wortzman (1990) conducted CT scans of three groups of paraphiliacs sex offenders and one group of controls and found that the brains of paraphiliac sex offenders were moderately smaller in the left hemisphere compared with those of the controls. However, a number of studies have failed to show consistent imaging or neuropsychological differences. Wright et al. (1990) examined 160 extra-familial child sexual abusers, 123 incest perpetrators, 108 sexual aggressors against adult females, and 36 nonviolent nonsex offender controls with CT scans and the Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological Test Battery and found no difference in memory or imaging outcome variables in the groups of sex offenders compared with controls. Wright et al. (1990) further examined 36 nonviolent non-sex offenders and 91 incest perpetrators and found no difference in abnormalities on CT scan. Altogether, these results are mixed, with some studies finding neuropsychological and brain-imaging abnormalities in individuals with a history of child molestation and/or paraphilias compared with controls and some not.

The Monoamine Hypothesis
The monoamine hypothesis argues that the motivation behind paraphilias may derive from abnormal brain development leading to problems in neurological function (Kafka, 1997). Consequently, this leads to problems in the operation of the neurotransmitters (or monoamines) such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine (Kafka). In relation to the functions of these monoamines, evidence suggests that norepinephrine is important in the continuation of alertness, drive, and motivation whilst dopamine is vital for the experience of pleasure and reward and serotonin is involved in arousal, attention, and mood (Kafka, 1997). These monoamines act as neuromodulators mediating attention, learning, physiological function, affective states, goal motivated and motor behaviour, as well as appetitive states such as sleep, sex, thirst and appetite (Kafka). Furthermore, Kafka uggests that the attraction system in humans is related with high levels of dopamine, norepinephrine and decreased levels of serotonin. Additionally, Kafka argues that the motivation behind paraphilia is due to problems with serotonin levels.

Kafka (1997) conducted an experiment using male rats to examine the motivation behind male paraphilia. The results indicated that decreased levels of serotonin may increase appetitive sexual behaviour. Enhancing serotonin was found to inhibit or reduce the sexual appetitive behaviour in male rats (Kafka, 1997). Results further identified that an increase in noreadrenergic postsynaptic activity enhances sexual behaviour whilst certain noreadrenergic antagonists can have an inhibitory effect on sexual arousal. The results further found that a decrease in dopamine decreased the mammal's motivated behaviour, which included male sexual behaviour (Kafka, 1997). Therefore, the findings reported by Kafka illustrate how neurobiology can impact the motivation behind paraphilas sexual behaviour. For example, it is also suggested that for some individuals the motivation system can be adjusted by undermined neurotransmitter mechanisms. This may lower the threshold for sexually aggressive behavior by increasing the strength, salience, and duration of sexual goals, and desires, and weakening the action selection and control systems (Kafka). Therefore, the presence of extremely intense sexual feelings might over-ride an individual’s ability to control his sexual behaviour. Kafka states that the high incidence of depression, anxiety, impulsivity, compulsiveness, and aggression in paraphiliacs, and the reduction in serotonin levels are linked to all of these behavior abnormalities. Kafka further notes that alterations in norepinephrine have been reported in sensation-seeking individuals. Sensation seeking has been suggested as a personality characteristic influencing the motivation behind paraphilias (Kafka & Hennen, 1999). Sensation seekers have low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO) which is equivalent to individuals with paraphilia. MAO is a limbic system enzyme involved in breaking down brain neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin (Kafka, 1997). Dopamine contributes to the experiences of reward and therefore facilitates approach behaviours (Kafka, 1997). Serotonin contributes to a biological inhibition, and to the brains physiological “stop” system, which therefore inhibits approach behaviours (Kafka, 1997). In addition, Kafka (1997) conducted an experiment using animals to examine the association between sensation seeking behaviours in paraphiliacs and decrease in serotonin levels. The results illustrated that reduced serotonin positively correlates with sensation seeking characteristics in paraphiliacs. Sensation seekers tend to have high levels of dopamine, hence their biochemistry favours approach over inhibition (Kafka, 1997). They also tend to have relatively low levels of serotonin, hence their biochemistry fails to inhibit them from risks and new experiences. Furthermore, Gonadial hormones in males are related to sensation seeking and would also account for the sex differences in sensation seeking. Consequently, this can also suggest the sex differences in paraphiliacs, as paraphiliacs are predominately male.

Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory considers the causes of paraphilias or “perversion” to early childhood (Guay, 2009). Freud (1856-1939) highlighted the idea that perversion could be a regression to perverse sexuality, which is an early state of sensual gratification (Wiederman, 2003). Psychoanalysts state that early perverse sexual experiences are common in patients with paraphilia and that they appear to be symbolically or actually re-enacted in the perverse fantasy (Wiederman, 2003). For example, the transvestic fetishist sometimes gives a record in which his mother dressed him in girls' clothes when he was a child, and the sadist gives a history that he was beaten. Among those paraphilias that constitute sexual abuse, as much as 30 percent of the paraphiliacs may themselves have been victims of sexual abuse before they were 18 years of age (Abel & Osborn, 2000). The method by which a victim becomes an abuser is understood as identification with the aggressor which is reliving a trauma by placing themselves in the power position (Wiederman, 2003). Psychoanalytic explanations rely on the concept of castration anxiety arose when a young boy first discovered that his mother did not have a penis (and therefore the young boy has the potential to lose his). The fetish object is then seen as an unconsious substitute for the mothers’ “lost” penis (Wiederman, 2003). Through fixating on the fetish item and perhaps involving sexual partners to wear or associate themselves with the items, the individual with the fetish maintains the unconscious fantasy that his partner has a penis (Wiederman, 2003). The psychoanalytic theory suggests that certain fetish items are chosen by paraphiliacs as the fetish relates to the last moment before the individual with the fetish, learnt of his mother’s castrated state (Wiederman, 2003).

Psychoanalytic theorists also explain the motivation behind paraphilia through their focus on object relations and possible problematic childhood attachment (Wiederman, 2003). The suggestion that individuals with paraphilia experienced childhood sexual abuse or trauma is based on an object relations perspective (Wiederman, 2003). The theory states that such abuse in real relationships with caregivers manifests itself as subsequent problems in the ability to establish and maintain healthy intimate relationships. Instead, the individual is motivated to satisfy sexual urges through nonrelationshal means (such as by reliance on a fetish object), pseudorelationships (eg, exhibitionism, voyeurism, or frotteurism), or relationships with partners that are based on disproportionate power (eg sexual masochism).

