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Anatomy/Bones

The skeletal system includes the bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, and other connective tissues that stabilize and interconnect the bones. There are five primary functions of this body system:
 * Support. The skeletal system acts as an anchor for the rest of the body, providing a structural framework for the attachment of soft tissues and organs
 * Storage of Minerals and Lipids. Minerals and lipids play a vital role in physiological function, and the homeostatic regulation of these is the key to their function. The calcium bone salts are an invaluable tool to maintain normal calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. The bones of the skeleton store energy in the form of lipids in areas of yellow bone marrow.
 * Blood Cell Production. Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes) and other blood elements are produced from hematopoietic stem cells in red marrow which fills the internal cavity of many bones.
 * Protection. Many soft tissues and organ systems are surrounded by skeletal elements. The ribs protect the heart and lungs, the cranium protects the brain, the vertebrae encase the spinal cord and the pelvis cradles the digestive and reproductive organs.
 * Leverage. Many bones have a role in translating the force generated by skeletal muscle into mechanical leverage against other bones.

Bone Tissue
The bones of the human skeleton are comprised of two basic kinds of osseous tissue which differ in texture.
 * Compact Bone appears very smooth and homogeneous.
 * Spongy Bone Also known as cancellous bone is composed of small bars of bone and has much open space.

Bone Shape
The bones in the human body can be further separated into six broad categories according to their relative gross anatomy.
 * Long Bones are categorised by their tubular shaft (diaphysis) with a rounded end (epiphysis) on each end. They are always longer than they are wide, and grow from each end, elongating the shaft. The femur, the long bone to the thigh, is the largest and heaviest bone in the human body.
 * Short Bones are short and boxy being approximately as wide as they are tall. The carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones are the only short bones in the human body.
 * Flat Bones have thin wide surfaces and serve mostly as protective structures. The cranial (scalp) bones are an example of flat bones and they consist of two layers of compact bone between which there may be found spongy material, for example, the scapula and the parietal bone (in the skull).
 * Irregular Bones have complex shapes other than that of the other bones. The vertebrae are irregular bones.
 * Sesamoid Bones are generally small, flat and have an apex at one end. These bones form by the thickening of a muscle tendon until it finally ossifies. The patella is the biggest sesamoid bone in the body, however sesamoid bones can arise spontaneously in the hand and foot.

Bone Markings and Features
Elevations or projections appear on bones where ligaments and tendons attach and where other bones articulate at joints. Depressions, grooves and tunnels indicate the path of a nerve or vessel alongside or penetrating the bone. Some of the various features of bones are described in the following table.

Bone Development
The process of bone formation is ossification; this is the formation on bone from other tissues. The major forms of ossification exist, endochondrial and intramembranous.

Endochondrial Ossification
Endochondrial bone formation is the ossification of existing cartilaginous structures. During development most bones begin as cartilage frames of the final bone. This cartilage is hardened during ossification and results in the boney structures observed in an adult. This process can be described through five generalised steps.
 * Step 1. As the cartilage enlarges the chondrocytes near the center of the bone increase greatly in size. The internal matrix is reduced to a series of struts that take up calcium salts and ossify. The chondrocytes are then surrounded by cartilage and, deprived of nutrients, die, leaving large cavities in the calcified structure.
 * Step 2. Blood vessels are now able to penetrate into these spaces, and cells on the outside of the bone begin to differentiate into osteoblasts (cells of the bone), and bone begins to form on the outside of the bone.
 * Step 3. The Blood vessels are then able to fully penetrate the bone forming the Primary ossification center.
 * Step 4. As the bone enlarges, osteoclasts (destructive bone cells) begin to erode the center of the bone, forming the medullary cavity.
 * Step 5. The final step in this process is the formation of articular cartilage to protect the newly formed bone during articulation.

Intramembranous Ossification
Intramembranous bone formation is the formation of bone without a cartilage scaffold. This is the main process by which bone repair occurs, and is also used to form the bones of the face. This process can be summarised into the following.
 * Mesenchyme cell in the membrane become osteochondral progenitor cell
 * Osteochondral progenitor cell specialize to become osteoblast
 * Osteoblast produce bone matrix and surrounded collagen fiber and become osteocyte
 * As the result of the process trabeculae will develop
 * Osteoblast will trap trabeculae to produce bone
 * Trabeculae will join together to produce spongy cell
 * Cells in the spongy cell will specialize to produce red bone marrow
 * Cells surrounding the developing bone will produce periosteum
 * Osteoblasts from the Periosteum on the bone matrix will produce compact bone

Function
Bones have a variety of functions:

 * Mechanical
 * Protection — bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs.
 * Structure — bones provide a frame to keep the body supported.
 * Movement — bones provide leverage system for, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics.
 * Sound transduction — bones are important in the mechanical aspect of overshadowed Hearing (sense)|hearing.

 * Synthetic
 * Blood production — the Bone marrow|marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis.

 * Metabolic
 * Mineral storage — bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus.
 * Growth factor storage — mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others.
 * Fat storage — the yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids.
 * Acid-Base (chemistry)|base balance — bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing Alkali salts|alkaline salts.
 * Detoxification — bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion.
 * Endocrine system|Endocrine organ — bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing Fibroblast growth factor 23|fibroblast growth factor – 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and body fat|fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of beta cell|insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.
 * Calcium balance—The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations.

Next: 1.3 Introduction to Muscles

title: Anatomy/Bones


text:
User talk:Samwilson/tmp

Line Types
Standard widths: 0.13mm, 0.18mm, 0.25mm, 0.35mm, 0.50mm, 0.70mm.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Samwilson/tmp


text:
Technical Drawing

This is a style guide for technical drawing, whether on paper or screen.

Title blocks
A title block should not exceed 170mm in width. Includes enough information to enable the drawing to be completely identified, and some additional and clarifying information. In no particular order:

 * Title;
 * Drawing number;
 * Draughtsperson (Drafter);
 * Checker;
 * Approver;
 * Scale (or not to scale - NTS);
 * Dates;
 * Sheet number;
 * Revisions;
 * Units (if other than millimeters);
 * Disclaimers including copyright (of both the drawing and the design);
 * Context such as company name, address, etc.

Also, some title blocks may include:
 * Field for "Next Assembly";
 * Field for "Used on";
 * Third angle projection clarification;
 * Reference number; and
 * URL.

Line types
Line types are entities used on a drawing that have specific characteristics and meaning. The characteristics may be applied to lines and arcs. Common line types include:
 * Continuos / solid
 * Center (center line)
 * Hidden
 * Phantom

Line widths
Standard widths: 0.13mm, 0.18mm, 0.25mm, 0.35mm, 0.50mm, 0.70mm. These are designed to be scaled to different ISO standard paper sizes and still be of a standard width (i.e. there is a multiplier of √2 between each).

Note: Line width is different than line weight.

Representation of materials
Materials are represented by hatch patterns. The patterns are classified under ISO or ANSI guidelines, though other predefined patterns may be used; for instance, ANSI38 is used to denote aluminum. The hatch pattern can only tell what type of material in general form, that is, it does not indicate the specific composition.

Brickwork
Brickwork in section is represented by parallel 0.35mm lines, outlining the actual (i.e. scaled) width of the brickwork, with double 0.25mm lines crossing at 45˚, spaced three line-thicknesses apart and such that one pair starts 1/3 of the wall thickness from where the previous pair met the opposite line.

title: Technical Drawing


text:
User talk:=Benjamin=

Emergency medical responder (EMR)
I noticed your recent work on School:Paramedicine and then just came across Emergency medical responder (EMR). You may want to incorporate this content into your efforts. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 00:15, 17 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Thank you Dave! I will create a section on the School page now to incorporate useful other Wikiversity pages. If you come across any other related pages I would greatly appreciate you messaging me =Benjamin= ( t ) · ( c ) · ( e ) 09:41, 17 February 2014 (UTC)

title: User talk:=Benjamin=


text:
User:Aboluay

My name is Aboluay and I am a Canadian from Lebanese descents. I believe in challenging the obvious to reach higher knowledge. I prefer pragmatic stand over logic. I defend your right to disagree with me in opinion, beliefs and choices. Otherwise, let's enjoy tasty a philysteak together.

