text:
Counseling/Human Development

Please read my comments in the Scientific Method section; I am worried by what I read in this text that I am following. I am not much happier with the neruropsychology material either, but it is not distressing me like this life-span material is. Rather than create annotated bibliographies from these texts, I will reconstruct the material from perspectives that concern me: the interrelations between intelligence, emotion, and communications. And from the perspective given by the instructor.--JohnBessatalk 19:47, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

Human Development Introduction
Orderly, planned, enduring; it's all growth

Systematic changes and continuities from fertilization to death: physical, cognitive, psychosocial. Developmental change during any period involves both gain and loss; children gain cognitive abilities as they become adults, but lose self-esteem and are more prone to depression: aging results in wisdom. Changes are not better or worse, but result in a different person:
 * Gain
 * Loss
 * Continuities

Physical development
Growth:
 * Body
 * Organs
 * Function of physiological system
 * Aging, physical aspects
 * Motor abilities, growth and decline

Cognitive development
Changes and continuities:
 * Perception
 * Language
 * Learning
 * Memory
 * Problem solving

Psychosocial
Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal development:
 * Motives
 * Emotions
 * Personality traits
 * Interpersonal and relationship skills
 * Roles in society and family

Growth strata

 * 1) Prenatal
 * 2) Infancy
 * 3) Preschool
 * 4) Middle childhood
 * 5) Adolescence
 * 6) Early adulthood
 * 7) Middle adulthood
 * 8) Late adulthood

Age Norms
Age groupings for life's milestones are different for different types of societies, cultures, subcultures, and income levels:
 * Marrying
 * Children
 * Work
 * Retirement

Biological VS environmental growth influences
Nature VS nurture

Biological:

Differences are differences in genes
 * heredity
 * maturation with respect to gene influence
 * predispositions from evolution
 * hormone influence
 * brain growth spurts

Environmental:

Learning and environmental stimuli, people should be alike or different according to environmental conditions
 * external physical
 * social conditions
 * stimuli
 * crowded living conditions
 * pollution, noise, chemical
 * other people's behaviors
 * family members
 * peers
 * teachers
 * education

Growth
Development is a product of the relationship between the two, where the two affect each other: bio-ecological.

Biological:
 * genetic endowment
 * biological influences
 * maturation

Environmental:
 * effects of the surrounding environment
 * learning

Interrelationship: Brain, and organ, allows us to experience the surrounding environment, a major component of understanding growth.

(Examples needed here)

Layered environmental systems
Bronfenbrenner

 * Micro Immediate physical and social environment
 * Meso Interrelationships or linkages between microsystems
 * Exo Indirect social influences by distant linkages through meso links
 * Macro Societal and cultural "bigger picture" influences

Key assumptions of lifelong development

 * 1) Lifelong process
 * 2) Multidirectional
 * 3) Gain and loss
 * 4) Life-long plasticity Ability to change with environmental influences
 * 5) Historical-cultural context
 * 6) Multiply influenced
 * 7) Development is multidisciplinary

Scientific Method
The authors state in the first sentence that "there is nothing mysterious about the scientific method," which implies that she hasn't attempted these complex new research strategies that are still being developed.

This chapter seems weak in that it is missing key developments:
 * Scientific modeling
 * Whole systems approaches (especially to culture and community)
 * Action Research (which eliminates a primary weakness of research by concurrently applying learning, especially the evaluation of participant responses, in-place as solutions to problems being researched)

Missing also are concerns about bias and preconception. Bias tends to victimize those who are unaware of it, or helps them victimize others. Preconception can be described as assumed hypothesis; the prevention being community involvement at the design criteria stages. Do they have design criteria stages?

 * With more reading, my question becomes "what of the missing bias concern in theory, or model development?" Concepts such as empathy and love are barely mentioned.  Love is replaced with attachment, and morality is related to punishment in places.

 * The empathy model is partly a resource model; humans as higher organisms collaborate to create beneficial resources, or, if they cannot collaborate, they cooperate to take them. The natural tendency is towards collaboration, but a break in evolution, what Darwin called natural affection, has allowed some to create an environment of exploitation that has been refined in many places by oligarchs, such as the Socratics, to become exploitation structures such as the Roman capital system.  Capital has been preserved for us through the ages in many ways, especially human capital, in which eduction is the biggest player-- universal extensions of institutions such as Plato's Lyceum.  Bias certainly plays in human capital exploitation into recent time: the persistence of American slavery.  If it is human capital, irrespective of reason, that this discipline, and hence this text, promotes through emotionally-blinded research strategies, then it will be evident in the text.

Many, smaller, components of the Scientific method are missing that I describe in middle school teaching such as the need for community in design and peer review, and the dangers of preconception and bias. If the author's research stratgies are deliberately self-limited, then does it follow that her ideas and the ideas she presents would likewise be limited, and the data possibly tainted? Also see here.

Theory, hypothesis, and proof

 * Describing a single phenomena
 * Generating ideas to create theories by making generalized observations
 * Theory that is a set of ideas that describe a phenomena
 * Data from systematic observation supports ideas
 * Discount or abandon flawed a idea if the data disproves it
 * Test ideas with disciplined observation and data collection
 * Trust the results of the data

General theories and ideas gathered from observation guide research design, which is the creation of hypotheses and tests to prove the hypotheses.

Theory is an explanation for phenomena leading to a hypothesis that creates a scenario that attempts to predict behaviors. The hypothesis is tested by observing behavior, and, depending on the results, the theory is accepted, revised, or rejected.

Sample
Group of individuals studied whose behaviors can be generalized to the larger population Random samples are best Samples are from local communities, and there is an attempt to apply the data widely Data cannot be applied to differing types of communities

Self-report measures/verbal report
Interviews, questionnaires, tests
 * May not be useful for people who have impaired communication
 * There may be a desire to report in a socially favorable way
 * Computers help bypass aging issues and focus responses

Behavioral observations
Naturalistic Structured behavioral observation
 * Observing in natural environment
 * When self-reporting cannot be used
 * Only method for everyday life
 * Cannot pinpoint causes
 * Presence of observer may alter behaviors
 * Too many simultaneous events
 * Causes may be historical
 * Create environmental conditions to elicit response

Physiological measurements
Physical changes in the body linked to emotional changes that can be reliably measured
 * Electrical
 * Hormonal
 * Heart rate
 * Brain scan

Experimental method
Alters an aspect of the environment to see how behaviors change
 * Independent variable alters the environment
 * Dependent variable is measured

Manipulation of the independent variable
 * Different groups are given different experiences
 * Random assignment to assure that a wide variety of types of participants and that the groups are homogeneous so that data can be generalized
 * Control, all other factors have to be the same to assure that only the independent variable is different
 * Easily establish causal effects

Ethics may prevent an experiment

The controlled environment may make the experiment irrelevant if it is too different from the real world

Correlational method
If two or more variables in a natural environment are related in a systematic, or causal, way: Does a certain event or condition causes a specific behavior?
 * Experiences
 * Characteristics
 * Developmental outcomes

Correlational coefficient is the measurement of the relationship between the two values that are being compared. It can range from +1 to -1, where +1 shows complete relationship, and a negative number shows a reversal of the relationship.

Correlational can only suggest causal relationships
 * Participants have already had different experiences
 * Environmental factors that may affect variables are too diverse in natural environments to be controlled or compensated for, and if past information is used, control is impossible.

Multiple influences can be studied simultaneously with the help of information technology. Computer networking can assist by increasing data-set sizes and data diversity and algorithms can show relationships that are otherwise invisible in the big data-sets.

Because the experiences have already happened, ethical issues are unlikely.

Developmental research designs
Cross-sectional: Factors about different age groups, or cohorts, are compared. Cultural differences may produce different results.

Longitudinal: A single cohort is assessed repeatedly over time

Sequential: Combine longitudinal and cross-sectional to show how each cohort is affected by the passage of time (age effects) and the environment during specific times, or cohort effects.

Rights and cultural in research
Protecting the rights of participants

Culture
Research needs to be widespread to help us understand how diverse environments affect development, and how interrelations between cultures affect it; the measurements and methods need to reflect this in ways that relate to individual cultures, sub-cultures, and socioeconomic groupings, or SES--developmental differences between middle class, poverty-stricken, and wealthy economic levels.

Middle class or wealthy families are better able than poor families to provide supportive homes that stimulate developmental success.

Self-reporting materials and interview questions have to be meaningful within the scope of a group, especially with respect to translations.

Ethnocentrism as a belief of cultural self-superiority, or cultural bias, affect research design, and all social strata, especially minority cultures, are defined in terms of majority cultures, such as the White upper-middle-class.

Personal protection
Researchers may not hurt participants. They have to be aware that emotionally negative responses may cause distress, and have to carefully rationalize risks with respect to benefits.

If harm is likely, researchers must develop another strategy. Federal regulations state that research risks should not exceed any other type of examination, and that the researcher is held responsible for damage.