Cognitive-Behavioural and Learning Explanations
Cognitive behavioural and learning explanations also highlight the importance of early sexual experiences in relation to motivation behind paraphilia, although the significance is on their following thoughts and behaviours and their consequences (Marshall, 2007). For example a classical conditioning explanation of paraphilia is based on the principle that whatever stimuli were present during an initial sexual experience becomes paired with the sexual arousal and orgasm (Marshall, 2007). An example can be portrayed through using a Pavlovian paradigm where a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) of genital stimulation and the unconditioned response (UR) of sexual pleasure (Atkins, 2004). As a result, in the future CS will produce the conditioned response (CR) of sexual arousal (Atkins, 2004). Foot fetishism can be used as an example. The sight and feeling of a foot, which touches the penis, can become a CS, the resulting erection (or orgasm) the US. Additionally, O'Donohue and Plaud (1994) conducted a conditioning model of sexual fetishism by pairing a visual stimulus of a pair of black boots with visual stimuli of attractive, nude women. The subjects in this study were three adult male psychologists. O’Donohue and Plaud (1994) measured sexual arousal by penile plethysmography. O’Donohue and Plaud (1994) defined a conditioned response as five successive penile responses to the conditioned stimulus (black boots). O’Donohue and Plaud (1994) also assessed stimulus generalization after criterion responding to the CS by presenting stimuli of other types of boots and shoes. The results found by O’Donohue and Plaud (1994) found that all three subjects showed criterion-conditioned responding, extinction of conditioned responding, and stimulus generalization. Another example of how the motivation behind parahilias is learned is when an individual looks into someone’s open window and witnesses’ nudity or sexual activity may become sexually aroused. If the individual continues to look and begins to masturbate or replays the experience for sexual satisfaction, voyeurism has now been assciated with sexual arousal and pleasure (Wiederman, 2003). The experience of orgasm reinforcers the voyeuristic behaviour or fantasy, more likely to happen again in the furture (operant conditioning). Each time the individual returns to voyeuristic behaviour or imagery during episodes of sexual arousal and orgasm, the association is strengthened (classical conditioning) (Wiederman, 2003).

Why do some individuals with a particular early sexual experience elaborate that experience into a paraphiliac interest whereas others do not? This could be due to biological predispositions toward being more motivated by sexual risk taking versus inhibition or to experiencing the initial sexual experiences during certain critical developmental periods (Wiederman, 2003). Additionally, it could be due to whether that sexual experience was perceived as positive or negative by the individual. Using voyeurism as another example, if the boy noticed the nudity or sexual activity and experienced embarrassment, he may have been motivated to look away and not think of the incident again (Wiederman, 2003). These combinations of factors illustrates why males are predominately more likely than females to develop paraphilia. In contrast to girls, boys have few prohibitions regarding sexuality, and having a penis and erections in comparison to a vagina and lubrication entails boys to be more conscious of their sexual arousal (Wiederman, 2003).

Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory suggests that an offender has somehow learned the paraphilia from his or her environment (Seligman & Hardenburg, 2000). This theory also incorporates "modeling", which suggests that the offender learned the behaviour from watching someone else behave in a similar fashion, or even by their own sexual abuse (Bradford, Bowlet and Pawlak, 1992). Social learning theory suggests that deviant sexual behaviours are learned in the same manner by which normative sexual behaviours and expressions are learned. Two surveys of sexual behaviour were conducted by Kinsey and Laumann (2003) the results concluded that aside from anatomy, most other aspects of human sexual behaviour were the product of learning and conditioning. Operant conditioning is a term used to describe behaviour which has been reinforced by reward or discouraged through punishment (Seligman & Hardenburg, 2000). Furthermore, Seligman and Hardenburg (2000) conducted a study using subjects between the ages of 21 and 43 years to test the hypothesis that sexual reinforcement increased penile responding. The researchers used sexually explicit scripts and neutral scripts which were read by the subjects. Each subject read six pages of sexually explicit material, during six sessions over a 2-week period. At the end of each session the experimental subjects were allowed to ejaculate (defined as the sexual reinforcement), while control subjects were required to read nonpornographic material until their tumescence decreased to within 25% of baseline. The researchers found that penile responding continued to increase over trials when the sexually explicit scripts were followed by sexual reinforcement. The control subjects demonstrated decreased responding over trials. The results of this study illustrate how positive reinforcement such as the ejaculation in the previous study increases a certain behaviour, in the previous instance, penile responding. However, this study can be related to the operant conditioning within paraphilias. A good example of reinforcement is the work of B.F Skinner and his work on operant conditioning. For example if a pedophile has a high sexual desire and need for sexual satisfaction, and by touching and abusing young children he is able to satisfy his sexual desires then this action (touching and abusing young children) is reinforced because it has satisfied a biological drive which was in a state of arousal. Therefore whenever we do something which is successful in satisfying a biological drive that behaviour is likely to become reinforced and so we will repeat it time and time again. This further can be related to the drive reduction theory.

Drive Reduction Theory
According to the theorist Clark Hull (1884-1952) humans have internal biological needs which motivate us to perform a certain way. These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as internal states of arousal or tension which must be reduced (Bradford et al. 1992). According to this theory, we are driven to reduce these drives so that we may maintain a sense of internal calmness (Bradford, et al., 1992). Drive reduction theory states that when we do something which reduces the tension associated with a biological drive (that is in a state of arousal) then that action is reinforced (Bradford et al. 1992). As a result, drive reduction theory states that our biological drives play a big way in how we learn (Bradford et al, 1992). Furthermore, similar to the operant conditioning learning paradigm, the motivation behind paraphilias can be associated within the drive reduction theory. For example, in relation to an individual with exhibitionism their biological drive and arousal is produced by exposure of the genitals to an unknown woman or girl (Bradford, et al., 1992). When exhibitionists experience their biological drive or irresistible impulse, they consequently expose their genitals which, as a result, reduces the tension associated with that biological drive. Therefore, as it reduces the tension, the action of exposing ones’ genitals is reinforced.

Courtship Disorder Theory
Freund suggested the concept of “courtship disorder” to explain the motivation behind paraphilias (Freund, Scher & Hucker, 1983). The theory of courtship disorder suggests voyeurism, exhibitionism, frotteurism, and preferential rape are expressions of a common underlying disturbance. Freund et al. (1983) state that courtship is characterised by a set of preferences for a sequence of erotic sensory stimuli and erotic activities and suggests that in paraphiliacs this has been disrupted (Freund et al., 1983). Freund et al., (1983) described an idealided sequence of courtship behaviours as involving four phases:
 * 1) Location of a potential partner (Finding phase, if a patient were “trapped” in this phase, he would become a voyeur)
 * 2) Pretactile Interaction (An affiliative phase, verbal and nonverbal communications with a prospective partner; with deviancy resulting in exhibitionism)
 * 3) Tactile Interaction (in which physical contact is made; with a deviation resulting in frotteurism)
 * 4) Effecting genital union (in which sexual intercourse occurs; with a deviancy resulting in rape).

