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Søren Kierkegaard

Historical Introduction to Philosophy
Born May 5, 1813 Died November 11, 1855

Biography
Kierkegaard was born in 1813 in Copenhagen. The name Kierkegaard can be broken down into gaard, which means a farm, and kierke, which means being close to the village church. His father was a wool merchant and was fifty-six when Soren was born. His father had done quite well for himself and had retired by the age of forty. But he was a pessimistic father figure, his first wife having died childless after two years of marriage, and Soren's mother being the housemaid that his father married after his first wife. When Kierkegaard's father was a young Shepard boy, he cursed God for his misfortunes. He tells us in his journal: "as a small boy tending sheep on the Jutland Heath, suffering many ills, famished and exhausted, stood up on a hill and cursed God! And that man was never able to forget it, not even at the age of 82."

After his father cursed God for his misfortunes, his fortunes changed and became wealthy in a short time frame. Both men, Soren and his father, believed a great deal of irony in this, and that the family actually lay under a curse. Before Soren was twenty one, four of his siblings and his mother had died, and neither he nor his father believed that any of the other seven siblings would live past 34, (the year that Christ died.) Thus Soren inherited his father's despair. This is believed to have been what fuelled Kierkegaard's drive for writing so much in his younger years, and is also attributed to his anxious personality.

At 27, Kierkegaard enrolled in the University of Copenhagen, focusing his studies on theology, philosophy, and literature. It was here in 1834, four years after he enrolled, that he made the first entry into his famous journal. His mother's death prompted the entry.

His Works
Kierkegaard's rhetoric includes irony, satire, parody, humor, polemic, and his method of "indirect communication." All his works are supposed to arouse the reader's passion with existential issues. His dialect is him writing under various pseudonyms and each one carries a different point of view, and like Plato's dialogues, Kierkegaard does not speak to the reader directly. This is more for Kierkegaard's benefit. In 1835, as his journal indicates, he decides that before he can know what to do with his life. Juxtaposing various pseudonyms against one another is an ingenious way to look at one's self from various points of view, which is exactly what Kierkegaard does until the culmination of his work in Concluding Unscientific Postscript.

He has many notable works, including The Concept of Irony and From the Papers of One Still Living. At the time that Kierkegaard was writing, he was double publishing his works. On one hand, he would have publish one work under a pseudonym and then publish another work under his real name. This began in 1843 on February 20 when Kierkegaard published a pseudonymous work entitled Either/Or. In Kierkegaard's pyseduonymous works from Either/Or until February 27, 1846, (when he publishes Concluding Unscientific Postscript), he tries to undermine Hegel's "system," and emphasize his beliefs about the importance of the individual and the subjective nature of truth, and in his later works, what Stare would later present as angst. It is because of his conflict with Hegel that he began to write in pseudonyms. When the Hegelians tried to depersonalize philosophy, Kierkegaard viewed philosophy as being born from the individual efforts and strivings of the individual philosopher. Thus why none of his pseduonyms agree with one another.

Kierkegaard's signed works were very religious, and that is what Kierkegaard regarded himself as more than anything: a religious poet. Kierkegaard was a serious Lutheran pietist and from this sect of Christianity, Kierkegaard takes the sin, guilt, and suffering, and individual responsibility. Church dogma is insignificant to Kierkegaard; for him faith is the most important task for a human to strive for. It is our lives that God uses to judge us for all eternity. It must be our individual passion to want to live well and faithfully.

Now develops the existential burden of responsibility, that the choices we make eternally save or damn our souls. Huge existential choices are now coupled with dread an angst, for such choices are some of the most important choices the individual can make. As William McDonalad describes it, "Anxiety is a two-sided emotion: on one side is the dread burden of choosing for eternity; on the other side is the exhilaration of freedom in choosing oneself. Choice occurs in the instant, which is the point at which time and eternity intersect — for the individual creates through temporal choice a self which will be judged for eternity."

His Aesthetics, Ethics, and Religion
-- The Three Spheres of Existence

Kierkegaard uses his pseudonyms to take the reader through various existential stages: the first being the aesthetic, the second being the ethical, and the third being religious. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "The aesthetic stage of existence is characterized by the following: immersion in sensuous experience; valorization of possibility over actuality; egotism; fragmentation of the subject of experience; nihilistic wielding of irony and skepticism; and flight from boredom." In his first work, Either/Or, Kierkegaard presents a reflective aesthete. This pseudonym uses situations and people to find out more about himself, finds pleasure in mental engineering pleasure, and thus can find a new joy for otherwise tedious and mundane activities. However, this focus on the aesthetic deters from the individuals real responsibility to ethics.