Research information is confidential, and likewise protected by federal laws such as HIPAA.

Theories
Historically: May be the work of theoretical eclectics
 * 1) stage theories
 * 2) learning theories
 * 3) complex system theories

Developmental theories

 * internally consistent
 * falsifiable
 * supported by data

Major issues

 * 1) nature and nurture (biological and environmental)
 * 2) goodness and badness of human nature
 * 3) activity and passivity
 * 4) continuity and discontinuity
 * 5) universality and context specificity

Psychoanalytic Theory

 * Influential
 * Difficult to test and support
 * Not easily falsifiable
 * Better at describing than explaining

Freud
Humans:
 * irrational
 * biological instincts that are inborn and unconscious

Personality partitions that emerge in order:
 * id
 * ego
 * superego

Libido is channeled across psychosexual stages that involve psychic conflicts that create the need for defense mechanisms:
 * 1) oral
 * 2) anal
 * 3) phallic
 * 4) latent
 * 5) genital

Growth:
 * Biological needs drive development
 * Parents affect a child's ability to deal with conflict
 * Parental restriction can lead to emotional problems

Erikson
Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychological development stages:
 * trust
 * autonomy
 * initiative
 * industry
 * identity
 * intimacy
 * generativity
 * integrity

Conflicts are resolved:
 * parents
 * peers
 * culture

Differences with Freud:
 * social influences over biological
 * ego over id
 * more optimistic about human nature
 * human ability to overcome early problems
 * whole life-span

Learning theories

 * well-supported and applicable
 * do not explain changes
 * biological influences underemphisized

 * growth is gradual change
 * environmental influences cause development in many directions

Watson

 * "classical" conditioning

Skinner

 * operant conditioning
 * reinforcement strengthens behavior
 * punishment weakens behavior

Bandura

 * social-cognitive
 * cognitive processes in (from?) observational learning
 * human agency
 * self-efficacy
 * reciprocal determinism
 * person
 * behavior
 * environment

Piaget
Constructivist, absolute universality
 * intelligence is adaptive
 * understandings from interactions
 * growth in distinct stages
 * 1) sensorimotor
 * 2) preoperational
 * 3) concrete operational
 * 4) formal operational

Systems theories
Focus on systems and not the entirety of growth Individual and environment:
 * ongoing transactions
 * mutual influence

Ethology
Evolution of species-specific behaviors

Epigentic psychological systems (Gottlieb)
Mutual influences among genes in terms of evolution and growth, or epigenetic process:
 * neural activity
 * behavior
 * environment

Evolution and species heredity
Human similarity:
 * Species heredity, which is a product of evolution
 * Cultural heredity through the evolution of culture

Darwin: Genetic variation within a species that gives some species members an advantage in adapting to the environment, those members will reproduce more spreading those genetic variations.

Individual heredity

 * Egg and sperm each contributes 23 chromosomes
 * Meiosis joins each contribution to form single-cell zygote with 46 chromosomes
 * Parent and child share 50%
 * Siblings share 50% on average
 * chromosomes have 20,000-25,000 genes
 * differences and similarities
 * groups
 * species

Environmental factors
 * genotype -- genes
 * phenotype -- traits

Regulator DNA -- controls gene expression, or phenotype
 * genetic code
 * environmental factors

Inheritance mechanisms:
 * single gene-pair
 * sex-linked
 * polygenic, or multiple, gene

Non-inheritance mechanisms:
 * mutations (cancer?)
 * choromosome error syndromes
 * Down
 * Turner
 * Klinefelter
 * fragile X

Genetic counseling tests:
 * amniocentesis
 * chroionic villus sampling
 * ultrasound
 * preimplantation genetic diagnosis
 * maternal blood sampling

Strong genetic and environmental influences
Behavioral geneticists do studies between pairs of people:
 * selective breeding
 * twin adoption

They use statitiscal techniques to estimate the hereditability of traits with shared sibling influences or non-shared environmental influneces:
 * concordance rates
 * correlation coeeficients

Molecular genetic studies compare identifiable gene variants:
 * people who have them
 * people who do not have them

Individual differences
Genotype: physical physiological

Phenotype:
 * intellectual abilities
 * personality traits
 * social attitudes

Heritability:
 * creativity
 * parent-child attachment

Influences:
 * intelligence rates are inherited
 * infant mental growth is influenced by species-wide maturation plan
 * childhood and adolescence mental growth influences:
 * individual genotype
 * non-shared, or individual, environmental influences
 * less-so with shared environmental influences with growth

Personality and temperament
Influences:
 * genotype
 * non-shared, or individual, environmental influences
 * less-so shared environmental influences with growth

Psychological disorders
May require interaction of genotype with environmental stresses:
 * schizophrenia

Hereditary and environmental conspiring
Life-span influences:
 * genes
 * non-shared environmental

Childhood influences:
 * shared environmental

Gene-environment interactions:
 * environment influences how genes are expressed
 * genes influence how people react to the environment

Genetic predispositions determine what experiences and environments people seek:
 * passive
 * evocative
 * active

Prenatal development
Stages:
 * 1. conception
 * 2. germinal
 * single-cell zygote multiplies and implants in the uterus
 * two weeks
 * 3. embryonic
 * organogeneisis: major organs take shape
 * placenta forms and connects child to mother with umbilical cord
 * heart formation and starting
 * sexual differentiation
 * ends with eighth week
 * 4. fetal
 * body and brain become viable at 23-24 weeks
 * neural multiplication and differentiation

Prenatal environment
Quality influences:
 * age
 * women in 20s have lowest complication rates
 * emotional state
 * stressed mothers have smaller babies
 * nutrition
 * father's characteristics (biological or behavioral?)

Teratogens harm organs:
 * diseases
 * rubella
 * syphilis
 * AIDS
 * drugs
 * prescription
 * street
 * over-the-counter
 * alcohol
 * environmental agent
 * radiation
 * pollution

Teratogens do most damage:
 * organ is growing fastest
 * exposure
 * strength

Teratogen effects:
 * genotypes of mother and child
 * environments
 * prenatal
 * postnatal

Perinatal environment
Birth is a three stage process:
 * 1) regular contractions of uterus, and dialation of cervix
 * 2) emergence of baby
 * 3) delivery of placenta

Delivery assistance:
 * vacuum extraction
 * forceps
 * cesarean section, or other surgical removal
 * medications
 * pain reduction with spinal blocks or epidurals
 * promote contractions with oxytocin

Complications:
 * Anoxia, or oxygen deprivation, can result in brain or neurological damage in minutes

Neonatal environment
One month after delivery Breastfeeding:
 * common to all cultures
 * some mothers start with bottle feeding or switch to it

At-risk babies out-grow problems if they have personal resources:
 * sociability
 * intelligence
 * supportive environment
 * love

Problems for at-risk infants:
 * short-term
 * long-term

Health and Physical Development
Influenced by genotype, life-style choices, sociohistorical context

Building blocks
Endocrine glands regulate behavior by putting hormones in the blood system:
 * pituitary
 * thyroid
 * testes
 * ovaries

Brain development:
 * greatest during late prenatal and infancy with plasticity
 * occurs through life span

Integrated and differentiated growth principles:
 * cephalocaudal, or head-to-tail
 * proximodistal, or center outward
 * orthegenetic, or global

Infant

 * reflexes
 * sensory capabilities
 * organized states
 * ability to learn from experiences

Motor milestones
Dynamic systems model:
 * crawling
 * walking
 * reaching
 * grasping

Child
Physical changes less than infancy or adolescence.

Physical activity is an important component of health.

Car accidents are leading cause of child death.

Health is influenced by parents:
 * socioeconomic status
 * lifestyle choices

Adolescent

 * growth spurts and sexual maturation
 * emotionally affected by maturation, especially girls
 * worry about appearance and abilities

Maturation:
 * boys have advantage when early
 * girls want to mature with peers

Choices by adolescents can have short-term and long-term effects; most adolescents are healthy, sendentary adolescents can be obese

Adult
Declines are noticable in older adults:
 * menopause
 * andropause
 * neural response decline
 * physical activity extends life span and health

Symptoms of aging are variable:
 * disuse
 * abuse
 * disease
 * osteoporosis
 * osteoarthritis

Perception

 * sensation: sensory stimulation
 * perception: interpretation of sensed stimulation

 * innate: nativist
 * sensed: constructivist

Infancy
Sensory and perceptual abilities are innate but need experiences to develop the abilities into skills during sensitive periods. Infants provide themselves with sensory stimulus by exploring their environments.

Visual system works well at birth and improves during 6 - 12 months. They perceive depth during first year but must learn to use the information.

Auditory and other senses also well developed at birth; parents can be recognized by voice and infants can distinguish some sounds better that adults.

Cross-modal perception, or the ability to recognize through one sense what was learned through another sense, develops during 3-6 months and matures during childhood.