About me

 * I challenge the obvious to reach a better understanding.
 * I prefer pragmatism over traditionalism
 * I believe in the rights of others to disagree with me in opinion, beliefs, values and choices. I struggle peacefully to keep these rights applicable.
 * I am proud that I change my opinion when I find a better one. Never surrender your right to convince me as long as you are wise, funny and light hearted.
 * I do not respect the beliefs of other only, I sincerely believe in what they believe.
 * I strive to learn and share... and to help others to discover their full potential to grow.

title: User:Aboluay


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User talk:Aboluay

 Hello Aboluay, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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User talk:Hoo man

 Hello Hoo man, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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title: User talk:Hoo man


text:
Perl

Perl is a family of high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming languages. The languages in this family include Perl 5 and Perl 6. Though Perl is not officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, such as: Practical Extraction and Reporting Language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier.

Resources

 * /Introduction/
 * /Perl.org/
 * /Modules on CPAN/
 * /Installing on *Nix Systems/
 * /Installing on Win32 Systems/
 * /Hello World/
 * /Fun with Named Colors/
 * /Simple HTML Parser/

title: Perl


text:
User:Tewks~enwikiversity

=Why Am I Here?=

I discovered Wikiversity when looking for information on Wikis and how they work. At this point, I'm just trying to find out what the possibilities are and learn how to use this system.

title: User:Tewks~enwikiversity


text:
History of the Ottoman Empire/Obtaining power

Last lesson / Course Page / Next lesson
 * Yıldırım Bayezid I, becomes Sultan of the Ottoman State.
 * Ottomans attacked Kastamonu in 1391 and Ottomans won.
 * Ottomans attacked Balkans in 1392, 1393, 1394, 1395, 1397 and Ottomans won.
 * Ottomans enveloped Konstantinapolis in 1396 during Crusaders attacked Niğbolu and Ottomans came to Niğbolu. Ottomans won.
 * Timurid dynasty attacked Ankara in 1402. Ottomans were defeated by Timurid dynasty. Yıldırım Bayezit was taken captured. Civil war started in Ottoman State, 1402. A lot of counties became free. Civil war finished in 1413. Yıldırım Bayezid's son, Mehmet I became Sultan of Ottoman State. He killed other brothers.
 * Ottomans fought Wenedyk in 1416. Ottomans were defeated by Wenedyk. But, Wenedyk didn't capture any castle and city. Mehmed I, attacked Anatolia and won. So, Ottomans captured a lot of Turk Beylics. Mehmed I died in 1421. His son Murat II became Sultan of Ottoman State.
 * Always Crusaders attacked Balkans. And Ottomans were defeated by Crusaders and signed up Edirne-Segedin Treaty in 1444. So, Danube became border Ottomans with Hungarian. Also, Murat II abondoned his throne in 1444. His son Mehmed II became Sultan of Ottoman State. But, Hungarians attacked Balkans in same year.
 * Murat II came back to Sultanate. Hungarians were defaeted by Ottomans. But, Crusaders attacked Kosovo in 1448. Ottomans won. After this war, European retreated and Ottomans rinsed in Balkans and Anatolia. Murat II died and Mehmed II became Sultan of Ottoman Empire in 1451. And, after all these Mehmed II would have opened a new age.

Quiz on Obtaining power


text:
History of the Ottoman Empire/Obtaining power/Quiz

{When did Bayezid I become Sultan of Ottomans? -1375 -1382 +1389 -1394
 * type=""}

{When did Bayezid I make war with Crusaders in Nikopol? -1394 +1396 -1398 -1400
 * type=""}

{When was the Battle of Ankara? -1396 -1398 -1400 +1402
 * type=""}

{When was the Civil War? -1396 / 1407 -1400 / 1411 +1402 / 1413 -1404 / 1415
 * type=""}

{When were Ottomans defeated by Wenedyk? -1404 -1410 +1416 -1422
 * type=""}

{When did Murat II come back to Sultanete? -1442 +1444 -1446 -1448
 * type=""}


text:
User talk:Markoril

 Hello Markoril, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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Mohr's circle

This article is part of the solid mechanics course, aimed at engineering students. Please leave feedback in the discussion section above.

Introduction

How would you break a metal rod if you could only use your hands?

1. Pull it apart or compress it (not usually the easiest way)

2. Twist it

3. Bend it

Each of these methods induce stress into the rod in a different way. Mohr's circle helps analyse this. For now, only the first two ways will be analysed.

1.Tension/compression:

Below is a diagram of a rod with a circular cross-section that is subjected to a tensile force at either end.(When you pull the rod apart you are exerting a tensile force). Let us look at a square element at the surface of the rod:

How do you imagine the square element would react to the tensile force?

The force will 'stretch' the rod and the square element, as shown below:

Therefore the force applied at either end has produced a tensile stress, $$\sigma_x$$, on the element, as shown below:

where: $$\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A} $$

Similarly, a Compressive force on the rod would induce a compressive stress on the square element, as shown below:

2. Torsion

In this case, the rod is subjected to a torque (twisting force) at either end:

How do you imagine the element would stretch this time?

Answer: The left side of the square element would stretch upwards, the right side would stretch downwards, as shown below. The stress induced by this shearing motion is called shear stress. It's symbol is, $$\tau$$. It is shown on the square element below:

Although it may be more difficult to visualize, there is also shear stress on the horizontal edges of the square element. The square element is drawn as follows:

If the torque was applied in the opposite direction, the shear stress on the element would look like this:

calculate shear stress using: $$\tau = \frac{Tr}{J}$$

where:

T = Torque

r = Radius of the rod

J = polar moment of area. For a rod with a circular cross-section : $$J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2}$$

Tensile Force and Torque

If there is both a tensile force and torque applied at either end, you superimpose the two solutions and the square element would look like this:

The idea behind Mohr's circle - It's not essential that you read this

Imagine you rotated the square element by $$\theta$$ degree as shown below.

Take $$\theta$$ to be 45 degrees. How do you imagine the element would react to the torque in this case? This one is more difficult to imagine. It would stretch as shown below:

Thus, you would draw the stresses on the element like so:

Note that there is no shear stress acting on the element at this orientation. When there is no shear stress acting on the element, the element is called the "principal element", and the 2 stresses on the element $$\sigma_1$$ and $$\sigma_2$$ are known as the principal stresses.

The objective of the Mohr's circle method is to find the orientation of the principal element (i.e.$$\theta$$, which for this simple case was 45 degrees), and find the values of $$\sigma_1$$ and $$\sigma_2$$.

Finally - The method of Mohr's Circle

Consider a square element that experiences the following stresses:

($$\sigma_y$$ = 0, in the examples previously shown )

At A:

$$\sigma$$ = $$\sigma_y$$

$$\tau$$ = $$-\tau_1$$.

We take the shear stress as negative, because the shear stress at surface A tries to rotate the square element in an anticlockwise direction (about the centre of the element). This is the general convention used.

At B:

$$\sigma$$ = $$\sigma_x$$

$$\tau$$ = $$+\tau_1$$ (it causes a clockwise rotation - hence, it is positive)

Plot points A and B as shown below and draw a straight line across them:

Now draw a circle with a centre C and radius R, such that circle passes through points A and B as shown below:

As you can see from the diagram, C is the midpoint of A and B, hence its co-ordinate is calculated as: C = $$\frac{\sigma_x+ \sigma_y}{2}$$

Observe the right angled triangle BC$$\sigma_x$$. Using Pythagoras' theorem, R can be calculated: $$R^2$$ = $$(\sigma_x -C)^2$$  + $$\tau_1^2$$

Also, draw an angle of 2$$\theta$$, going from the line AB to the $$\sigma_x$$ axis. Notice that in this case, this is a clockwise angle.

$$\theta$$ can be calculated through $$\tan(2\theta) = \frac{\tau_1}{\sigma_x - C}$$

Finally, the principal stresses $$ \sigma_1$$ and $$\sigma_2$$ occur where the circle meets the $$\sigma$$ -axis. (Notice that these points have zero shear stress.)