Case Study
A Victim of a Paraphiliac Crime

A white female aged 34 years with shoulder length brown hair, had just placed her 9-year-old son in bed. An intruder broke into her back bedroom window and surprised her in the living room. He placed a large hunting knife next to her throat and told her to do as he said and not to scream or fight him or he would kill her and her child. Fearing for her life and for the life of her son, the victim complied with all his commands. The perpetrator, a white male aged 25 to 30 years of age, ordered her to take off all articles of clothing, which she did. He then handed her a white piece of cloth, possibly a tee shirt and told her to place it around her eyes. The cloth served as a blindfold. Once the blindfold was in place, he handed her a bra and panties and ordered her to put them on. He ordered her to remain still as he slowly cut the bra and panties from her body. He then took her by the arm and led her into the bathroom, where he made her bend over the sink. He penetrated her vaginally from the rear with his penis. As he raped her, he began cutting her hair with his knife. The victim reported that the perpetrator appeared to become more sexually aroused as he cut her hair at which time he ejaculated. When the perpetrator finished, he told her to remain bent over the sink for 5 min or he would kill her and her child. When she was reasonably sure that he had left the premises, she stood upright and immediately ran into her son’s bedroom to find him unharmed. She went back into the bathroom where she looked in the mirror. The perpetrator had cut large chunks of her hair, yet only a few strands of hair lay on the bathroom floor. The perpetrator had taken the hair with him. He had also taken the undergarments he had cut off her, as well as the blindfold.

Analysing the Case Study:
her to remove all her clothes. The act of having her remove her own clothing may have been sexually arousing to the perpetrator, what type of paraphilia may this be?
 * The perpetrator gained full control of his victim, he ordered
 * Both acts of the victim removing her own clothes and blindfolding herself, were most probably orchestrated by the offender to increase his own ____
 * If the offender blindfolded his victim to terrorize her more intensely, the act could have what paraphiliac type:
 * The victim reported that she believed he became more sexually excited when he began cutting her hair with a knife and did not orgasm until he had cut several chunks from her scalp: Is this experience an example of paraphilia?

Answers
1: voyeurism 2: Sexual Arousal 3: Sadistic Sadism 4: Yes

Treatment
The same theoretical models which explained the motivation behind paraphilia, psychoanalytic, biological and cognitive-behavioural domains, also help suggest adequate treatment for paraphilia. Biological treatment approaches entail controlling sexual drive and decreasing compulsivity (Wiederman, 2003). Cognitive-behavioural approaches engage in breaking the association between inappropriate stimuli and sexual arousal, reinforcing more appropriate sexual stimuli, and relapse prevention (Wiederman, 2003).

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy
The behavioural therapies aim to teach patients techniques that they can use to decrease deviant sexual drives and to maintain control of their behaviours (Wiederman, 2003). These include olfactory aversion, covert sensitisation, various masturbatory reconditioning techniques, modified aversive behavioural rehearsal, and imaginal desensitisation training. Furthermore, behavioural treatment is to “unlearn” the association between the inappropriate stimulus and sexual arousal (Wiederman, 2003). Normally, the deviant association has been strengthened over time and over situations. The term satiation is used to involve pairing the stimulus with lack of arousal (Wiederman, 2003). Satiation involves the individual to masturbate to the preferred stimulus or fantasy images, then to continue after orgasm (Wiederman, 2003). After orgasm, the paraphilic interest and the additional physical stimulation will hardly hold the attraction they did prior to orgasm. Marshall (2000) performed two single-case experiments using satiation therapy to reduce deviant sexual arousal. The first involved a 33-year old male pedophile with arousal patterns to shoes and underwear as well as to female children, while the second involved a 36 year old male pedophile with strong adult homosexual interests. The subjects were each instructed to fantasise about a targeted stimulus for 1 hr while continuously masturbating and reporting the fantasies aloud. If the subjects ejaculated, they were instructed to reinitiate masturbation immediately. Marshall concluded that results indicated that the satiation technique in both cases significantly decreased deviant arousal patterns. These results could be due to the fact that the satiation served as a causative mechanism of behavioural change (Wiederman, 2003).

The behavioural treatment involving pairing the inappropriate stimulus with an aversive experience is called covert sensitisation (Wiederman, 2003. Covert sensitisation involves mentally pairing the preferred stimulus with negative imagery. Wiederman (2003) illustrated an example, when a man fantasises about a woman in high-heeled shoes walking on his chest and becomes aware that he is beginning to have such fantasies, he is to switch to aversive imagery, such as the woman vomiting first, followed by his vomiting. Aversion training involves the more direct association of the inappropriate stimulus and an actual negative experience, such as electric shock or an aversive odour (Wiederman, 2003). A study conducted by Abel and Osborn (2000) studied six males (exhibitionists with histories of voyeurism, 2 transvestites, and 1 masochist) between 21 and 31 years of age. Five of the subjects were randomly assigned to a contingent shock condition, and one subject to a non-contingent schedule. The researchers found that penile responding to the deviant tape was suppressed up to the 18-week follow-up period as well as to deviant tapes that were not used in treatment (Abel & Osborn, 2000).

Biological Treatments
Biological approaches involve suppressing sexual drive and decreasing compulsivity (Wiederman, 2003). The antiandrogens cyproterone acetate (CPA) and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) are the most commonly prescribed biological treatments for the control of paraphilia (Wiederman, 2003). Common side effects of antiandrogens include weight gain, fatigue, hypertension, headaches, hyperglycemia, leg cramps and diminished spermatogenesis (Wiederman, 2003.

MPA lowers testosterone by reducing the production of testosterone, and by significantly increasing its metabolic rate by interfering with the binding of testosterone to sex-hormone binding globulin (Wiederman, 2003). CPA inhibits testosterone directly at androgen receptor sites and also exhibits antigonadotrophic effects (Wiederman, 2003). Hormones such as MPA and CPA decrease the level of circulating testosterone thus reducing sex drive and aggression. These hormones result in reduction of frequency of erections, sexual fantasies and initiations of sexual behaviours including masturbation and intercourse(Wiederman, 2003). Hormones are typically used together with behavioural and cognitive treatments.