Visual pattern preferences:
 * contour
 * movement
 * moderate complexity

Infant perception study methods:
 * habituation evoked potentials
 * preferential looking
 * operant conditioning

Childhood
Children learn to use information from senses:
 * they can sustain attention for longer periods
 * direct perception by filtering out distracting information
 * plan and implement perceptual inquiry

Adolescence
Sensation and perception are at peak levels, and attention control improves.

They are sensitive may lack ability to act responsibility; the often ignore the possibility of hearing loss from loud noise.

Adulthood
Sensory abilities decline:
 * thresholds increase
 * perceptual processing of senses may decline

Vision:
 * cataracts
 * pupil response
 * presbyopia -- thickening of the lense
 * retinal changes
 * macular degeneration
 * retinitis pigmentosa
 * glaucoma

Hearing, or presbycusis:
 * high-pitched sounds
 * speech perception
 * noisy conditions

Taste and smell:
 * slight declines

Other senses:
 * touch
 * temperature
 * pain

Constructivist approach
Jean Piaget

Children use active exploration of the environment to create cognitive structures, or schemes, in four stages.

Organisms adapt to their environments using intelligence.

Children organize their understanding of the world by constructing a perception in which they insert new information, or adapt existing structure to accommodate new information.

Infant
Sensorimotor stage consists of motor reaction to sensed information.

Object permanence: objects exist outside of the context of immediate experience

Symbolic capacity: one thing can represent something else; a picture can relate to an object. This skill allows for pretend play and language.

Child
Helped structurt growth concepts but underestimated the abilities of children
 * stages do not relate (coherent)
 * vague explanations
 * underestimating role of language and social interaction

Preoperational stage (pre-school):
 * Perceptionally salient features of a task or object (no logical reasoning)
 * egocentric, cannot see others' points of view

Concrete operational stage of growth during childhood enables logical reasoning about concrete information:
 * logic
 * conservation (resource?)
 * classification
 * decentrate
 * reverse thought (reversibility of thought)
 * transform ideas (transformational thought)

Adolescent
Formal-operational thought:
 * hypothetical reasoning
 * simultaneously consider multiple task components
 * special forms of egocentrism (??misuse of term)
 * imaginary audience
 * personal fable

Adult
Formal-operational thought
 * education
 * culture
 * area of expertise

Sociocultural influences
Vygotsky (1930s)

Four different levels of development that should be studied: 1. Ontogentic Development:
 * Believe that how we develop, particularly how we learn to think, is primarily a function of the social and cultural environment in which we are reared. It emphasizes what makes people different thinkers rather than what we all have in common as people.
 * Development of the individual over his or her lifetime.

2. Microgenetic Development:
 * Individual across very short/small periods of time. Focuses on teaching someone something and seeing how strategy can play a role in remembering something.

3. Phylogenetic Development:
 * Changes across evolutionary times.

4. Sociohistorical Development:
 * Change across history that's occurred in the culture (ie computers).

 * Elementary Mental Functions
 * Cognitive abilities that children are born with, like attention, sensation and perception, vision, and memory abilities. These abilities are the same across cultures.
 * General Genetic Law of Cultural Development
 * Higher level of mental functions first appear in a child's social interactions. Then, the child begins top internalize them.  Largely a function of a caregiver helping a child to grow, it's not something that just happens because of the neural pathways become more diverse and numerous.
 * Zone of Proximal Development
 * For every skill and every ability. A zone that is determined by what a child can do alone at one end, the bottom end, and what a child can do in that area with adult guidance.  Ex: 4 year old comes and says "I sure would like to have some cookies, I wish we could make some cookies."  4 year old can't make cookies, so they make them together.  As a caregiver, there are some aspects of the task that the 4 year old can do as long as you're there guiding them.
 * Scaffolding
 * Occurs anytime the caregiver modifies the interactions with the child so they can perform at their highest level of their ability. Doesn't believe in homogeneity.  Learning is very task specific.

Language
 * passes:
 * culturally valued thinking
 * problem solving

 * shapes:
 * thought

evolution path:
 * social speech
 * private speech
 * inner speech

Memory
Definition of Memory:
 * The means by which we retain and draw on our past experience to use that information in the present.
 * The dynamic mechanisms associated with encoding, storing, and retrieving information about past experiences.
 * Encoding - transforming data (perceptual, preesxisting in memory, or inferred) into representations.
 * Storing - maintaining representations across time.
 * Retrieval - accessing stored representations.

Explicit Memory vs. Implicit Memory Explicit Memory Tasks
 * Explicit Memory
 * Conscious access to stored data & experiences.
 * What the layperson typically considers memory
 * Measured with commonly known tasks of recall (e.g., essay questions) and recognition (e.g., multiple choice).
 * Implicit Memory
 * Unconscious access to stored data & experiences.
 * Measured with tasks that "prime" or "activate" representations.
 * Typical measure is increased speed of "primed" condition as compared to "unprimed" condition.
 * Another typical measure is bias, (ie the tendency to choice a particular "primed" option more often than an "unprimed" option.

Types of Recall:
 * Free Recall -
 * Recall all the words from a list, in any order.
 * Cued Recall -
 * Subjects are given a cue to facilitate recall.
 * Recall as much as possible about "Civil War".
 * Subjects learn pair items (e.g., words, pictures) and then are given one of the pair and asked to recall the other.
 * Serial Recall -
 * Need to recall order as well as items.
 * Recall the names of all American presidents in the order they were elected (or impeached).
 * Recognition -
 * Select from a list of previously presented items.
 * Circle all the previously studied words.
 * Indicate which pictures were presented yesterday.
 * Chose the correct answer from 5 alternatives.

Encoding
 * 1) long-term memory
 * 2) storage

Retrieval
 * recognition
 * cued recall
 * recall memory

Use recalled information
 * problem solving

Infant
Memory with birth
 * recognition

Recall
 * 2-3 months with cues
 * 1 year without cues

Deliberate conscious recall
 * 2 years

Child
Fundamental process become automated to free memory space

Memory strategies develop to process information in areas of expertise through an overlapping natural selection process rather than steps from one way to thinking to the next:
 * rehersal
 * organization
 * elaboration
 * systematic rules (Siegler)
 * replacement of faulty rules with relevant rules

Adolesent
Advanced learning strategies:
 * elaboration
 * note taking
 * underlining
 * deliberate and selective use
 * strategies
 * metacognitive abilities to guide learning

Adult

 * domain expertise
 * bases are organized and large
 * retrieval and use is specialized and automated

In real-life problem-solving skills improve early to middle adulthood and remain through old age.

Age differences:
 * basic processing capacity
 * difficulty with strategies
 * contextual factors
 * cohort differences
 * laboratory problem solving tests

Older adults out-performed by younger:
 * speed memory tasks
 * unfamiliar or meaningless material
 * unexercised abilities
 * recall (facts?) over recognition (constructed?) memory
 * explicit over implicit memory

Intelligence
Psychometric: Traits that can be measured and compared with age mates
 * Stanford-Binet
 * Wechsler

Global increase in scores (Flynn effect):
 * nutrition
 * living conditions
 * education

Differences:
 * genotype
 * home
 * intellectual stimulation
 * parental involvement
 * responsive stimulation
 * social class
 * increased IQ for children who move from low to high income homes
 * racial differences
 * stereotype threat
 * genetic factors

Mentally retarded functioning is deterimed by IQ determines depending on causes of retardation:
 * organic
 * cultural-familial

High IQ scores:
 * above-average success in life

Cognitive development approaches:
 * qualitatively different stages (Piaget)
 * sociocultrually transmitted modes of thought (Vygotsky)
 * information processing (memory and problem solving)
 * psychometric measurement

Creativity
 * novel
 * socially valued
 * divergent and not convergent
 * independent of IQ intelligence

Infant
DQ scores do not predict IQ well
 * Bayley scale

Information processing speed measures:
 * rapid habituation
 * preference for novelty

Child
Creativity decreases

IQ scores are predictive of future scores Variation in growth:
 * major gains in favorable environments
 * cumulative deficit for disadvantaged

Adolescent

 * stable through adolescence
 * IQ scores predict school achievement and years of education

Creativity rises:
 * thrives in homes where independence is valued

Adult
IQ stable throughout adulthood Correlations:
 * occupational status
 * heath during adulthood

Age declines:
 * fluid more so
 * crystallized less so

Creativity:
 * high for young adults in areas of expertise
 * declines with old age
 * survives for elders in some fields

Mastering language
Acquired easily:
 * inborn readiness
 * environment

First few years and refined through adolescence:
 * phonology
 * semantics
 * morphology
 * syntax
 * pragmatics

Infant
Opportunities for success are necessary because a desire to master environment predicts achievement motivation.

Learned helplessness orientation results from lack of opportunities.

Child
Reading requires effort as children have to create phonologial interpretation of the alphabet. Success is variable.

Schools succeed when they provide a good fit between academics and students. Fit should extend to students at the individual level.