From the diagram:

$$\sigma_1$$ = C + R

$$\sigma_2$$ = C - R

Finally, to transform into the coordinate system of the principal axes, rotate the original square element by $$\theta$$ degrees clockwise (because you draw 2$$\theta$$ as a clockwise angle in the above diagram):

Example
A rod is subjected to a tensile force and a torque, as shown below. Use Mohr's circle to work out the principal stresses and draw the rotated square element. (I recommend you try this first before seeing the answer)

F = 2000N

T = 10 Nm

r = 0.005m A (cross sectional area) = $$\pi r^2 = 8 \cdot 10^{-5} $$ m2

$$\sigma_x = \frac{F}{A}= $$ 26,000,000 Pa = 26 MPa

$$J= \frac{\pi r^4}{2} = 9.8 \cdot 10^{-10} $$

$$\tau = \frac{T\cdot r}{J} = $$  51 MPa

At A:

$$\sigma = 0\,$$

$$\tau = 51\,$$

At B:

$$\sigma = 26\,$$

$$\tau = -51\,$$

$$ C = \frac{0 + 26}{2} = 13$$

$$R^2 = (26 - 13)^2 + 51^2\;\;\Rightarrow \; R = 53$$

$$\sigma_1 = 13 + 53 = 66 \; \mathrm{MPa}\,$$

$$\sigma_2 = 13 - 53 = -40 \;\mathrm{MPa}\,$$

$$\tan(2\theta) = \frac{51}{26 - 13} \;\;\Rightarrow \; \theta=38^{\circ}\,$$

Notice that 66MPa is drawn as a tensile stress (as $$\sigma_1\, $$ is positive), and 40MPa as a compressive stress (as $$\sigma_2\, $$ is negative)

That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page), as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written in more detail.

Back to the solid mechanics course

title: Mohr's circle


text:
User talk:Taltastic

 Hello Taltastic, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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Categories and preview
Hi, I have add a category to the page of Solid mechanics by placing on the end of the page this:. Could you do the same for Mohr's circle, please?

As I have seen editing. Could you use more preview button than save button? If you save after each minor change than there is a mess in history of that page. At the same time preview button give you a preview how the page will look like after saving. --Juan de Vojníkov 06:14, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Hi, I see your point on clicking preview button. I shall minimise my use of the save button. The reason I use it is when I can think of a better way of phrasing something I wrote, or when writing an article I want to have "save checkpoints", not just save it all the end, incase something goes wrong.

 * Yes, thanks for linking my page to mechanics page, I shall do the same for mohr's circle.

Also in the case your browser is falling I recomend to use FireFox. That one is falling rarely and when it happen you are not loosing data.--Juan de Vojníkov 16:50, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

Questions on Talk:Mohr's circle
Taltastic, I see that you requested comment from readers on the subject article, which you wrote. Many have, over the years. I just refactored that talk page to request that users add comment to the end of the page, and sign it, and I did move comment from this year, which included some questions, to the end. Are you watching this Talk page? I see that you have email enabled, so I'll email you a copy of this note. You can now set your Wikiversity options to email you a notice of any change to a page on your watchlist, not just your Talk page.

I'm not competent to answer the questions at this point, and it would take me too long to become competent.... Thanks for looking at this. --Abd (discuss • contribs) 16:18, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

uhhhh. It looks so pretty and organised. Thanks for that. And thanks for letting me know about the watchlist thing. Might use it in the future Taltastic (discuss • contribs) 21:46, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Thanks. Without signatures to separate content, or other similar devices, and with some users adding comments at the bottom and some at the top, it had gotten quite hard to read! If you feel like answering the questions in the last section, that would be great. Regardless, it was a great resource you created, apparently, from all the positive comments in the previous years! --Abd (discuss • contribs) 22:44, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

title: User talk:Taltastic


text:
User talk:Wiwm101

 Hello Wiwm101, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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text:
User:=Benjamin=

Topics I'm Comfortable With Anatomy Pathophysiology (Mostly Aetiology) Pharmacology Pre-Hospital and Emergency Care

Save these for later Projects (reminder to self) Messes I've made thus far
 * Learning to edit a wiki
 * Learning to learn a wiki way
 * Wiki as a tool for learning
 * Commons: Category:Patrick Lynch
 * /tools for maintenance
 * School:Paramedicine
 * School of Paramedicine: Program Structure Guide
 * School of Paramedicine: School Goals
 * School of Paramedicine:Ambulance Victoria
 * Topic:Department of Regional Anatomy of the Human Body
 * Department of Regional Anatomy of the Human Body
 * Anatomy refectory

title: User:=Benjamin=


text:
User talk:Sam.meyer

 Hello Sam.meyer, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:18, 19 June 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sam.meyer


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File:Lohse HAIKU12 bar12-19.ogg

Summary
This is a sound sample from a commercial recording. Its inclusion here is claimed as fair use because:
 * It's used in an article about the techniques and metodes of the contemporary composer Martin Lohse, and is used to illustrate the medieval style in his compositions.
 * It is of a lower quality than the original recording, and could not be used as a substitute for the original commercial recording.
 * It is not replaceable with an uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted sample of comparable educational value.
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title: File:Lohse HAIKU12 bar12-19.ogg


text: Template:User DORA

title: Template:User DORA


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File:Lohse Sorrow bar11-29 45s.ogg

Summary
This is a sound sample from a commercial recording. Its inclusion here is claimed as fair use because:
 * It's used in an article about the techniques and metodes of the contemporary composer Martin Lohse, and is used to illustrate the transcendental style in his compositions.
 * It is of a lower quality than the original recording, and could not be used as a substitute for the original commercial recording.
 * It is not replaceable with an uncopyrighted or freely copyrighted sample of comparable educational value.
 * It will not affect the value of the original work or limit the copyright holder's rights or ability to distribute the original recording.

title: File:Lohse Sorrow bar11-29 45s.ogg


text:
Human Legacy Course

This course provides students with a thorough survey of the significant political, socio-economic, and cultural features of human history from the beginnings of civilization to the contemporary period. Using both primary and secondary sources and document-based investigation, students trace the emergence of the interdependence between world regions-an interaction stimulated by European invasions and colonizations and sustained by the contributions of the non-western regions.

Introduction

In Semester I, students will learn about early urbanization and empire, the origin and spread of world religious traditions, the diffusion of technology and scientific knowledge, the development of democratic-republican governments, and the origins and outcomes of major political revolutions.

In Semester II, students will explore the causes of war, the impact of religion, science, and technology on human communities, the development of global systems of slavery, colonialism, and labor migration, the historic origins of contemporary economic systems, the growth of empires, and the rise of nationalisms and their connection to imperialism and reform.

Subpages

 * /Hinduism/
 * /Buddhism/
 * /Mesopotamia & Sumer/
 * /Greek Achievements/
 * /Early India/
 * /Early Greece/
 * /Egyptian Culture/
 * /The First People/
 * /The Hebrews & Judaism/
 * /The Classical Age/
 * /The Nubian Kingdoms/
 * /Foundations of Civilization/
 * /The Persian Empire/
 * /China's First Dynasties/
 * /China's Qin Dynasty/
 * /China's Last Dynasties/
 * /The Beginnings of Agriculture/
 * /Alexander the Great & His Legacy/
 * /The Kingdom of Egypt/
 * /Fertile Crescent Empires/
 * /Exploration & Expansion (1400 - 1700)/
 * /African Kingdoms (100 - 1500)/
 * /Renaissance & Reformation (1300 - 1650)/
 * /Muslim Civilization (550 - 1250)/

Semester 1

 * Week 1: The Beginnings of Civilization (Prehistory - 1000 BC)
 * Week 2: The Ancient Near East (4000 BC - 550 BC)
 * Week 3: Nile Civilizations (5000 BC - 300 AD)
 * Week 4: Ancient India & China (2500 BC - 250 BC)
 * Week 5: Classical Greece (2100 BC - 150 BC)
 * Week 6: Rome & Early Christianity (750 BC - 500 AD)
 * Week 7: The Americas (1000 BC - 1500 AD)
 * Week 8: Empires of China & India (350 BC - 600 AD)
 * Week 9: Muslim Civilization (550 - 1250)
 * Week 10: African Kingdoms (100 - 1500)
 * Week 11: Cultures of East Asia (550 - 1400)
 * Week 12: Kingdoms of Christianity (300 - 1250)
 * Week 13: The Early Middle Ages (800 - 1215)
 * Week 14: The High Middle Ages (1000 - 1500)
 * Week 15: Renaissance & Reformation (1300 - 1650)
 * Week 16: Exploration & Expansion (1400 - 1700)
 * Week 17: New Asian Empires (1200 - 1800)

Semester 2

 * Week 18: The Monarchs of Europe (1500 - 1800)
 * Week 19: Enlightenment & Revolution (1550 - 1800)
 * Week 20: The French Revolution & Napoleon (1789 - 1815)
 * Week 21: The Industrial Revolution (1700 - 1900)
 * Week 22: Life in the Industrial Age (1800 - 1900)
 * Week 23: Reforms, Revolutions, and War (1800 - 1900)
 * Week 24: Nationalism In Europe (1800 - 1920)
 * Week 25: The Age of Imperialism (1800 - 1920)
 * Week 26: World War I (1914 - 1918)
 * Week 27: The Interwar Years (1919 - 1939)
 * Week 28: World War II (1930 - 1945)
 * Week 29: Europe & North America (1945 - Present)
 * Week 30: Asia (1945 - Present)
 * Week 31: Africa & The Middle East (1945 - Present)
 * Week 32: Latin America (1945 - Present)
 * Week 33: Today's World

title: Human Legacy Course


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title: User talk:MrABlair23


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Human Legacy Course/The First People

Human Legacy Course I The First People LECTURER: Mr. Blair

Course Page / Take The Quiz / Next Lecture

Hello and thank you very much for listening to this audio lecture. In this lecture, we will be looking at the first people. Now, first of all before we begin, I would like us to answer one question:

How can footprints reveal facts about human history? Well, let me tell you a little story. Back in the 1970s anthropologist Mary Leakey took some fellow scientists to an archaeological site in Laetoli, Tanzania. Littered across the area were large piles of dried elephant dung. One scientist playfully picked up some dung and hurled it at another member of the group. Soon, dung was flying in all directions. As one man ran to avoid being hit, he tripped and fell. When he began to get up, he was amazed by what he saw. Before him were numerous animal tracks, hardened in volcanic ash. The tracks turned out to be around 3.5 million years old—a major find. An even greater find was still to come, however.