Research data using mammals to examine the correlation between sexual behavior and monoamine neurotransmitters suggest that decreased serotonin and increased dopamine neurotransmission may promote sexual behavior and, conversely, enhancing serotonin activity or inhibiting dopamine receptors in the brain may inhibit sexual behavior in some mammalian species (Kafka, 1997). Furthermore, Kafka (1997) reported a case-study of an exhibitionist treated with fluoxetine hydrochloride, which had a reduction in paraphilic fantasy. Three case-reports involving a pedophile, an exhibitionist, and a voyeur were also reported as successfully treated with fluoxetine. Kafka (1997) reported on three cases of paraphilia, two of which were considerably improved over a 3 month follow-up period.

Chapter Summary
Paraphilia is recurring, intensely arousing fantasies, sexual urges or behaviours that involve nonhuman objects, that involve the suffering or humiliation of oneself, one's partner, children, or non-consenting others, and that occur over a period of at least sex months (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The motivation behind paraphilia has been demonstrated using biological, psychoanalytic, cognitive-behavioural and learning explanations. Biological explanations have included the idea that paraphilia is motivated by hormones and brain abnormalities. However, there has been mixed research evidence regarding the biological theory. Psychoanalytic explanations date back to Freud, and were focused primarily on the development of fetishes. This theory relied on the idea of castration anxiety and problematic childhood attachment. Cognitive behavioural and learning explanations also emphasised early childhood sexual experiences. The emphasis was on thoughts and behaviours and their consequences (operant and classical conditioning).

The treatment of paraphilia is also based on these theoretical frame-works. Biological approaches involve suppressing sexual drive and decreasing compulsivity. Cognitive-behavioural approaches involve breaking the association between unacceptable stimuli and sexual stimuli. However the most effective treatment combines biological and cognitive-behavioural interventions.


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Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 3.2 Problem 7-Using Brahmagupta's Formula

Find the area of the quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle whose sides are of lengths 2, 5, 6, and 3. Explain your work.

Using Brahmagupta's Formula, the area of a quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle is the square root of (p/2-a)(p/2-b)(p/2-c)(p/2-d) where p is the perimeter of the quadrilateral and a,b,c, and d are the side lengths of the quadrilateral.

The perimeter of the quadrilateral is 2+5+6+3=16.

Therefore: area=square root of (16/2-2)(16/2-5)(16/2-6)(16/2-3)= square root of (6)(3)(2)(5)= square root of 180= 6 square root(5)


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Renamed
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title: User talk:RNZ~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Juliuseagle

 Hello Juliuseagle, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:00, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack Russell. I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

title: User talk:Juliuseagle


text:
User talk:1contractor

 Hello 1contractor, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:01, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

title: User talk:1contractor


text:
User talk:Zubba21

 Hello Zubba21, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:02, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack Russell. I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

title: User talk:Zubba21


text:
User talk:Kentko44~enwikiversity

 Hello Kentko44, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:03, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kentko44. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kentko44~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:35, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:13, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kentko44~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Bjt148995~enwikiversity

 Hello Bjt148995, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:03, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Hi! Our name is Vicky-Verity. We are twins and are Wikiversity mascots. We think Wikiversity is a great place to learn and make friends (when we aren't sleeping). Leave us a message!

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Bjt148995. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Bjt148995~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bjt148995~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Multipulti

 Hello Multipulti, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:04, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Hello , we are the Baah and Bahh twins and we'd both like to welcome you to Wikiversity. While you sit back and explore Wikiversity, enjoy some of our fresh goat milk. You can help us learn by creating new learning resources or help us by improving the guided tours and other exploration tools. We look forward to seeing you around. Baaaahbye for now.

title: User talk:Multipulti


text:
User talk:Sagar123~enwikiversity

 Hello Sagar123, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
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 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --La comadreja formerly AFriedman RESEARCH (talk) 03:04, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 Hello , you can call me Jacob Frank. I'd like to be your mascot and welcome you to Wikiversity. Even though I was a plain and untutored man back in 18th-century Europe, that still didn't stop me from contributing my ideas to the world. Neither should it stop you. As a religious leader who developed the doctrine of "purification through transgression," my advice to you is to be bold and to ignore all rules—yes, these are two of Wikiversity's official policies! Happy editing.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sagar123. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sagar123~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:53, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sagar123~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Psycho-social dynamics

this project needs a more clear introduction of it's scope, means, and objectives.

title: Talk:Psycho-social dynamics


text: File:Social Reflection.JPG

title: File:Social Reflection.JPG


text: File:Social Comparison.JPG

title: File:Social Comparison.JPG


text:
User talk:Egm6341.s11

 Hello Egm6341.s11, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Egm6341.s11


text:
User:Leutha/Bibliography

This is my general bibliography.

title: User:Leutha/Bibliography


text:
User talk:Tupolo~enwikiversity

Odontoiatria,a prezzi sostenibili,
Oggi giorno si parla spesso di prezzi dei dentisti,sicuramente sul mercato ci sono colleghi che applicano dei prezzi esagerati, ma ci sono anche dentisti che applicano dei prezzi corretti e onesti, Se avete necessita'di cure dentistiche visitate il sito www.alfieridentista.it Chiedete un preventivo gratis.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tupolo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tupolo~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tupolo~enwikiversity


text:
User:Solstag/E-participation and Internet Governance

Diplo IGCBP 2010 Research Phase

 * Working title: E-participation and Internet Governance, towards more open evaluation and improvement of IGF's remote hub model.

 * Author: Alexandre Hannud Abdo

Executive summary
By opening up participation through remote hubs, the Internet Governance Forum stands up to its mission of inclusiveness, diversity and legitimacy. Given their strategic importance and the sheer volume of the hubs respective to the size of the forum itself, a lot more can and should be done in terms of remote participation, but we still do not publicly make sense of their role right now. Despite all the effort of the volunteer-driven Remote Participation Working Group to promote remote participation and the workshops held at the IGF, they lack the resources to do a broad and comprehensive assessment. Here it is proposed that further and deeper research be conducted in terms of the success, effects and expectations belonging to remote participation, while building a dialogue that already explores paths and paves roads to fulfill its greater promises. In agreement with principles of evidence-based and participatory policy research, we pursue a combination of methods which brings together interviews, hard data and the exchange of ideas between participants. In addition, we expect that our research will assist in the continuous improvement of the organization, transparency and publicity of the remote participation working group.

Introduction and objectives
This is a proposal for research on e-participation in the Internet Governance process, focusing on the performance and potential of the remote participation hubs during the Internet Governance Forum. Today, a great amount of effort is put worldwide in remote participation, yet resources are scarce to properly and openly evaluate their performance, exchange best practices and innovate the model, thus jeopardizing its long term goals.