Success is not correlated by:
 * spending
 * class size
 * ability grouping
 * length of school
 * day
 * year

Students from motivating, comfortable, task-oriented environments that integrate parents into learning are more successful. Students from advantaged homes have highest performance.

Adolescent
Achievement motivation drops:
 * cognitive growth
 * family characteristics
 * peer pressure
 * poor fit by school

Asian students outperform US students:
 * more hours of study
 * Asian parents value academics

Adult
Adults inherit achievement motivation.

Women who raise children may lose achievement motivation. Mothers with higher education can recover achievement motivation when children get older.

Adults who struggle with literacy may have achievement motivation to return to school.

Conceptualizing the self and personality
Personality is the organized attributes of the individual:
 * self-concept is perception of attributes
 * self-esteem is evaluation of self-worth
 * identity is a coherent self-definition

Big Five personality dimensions, or traits, of personality (McAdams and Pals):
 * 1) similar as a result of evolution
 * 2) different because of dispositional traits
 * 3) differ in changeable attributes
 * 4) construct unique narrative identities
 * 5) shaped by cultural and situational factors

Psychoanalytic (Erikson):
 * personality changes in stages at similar ages

Trait theory:
 * dimensions are enduring

Social learning:
 * people adapt to social environments in anyway at any time

Infant
First year:
 * seperate from surrounding environments
 * affect them

18-24 months:
 * display self-recognition
 * age and sex categorical self-base

Temperaments are different and influenced by genotype and fit to environment and only moderately predicts later personality

Thomas and Chess:
 * 1) easy
 * 2) difficult
 * 3) slow to warm up

Kagan:
 * behavioral inhibition

Rothbart:
 * 1) surgency/extraversion
 * 2) negative affectivity
 * 3) effortful control

Child
Personality traits become consistant showing correlations between early temperaments and Big Five.

Preschool self-concepts:
 * physical characteristics
 * activities

8-year-old self-concepts:
 * inner psychological traits
 * use social comparison to evaluate competencies

Self-esteem reaches high levels with:
 * competence
 * rate well in social comparisons
 * warm and democratic parents

Adolescent
Self-awareness increases, and self-esteem usually rises but may decline.

Self-concept:
 * psychological
 * abstract
 * integrated

Conflict of identity (Erikson) as identity VS role confusion of college-agers at different rates in different domains:
 * 1) diffusion
 * 2) foreclosure
 * 3) moratorium
 * 4) identity achievement status

Narrative identity, or life story, is an approach to identity study.

Adult
Older adults maintain self-esteem:
 * converge their ideal and real selves
 * change standards of self-evaluation
 * compare themselves with other older adults

Rise with age:
 * Big Five dimensions self-ranking stabilize with age
 * emotional stability and conscientiousness rise with age

Decline with age:
 * openness to experience
 * activity level

Stability VS change

Stability:
 * genotypes
 * early experiences
 * stable environments
 * gene-environment relationships (phenotype dynamics)

Instability:
 * biological or environmental changes
 * poor-person-environmental fit

Psychosocial theory is supported by successful maturity through conflict resolution. Foundation:
 * trust
 * autonomy
 * industy

Results: All ages: Adolescence: Young adult: Adult: Elder:
 * integrity
 * identity
 * intimacy
 * generativity
 * life review

Young adults:
 * explore and question early
 * 30s, selttle down
 * 40s, achieve peak success

Older workers:
 * maintain productive levels
 * higher satisfaction
 * selective optimization
 * compensation to cope
 * stability in physical and psychological health after retirement

Retirement negative changes:
 * pre-retirement
 * honeymoon
 * disenchantment
 * reorientation
 * drop in income

Activity and disengagement theory in retirement do not emphasize:
 * person-environment fit
 * selective optimization with compensation

Gender Roles and Sexuality
Gender roles:
 * interaction of biological influences and socialization

Socialization:
 * learning of gender-role norms and stereotypes

Similarities:
 * psychologically more similar than different

Differences:
 * physical
 * psychological
 * social

Differences are small and becoming smaller:

Males:
 * aggressive
 * ative
 * assertive
 * developmentally vulnerable

Problem solving:
 * spatial
 * mathematical

Females:
 * less aggressive
 * compliant with adults
 * tactful
 * nurturant
 * anxious

Problem solving:
 * verbal tasks

Infant
Boys and girls are similar despite being treated differently by adults.

Age 2:
 * know their gender
 * play with gender-appropriate preferences

Child
2-3 year olds know gender sterotypes.

Typing most rapid:
 * toddler
 * preschool

Rigid in gender norms during childhood school years and genders segregate themselves into groups:
 * strongest early on
 * relaxes later on

Adolescent
Intolerance in gender-role divisions and concern with conformance to gender norms (problems for same-sex youth?).

Gender-role development theories make useful contributions but none are complete:
 * biosocial theory (Money and Ehrhardt)
 * psychoanalytic approach (Freud)
 * social learning theory
 * cognitive development theory (Kholberg)
 * gender schema theory

Adult
Marriage and child-raising increases distinctions. Distinctions decrease as children get older.

Androgyny is beneficial for most, but not all, age groups or situations.

Sexuality
Infants and children are curious and experiment with their bodies.

Adolescent behavior is increasingly sexual.

Declines in sexual capacity with age does not fully explain sexual declines :
 * poor health, mental or physical
 * loss of partner
 * negative societal attitudes
 * abstinence

Social cognition
Thinking about self and others:
 * social behavior
 * moral behavior

Milestones

infancy:
 * joint attention
 * pretend play

2 years:
 * theory of mind (simulation)
 * ability to infer another person's beliefs and desires from experiences or behavior

 * desire psychology

4 years:
 * belief desire

Theory of mind requires a normal brain and environment:
 * mirror neuron systems
 * beneficial social and environmental experience

Pre-school:
 * physical features
 * activities

8 years:
 * inner traits

Adolescents:
 * personality profiles created from interchanging trait profiles
 * role-taking adeptness

Social cognitive skills improve and are maintained through adulthood; they may decline late in life because of social isolation.

Perspectives on moral development
Moral development:
 * moral reasoning
 * moral affect
 * behavior

Morality:
 * cognitive
 * affective
 * behavioral

Psychoanalytic:
 * superego
 * moral emotions

Cognitive development (Piaget):
 * premoral
 * heteronomous
 * autonomous

Kohlberg, each includes two stages:
 * 1) preconventional
 * 2) conventional
 * 3) postconventional

Social cognition (Bandura):
 * past learning
 * situational forces
 * self-regulatory processes
 * moral disengagement

Evolutionary theorists show adaptive benefits:
 * morality
 * pro social behavior

Infant
Moral growth is a*mutually responsive orientation between parent and child (Kochanska)

 * amoral
 * disciplinary encounters
 * right
 * wrong
 * internalize rules

Age 2:
 * empathy
 * prosocial behavior

Child
Preconventional moral reasoning

Children have moral sophistication (underestimated by Kohlberg and Piaget):
 * consider intentions
 * distinguish between types of rules
 * moral
 * social conventional
 * question authority
 * preconventional moral thinking

Moral growth:
 * reinforcement modeling
 * disciplinary approach of induction

Temperment:
 * interacts with moral training

Moral inconsistency:
 * situational influences

Adolescent
Conventional moral reasoning emerges with many incorporating moral values into their senses of identity.

Antisocial behavior:
 * biopsychological interaction model
 * genetic predisposition
 * social-environment values
 * social information-processing (Dodge)
 * coercive family environments (Patterson)
 * negative peer influences

Prevention:
 * moral discussion groups (Kohlberg)
 * social information-processing skills (Dodge)
 * altering coercive family environments (Patterson)

Adult
Elders:
 * moral thinking is maintained
 * minority progress from conventional to postconventional

Some elders:
 * advanced moral reasoning
 * spirituality
 * wisdom

Morality of justice (moral reasoning stages, Kholberg):
 * cognitive growth
 * social experiences
 * others' perspectives

Morality of care (Gilligan):
 * non-Western
 * conservative
 * women

Attachment and Social Relationships
Attachment theory (Bowlby-Ainsworth):
 * built into humans
 * develop through interaction of biological and environmental influences during a sensitive period
 * affect later development by shaping internal working models of self and other

Peer world of childhood:
 * reciprocal nature of peer relations (Piaget)
 * children are more socialized by peers than parents (Harris)

Infant
First year

Shortly after Birth, an infant's eyesight is 6-10 inches; which is actually the distance from the baby held in his mother's arms to her eyes. Amazing how this is set up to help nurture the parent-child relationship! An infant can also recognize the difference between human and non-human faces.