As Mary Leakey was examining the tracks one day she saw among them footprints that looked almost human. An analysis of the footprints revealed that two humanlike individuals had made them about 3.5 million years ago. The remarkable find showed that early people had walked upright on two legs long before scientists had thought, providing an important clue to the mystery of human origins.

Studying The Distant Past
Now, the human story goes back more than one million years, yet much of this story still remains a mystery. The reason is because writing, our main source of information about the past, has existed for only about 5,000 years. As a result, we know little about prehistory, the vast period of time before the development of writing. To study prehistory, scholars must be detectives, searching for clues and interpreting them to piece together the story of the distant past.

A variety of scientific fields analyze clues to learn about prehistory. One scientific field that contributes to our knowledge of prehistory is anthropology. This field includes a number of areas of specialization. For example, some anthropologists study fossils to learn about human origins. Fossils are the preserved remains or imprints of living things, such as preserved bones, teeth, or footprints. Other anthropologists study the cultures of past and present societies.

Anthropologists called archaeologists study human material remains to learn about people in the past. Examples of human material remains include architectural ruins and artifacts. Artifacts are objects that people in the past made or used, such as coins, pottery, and tools. By analyzing material remains, archaeologists can make educated guesses about people’s lives and cultures. For instance, by analyzing tools, archaeologists can draw conclusions about how technologically advanced a society was, what resources it had available, and some of the possible activities of people in the society.

Archaeologists excavate, or dig, at sites where people have left traces. At these sites, called archaeological digs, workers carefully excavate one small area at a time. They use tools such as trowels and small brushes to unearth objects without shifting or damaging them. Using screens, workers sift through removed soil for small items such as pieces of broken pottery. Researchers then use a variety of methods to date and analyze objects.

Anthropology and other scientific fields continue to expand and revise our picture of the prehistoric past. For example, scientists who study genetics have recently revised our understanding of human origins.

Human Origins
Throughout time, people have wondered about their origins. Where did the first people come from? When did they appear? Although we do not know all the answers, some key discoveries have provided important pieces to the puzzle. Not all scientists agree on the meaning of these discoveries, however; and future discoveries may lead to new ideas about human origins.

Key Discoveries
In 1959, anthropologist Mary Leakey found skull fragments in East Africa that were more than 1.75 million years old. When put together, the fragments formed a skull with a heavy jaw and large teeth, earning it the nickname “Nutcracker Man.” The skull was from an Australopithecine, an early humanlike being or hominid. This term refers to humans and early humanlike beings that walked upright.

In 1974 in Ethiopia, an anthropologist named Donald Johanson found a partial Australopithecine skeleton. He described his find. "We reluctantly headed back toward camp. Along the way, I glanced over my right shoulder. Light glinted off a bone. I knelt down for a closer look … Everywhere we looked on the slope around us we saw more bones lying on the surface… The find launched a celebration in camp."

Johanson named the partial skeleton Lucy. Tests showed that Lucy had lived more than 3 million years ago. Based on an analysis of her skeleton and knee joints, Johanson concluded that Lucy had been about 4 feet tall and walked upright. Walking upright is a major advance because it leaves the hands free to use tools.

In the 1970s Mary Leakey made yet another key discovery at a site called Laetoli in Tanzania. There, she and her team found hominid footprints preserved in hardened volcanic ash. Made by Australopithecines about 3.5 million years ago, the footprints provided the oldest evidence at the time of early hominids walking upright. Mary Leakey considered the discovery the most exciting of her career.

New finds continue to expand our knowledge of early people. In 2001 a scientific team found an early hominid skull in a desert region of Chad, a country in Central Africa. The skull has features of both an Australopithecine and a chimpanzee, and the creature it belonged to may have walked upright. The skull has been dated to between 6 and 7 million years old.

Later Hominids

Based on the fossil record, more advanced hominids began appearing about 3 million years ago. In 1959 anthropologists Mary and Louis Leakey found a hominid fossil in Olduvai Gorge, located in Tanzania. The hominid proved to be a new species, which became known as Homo habilis, or “handy man.” Homo habilis first appeared about 2.4 million years ago in Africa. Compared to earlier hominids, Homo habilis had more humanlike features, such as smaller teeth and hands that were better able to grasp objects.

In addition, scientists think Homo habilis learned to make and use crude stone tools. These early tools were made by striking one rock against another to create a sharp edge. With these crude tools, hominids could cut meat, chop roots, or scrape meat from bones. The use of tools greatly improved survival.

Other hominids that scientists named Homo erectus, or “upright man,” appeared some 2 to 1.5 million years ago in Africa. Homo erectus had a larger brain than earlier hominids and thus was probably more intelligent. For example, Homo erectus was a more skillful hunter than earlier hominids and created more advanced tools. One such tool was a hand ax made from flint, which is easy to shape into sharp edges.

Flint hand axes enabled Homo erectus to dig more easily, chop through tree limbs, and cut through thick animal hides. Scientists also think that Homo erectus was the first hominid to control fire. Once natural causes, such as lightning, had created a fire, Homo erectus learned to use the fire to cook food and to provide heat and protection. With the ability to control fire, Homo erectus could live in colder climates as well.

Modern Humans
In time, hominids with the physical characteristics of modern humans appeared. Scientists call modern humans Homo sapiens, or “wise man.” Every person alive today belongs to this species. With larger brains than earlier hominids, Homo sapiens developed more sophisticated tools and shelters and eventually learned to create fire.

Homo sapiens may have also been the first hominids to develop spoken language, perhaps because of improved brain and speech organs. With language, early people were better able to cooperate, hunt in groups, and resolve issues. Language also enabled people to form stronger relationships and interact with other groups.

Spreading Around The World
As later hominids learned to adapt better to the environment, they began to migrate, or move, out of Africa. This movement occurred gradually over hundreds of thousands of years. Scientists do not fully know why later hominids began to migrate, but one major reason was a change in the climate.

The Ice Ages
About 1.6 million years ago, much of the world began experiencing long periods of freezing weather called ice ages. As the world climate cycled between colder and warmer periods, huge sheets of ice called glaciers advanced and retreated. When glaciers advanced, ocean levels fell, exposing areas that are today underwater. For example, during the ice ages, the Bering Strait that now separates Asia and North America was an exposed land bridge. Such land bridges helped early hominids spread around the world.

Out of Africa
Based on the fossil record, many scientists think that Homo erectus was the first hominid to migrate out of Africa. For example, Homo erectus fossils have been found throughout Asia and Europe. The ability to walk fully upright and to control fire may have enabled Homo erectus to make this migration.

Scientists hold different theories about the origins and migration of Homo sapiens. According to one theory, Homo erectus groups around the world gradually developed the characteristics of Homo sapiens over time. Recent genetic evidence does not support this theory, however. Based on the latest evidence, most scientists now think that Homo sapiens originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens then began to migrate out of Africa around 100,000 years ago.

After moving into Southwest Asia—the region of the Middle East—early modern humans likely spread across southern Asia and into Australia. Open sea may have separated Australia and Asia at the time, so early humans might have had to use some type of boat to make the crossing.

People took longer to move into Europe and northern Asia because high mountains and cold temperatures made it harder to live in those regions. As people improved their ability to create fire and adapt, though, they spread into Europe and northern Asia as well. Scientists disagree on when and how the first people reached the Americas, but most scholars think that early people crossed a land bridge from northeast Asia to North America. By at least 9000 BC, humans had spread to all of the continents except Antarctica.