Internet governance is an international and multistakeholder endeavor. However, the balanced participation of people from all nations and sectors of society is not inherent to it. To ensure the existence of a force pushing towards this balance, the Internet Governance Forum was formed. It is structured to give voice to a large number of countries and players, but requires global mobilization and, as much as it constitutes an event that takes place in a specific time and place, it will always lack conditions to accommodate everyone involved. Recognizing that, remote hubs were formed as a form of engaging people worldwide and to extend the physical location of the discussions, promoting a more inclusive debate.

During IGF 2010, the number of remote hubs surpassed thirty, with an average expected attendance of about 37 people. They evolve in number, but also in form. From simple distributed audiences into effective participants, organizing pre-meeting activities and joining debates taking place at the main event in real-time video. From momentary side projects with an expiration date to research and advocacy groups revolving around Internet Governance issues. With possibly over a thousand participants, the hubs already rival the main event, and are likely ahead in terms of diversity.

Given that, it is quite odd that there seems to be a lack of in depth evaluation of the hubs' organization, either in terms of their local ties to society and governments or their global connections in the IGF arena, regarding its effectiveness to advance the IGF's mission. Beyond that, there is also little public discussion about their future directions, and no effective common platform exists to assist their intercommunication and knowledge exchange, which could help build stronger ties between hubs and help them recognize shared agendas in preparation for the IGF and other meetings.

This research proposal aims to fill some of those gaps, bringing forth the structure of relationships between hubs and other stakeholders in order to evaluate their overall performance both in terms of connecting the IGF to their local realities and of ably articulating their interests within the forum.

Background and questions
Over the years, the websites for the IGF and Remote Participation Working Group have been publishing information about the state of remote participation and reflecting its progress. Still, the only broad report available is a rather technical and outdated one, while more current efforts to establish an evaluation of the process are fragmented, such as the individual remote hub reports and a survey conducted by the working group. There is also a mailing list of hub organizers, with discussions centered around issues pertaining to the hubs' preparation, training and later reporting.

In addition to online records, the working group holds a workshop at the IGF, as a moment of open, concerted discussion on the issue, with the direct transcripts of such being available.

However, as remote participation is recognized as a requirement for broader inclusion, achieving the IGF's goal of a global forum demands more dedicated, and accordingly inclusive, research on this topic.

This study proposal concerns unveiling and organizing unknown or unexplored information and ideas about the IGF's remote participation process. Therefore, its questions are initially very open-ended. "How far have the hubs influenced the IGF?", "How can we better organize them so the input is more thoughtful, representative, and has more impact in the forum?", "What technological advances did actually help, and when did they just get in the way?", "What kind of innovative socio-technological practices could the process incorporate?", "When are general conclusions possible and when do regional differences play a more significant role in the previous questions?".

The material available and the information gathered so far by others tends to focus on narrower issues and single-actor approaches, so little structured insight can be drawn regarding the questions just mentioned. To facilitate the cumulative exchange of ideas and reflection on the process by and between its participants, our proposal is to address these issues by designing a strategy of participative research based on an interplay between real-time interviews, data analysis and open construction of knowledge that will attempt to provoke participants into reflection - and action.

IGF's pending mandate and the EuroDIG
It must be noted that the IGF is currently undergoing review by the UN Secretary General, and its mandate is pending renewal. This can be seen as a source of uncertainty for this proposal, but also as an opportunity, or even necessity of it.

Despite the success of remote participation, it is officially still in its infancy, being carried out as an informal activity within the IGF. Sprung from years of struggle by devoted volunteers, it has become something to be recorded, stimulated and applauded, yet nothing in the formal process requires it. A new mandate, even if renewed, will have a new secretariat which might, or might not, understand its importance.

Therefore, at this point, the outcome of this research proposal can be of major importance to establish remote participation as a indissociable constituent of the Internet Governance Forum.

However, and specially regarding its participatory aspects, there would be no able time for that. It is therefore suggested that this might be adapted, more immediately and on a smaller scale, to the European regional process currently running towards EuroDIG, which, inspired by the IGF, has incorporated remote participation in much the same way.

Research methodology
Before establishing methodologies, it is important to describe more specifically what data do we need to gather and what kind of analysis is expected. To reach our aforementioned goals we require to know, for participants of each remote hub, what other players have they connected to, for what purpose and in what manner; how much did they care about creating a learning or politically meaningful environment - both locally and within the IGF - and how they thought they could achieve that; how they evaluate these accomplishments in terms of their strategy, and what were the main obstacles encountered.

In order to get that data, interviews are necessary, either by voice or in writing but preferably live. Then, in particular for relationship data, analysis should be carried out with standard methods of social network analysis and combined with the other data, treated with usual statistics, to extract correlations and test models based on the findings.

In parallel, more participatory involvement will be sought by making each interview available, or as much of it as the interviewed permits, to the other interviewees, letting them comment on each other's impressions and inform the directions of future interviews and analysis.

Since there is little officially reported data on the subject of remote participation hubs, this research relies on interacting with both the IGF's Remote Participation Working Group plus coordinators and participants of the hubs. Beyond those, it may be interesting to also reach participants of the main IGF event not involved in the remote participation process, and members of IG related institutions local to where hubs exist.

Besides the interviews, sources of research data include currently unpublished documents by the working group, historical remote participation records kept by the IGF organization, and the records described in the Background section of this proposal, such as workshop transcripts, hub reports and mailing lists.

Evaluation and dissemination
This research proposal aims at investigating the views and ideas of actors involved in the IGF to capture the want or need for organizational innovation in the process of remote participation, given its current dimensions. Therefore, it does not present a closed set of alternative policy choices. In its context, evaluation can only be understood in the broad terms of achieving that objective. Indicators would be the number of actors we manage to involve, their diversity, and if they manage to communicate, reflect and implement ideas regarding the future of remote participation in the IGF.

At the core of this proposal is the dissemination of this vision, and within it that of the actors themselves. So the methods for dissemination are those same methods described in the methodology, plus any shared organizational needs pointed out by the community or observed by the researcher. That may be, for example, the need for a permanent aggregator, wiki, blog, or forum serving the purpose of this research.

In regards to previously available material, one concrete expected outcome is to provide a systematic presentation of all pertaining documentation, together with its context and an overall history of remote participation in the IG process.

Budget and work programme
Spending for this research project would depend on its scale and depth. Here we will consider the case where data collection takes place over a period of seven months, starting with preparations for the IGF and finishing with its aftermath. The analysis of the data and should then take another five months, during which the consequences of engaging participants in the research process, regarding sustained exchanges between them, can also be evaluated.