Biologically-based emotions:
 * fear
 * anger

Progress through phases:
 * undiscriminating social responsiveness
 * discriminating social responsiveness
 * active proximity seeking
 * goal-corrected partnership

First attachment at 6-7 months includes exploration from a secure base and anxiety:
 * separation
 * stranger

Second year, self-concision emotions:

Attachment figures:
 * arouse strong emotions
 * socialize emotions
 * help regulate emotions until infants can regulate their own emotions

Parental attachment:
 * before or shortly after birth
 * quickly establish synchronized routines

Strange situation parent-infant attachment(Mary Ainsworth):
 * secure
 * resistant
 * avoidant
 * disorganized-disoriented

Contact comfort is more important for attachment than feeding (Harlow).

Secure attachments in parenting:
 * sensitive
 * responsive

Infant characteristics:
 * temperment
 * achievement of person permanence

Difficulty forming normal relationships where recovery is possible:
 * long-term separation
 * social deprivation

Beneficial day-care does not disrupt parental attachment.

Secure attachment benefits later growth:
 * cognitive
 * social competence

Children can recover from insecurely attached infancy.

18 months:
 * complementary interactive exchanges (coordinated activity)
 * form friendships

Child
2-12 years:
 * parental goal-corrected partnerships
 * peer time increases with same-sex
 * play becomes more social and imaginative
 * social pretend play
 * organized games
 * hobbies

Adolescent

 * emotional intimacy
 * self-disclosure

Transition to different friends and groups:
 * 1) same-sex
 * 2) mixed-sex
 * 3) larger crowds
 * 4) dating relationships
 * a) fulfill needs:
 * self-esteem
 * status
 * b) genuine affection

Peers are usually positive.

14-15 years: Increased susceptibility to negative peers.

Poor parent relationships result in anti-social peers.

Adults
Internal working models from early attachment experiences:
 * secure
 * preoccupied
 * dismissing
 * fearful

Model affects:
 * romantic relationships
 * work
 * parenting
 * adjustment

Life satisfaction:
 * confidants
 * physical heath
 * cognitive functioning

Spouse relationships do not take away from long-lasting and equitable friendships.

Family
Changing social systems within changing societal systems:
 * single adults
 * fewer children
 * working women
 * divorce
 * fewer care givers for the aging

Infant
Benefit from mutually affective parental relationships.

Fathers:
 * less involved
 * challenging play

Positively influencing relationships between parents indirectly create positive outcomes for infants.

Child
Parenting dimensions:
 * acceptance
 * responsiveness
 * demandingness

Parenting style influences:
 * genes
 * socioeconomic status
 * economic hardship
 * culture

Children are more competent when parents are authoritarian.

Children's problems are not solely caused by parental effects:
 * parent and child effects
 * transactional models of family influence

Sibling relationships:
 * affection
 * rivalry
 * emotional support
 * care giving
 * teaching
 * social experience

Adolescent

 * parents remain close
 * initial conflict
 * become equal with negotiation

Adult
Sibling relationships continue in affection and rivalry with less contact.

Young adults and parents establish mutual relationships.

Negative:
 * marital satisfaction declines with parenthood

Positive:
 * empty nest transition
 * grandparenthood companionship

Middle-aged adults are mutually supportive of elder parents unless:
 * burden of care-giving
 * middle age squeeze

Diversity in family life: Traditional family life-cycle does not describe:
 * single or cohabitating adults
 * childless marriages
 * dual-career families
 * gays and lesbians, and same-sex marriages

Family violence
Contributing factors:
 * parent characteristics
 * child characteristics
 * contextual factors

Developmental Psychopathology
Origins and course of maladaptive behavior. Diathesis-stress model helps understand nature/nurture contributions.

Abnormal development
Diagnosing disorders:
 * statistical evidence
 * maladaptiveness
 * personal distress
 * DSM-IV

Infant
Autism responds to early behavior training:
 * deviant social responses
 * language and communication deficits
 * repetitive behavior
 * genotype
 * social cognition
 * mirror neuron

Depression-like symptoms from:
 * maltreatment
 * attachment separation
 * depression in parents
 * failure to thrive

Child
ADHD is an externalizing disorder:
 * inattention
 * impulsivity
 * hyperactivity
 * stimulant drugs and behavior training
 * may continue through life

Adolescent
Most do not experience storm and stress.

More vulnerable than children, but not more than adults.

Risk of depression rises especially among females.

Suicide:
 * cry for attention
 * attempts
 * less likely to succeed than adults

Adult
Young adults:
 * more life stress
 * more disorders
 * depression

Dementia increases with age:
 * neural deterioration
 * cognitive decline

Correctable conditions:
 * reversible dementias
 * delirium
 * depression

title: Counseling/Human Development


text:
User:K-man~enwikiversity

Electronic Technician by trade with 40 years experience in circuit design. Plus medical product background, acoustic/vibration, thermal testing and vacuum technology. In addition a smidgen of Hydrogen Peroxide (Rocket grade) experience. Photographer & woodworker (and wood carver).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:K-man~enwikiversity


text:
Wikiversity talk:Candidates for Custodianship/Diego Grez

Crat chat
I'm unclear on the policy here, but since Diego Grez has failed to reach the "75% supermajority" that is generally used to determined consensus, I'm not sure what to do. Am I supposed to request removal of his tools immediately, or give him 48 hours to find another mentor? --SB_Johnny talk 21:27, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Can you explain how you came up with 66% support? I saw either 70% or 71%, counting his mentor's support. I would say that if 70% or 71% isn't enough of a consensus that the tools should be removed immediately as he had his full probationary period and there wasn't enough support. -- dark lama  21:45, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Ah true, Jt's vote adds one (which makes it 70% exactly). If this were wikipedia, 70% would mean "'crat's discretion", but even in that case I would still call it the same way, as the oppose votes seem to to be in good faith and made out of genuine concern.
 * I don't see any hurry about running off to meta, so let's talk for a day. --SB_Johnny talk 21:50, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * The only thing I can find is "If you are not approved, you are free to request another mentorship or withdraw your request." custodianship. The mentorship had already been extended once, though, so I'm not sure that there would be much gained in this case. --mikeu talk 22:19, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Comment: Abigor's comment was obviously made in bad-faith, and was canvassed (as can be seen on here). I strongly ask you to not consider it. Diego Grez 22:03, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Maybe, but we've never discouraged canvassing in the past. --SB_Johnny talk 22:13, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree. However Mattwj2002 hadn't contributed in 3 years before supporting you as well, so if comments are to be discounted, Mattwj2002's support should be as well. That would make 75% support by my count. -- dark lama  22:09, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Yup, it's messy. I'm just going with the cards on the table. --SB_Johnny talk 22:13, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