Adapting To New Environments
As modern humans migrated around the world, they adapted to new environments. This process of adaptation caused humans to develop some of the genetic variety that exists today. According to one view, two early groups of modern humans were Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons. Neanderthals lived about 200,000 to 30,000 years ago. After that time, though, they seem to have disappeared. Recent genetic research suggests they died out and may not have actually been Homo sapiens. Scientists continue to debate this point, however.

Cro-Magnons appeared about 40,000 years ago. Sturdy and muscular, Cro-Magnons were physically identical to modern humans. They made finely crafted tools, had superior hunting abilities, and were better able to survive. They also created figurines and haunting cave art.

Life In The Stone Age
The first humans lived during the prehistoric period called the Stone Age. During this vast period, early people made tools mainly from stone. Scientists call the first part of the Stone Age the Paleolithic Era, or Old Stone Age. It lasted from around 2.5 million years ago to around 10,000 years ago.

Stone Age People
During the Stone Age, people lived as nomads, moving from place to place as they followed migrating animal herds. These early people lived in small bands, or groups, and relied on the resources around them to survive. For shelter, people took cover in rock overhangs or caves when available. For food, people were hunter-gatherers; hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants, berries, nuts, and other foods. In general, men hunted, while women collected plants and cared for the children. Because each role was important to survival, men and women likely were equals.

Stone Age Technology
An important development for early people was the use of technology—the application of knowledge, tools, and materials to make life easier. The first tools that people made were crude chipped stones. Over time, people learned to make better tools out of wood and bone as well as stone. For example, people learned to attach wooden handles to tools. By attaching a wooden handle to a stone arrow, people invented the spear. With spears, hunters could stand farther away from their prey and throw their weapons, which was safer. Another tool called a spear-thrower enabled Stone Age hunters to throw spears farther than by hand. As a result, hunters could take down larger prey, such as bison and mammoths, which resembled large elephants.

Early humans gradually learned to make more refined and specialized tools. Later Stone Age people learned to make string from plant fibers and animal sinew. People then used the string to make nets and other traps to capture fish and small animals. Other new tools and weapons included the bow and arrow, bone hooks, and fishing spears. To travel by water, some people learned to make canoes by hollowing out logs. Such developments greatly improved Stone Age life.

As later Stone Age people migrated out of Africa, they encountered new environments with different climates or plants and animals. People had to develop new tools and skills to adapt to these new environments.

For example, in colder regions, later Stone Age people needed more than fire to keep them warm. As a result, people learned to make needles from bone and then used the needles to sew together animal skins for clothing. In time, people learned to use skins and other materials to make shoes, hats, and carrying sacks.

In addition to clothing, people learned to build shelters. The first human-made shelters were called pit houses, which were pits dug in the ground and covered with roofs of branches and leaves. Stone Age people eventually began to build shelters above ground as well. Early people used whatever was available to make their shelters. In some places, people used wood to create a frame and then covered it with animal skins. In eastern Europe, wood was scarce, so people used large mammoth bones instead. Still other people built more permanent shelters out of wood, stone, or other materials.

Stone Age Art & Religion
Over time, bands of early humans began to form societies. Stone Age societies developed cultures that included not only language but also art and spiritual beliefs. Cro-Magnons and other later Stone Age people produced a variety of art. They carved ornaments and figurines out of antlers, bone, coral, ivory, and shells. Later Stone Age people also painted and carved images on rocks and cave walls. Stunning examples of prehistoric rock and cave art exist around the world. In this art, bulls toss their heads, wounded bison charge at hunters, and horses leap majestically. Symbols and human hands appear as well. To create cave art, prehistoric artists used charcoal, clay, iron, and other materials to produce colors such as black, reds, and yellows.

Scholars are not certain what purpose this early art served. Prehistoric artists may have been representing the world as they saw and experienced it. They may have used cave art to chronicle hunts or to teach hunting skills. Symbols might have recorded the movements of the sun, moon, stars, or planets. Or, the art might have had a spiritual meaning.

Scholars know even less about the spiritual beliefs of early people. Anthropologists think that early people may have practiced animism, the belief that all things in nature have spirits. Cave paintings of animals might have been made to honor animal spirits. Early people might have believed in a life after death as well. Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons buried their dead and placed food and objects in the graves. These items might have been for the dead to use in an afterlife.

Assignment
That is the end of your lecture. Now, I will read to you some basic questions of what we just discussed. Please put your answers in the talk page, Skype them to me, or send them in an email.

 * Question #1: What is an artifact, and what are two examples of artifacts?
 * Question #2: How do some anthropologists and archaeologists contribute to our understanding of prehistory?
 * Question #3: Based on what you have learned about archaeological digs, would you want to work on one?
 * Question #4: How have Mary Leakey, Louis Leakey, and Donald Johanson contributed to our knowledge of human origins?
 * Question #5: What set Homo sapiens apart from earlier hominids?
 * Question #6: In your opinion, how did the development of language most benefit prehistoric people? Why?
 * Question #7: What possible routes did Homo sapiens use to spread from Africa throughout the world?
 * Question #8: What do most scientists think helped contribute to some of the genetic variation seen among modern humans today?
 * Question #9: What is a hunter-gatherer?
 * Question #10: What types of art did later Stone Age people create?
 * Question #11: How did Stone Age technology improve over time?

Thank you very much for listening to me and I hope that you can listen again in the next lecture! Goodbye.

title: Human Legacy Course/The First People


text: Category:Human Legacy Course/Lectures

title: Category:Human Legacy Course/Lectures


text: Category:Human Legacy Course

title: Category:Human Legacy Course


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Human Legacy Course/The Beginnings of Agriculture

Human Legacy Course I The Beginnings of Agriculture LECTURER: Mr. Blair

Previous Lecture / Course Page / Take The Quiz / Next Lecture

Hello and welcome to Lecture 2 of our Human Legacy course. In this lecture, we will be discussing the beginnings of agriculture. Now, before we start this, I want us to answer one question:

What might seeds reveal about the past? Well, let me tell you a little story. In Syria, on the banks of the Euphrates River, researchers carefully but quickly combed a prehistoric settlement to learn its secrets. A dam would soon flood the site, and time was running short. As the team of scientists raced to collect artifacts and other remains, a picture of the past began to emerge.

Flint and stone tools and the remains of houses showed that people had settled at the spot around 9,500 years ago. Using a specialized sifter, the scientists also found many seeds mixed among the dirt. An analysis of the seeds showed that they were cultivated, revealing that the people had known how to farm. The scientists were thrilled. They had found one of the first farming settlements.

Then, as the scientists continued to study the site, they had another major surprise. Beneath the first settlement was an even older one, dated to about 11,500 years ago. Once again, the scientists carefully sifted through the dirt and found numerous seeds—but with one major difference. These seeds were wild, yet they were still quite similar to the cultivated seeds from the later settlement. The excited scientists realized that the people who had once lived there might have learned the mysteries of farming in perhaps a single lifetime, far quicker than scientists had thought.

Today the settlements lie hidden beneath Lake Assad, but their secrets are hidden no more. There, people learned to farm. This development would radically change life and move people into the fast lane on the road to civilization.

The New Stone Age
With the development of more sophisticated tools, the Paleolithic Era gave way to a period that scientists call the Neolithic Era, or New Stone Age. In some places, such as parts of Southwest Asia, this period began as early as 8000 BC and lasted until about 3000 BC. In other places, the era began much later and lasted much longer.

Several advances in toolmaking defined the New Stone Age. Whereas before people had chipped stones to produce sharp edges or points, in the New Stone Age people learned to polish and grind stones to shape tools with sharper edges. These new methods enabled people to make more specialized tools, such as chisels, drills, and saws. However, the most significant advances of the Neolithic Era had to do with food, not tools.

Development of Agriculture
For tens of thousands of years—most of human history—people lived as nomads, surviving by hunting and gathering food. Then, around 10,000 years ago, some people learned to farm. The development of agriculture is one of the most important turning points in human history because it radically changed how people lived. As a result, historians refer to the shift to farming as the Neolithic Revolution.

Plants
Around 10,000 years ago, a warming trend brought an end to last Ice Age. As the climate grew warmer and drier, sea levels rose. These changes caused many Ice Age plants and animals to become extinct, or die out. At the same time, new plants and animals appeared in some places. For example, wild grains such as barley and wheat began to spread throughout Southwest Asia.