The main steps of this programme, and respective costs, are:

 * 1st month: getting inside information and deciding how and whom to interview
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher
 * US$2,000.00 » travel to IGF Open Consultation, may happen later on
 * US$500.00 » customization and hosting of web applications

 * 2nd month: interviews with IGF leaders and the remote hub working group
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher
 * US$500.00 » customization and hosting of web applications

 * 3nd month: interviews with former remote hub leaders and participants
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 4nd month: more interviews with former remote hub participants and leaders
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 5nd month:  organizing the call for remote participation hubs; collectively deciding on a communications platform''
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher
 * US$2,000.00 » customization and possible development of web applications

 * 6nd month: assisting the process of remote hub preparation; assorted follow-up interviews
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 7nd month: final preparations; IGF 2011; remote participation data collection
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher
 * US$3,000.00 » travel to IGF

 * 8th month: post-IGF interviews; data processing
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 9th month: post-IGF interviews; data analysis; seeding continuity through remote exchanges
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 10th month: data analysis; facilitating and evaluating community exchange
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 11th month: ''writing of report; adjusting the environment for the community"
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher
 * US$500.00 » customization and hosting of web applications

 * 12th month: entrance to the next cycle; writing a second, more forward-looking report
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * Totals
 * US$24,000.00 » Salary
 * US$5,000.00 » Travel
 * US$3,500.00 » Infrastructure

 * Sum
 * US$32,500.00

Small-scale pilot for EuroDIG
This is a small scale pilot directed towards EuroDIG, as discussed in the Background section. If diplo is to provide tutoring and mentoring for the project, this is what it should be looking at. The proponents of this proposal have no current source of funds, but would be willing to do part of this work, specifically the month and a half preceding the tutoring period, on a voluntary basis. However, it would be welcome if Diplo and the assigned mentor could assist in fundraising for this project.

 * 1st half-month: engaging the ongoing process and interviewing remote participants
 * December 1 to December 15
 * US$1,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 2nd month: seek and publicly organize documentation and data on remote participation in the EuroDIG
 * December 15 to January 15
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 3nd month: interviews EuroDIG oragnizers and participants of remote hubs from previous EuroDIGs, calling for input on the documentation organized
 * January 15 to February 15
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * 4nd month: analyze and summarize the findings, producing a report
 * February 15 to March 15
 * US$2,000.00 » salary of the researcher

 * Totals
 * US$7,000.00 » Salary

 * Sum
 * US$7,000.00


text:
User talk:NarendraRyali

 Hello NarendraRyali, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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title: User talk:NarendraRyali


text: File:2010 10 28 14 00 19.djvu

title: File:2010 10 28 14 00 19.djvu


text: File:2010 10 28 14 54 20.djvu

title: File:2010 10 28 14 54 20.djvu


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Sebastianish/Lesson4

VIII. The numbers

 * {| style="text-align:left;background-color: #f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;padding:5px;"

 * Basic numbers||||||||||Ordinal numbers
 * 1 Unum ||11 Undecem || 21 Ventunum || 60 Sixanta |||| 1. Primus (f prima)
 * 2 Dues || 12 Doudecem || 22 Ventidues ||65 Sixantacinquam |||| 2. Secondus (f seconda)
 * 3 Tres || 13 Tredecem || 23 Ventitres || 70 Septanta |||| 3. Trezus (f treza)
 * 4 Quattrum || 14 Quattrodecem || 30 Trenta || 76 Septantasix |||| 4. Quartus
 * 5 Cinquam || 15 Cinquadecem || 31 Trentunum || 80 Octanta |||| 5. Quintus
 * 6 Six || 16 Sidecem || 32 Trentadues || 87 Octantasept |||| 6. Sixtus
 * 7 Septem ||17 Decemsept || 40 Quaranta ||90 Novanta |||| 7. Septimus
 * 8 Octo || 18 Decemoct || 43 Quarantatres||100 Cento |||| 8. Octus
 * 9 Novem || 19 Decemnov || 50 Cinquanta ||1000 Milla |||| 9. Novus
 * 10 Decem || 20 Venti || 54 Cinquantaquattrum||2010 Dues milla decem |||| 10. Decimus
 * }
 * 6 Six || 16 Sidecem || 32 Trentadues || 87 Octantasept |||| 6. Sixtus
 * 7 Septem ||17 Decemsept || 40 Quaranta ||90 Novanta |||| 7. Septimus
 * 8 Octo || 18 Decemoct || 43 Quarantatres||100 Cento |||| 8. Octus
 * 9 Novem || 19 Decemnov || 50 Cinquanta ||1000 Milla |||| 9. Novus
 * 10 Decem || 20 Venti || 54 Cinquantaquattrum||2010 Dues milla decem |||| 10. Decimus
 * }
 * 9 Novem || 19 Decemnov || 50 Cinquanta ||1000 Milla |||| 9. Novus
 * 10 Decem || 20 Venti || 54 Cinquantaquattrum||2010 Dues milla decem |||| 10. Decimus
 * }
 * }

As we see, the names of the numbers are put together like a puzzle, just as in English, French, Spanish, Italian etc. Twenty-two becomes "ventidues" (20 + 2, venti + dues), for instance. But, it would appear a vowel crash some places, if we always sat the words together like that. Therefor, we have the following formula: a number beginning with a vowel + a number ending with a vowel = the first number loses its last vowel.

Examples: 21 = ventunum. Here's the i in "venti" removed. 98 = novantocto. Here is the a in "novanta" removed.

If you want to write ordinal numbers, coming after those you may find in the table (1-10), it's extremely easy. For ordinals after 10, you only have to remove the last vowel, and eventual letters behind this, and add the suffix ~esimus. Except for 17, 18 og 19, these are kept as they are, and are so added with ~esimus. Examples: 11. Undecesimus 12. Doudecesimus 17. Decemseptesimus 18. Decemoctesimus 19. Decemnovesimus 20. Ventesimus 39. Trentanovesimus

In ordinals, remember to always change -us with -a if it's in context with a feminine word. F. ex., "the first lady": La prima femina.