(edit conflict with above)
 * First of all, 75% is not a rigid boundary. You can consider the nature of the !votes, and deprecate some.
 * Consensus (guideline) Consensus is not established just by counting votes. Wikiversity is guided by ideas that are in harmony with the education-oriented mission of the project. In judging consensus, it is the responsibility of all community members to give the most weight to rational arguments that support positions and points of view that are in harmony with the Wikiversity mission. Community members should assign less weight to discussion comments or votes that provide no rational argument to justify a point of view or that disrupt the project.
 * Custodianship (policy) Five days after the request has been listed, a bureaucrat will make the final decision based on the arguments provided in the discussion. (my emphasis)
 * Bureaucratship Bureaucrats act as the final interpreter of consensus with respect to candidacies for user group changes. Bureaucrats are charged with the responsibility of declaring at an appropriate time, whether a custodian, bureaucrat, or bot candidate is granted a user group change or otherwise. Bureaucrats should respect the Wikiversity community's decision on these particular matters.
 * The 75% supermajority is a Wikipedia standard and is, in my view, part of the problem there. It should be both easier to become an administrator there, and easier to have the tools suspended or removed.
 * So, how to interpret the policies? First of all, what I say is simply advice. As a bureaucrat, making a decision, you are responsible to the community, in the end, within the discretion that the community has allowed, and that, in fact, the community needs. The following, then, is how I'd think about this were I in your shoes.
 * The policies clearly refer to arguments, not to numbers.
 * A 'crat may clearly not act against consensus, but this must mean that there is a consensus against the action. If a majority have supported the action, after considering possible problems from participation bias, canvassing, etc, then, clearly, the 'crat is not barred from the action. Below majority support, the action of the 'crat becomes more and more questionable.
 * What is a "community's decision"? If there is "no consensus," there is no decision, it could be argued. Yet if two-thirds of a community has taken a position, it's hard to argue with a straight face that this isn't some kind of decision. It's merely a weaker one than one with a stronger supermajority.
 * Hence, a 'crat is free and, indeed, responsible, to review the poll on a candidate and make a decision based on arguments, as the policy requires. The 'crat may and should, for example, consider if some !votes may be biased or otherwise not representing the community as a whole. In addition, the decision should not normally be against the decision of a majority.
 * This is the problem: if you reject the candidacy, you are going against the decision of a majority, that's quite problematic, in fact. (This has generally been overlooked, but the particular trap here is one that has afflicted every consensus-based organization I've participated in, a supermajority requirement generally leads to a kind of minority rule, where the status quo favors a minority.)
 * I see two reasonable courses here that don't reject the decision of a majority.
 * Promote, based on majority and arguments. Ultimate consideration: welfare of the community.
 * Allow restart of mentorship, with a change of mentor or the same mentor. This could be with or without a new custodianship candidacy. It is clearly allowed with a new candidacy.
 * Policy does not provide for extended probationary custodianship, beyond a permanency decision. But the existing discussion could be considered "no decision." If the candidate is willing and a mentor is willing, the existing !vote could be closed as "no consensus, continue probationary custodianship."
 * Which would I choose? There are only three oppose votes. The first was from a non-participant at Wikiversity who was canvassed, I've seen the IRC log. I asked Abigor to disclose whether he'd been canvassed or not, he declined, but I have no reason at all to suspect that the IRC log I've seen was fraudulent, and the timing showed that the !vote was canvassed. I will show this to a 'crat on request. But it shouldn't be necessary, because the arguments presented by Abigor were, by tradition here, moot. Behavior elsewhere is almost completely moot as to participation and privileges here, that's obvious. The second was from Adambro, who wheel-warred with Diego, on matters where the community generally supports Diego's position. Further, Adambro based his argument, again, largely, on off-wiki behavior as well as, again, issues where Adambro is taking a largely rejected approach, as to community consensus when the matters come to consideration. That is, of course, controversial in itself, but the point is that Adambro is hardly neutral, making a decision purely on the basis of the welfare of the wiki, except as to thinking that his own opinion is identical to that welfare. That leaves JWS, who asked a farrago of questions in many locations, and Diego did attempt to answer some of them. Nobody has answered JWS's questions, ever, in recent times, as far as I've seen, sufficiently to satisfy him. Therefore his arguments must, again, be deprecated.
 * The votes in favor of promotion were six. To shift the result to 75%, it is only necessary to reduce the negative votes in weight by 1/3. That is not much! I would promote, avoiding further disruptive process. Diego's "crime" was that he became active, so that what it would be like to have him as a custodian became visible. As is well-known, any active custodian is likely to make enemies. If we insist on a pure 75% standard, never considering the arguments, as policy actually requires, we will only promote custodians who conceal their true positions, who give us a month of gnoming so that nobody will oppose. And that will be our loss.
 * And thanks for asking. My congratulations. --Abd 22:28, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I did not count the !vote of the mentor. That, then, makes the full vote ratio be 70%, which already takes us within discretionary range with no deprecation at all. However, please remember, the policy requires, not a vote level, but a standard based on the arguments. In the interest of neutrality, perhaps some of the positive votes might be depreciable as well. Good luck. Were I a custodian, I'd be happy to mentor Diego, he was always responsive, and being responsive is even more important than getting everything right the first time. He was responsive to me even though I was just another probationary custodian.... --Abd 22:34, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Just responding to what I saw whilst skimming over the above thesis: (1) if this were a poll in a Quaker business meeting and I were the clerk, this would be no consensus to promote, hands down and an easy call. (2) This isn't a big deal: he can seek another mentor and perhaps convince one or two people given another month to prove himself. (3) The WP standard is the only one I have to go by, unless you think a real consensus is possible in this environment (hint: it isn't). --SB_Johnny talk 23:22, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Whilst I'm disappointed by Abd's apparent eagerness to dismiss my comments, I agree with the idea that promotion wouldn't be unreasonable based upon the votes. Abd encourages us to consider arguments rather than simply counting votes but two of the supporter only voted, presenting no argument in favour which could be assessed and discussed and of those two, Mattwj2002 isn't really active here. Simply saying "support" isn't really a convincing argument so if we based the decision "not a vote level, but a standard based on the arguments" they would carry little weight. It is reasonable for Abd to raise concerns about some of those who've opposed the promotion but he shouldn't overlook issues about some who supported just because it would be convenient to do so. I don't think it would be appropriate to simply extend the probationary period, the choice here is between granting permanent custodianship or not. Adambro 22:47, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Adambro, sorry you are disappointed. You have overlooked that I already noted that I'd only presented arguments for deprecating negative votes, and that some arguments might apply to deprecating positive ones. But once we are looking at "arguments," the vote counts are not important. The difference between "extending the probationary period" and starting up a new candidacy is purely a technical difference. The latter is enshrined in policy as a right, so far. There is precedent for extending a period to decide an issue, in recent decisions. I'm gratified to see that Adambro considers promotion not "unreasonable." That is the kind of commentary we need, that steps outside of personal interest, and I've seen Adambro do this many times, and he should be commended. As to the role of vote counts, there should be some sense of support from the community, and the positive votes do show that; negative votes should also be considered in that way. Considering vote counts to determine consensus is not simple in marginal cases. What I see, though, is a system that depends on 'crat discretion, and I'm confident that whatever SBJ decides, it will be within his allowed discretion. --Abd 23:28, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

 * What is your "common law" interpretation of Wikiversity talk:Consensus where 3 people for most of the discussion there disagreed on whether a policy was needed, what consensus should or shouldn't be, and than suddenly the page is made a guideline without further discussion or resolution of the disagreement, but two people supported the change to a guideline? -- dark lama  22:51, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I looked at the history of the guideline page and it was stable, unedited since almost a year ago. That creates a presumption of consensus on it. The issue of "consensus" is thorny, in fact, and I have extensive experience with consensus organizations. Briefly, my conclusion: majority rule with defined participation rights, and appropriate deliberative structure is, long-term, far cleaner and less disruptive. Consensus, however, meaning, now, approval greater than a majority, is highly desirable, so, to me, the conclusion is that a process which seeks maximized consensus -- always -- but which allows ad-hoc or temporary decisions to be made by majority rule is the best idea.
 * Wiki common law? There is a technical legal term for the state of wiki common law on this issue: Okay, I won't say it, but it's a word in SNAFU. There are a few wikis, now, that may be starting to grasp the problem. See, when the community is small, consensus works as a standard, but it starts to break down somewhere around thirty active participants or even less. Long-term, I've seen, even thirty will burn out on it, if they stay active. Wikis try to make do without addressing the problem of participation bias; long-term, participation becomes warped in favor of those who will sit through long, boring discussions. Or who will simply ignore the discussions or make quick, sound-bite comments with no depth, and no attempt to actually seek consensus. There are classic solutions and wikis generally reject them because .... they are classic solutions, and we don't need no stinkin' classic solutions. Our Way is better, and you Outsiders should first learn Our way before you make suggestions, and ... I'm watchin' ya now, one false move and you are outa here, troll!
 * Ahem! The classic solutions were developed over centuries, and they are the classic solutions because they work. However, what I really propose is synthetic, incorporating the classic solutions but adapting them to the ad hoc nature of wikis, with bottom-up hierarchical structure that, when it's proposed, you might like. Those who understand it often get quite excited! Meanwhile, we gotta muddle through. There is usually a way. Thanks for asking. --Abd 23:19, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

 * I would suggest allowing Diego about 48 to 72 hours to find a new mentor, and then if that fails, have the tools removed on meta. This would minimize the requirement for steward intervention, and prevent the redundancy of having to turn them back on if he finds a mentor. Geoff Plourde 00:53, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