In areas where wild grains spread, some people began to gather them for food. As people gathered grain each year, they may have noticed that new plants tended to grow where seeds fell. In time, people experimented with planting seeds and learned to farm. This process occurred gradually over a long period.

With the development of farming, people began to practice domestication, the selective growing or breeding of plants and animals to make them more useful to humans. Each year, people saved and planted the seeds from only the best plants, such as the hardiest. Slowly over time, wild plants became domesticated. Growing and domesticating plants provided people with larger food supplies.

Animals
Before they domesticated plants, prehistoric people had already domesticated animals. As with plants, animal domestication required the careful selection and breeding of the best animals, such as the tamest or those that produced the most meat, milk, or wool.

Scientists think that the first animals that people domesticated were dogs. By 10,000 BC, people in North America and parts of Asia had tamed dogs, perhaps for use in hunting and as guard animals. In time, prehistoric people applied their knowledge of wild herd animals and learned to domesticate cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep.

By domesticating animals, people could raise livestock to provide a more stable supply of meat, milk, and skins or wool. In addition, people could use large animals such as cattle to carry or pull heavy loads and to help with farming. Like plant domestication, animal domestication provided prehistoric people with a larger and more reliable food supply.

Growth of Agriculture
The development of agriculture occurred independently in different parts of the world at different times. In the regions where agriculture developed, people domesticated the plants and animals that were available. Those domesticated plants and animals then gradually spread to other areas.

In Southwest Asia, people domesticated barley, wheat, pigs, and sheep. In East Asia and South Asia, people grew barley, rice, and millet and raised cattle, goats, and water buffalo. In northern Africa, people domesticated sorghum and cattle. In Mexico and Central America, early crops included beans, corn, and squash; while in South America people domesticated potatoes and llamas.

Eventually, agriculture spread throughout much of the world. People made the transition to agriculture gradually, however, and often continued to hunt and gather plants as they learned to farm. In addition, some people remained hunter-gatherers, perhaps because their territories were not suited to farming.

Agriculture Changes Society
Agriculture dramatically changed Stone Age societies. For one, the world population grew significantly because agriculture provided a larger and more reliable food supply. For another, people’s ways of life changed. Some people began to live as nomadic pastoralists, people who ranged over wide areas and kept herds of livestock on which they depended for food and other items. Other people gave up the nomadic lifestyle and formed settlements. By living in settlements, people could farm and pool their labor and resources.

Early Farming Societies
In early farming settlements, people often lived close together in houses made of mud bricks or other materials. On the land around their settlements, people grew crops and raised livestock. As populations grew, some settlements developed into villages and towns. By about 6000 BC, villages and towns of up to several hundred people had arisen in parts of the world.

With the growth of agricultural societies, people’s everyday activities changed. Instead of hunting and gathering food, many people worked in the fields and tended livestock. Men, women, and children probably divided up the tasks involved in these activities. At the same time, with more food available, some people could spend more time doing activities other than food production. For example, some people became skilled at making crafts or tools.

As agriculture enabled people to produce extra food and products, trade increased. Settlements traded with one another to obtain raw materials and products that they lacked. For example, in Southwest Asia a popular trade good was obsidian, a dark volcanic glass used to make tools, jewelry, and mirrors.

Agriculture and trade made societies more complex and prosperous, and differences in social status began to emerge. Some people gained more wealth and influence than others. Other people rose to positions of authority, overseeing the planting and harvesting, running building projects, or planning defense. Men performed the heavier work in farming and often held positions of authority. As a result, men began to gain dominance and status over women in many agricultural societies.

Religion began to become more formalized in agricultural societies as well. Some societies began to construct structures for religious purposes. For example, in Europe some Neolithic societies built monuments out of megaliths, or huge stones, for burial or spiritual purposes. Some Neolithic people began to worship gods and goddesses associated with animals or the elements—air, water, fire, and earth. For example, one European tribe worshipped bulls, while another honored a thunder god. Other people may have worshipped their ancestors.

A more settled agricultural life had some negative effects as well. For example, warfare increased as societies began to fight over land and resources. As people became more dependent on farming, they were more affected by crop failure as a result of bad weather or other causes. In addition, disease increased. In settlements where people lived close together, disease spread more rapidly. Furthermore, increased contact between people and animals caused some animal diseases to cross over to humans. These diseases included the flu, measles, and smallpox.

New Technologies
As their ways of life began to change, people developed new tools and methods to make life easier. Early farmers used hand tools such as hoes and sharpened sticks to prepare the soil for planting. Farmers scattered their seeds by hand and may have used animals to trample and loosen hard soil to work in the seeds. Then about 6000 BC, people began to use animals such as cattle to pull plows. With the plow, farmers could till larger areas to produce more crops.

To prepare foods such as grains, Neolithic people developed new tools such as pestles and grindstones. In addition, people learned to use clay to make pottery. Early pottery was used for cooking and to store grains, oils, and water.

The domestication of animals made it possible for Neolithic people to use wool from goats and sheep to create yarn. Some early farming societies learned to spin yarn and weave it into cloth to make garments and blankets.

Eventually, people learned to use metal, first copper and then bronze, a mix of copper and tin. Bronze is harder than copper and produces stronger objects. As people began to make items from bronze, the Stone Age gave way to a time period that scientists call the Bronze Age. This transition occurred as early as 3000 BC in some areas, but much later in others.

Çatal Hüyük
Archaeologists have found the remains of several Neolithic settlements and villages. One that has provided a wealth of information is Çatal Hüyük. This Neolithic village was located in present-day Turkey and was home to some 5,000 to 6,000 people around 6000 BC. The village covered more than 30 acres, making it the largest Neolithic site that archaeologists have found.

The people of Çatal Hüyük grew crops such as barley, peas, and wheat in the fields around their village. In addition, they raised sheep and goats, hunted wild cattle, and fished in a nearby river. Based on artifacts found at Çatal Hüyük, such as shells, villagers traded with people as far away as the Red Sea.

The houses in Çatal Hüyük were built close together, and the village had few if any streets. Because of the closeness of the buildings, people entered their homes through openings in the roofs. Most homes had one main room in which a family lived, and one or two side rooms for storage. In the main room, areas were set aside for sleeping and for domestic tasks, such as cooking and making crafts. In some homes, areas were also set aside for religious shrines. These shrines often contained small female statues, large sculpted bulls’ heads, and one or two bodies buried beneath the floor. In addition, families covered the interior walls of their homes with colorful, vibrant paintings.

Ötzi the Iceman
Archaeological discoveries continue to add to our knowledge of Neolithic societies. In 1991 hikers in Italy’s Ötztal Alps found a frozen male body that had been preserved by the cold, icy conditions. Scientific tests showed that the body was about 5,300 years old and from the Neolithic Era.

Nicknamed Ötzi the Iceman, the Neolithic man and his belongings were well preserved. Ötzi’s outfit was made of three types of animal skins stitched together. In addition, he wore leather shoes padded with grass, a woven grass cape, a fur hat, and a sort of backpack. Among his belongings were a deerskin quiver with arrows, a flint dagger, and an ax with a copper blade. Heavy wear on Ötzi’s front teeth suggest his diet included coarse grains.

Scientists do not think that Ötzi lived in the cold, mountainous location where he was found. Moreover, an arrowhead in his shoulder suggests he was murdered. Perhaps Ötzi had gone into the mountains to try to escape an enemy but then grew too weak to continue.

Assignment
Well, that is the end of this lecture. Here are your questions for your assignment:

 * Question #1: What characteristics define the Neolithic Era?
 * Question #2: How did tools in the Neolithic Era differ from those in the Paleolithic Era?
 * Question #3: What is involved in plant and animal domestication?
 * Question #4: How did the development of agriculture benefit prehistoric people’s lives?
 * Question #5: How did geography contribute to the development and spread of agriculture?
 * Question #6: Who is Ötzi the Iceman, and why is he significant?
 * Question #7: How did life for early hunter-gatherers differ from that for people in early agricultural societies?
 * Question #8: What have scientists learned about Neolithic farming societies by studying Çatal Hüyük?

I hope that you have enjoyed this lecture. I apologize for my horrible voice. Thank you very much for listening and goodbye.


text:
User talk:Knightoflions

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text:
Human Legacy Course/Foundations of Civilization

Human Legacy Course I Foundations of Civilization LECTURER:Mr. Blair

From Villages To Cities
The development of agriculture and the growth of settlements marked a major advance in human history. As societies became more settled, and villages grew in size and complexity, the first cities began to appear.