VIII. How to tell what time it is in Sebastianish:

 * {| style="text-align:left;background-color: #f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;padding:5px;"

 * Quel' hora esta? (What time is it? lit. "which is the hour?")
 * 01:00 L'hora esta prima
 * 02:00 L'hora esta seconda
 * 03:05 L'hora esta treza e cinquam
 * 04:10 L'hora esta quarta e decem
 * 05:15 L'hora esta quinta e la quarta
 * 06:20 L'hora esta sixta e venti
 * 07:30 L'hora esta septima e medium
 * 10:45 L'hora esta undecesima mena la quarta
 * 12:00 L'hora esta midiem
 * 14:00 L'hora esta quattrodecesimus
 * 17:00 L'hora esta decemseptesimus
 * Esta midiem = it's midday
 * Esta minotta = it's midnight
 * }
 * 10:45 L'hora esta undecesima mena la quarta
 * 12:00 L'hora esta midiem
 * 14:00 L'hora esta quattrodecesimus
 * 17:00 L'hora esta decemseptesimus
 * Esta midiem = it's midday
 * Esta minotta = it's midnight
 * }
 * 17:00 L'hora esta decemseptesimus
 * Esta midiem = it's midday
 * Esta minotta = it's midnight
 * }
 * Esta minotta = it's midnight
 * }

All expressions of time are said with "the hour is", followed by the ordinal. 01:00 is the first hour ("la prima"), 02:00 is the second hour (la seconda) etc. If anyone have asked what time it is, you may drop the word "l'hora" and simply answer "esta" and the ordinal (it's... o'clock).

Exercise 4
A) Write the following numbers with letters: 42 36 150 29 148 1200 1240 2400 3000 10 000

We'll learn more numbers later on, like 0 og 1 000 000, for instance. The exercise is supposed to be solved this way: 1 is written as "unum". 50 is written "cinquanta", 100 like "cento" osv. You shall not write the number, but the word for it.

B) Watch the clock sometimes the rest of the day, and note the time in Sebastianish. If you f.ex. are looking at the clock when it's 10:05, you simply write "l'hora esta decima e cinquam". - Last page: Conversazionum 1 Next page: Lexionum 5

title: Sebastianish/Lesson4


text:
User:Accelerometer

accelerometer: n. A certain geek who spends 90% of his life in wikispace, and the other 10% waiting eagerly to spend his life in wikispace.

title: User:Accelerometer


text:
User:Jiangpx/6321 hw5

Given
$$\begin{align} & L2-ODE-VC \\ & {{x}^{2}}y''-2xy'+2y=0 \\ & with-Boundary-conditions \\ & y(1)=-2 \\ & y(2)=5 \\ \end{align}$$

Find
The solution using the method of trial solution

Solution
Let trial solution $$y(x)={{x}^{r}}$$, with r constant.

Then

$$\begin{align} & y'=r{{x}^{r-1}} \\ & y''=r(r-1){{x}^{r-2}} \\ \end{align}$$

Substitution yields

$$\begin{align} & r(r-1)-2r+2=0 \\ & {{r}^{2}}-3r+2=0 \\ & (r-1)(r-2)=0 \\ & {{r}_{1}}=1\cdots {{r}_{2}}=2 \\ \end{align}$$

Hence the general solution is

$$y(x)={{c}_{1}}x+{{c}_{2}}{{x}^{2}}$$

With the given boundary conditions, we get

$$\begin{align} & {{c}_{1}}+{{c}_{2}}=-2 \\ & 2{{c}_{1}}+4{{c}_{2}}=5 \\ \end{align}$$

Solving this gives c1=-6.5 and c2=4.5, therefore the solution of this BVP is

$$y(x)=-6.5x+4.5{{x}^{2}}$$

Given
$$\begin{align} & y'+P(x)y=Q(x) \\ & {{y}_{h}}=A\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}] \\ \end{align}$$

Find
$${{y}_{p}}$$ by variation of parameters

Solution
Let

$$y(x)=u(x)\cdot {{y}_{h}}(x)=u(x)\cdot \exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]$$

Then

$$\begin{align} & y'=-u(x)P(x)\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]+u'(x)\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}] \\ & =\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot (u'(x)-u(x)P(x)) \\ \end{align}$$

Substitution gives

$$\begin{align} & \exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot (u'(x)-u(x)P(x))+P(x)u(x)\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]=Q(x) \\ & {{y}_{h}}(u'(x)-u(x)P(x)+u(x)P(x))=Q(x) \\ & {{y}_{h}}\cdot u'(x)=Q(x) \\ & u'(x)=y_{h}^{-1}\cdot Q(x)=\exp [\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot Q(x) \\ & u(x)=\int{\exp [\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot Q(x)dx} \\ \end{align}$$

Therefore, the particular solution is

$$y(x)=\exp [-\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot \int{\exp [\int{P(x)dx}]\cdot Q(x)dx}$$

Given
Characteristic Roots $$\begin{align} & {{r}_{1}}=2 \\ & {{r}_{2}}=\frac{1}{1+x} \\ \end{align}$$

and differential equation $$\left( x+1 \right)y''-\left( 2x+3 \right)y'+2y=0$$

Find
Two homogeneous solutions u1(x) and u2(x)

Solution
Let trial solution be $$y={{e}^{rx}}$$,  with r1=2 given we have

$${{u}_{1}}(x)=\exp (2x)$$

According to lecture notes $${{u}_{2}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\int{\frac{1}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}}\cdot \exp (-\int{{{a}_{1}}(x)dx)dx}}$$

with

$${{a}_{1}}(x)=-\frac{2x+3}{x+1}$$

u2 becomes

$$\begin{align} & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\exp (2x)\cdot \int{\exp (-4x)\cdot \exp (\int{\frac{2x+3}{x+1}dx)dx}} \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\exp (2x)\cdot \int{\exp (-4x)\cdot \exp (2x+\log (x+1))dx} \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\exp (2x)\cdot \int{\exp (-4x)\cdot \exp (2x)\cdot (x+1)dx} \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\exp (2x)\cdot \int{\exp (-2x)\cdot (x+1)dx} \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\exp (2x)\cdot \exp (-2x)\cdot \frac{-(2x+3)}{4} \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=\frac{-(2x+3)}{4}\to 2x+3 \\ \end{align}$$

Note: (-1/4), as a constant, can be ignored.

With

$$\begin{align} & {{u}_{1}}(x)=\exp (2x)--(1) \\ & {{u}_{2}}(x)=2x+3--(2) \\ \end{align}$$

The homogeneuous solution is

$$y(x)={{c}_{1}}{{e}^{2x}}+{{c}_{2}}(2x+3)$$

Alternatives:

To find u2(x), assume $${{u}_{2}}''=0$$,  then we have to solve

$$(2x+3)y'=2y$$

It is kinda easy to get

$$\int{\frac{dy}{y}=\int{\frac{2dx}{2x+3}}}$$

So

$$\log (y)=\log (2x+3)$$

i.e.,

$${{u}_{2}}(x)=y=(2x+3)$$

Therefore, the homogeneuous solution is

$$y(x)={{c}_{1}}{{e}^{2x}}+{{c}_{2}}(2x+3)$$

Given
Trail solution y(x)=exp(r*x)/x^2 and char.eq. r^2+3=0

Find
The associated differential equation

Solution
Find the derivatives using Matlab

$$\begin{align} & y=\frac{\exp (rx)} \\ & y'=\frac{\exp (rx)}\cdot (r-\frac{2}{x}) \\ & y''=\frac{\exp (rx)}\cdot ({{r}^{2}}-\frac{4}{x}r+\frac{6}) \\ \end{align}$$