Thanks...
Thanks to everyone who voted. Sincerely I expected that the vote was going to be better, but it was not. I requested the removal of my rights at meta, and it feels more free! :) Will try to complete my work at Mapudungun, and hoping positive feedback through all this process, I reiterate my acknowledgements to all of you. Diego Grez 03:57, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Just give it some time, make standard patrolling edits, keep your nose clean, and then reapply for a mentor later. That should be no problem. You did have seven supports, which is quite a lot, so don't feel bad. Ottava Rima (talk) 04:06, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Diego. That's really the best way to go about it, IMO. Tomorrow is another day :-). --SB_Johnny talk 13:05, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Shall we have a photo op of everyone hugging and smiling, or is that too soon?
 * Okay, one mystery here. We have more than two-thirds of the community voting, even if we include an apparent non-participant (It's 88% without that), yet no promotion, and more to the point, no volunteer custodian to continue the mentorship. It may merely be a formatting and structure problem. The actual vote shows community support, the policy requires consideration of arguments, not votes, which are a means of assessing level of consensus, and only a rough estimate because of participation bias. Diego certainly had adequate "minimum community support" in terms of numbers supporting, and the opposition from within the community was only the kind of opposition that would normally be expected from someone who has been active as a custodian, instead of as a pretend custodian, i.e., someone who only does wikignoming. I conclude that something is off, and I intend to suggest policy changes. Two-thirds is adequate to change policy, but we'll see how the community feels about it. The actual problem, right now, might or might not be serious, but this is the bottom line: a community could become locked in a state where a number of existing active custodians are at variance with consensus as to choices they make in use of tools. If a new candidate comes up for !vote, and is seen as a threat to the power of this group, one custodian blocking plus a canvassed vote from outside, and some custodians have extensive contacts outside and could make sure that something like this comes in, can prevent promotion. This is a general problem with consensus process which should be discussed elsewhere, but here we can see a possible example where strict interpretation of vote levels can prevent "substantial consensus" from acting to improve balance.
 * At the same time as some are arguing that we can't support recusal policy because we have too few custodians, the same people are rejecting -- or not supporting -- a new custodian who seems quite adequately qualified. SBJ, you have mentioned Quaker consensus. I can't write with authority on specific Quaker practices, but I would not call the situation here "consensus" within, say, the rules of Alcoholics Anonymous, as to considering a matter to be completely settled. However, even AA will consider a two-thirds vote at the AA World Service Conference to be "consensus" for the purpose of making decisions. The actual controlling body over property, the Board of AA World Services, Inc., is advised by Conference consensus, but itself makes decisions as is normal for boards (and as is probably legally required), by majority vote. With that low a level, two-thirds, the Conference will allow reconsideration, and they have been known to unanimously reject a motion that had passed with only a handful of oppositions, after reconsideration was requested and new arguments made. Here, what is being done is to consider a "motion" dead because it failed to reach a higher supermajority than two-thirds, when, in fact, the policy requires, not a supermajority, but preponderance of arguments (and vote counts are an implicit argument, only one factor, though an important one).
 * If Diego has such high support, why has no replacement mentor volunteered? It may simply be a process problem having to do with visibility. Diego, if you feel ready, please start up a new candidacy, requesting a mentor. Jtneill may or may not be willing to continue, and if you like, you could ask him privately.
 * Most worrisome would be that in the secret and semi-secret blizzard of off-wiki communications that I've been finding play a large role here, some deal may have been cut to keep Diego out, even with the presence of such a high level of support. I'm advising Diego not to get involved in this, except to simply ask for a mentor again. If, with such a record and such support as was shown, he can't find a mentor, something is very, very off. Addressing it may take time. --Abd 13:41, 19 August 2010 (UTC)


text:
Teaching EFL Listening via FUN WITH ENGLISH Books/8B/Lesson 7

FUN WITH ENGLISH 8B Chapter 7: A travelling computer Anqing Foreign Language School Grade 8 Lesson 7 Version 0.21

Lesson Objectives

 * Students will enjoy themselves, giving a positive association with the English language a chance

to develop.
 * Create an atmosphere that's comfortable enough for students to take chances speaking English to

me and their peers.
 * Ask the right questions to get a lively discussion going about computers.
 * Find a way to make English more appealing than speaking to their friends in Chinese.
 * Look for ways to move from me speaking to them in English to them speaking to eachother and me in

English, that is from one to many to many to many.

Lesson Plan
Before Class Starts
 * If time, walk around and chat with the students before the bell rings.

'''Greeting: Yo! What's up?'''

Opening Joke
 * Fred's Piano joke from The Internet TESL Journal
 *
 * Direct link to joke
 * Introduce as a man is sick so he goes to the hospital.
 * Instead of operation say "eat medicine".
 * Do you understand?

Opening Discussion: Computers
 * What is a computer?
 * Is it a toy or a tool?
 * What's the difference between a computer and TV? [Comp you have control?]
 * Do computers give you power?
 * Are computers important or stupid?
 * Do you play computer games?
 * What do you do in the game?
 * Why? ...
 * So, you like to [what they do in the game, e.g. kill people]?
 * That makes you happy?

Textbook: Page 26 Let's get ready A and B
 * Please open your textbook to page 22, and do activities A and B.

Textbook: Page 28 Let's listen 2 A&B Tapescript Page 81
 * Also do the quick quiz.

Instruction: Computer Tricks
 * Show in a word document on the projector.
 * Ctrl+C = Copy
 * Ctrl+V = Paste
 * Ctrl+X = Cut
 * Ctrl+Z = Undo
 * Ctrl+Y = Redo

Students Choose: MJ or Textbook?
 * What would you like to do now, play a game or listen to a Michael Jackson song?

Activity: The Man in The Mirror Slideshow"
 * Introduce the song as one of Michael Jackson's hits from his 1988 "Bad" Album. [1]
 * Ask first:
 * Do you know this song?
 * What do you think will be its subject?
 * Write questions on the board before we begin, so they can have something to look for and check

them as they're listening/reading the lyrics.
 * Who is the man in the mirror?
 * What does he want to do?
 * Why?
 * Do you think he is right or wrong?
 * Stop it after he sings the chorus through the first time and talk about it. If they don't know

the answers, do not give them just keep playing the song and stop later.
 * View online
 * Google Music China link to the song (Only for those in China - Beware has several pop up ad's)
 *
 * Lyrics from CRAVEONLINE
 *

Extra Time
Game: Number of Letters? (Mr. Brown)
 * Make two teams.
 * Tell them to make a word that begins with one letter, e.g. D, and has 6 letters.
 * Go back and forth between the teams making the words.

16 Apr 2010 AM Period 1 Grade 8 Class 10
Next Week
 * Why do you have so many "Why's"? was an incredible question from one young lady.
 * Beginning of class teacher was watching, sternly. Beginnig of class, kids were silent but scurried off into seats that weren't theirs.
 * Couldn't really get a discussion going.
 * Spent most of the period chatting with the kids over let's listen b (What do you like to do on computers?) 1 on 1 in front of the others.
 * Got more students paying attention than I expected for computer shortcuts and the MJ slides.
 * again this class talked the whole time, but seemed to be listening slightly more than the week before.
 * hand back the remaining tests
 * be patient again

16 Apr 2010 PM Period 1 Grade 8 Class 8

 * Took the computer conversation as far as I could, really hammering home the many to many aspects

of computing as opposed to the one to many of televison.
 * Instead of guiding them to think for themselves, though, I shoved my thoughts down their

throats, which I don't believe was right and possibly unethical.
 * That said, they did go with me for a really long time and we had an awesome chat.

Next Week
 * Try to build on the computer conversation.

16 Apr 2010 PM Period 2 Grade 8 Class 7

 * Again, by this point I was quite bored of the lesson.
 * This class is not especially eager, which means if I am bored, we're going to have a poor class.
 * Changed it up and had them do an "Interview".
 * Wrote 3 questions on the board.
 * Do you like the internet?
 * Why?
 * What is your favorite website?
 * Then had them interview one another and write down the answers. They didn't quite understand and

usually just wrote down their own responses. Took a while of me walking around the class and

working with individual groups. They did it though. Then I was shocked that when I called on

multiple pairs of students to come up and act it out, they actually did. I assumed they'd refuse.

Next Week
 * Build on the interview activity.

Day in Review
What Could I Have Done Better?
 * Had a more considered line of questions ready for the computer discussion.

What Did I Do Well?
 * Experimented with the interview activity in class 7.

What Did I Learn?
 * Experimenting can work at times. There's still so much I don't know about what my students are capable of.

What Did My Students Get From The Lesson?
 * Oral / aural practice. Thinking critically about computers.

Were the Lesson Objectives Achieved?

 * Students will enjoy themselves, giving a positive association with the English language a chance

to develop.
 * I believe, yes.
 * Create an atmosphere that's comfortable enough for students to take chances speaking English to

me and their peers.
 * perhaps
 * Ask the right questions to get a lively discussion going about computers.
 * overall, no.
 * Find a way to make English more appealing than speaking to their friends in Chinese.
 * no
 * Look for ways to move from me speaking to them in English to them speaking to eachother and me in

English, that is from one to many to many to many.
 * Took a great step forward in class 7.

How Can I Improve the Lesson?
 * More thought out questions.
 * Better activity along the lines of the interview that gets them speaking.

Acknowledgments

 * Ideas I got from Stuart Brown, I acknowledged with (Mr. Brown).
 * I would like to thank all the 7th and 8th grade classes at Anqing Foreign Language School who had

this lesson for their participation and feedback. I would also like to thank the Anqing Foreign

Language School for allowing me to teach there.

Changelog
Version 0.21 15 Apr 2010
 * Re-worded the Michael Jackson activity.
 * Added some discussion questions.
 * Removed the page 27 textbook activity, because while it's OK, time is better spent in a

discussion.

Version 0.2 14 Apr 2010

Version 0.2 13 Apr 2010

Version 0.1 11 Apr 2010


text: User:*SM*

title: User:*SM*


text: User talk:*SM*

title: User talk:*SM*


text:
User talk:Spartan117

 Hello Spartan117, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Geoff Plourde 07:14, 18 August 2010 (UTC) Geoff Plourde 07:14, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack Russell. I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:05, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:14, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Spartan117


text:
Talk:Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Suggestion for what 'Needs Improvement'
This Introduction to Electrical Engineering has been listed as 'Needs Improvement' at the School of Electrical Engineering home page. I see that the "Education" and "Practicing" sections could probably use further elaboration, but does anyone else notice other glaring omittances or changes that need to be made?