Advances in farming and changing economies helped lead to the development of cities. Like the transition from a nomadic life to a settled agricultural life, the transition from villages to cities took place over time.

Advances In Farming
As time passed, early farmers continued to develop new methods to increase farm production. One of the most significant advances in farming was the development of irrigation systems. An irrigation system is a network of canals or ditches that links fields of crops to nearby streams or to storage basins of water.

The use of irrigation enabled early people to farm more land and to farm in drier conditions. As a result, farmers could plant more crops and produce more food. With irrigation, some farmers began to produce a surplus, or excess, of food. With surplus food, villages could support larger populations.

Changing Economies
Because irrigation made farmers more productive, fewer people needed to farm to feed the growing population. As a result, some people were able to work fulltime in jobs other than farming. For example, people skilled in making tools and weapons could devote all their time to that work. Other people became full-time weavers, potters, or religious leaders. The economic arrangement in which each worker specializes in a particular task or job is called a division of labor.

Food surpluses and a growing division of labor resulted in economic changes. Early farming villages had traditional economies. In a traditional economy, economic decisions are made based on custom, tradition, or ritual. In early villages, most people were farmers and relied on trade to obtain a few raw materials.

With the development of irrigation, however, villages could produce extra food as well as valuable trade products. In some villages, leaders began to make economic decisions based on fueling trade and feeding the growing population.

Characteristics of Cities
As populations increased and economies became more complex, some villages grew into the first cities. These cities differed from early villages in several ways. First, cities were larger and more densely populated than villages. For example, the first known city was Uruk, located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. Around 3000 BC Uruk was home to some 40,000 to 50,000 people and covered more than 1,000 acres. In comparison, the village of Çatal Hüyük at its height had only about 5,000 to 6,000 people and covered about 30 acres.

Second, city—or urban—populations were more diverse than village populations. Early villages usually consisted of a few extended families or clans, whereas early cities usually included many unrelated people.

Third, early cities often had a more formal organization than villages. For example, most early cities had a defined center. City centers often contained palaces, temples, monuments, government buildings, and marketplaces. Many early cities had defined boundaries as well, marked by defensive walls, which separated the city from the surrounding villages. The large number of people living in cities provided the labor to create these large-scale building projects.

Finally, early cities served as centers of trade. Merchants and farmers from the surrounding villages traveled to city markets to exchange goods and raw materials. The people in the city produced goods to trade in turn. This trade fed city economies.

The First Civilizations
The world’s first civilizations formed from some of these early cities. A civilization is a complex and organized society. The first civilizations arose in fertile river valleys—the Tigris and Euphrates in Southwest Asia, the Nile in Africa, the Indus in South Asia, and the Huang He (also called the Yellow River) in China. In these river valleys, the rivers flooded annually. These floods spread mineral-rich silt from the river bottoms onto the nearby land. As a result, the river valleys had fertile land that could support a growing population.

Although early civilizations differed, they had several characteristics in common:

 * Developed cities
 * Organized government
 * Formalized religion
 * Specialization of labor
 * Social classes
 * Record keeping and writing
 * Art and architecture

Developed Cities
Cities with developed social and economic institutions, or patterns of organization, formed the basis of early civilizations. Early cities served as political, economic, and cultural centers for surrounding areas. Major cities in the early river valley civilizations include Ur and Uruk near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Memphis on the Nile River, Mohenjo Daro on the Indus River, and Anyang near the Huang He.

Organized Government
As cities grew, priests formed. Building large irrigation systems and feeding a growing population required planning, decision making, and cooperation. Early governments probably formed in response to such needs. The governments in the first civilizations created laws and established systems of justice. To help coordinate people’s efforts, government officials supervised food production and building projects. In addition, officials gathered taxes and organized defense. In some early civilizations, religious leaders such as priests held government power, while in other early civilizations, influential elders, warriors, or families did not hold the power.

Formalized Religion
Early civilizations had formal religious institutions that included ceremonies, rituals, and other forms of worship. To gain the gods’ favor, priests and other religious leaders performed rituals, such as sacrificing animals or offering gifts of food. To honor the gods, people built large temples and participated in various ceremonies.

Because religious leaders often interpreted the will of the gods, priests became powerful figures in many early civilizations. At the same time, priests and rulers sometimes competed for power. To prove their authority, some leaders claimed that they ruled by the will of the gods or that they represented one of the gods on Earth. As a result, government and religious institutions were often closely connected in early civilizations.

Specialization of Labor
As cities became more complex, the division of labor increased and many new jobs developed. For instance, officials gathered taxes, engineers planned irrigation systems, and soldiers defended city walls. While some people farmed, others built large public works, such as temples and roads.

Artisans, or skilled craftspeople, devoted their time to crafts such as basketry, carpentry, metalwork, or pottery. Merchants and traders exchanged the products that artisans made and brought back acquisitions from other areas.

Social Classes
As urban societies developed institutions and specialized labor, a social order developed as well. This social order was based on people’s occupations, wealth, and influence. In early civilizations, rulers, priests, and nobles had the most power and ranked highest in the social order. Merchants and artisans usually ranked next. Below them, were farmers and unskilled workers, who made up the majority of the people. A class of enslaved people often formed the bottom of the social order. Some slaves were people who had been captured in war, while other had been sold into slavery.

Record Keeping & Writing
As life in early cities grew increasingly complex, people needed ways to keep permanent records. For example, merchants needed to keep records of trade goods, and officials needed to track tax payments. In early civilizations people used a variety of methods of keeping records before the development of writing. For example, the early civilization of Sumer, which developed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, used clay tokens and pouches to keep records. The shape of each token and the markings on it represented a specific item, such as a goat or a piece of pottery. The tokens were stored in a clay pouch. To retrieve the tokens, the pouch had to be broken open. The Inca civilization of Peru, which developed later in South America, used knotted colored strings to keep accounts.

Systems of writing began to develop about 5,000 years ago. The first writing systems used pictographs, or picture symbols, to represent objects or ideas. In time, people created more advanced writing systems that used abstract symbols to express a wider range of ideas. With the development of writing, early civilizations began to create a written record of their society. Such ancient texts and records are still important: they provide historians with a wealth of information about early civilizations.

Along with writing, people in early civilizations developed calendars. Because of the growing importance of farming, people needed to track the changing of the seasons and when it was time to plant or harvest. People in early river valley civilizations also needed to know when yearly floods would occur.

In response to such needs, some early civilizations created calendars. These calendars were based on the phases of the moon, which were easy for early people to see and track. Early lunar, or moon-based, calendars were inaccurate, though, because the lunar year is several days shorter than the solar year.

The Arts
The people in early civilizations produced amazing works of art. The styles and techniques that artists used reflected each civilization’s culture. Early artists created statues and paintings of gods and goddesses, heroes, and rulers. As the use of bronze spread, some artisans created intricate art pieces in bronze.

Works of art often adorned city squares, public buildings, and royal tombs. The most elaborate pieces of art, such as monumental statues of rulers, were meant to reflect a civilization’s power and bring its ruler prestige.

Change In Civilizations
Once early civilizations developed, they continued to change over time. Factors such as the environment, conflicts, and the movement of people and ideas affected civilizations and led to change. While some changes weakened civilizations, others strengthened them and led to growth and expansion.

Environmental Influences
Because of their dependence on farming, people in early civilizations relied on their environments. The forces of nature could easily bring destruction and ruin, however. Raging storms could destroy crops and leave people without enough food.

Flash floods could wipe out whole cities, and drought could kill off livestock. Farming used up the land, and after a period of time the soil lost fertility. Food shortages and other natural disasters could weaken a civilization and leave it open to outside attack.

A need for resources, such as metals, stone, and timber, could also cause civilizations to change. As early civilizations expanded, they began to use more resources. Some resources ran out. Other areas lacked needed resources. In such cases, people had to look for alternative solutions. In areas with few trees, for example, some people began to use dried animal dung as fuel for cooking. To obtain scarce resources, civilizations expanded trade.

Spread of People & Ideas
The spread of people and ideas was another source of change in civilizations. Throughout history, the movement of people through trade, migration, and conquest has helped spread cultures and ideas. Traveling merchants learned new languages to conduct trade with foreign groups. Migrants brought their language, customs, and traditions with them when they moved to new areas. Civilizations often imposed their own cultures on the peoples they conquered.