Substitution and compare with characteristic equation gives

$$\frac{\exp (rx)}\cdot \left[ {{a}_{2}}({{r}^{2}}-\frac{4}{x}r+\frac{6})+{{a}_{1}}(r-\frac{2}{x})+{{a}_{0}} \right]=\frac{\exp (rx)}\cdot ({{r}^{2}}+3)=0$$

Expanding terms results

$${{r}^{2}}({{a}_{2}})+r(\frac{-4{{a}_{2}}}{x}+{{a}_{1}})+(\frac{6{{a}_{2}}}-\frac{2{{a}_{1}}}{x}+{{a}_{0}})={{r}^{2}}(1)+r(0)+3$$

Solve for a2, a1 and a0

$$\begin{align} & {{a}_{2}}=1 \\ & {{a}_{1}}=\frac{4}{x} \\ & {{a}_{0}}=\frac{3{{x}^{2}}+2} \\ \end{align}$$

Therefore, the differential equation is

$$y''+\frac{4}{x}y'+\frac{3{{x}^{2}}+2}y=0$$

or can be written in the form of

$${{x}^{2}}y''+4xy'+(3{{x}^{2}}+2)y=0$$

The solution can be deduced from the roots of characteristic equation

$$\begin{align} & {{r}_{1}}=i\sqrt{3} \\ & {{r}_{2}}=-i\sqrt{3} \\ \end{align}$$

Then

$$\begin{align} & y={{c}_{1}}\frac{\exp (i\sqrt{3}x)}+{{c}_{2}}\frac{\exp (-i\sqrt{3}x)} \\ or \\ & y={{k}_{1}}\frac{\cos (\sqrt{3}x)}+{{k}_{1}}\frac{\sin (\sqrt{3}x)} \\ \end{align}$$ where c1, c2, k1 and k2 are integration constants.

Matlab code for derivatives and final solution: This verifies our solution.

Given
$$\begin{array}{*{35}{l}} {} & {{u}_{2}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\int{\frac{dx}{h(x)}}-(1) \\ {} & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\int{\frac{1}{h(x)}}\left( \int{h(x)\frac{f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right)dx-(2) \\ \end{array}$$

and

$$\begin{align} & {{y}_{p}}(x)=\int\limits_{x}{f(s)\left\{ \frac{{{u}_{1}}(s){{u}_{2}}(x)-{{u}_{1}}(x){{u}_{2}}(s)}{W(s)} \right\}ds}(3)\\ & W(s)={{u}_{1}}(s){{u}_{2}}'(s)-{{u}_{2}}(s)u{}_{1}'(s)(4)\\ \end{align}$$

Find
To show that the expressions for Yp is equivalent

Solution
Write (3) in follows,

$${{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{2}}(x)\int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{1}}(s)}{W(s)}}ds-{{u}_{1}}(x)\int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{2}}(s)}{W(s)}}ds---(5)$$

According to (1),

$${{\left( \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)} \right)}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{h(x)}--(6)$$

Differentiation rules shows that

$${{\left( \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)} \right)}^{\prime }}=\frac{{{u}_{1}}{{u}_{2}}'-{{u}_{2}}{{u}_{1}}'}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}}-(7)$$

Along with (4) we can get

$$\frac{1}{W}=\frac{h}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}}---(8)$$

Therefore (5) becomes,

$$\begin{align} & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\left( \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\cdot \int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{1}}(s)}{W(s)}}ds-\int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{2}}(s)}{W(s)}}ds \right) \\ & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\left( \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\cdot \int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{1}}(s)h(s)}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}(s)}}ds-\int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{2}}(s)h(s)}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}(s)}}ds \right) \\ & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\left( \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\cdot \int\limits_{x}{\frac{h(s)f(s)ds}{{{u}_{1}}(s)}}-\int\limits_{x}{\frac{f(s){{u}_{2}}(s)h(s)}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}(s)}}ds \right)(9) \\ \end{align}$$

Integration by parts for (2)

$$\begin{array}{*{35}{l}} {} & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\cdot \left\{ \left( \int{h(x)\frac{f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right)\cdot \left( \int{\frac{dx}{h(x)}} \right)-\left( \int{\left( \int{\frac{dx}{h(x)}} \right)\cdot h(x)\frac{f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right) \right\} \\ {} & \begin{align} & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\cdot \left\{ \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\left( \int{h(x)\frac{f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right)-\int{\frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\cdot h(x)\frac{f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right\} \\ & {{y}_{p}}(x)={{u}_{1}}(x)\cdot \left\{ \frac{{{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}\left( \int{\frac{h(x)f(x)}{{{u}_{1}}(x)}dx} \right)-\int{\frac{h(x)f(x){{u}_{2}}(x)}{{{u}_{1}}^{2}(x)}dx} \right\}--(10) \\ \end{align} \\ \end{array}$$

Comparing (9) and (10) -- They are equivalent

title: User:Jiangpx/6321 hw5


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/콸콸콸

Problem 1
Find $$y_{xxxxx}$$ in terms of derivative of $$y$$ with respect to $$t$$.

Problem 2
Solve and plot $$x^2 y'' - 2 x y' + 2 y = 0$$ using the trial solution method where $$y = x^r$$ and boundary conditions are $$y(1) = 3$$ & $$y(2) = 4$$ or $$y(1) = -2$$ & $$y(2) = 5$$.

Solution 2
For $$y(1) = 3$$ & $$y(2) = 4$$ case, we get the following solution. For $$y(1) = -2$$ & $$y(2) = 5$$ case, we get the following solution.

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/콸콸콸


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 1.2

I think you did a good job with showing the formula you used to solve the problem. However, I am a bit lost when it comes to your work. it is sort of difficult to understand the steps you took since none of the intermediate work is shown (i.e. the subtraction and moving of the variables) I also think this problem would benefit from written explanation besides just showing equations. Maybe you could start by explaining what a tangent line is, Why you took the steps you took, and even provide us with a picture of what it would look like. Keep up the good work! -Stephanie Lobraco

I think it might be helpful to explain how you knew what numbers to plug in for p(x) and l(x) because it may be confusing if you do not know what p(x) and l(x) are or what they represent. If you show all of your work step by step and provide explanations as you go it would also be less confusing. You have a good start to the problem! --Rachel89 03:27, 29 October 2010 (UTC)