William Leismer (discuss • contribs) 18:41, 17 June 2015 (UTC)


text:
List of protosciences

This is a list of protosciences. Protosciences include new area of scientific endeavor in the process of becoming established. It can include speculative sciences. This list includes science fields and science theories presented in accordance with known evidence, and a body of associated predictions have been made according to that theory, but the predictions have not yet been tested.

Some protosciences go on to become a widely accepted part of science, such as plate tectonics which eventually became an accepted scientific model. Other protoscientific theories end up being disproven. If their followers refuse to accept the falsification of their theories, protoscience can then become regarded as pseudoscience. The falsification of the original theory sometimes leads to reformulation of the theory.

Note: Idiosyncratic theories, or theories with an extremely small base of followers or peculiar to an individual, are not encyclopedic and should not be included. Pure pseudoscience should not be included either.

List
Alchemy. This protoscience set the stage for modern chemistry. There were several aims in alchemy for example transforming base metals such as lead or copper into silver or gold and to discover a cure for disease and a way of extending life.
 * Abiogenesis is a companion to Evolutionary biology, based on Biochemistry & Geology, and seeks to explain the origin of terrestrial life from a completely non-living early Earth.
 * Binaural beats is the use of two different audio tones to produce a unique tone in Hertz in the brain for health benefits.
 * Cryonics is the practice of preserving humans and pets by storing them at cryogenic temperatures - where metabolism and decay are almost completely stopped - for the purpose of future reanimation. Unlike cryogenics, cryonics is not an established science and is viewed with skepticism by most scientists and doctors today. But there is a disproportionately large number of scientists among cryonicists.
 * Grand unification theory is a theory in physics that unifies the strong interaction and electroweak interaction.

 * M-theory is a solution proposed for the unknown theory of everything which would combine all five superstring theories and 11-dimensional supergravity together. According to Dr. Edward Witten, who proposed the theory, mathematical tools which have yet to be invented are needed in order to fully understand it.
 * Neurocardiology is a theory in Medicine that the heart is more similar to the brain and nervous system than the other organs in the body because of its complex internal firing mechanisms
 * Oneirology the study of dreams.
 * Psychoanalysis is the practice of exploring the unconscious mind for explanations of conscious social and mental behaviors.

 * Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines that attempts to explain behaviour in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours.
 * Socionics is a theory of interpersonal relationships between personality types, loosely based on Carl Jung's psychic-function model of the personality.
 * Technological singularity represents an "event horizon" in the predictability of human technological development past which present models of the future cease to give reliable or accurate answers, following the creation of strong artificial intelligence or the amplification of human intelligence.
 * Theory of everything (TOE) is a theory of theoretical physics and mathematics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena. Initially, the term was used with an ironic connotation to refer to various overgeneralized theories. Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of quantum physics to describe a theory that would unify the theories of the four fundamental interactions of nature.
 * Transpersonal psychology is a school of psychology that studies the transcendent, or spiritual dimensions of humanity. Among these factors we find such issues as self-development, peak experiences, mystical experiences and the possibility of development beyond traditional ego-boundaries.

title: List of protosciences


text:
Neurobiology of emotion

Welcome to the Wikiversity learning project about the neurobiology of emotion. This is a learn by doing project where participants collaborate to explore what neuroscience research has revealed about the biology of emotion.

This project is starting with a literature review, so please add useful links to this page and participate in discussion of previously published research.

Reading
If you are not familiar with the major brain regions that have been associated with emotions then start with the introductory reading, below.

Introductory
Video : Charlie Rose: The Brain Series, particularly episode seven on the role that emotions play in decision making and social interaction, and episode eight, part two of the emotional brain, dealing with negative emotions such as fear and anxiety. (transcripts also available)

Textbook. Start with the 2001 Neuroscience textbook by Dale Purves, et al. and read the case study about patient "SM" then read other sections of the textbook chapter about emotion:
 * Physiological Changes Associated with Emotion
 * The Integration of Emotional Behavior
 * The Limbic System
 * The Importance of the Amygdala
 * The Relationship between Neocortex and Amygdala
 * Cortical Lateralization of Emotional Functions
 * The Interplay of Emotion and Reason
 * Summary

Published research by scientists such as António Damásio is cited and discussed in the Neuroscience textbook by Dale Purves, et al.

Research literature
If you are new to study of the neurobiology of emotion you might want to start by reading some review articles before looking at the detailed data reports.

Recent review articles

 * Development. Developmental Neuroscience Perspectives on Emotion Regulation by H. Hill Goldsmith, Seth D. Pollak and Richard J. Davidson in Child development perspectives volume 1, pages 132–140 (2008). Goldsmith et al. review twin studies that have investigated genetic influences on the regulation of emotions. See the review by Banaschewski et al. for a more up-to-date review of the search for specific genes involved in emotional control. Also reviewed are forms of brain plasticity such as "extinction" as a type of emotion learning that is discussed in the The Brain Series. Another reviewed topic is the use of neuroimaging to explore the brain circuitry involved in the regulation of emotions.
 * Neuroimaging. Evidence for mirror systems in emotions by J. A. C. J. Bastiaansen, M. Thioux and C. Keysers in Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences volume 364, pages 2391–2404 (2009).
 * Genetics. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an overview by Tobias Banaschewski, Katja Becker, Susann Scherag, Barbara Franke and David Coghill in European child & adolescent psychiatry volume 19, pages 237–257 (2010).
 * Theoretical framework. Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function by Vinod Menon and Lucina Q. Uddin in Brain structure & function volume 214, pages 655-667 (2010).

Primary research articles

 * Empathy. The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions by Jean Decety and Yoshiya Moriguchi in Biopsychosoc Medicine, volume 1, page 22 (2007).
 * Single neuron responses to emotion. Responses of single neurons in monkey amygdala to facial and vocal emotions by Koji Kuraoka and Katsuki Nakamura in Journal of Neurophysiology volume 97, pages 1379-1387 (2007).
 * Disgust. A Common Anterior Insula Representation of Disgust Observation, Experience and Imagination Shows Divergent Functional Connectivity Pathways by Mbemba Jabbi, Jojanneke Bastiaansen, Christian Keysers in PLoS ONE volume 3, page e2939 (2008).
 * Narcissistic rage. Narcissistic rage: The Achilles’ heel of the patient with chronic physical illness by Thomas Hyphantis, Augustina Almyroudi, Vassiliki Paika, Panagiota Goulia and Konstantinos Arvanitakis in Patient Preference and Adherence volume 3, pages 239–250 (2009).
 * Social cognition. What does the amygdala contribute to social cognition? by Ralph Adolphs in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences volume 1191 pages 42-61 (2010).
 * Darwin's emotion experiment. Charles Darwin's emotional expression "experiment" and his contribution to modern neuropharmacology by Peter J. Snyder, Rebecca Kaufman, John Harrison and Paul Maruff in Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, volume 19, pages 158-170 (2010).
 * Empathy and alexithymia. Empathic brain responses in insula are modulated by levels of alexithymia but not autism by Geoffrey Bird, Giorgia Silani, Rachel Brindley, Sarah White, Uta Frith and Tania Singer in Brain volume 133, pages 1515-1525 (2010).
 * Neuroimaging. Brain response to a humanoid robot in areas implicated in the perception of human emotional gestures by Thierry Chaminade, Massimiliano Zecca, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, Atsuo Takanishi, Chris D. Frith, Silvestro Micera, Paolo Dario, Giacomo Rizzolatti, Vittorio Gallese, and Maria Alessandra Umiltà in PLoS One volume 5, page e11577 (2010).

Discussion
This page section is for discussion of recently published articles about the neurobiology of emotion.

Specific brain regions involved in emotion
In "What does the amygdala contribute to social cognition?", it is suggested that the amygdala plays a role in allowing humans to understand the emotions of others, particularly when we look at faces. Is the subject SM a representative experimental subject? --JWSchmidt 09:11, 18 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Decety & Moriguchi cite additional patients with limbic system damage and altered emotions (cases N.M and N.K.). --JWSchmidt 17:52, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

Kuraoka & Nakamura recorded from individual neurons and showed that there are neurons in the monkey amygdala that respond to either facial or vocal emotional stimuli. Jabbi et al. studied humans using fMRI and observed that anterior insular cortex was active when test subjects either 1) saw others look disgusted or 2) tasted unpleasant liquids to induce disgust or 3) read and imagine scenarios involving disgust. Such experiments suggest that limbic system components including the amygdala and insular cortex contain neurons with activity patterns corresponding to the generation of core emotional responses that can be elicited by several different types of stimuli. --JWSchmidt 16:58, 20 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Jabbi et al. and Bird et al. describe roles for insular cortical areas in emotion (insular cortex connects to the amygdala). What are the distributed neural networks that make emotion possible? --JWSchmidt 00:52, 20 August 2010 (UTC)

Related resources

 * Motivation and emotion/Textbook

title: Neurobiology of emotion