The spread of ideas, beliefs, customs, and technology from one culture to another is called cultural diffusion. As a result of cultural diffusion, people adopted new customs, skills, and technologies. Advances such as writing, metal-working, and farming techniques spread from one civilization to another. Artists borrowed designs and materials from other cultures and blended them with their own styles to create new forms and designs. Religious beliefs spread as people adopted the gods and goddesses of other civilizations and made them their own.

Expansion & Warfare
Expansion and warfare contributed to change in civilizations as well. As civilizations grew, they needed more land and other resources to support their growing populations. Conflicts over land, water, and other resources occurred and often led to war.

Civilizations waged war to gain control of rich farmland, important sea ports, or regions with valuable resources. Through conquest, civilizations expanded their control over land and people. Through such means, some civilizations developed into states and kingdoms.

Conflicts also arose between civilizations and nomadic groups. Not all people had chosen to live in settled communities. Nomadic pastorals, or herders, traveled with their herds over wide-ranging territories. These nomadic groups were loosely organized into tribes led by chieftains. Nomadic societies had simple social organizations but developed rich cultures.

Toughened by the need to protect their herds, nomads were usually skilled warriors. In addition, once they learned to domesticate the horse, nomads became highly mobile. Although nomadic groups and settled communities often traded, nomads sometimes launched raids on villages and cities. Further conflicts arose as nomads and farmers competed over land.

Assignment
That is the end of your lecture and I will now give you your assignment.

 * Question #1: What is a division of labor?
 * Question #2: How did irrigation systems help contribute to the development of the first cities?
 * Question #3: Where did the world’s first four civilizations develop?
 * Question #4: What conditions existed in river valleys that encouraged the development of the first civilizations?
 * Question #5: Why do you think that record keeping and writing are necessary characteristics of civilization?
 * Question #6: What are some factors that cause civilizations to change?
 * Question #7: What are some causes of cultural diffusion, and how did it affect early civilizations?
 * Question #8: What are some possible ways that trade, migration, or invasion might lead to the spread of technology?

Thank you very much for listening to this audio lecture. That is the end of Week 1, so I would advise you to take the quiz on this and then take the final test. Thank you very much for listening to me and you can move on to Week 2. So, goodbye!

Helpful Resources

 * Biography: Marcel Ravidat
 * Biography: Kathleen Kenyon
 * Biography: Charles Leonard Woolley
 * Literature: Before Adam by Jack London


text:
User talk:Apocalipsy

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text:
Regional Anatomy

Welcome to Introduction to Regional Anatomy A course in the Department of Regional Anatomy

In this course we will be exploring the basics of regional anatomy, and building a foundational understanding of the anatomical lexicon. This course has been divided into four lessons, each taking up to thirty minutes each. You will find a Learning Summary Sidebar on the right side of each lesson. This sidebar contains useful information about prerequisites, estimated time requirements, method of assessment and level of the course. At the end of each lesson there will be a quiz to test your knowledge. This course is designed for students without prior learning in regional anatomy. If you have a strong foundation in regional anatomy you may not find this course useful.

Lesson List
Lesson 1
 * An introduction to the anatomical position of the human body

Lesson 2
 * An introduction to the planes of the human body

Lesson 3
 * An introduction to the terms of relationship and comparison in the human body

Lesson 4
 * An introduction to the movements of the human body

Lesson 5
 * An introduction to the facial compartments and potential spaces of the human body

Lesson 6
 * An introduction to the regions of the human body

Lesson 7
 * An introduction to the systems of the human body relating to regional anatomy

Parent Department

title: Regional Anatomy


text:
Regional Anatomy/Lesson 1

Introduction to Regional Anatomy - Lesson 1

The Anatomical Position of the Human Body

Reading:
For the purpose of standardisation the human body is regarded to have a standard pose. This is called the anatomical position. The anatomical position allows clear description of direction and movement when communicating to other anatomists. When the body is in this position the hands are at the sides with palms facing forward, the feet are together with the inside of the ankles as close together as possible, the body is erect with good posture and the head is facing forward. Unless otherwise stated most anatomical texts will describe the human body in reference to the anatomical position. The anatomical position can be assumed standing, laying or sitting.

Quiz:
{in the anatomical position, the palms are facing towards the feet. - TRUE + FALSE
 * type=""}

{The anatomical position was created to ____________. - annoy anatomy students + be a standard reference for the body - help physiotherapists to understand anatomy - describe the pose that people take when they sleep
 * type=""}

{A person can sit in the anatomical position. +TRUE -FALSE
 * type=""}

title: Regional Anatomy/Lesson 1


text:
User:ZooFari

Commons:User talk:ZooFari

title: User:ZooFari


text:
User talk:ZooFari

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text:
Regional Anatomy/Lesson 2

Introduction to Regional Anatomy - Lesson 2 The Anatomical Planes of the Body

Reading:
The best way to understand the relationship between parts of a three dimensional object is to slice through it and look at it's internal structure. The advent of electronic imaging techniques has given great weight to understanding the planes of the body and how they relate to each other. A plane is an axis; three planes are required to describe a three dimensional object. A section is a single view, or slice along one of these planes. The three planes used to describe the human body are:
 * The transverse plane divides the body perpendicular to the long axis; it divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. A section in this plane is also called a cross section. The transverse plane is also known as the axial plane.
 * The coronal plane spans from side to side dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
 * The sagittal plane extends from front to back, dividing the body into left and right portions. A section that separates left from right in halves is a midsagittal section; one that passes parallel to this is a parasagittal section.

Quiz:
for any short answer quiz questions, please answer in lower case. { The first image at the top left of this page shows the { transverse _10} plane of the body.
 * type="{}"}

{ The second shows the { sagittal _8} plane of the body.
 * type="{}"}

{ The third shows the { coronal _7 } plane of the body.
 * type="{}"}

title: Regional Anatomy/Lesson 2


text:
Regional Anatomy/Lesson 3

Introduction to Regional Anatomy - Lesson 3 Terms of Relationship and Comparison in the Human Body

Reading:
There are many directional terms used to describe the position of one point in relation to another. These are used frequently in the anatomical lexicon and should be learned thoroughly. The following table introduces the principal directional terms and some examples of their use. If you are comfortable with the basic vocabulary you will be well equipped to understand the ideas in later courses. When reading anatomical descriptions remember that left and right are always in reference to the sides of the subject and not the observer.

Quiz:
for any short answer quiz questions, please answer in lower case. { The hands are on the { distal _6 } ends of the arms.
 * type="{}"}

{ The nipples are on the { anterior | ventral } side of the body.
 * type="{}"}

{ The { medial _6 } surfaces of the thigh may touch while walking.
 * type="{}"}

{ The shoulder is a { proximal _8 } structure of the arm.
 * type="{}"}

title: Regional Anatomy/Lesson 3


text:
Regional Anatomy/Lesson 4

Introduction to Regional Anatomy - Lesson 4 The Movements of the Human Body

Reading:
There are many ways the body can move. Terms have been created to standardise communication about these movements. It is important for an anatomist to understand terms given to movements, so take the time to learn these terms well. Later lessons will rely heavily on your knowledge of these. The following table describes all the anatomical movement terms you will need to know for later lessons. Any terms not covered here will be covered later in detail. All movements assume beginning in the anatomical position, unless otherwise stated.

Quiz:
for any short answer quiz questions, please answer in lower case. { When eating popcorn to bring a kernel to the mouth you { supinate _8} the forearm and { flex _4} at the elbow.
 * type="{}"}

{ Fanning the fingers is also known as { abduction _9}.
 * type="{}"}

{ During free-stroke swimming { circumduction _13 } occurs at the shoulder and { flexion | extension } and { flexion | extension } occur at the hips.
 * type="{}"}

title: Regional Anatomy/Lesson 4


text:
User:Apocalipsy

Hello, my name is Clement Rowling, work for Hobart Corporation. I am an artist from the streets I practice kick boxing, my dream is to have a good car in which to travel around my country!. Another of my dreams is to meet a girl who is faithful, and we can build a family and love one another. I trusted her and she confided in me and love is hard and strong as a rock. So you can have a home of great confidence. This is my story as the days have passed I will be adding factors used to know me better so we can earn the trust of all those found on this website. I am always connected to my MSN to talk to anyone in need. I like to listen to others, provided they are willing to talk and give a little of your time. I have a very friendly personality, I have many friends who love me and I'm on the right track I think. And never failed my parents, and always honest, I am honest and very sociable. I love sports, being outdoors and have fun. I like extreme sports as well as peace of mind when going on holiday and enjoy as long as possible to the nature and tranquility.

title: User:Apocalipsy


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User talk:Littlestlyon

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User talk:Autopilot

 Hello Autopilot, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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