As we've established, Kierkegaard believed that the existential choices we make directly affect our place in the Christian afterlife. Thusly, Kierkegaardian ethics lie solely in God's ethics. He criticizes Hegelian ethics which states that ethics come from social norms. Kierkegaard argues that one's obligation to God and acting as God wants us to overrides social norms. Kierkegaard cites the story of Abraham killing his son Isaac not for social norms, but actually defying them by killing his innocent son for God.

So one must know God better in order to understand Christian ethics in the purest sense. This lies in faith. One achieves faith through the repetition of faith. Kierkegaard finds it comical that there is mediation, such as a priest, between the individual and God, like in Catholicism and Hegelism. How can one meditate with God if one is communicating with a mere man? So the repetition of faith is how oneself relates to the power that constitutes it, thusly the repetition of faith is the self, the focus on the human condition.

His Problem
Kierkegaard's central problem was how to become a Christian in Christiandom, or the state's Christianity. In his time, the education institutions tended to produce like minded thinkers rather than let individuals find their unique identities. Also, Denmark was turning from a feudal society to a capitalist society. This changed the social hierarchy from a rigid ladder to a more horizontal model. Now it was difficult to find one's unique identity for two reasons: because social identities were now more fluid and because new elementary education was more focused on producing like individuals. Given these circumstances, Kierkegaard thought there was a need to change communication so that it would not produce stereotyped individuals. According to the Stanford Enyclopedia of Philosophy, his rhetoric had to do three things: "...force people back onto their own resources, to take responsibility for their own existential choices, and to become who they are beyond their socially imposed identities."

Kierkegaard, like the modernists before him, had a problem with the criteria of Christianity. A devout man, he was disgusted with the corruption of the Church and the apathy of the Christians around him.

Kierkegaard also had a big problem with the new Hegelian philosophy. Kierkegaard was a big supporter of personal immortality, whereas Hegel had taken God and turned Him into an "Absolute Spirit," and argued that true human individuality is found in the submission to an evolving state. Kierkegaard challenged this theory, and when he Hegelians tried to reform and depersonalize the Absolute Spirit, Kierkegaard discovered that philosohpies are born from one philosopher, thus biasing the theory. It is because of his conflict with Hegel that he began to write in pseudonyms. When the Hegelians tried to depersonalize philosophy, Kierkegaard viewed philosophy as being born from the individual efforts and strivings of the individual philosopher. Thus why none of his pseduonyms agree with one another.

Anxiety, Despair, and Dread
In Kierkegaardian philosophy, anxiety leads to dread. Anxiety has five main points: first that anxiety proceeded Adam's sin. The entire spectrum of choices available to us produces anxiety in the soul. Secondly, this anxiety is not sin, it is natural. Thus, Kierkegaard states that man as free to not sin as he is to sin. Thirdly, we are responsible for our own sin. Just as Adam brought sinfulness upon himself, man does so as well. So we are perpetually in a state of freedom and sinfulness. So, fourthly, sinfulness produces anxiety, which is compounded by freedom. It can be this anxiety which brings the individual back to God, so anxiety can be saving through faith. We are all born into this world with the same amount of freedom and anxiety, (the same freedom that Adam possessed), and like Adam, we take a leap from freedom into sinfulness. This is the fifth point of anxiety. It is not necessitated by existence or freedom, so it's a leap more than anything. Once we are in the realm of sinfulness, it is anxiety that drives us to understand God better, thus becoming Christian rather than being a Christian.

As Kierkegaard describes under his pseudonym Anti-Climacus, dread is essential to "the self." First, we should make the distinction between "the self" and "human being." "Human being" is a synthesis, one made between the infinite and the finite, freedom and necessity, body and soul. The self is the acceptance of this and trying to maintain a degree of balance between the synthesis. However, this cannot be done by the mind alone. As you may have guessed, Kierkegaard says that acceptance of God as the unifying element to the human being synthesis is key (faith). This is how we alleviate despair. Willing to be a self is itself a form of despair. Not willing to be a self is also a form of despair. Being unaware of the possibility of being a self is also a form of despair. The only way one can become aware of the self is through sin-consciousness, which presupposes God-consciousness. The ultimate form of despair is despairing over one's own sins, which leads to the rejection of God's forgiveness, thus eliminating any possibility to get into Heaven.

The Leap
As described above, the Kierkegaardian leap is from sinlessness into sinfulness, (this is described in his work The Concept of Anxiety.) But there is a second qualitative leap of faith. Kierkegaard was concerned that this leap is never easy or probable. Faith is difficult to attain because we have no sensory proof of God, of the resurrection, etc. This casts us in to fear, doubt, and ultimately, sin. This leap has no levels, no degrees, and is mediated. When Lucifer sinned against God, he did so of his own volition; and we do so in the exact manner. The leap in to sin is instantaneous, and so is the leap back into faith.

Faith for Kierkegaard
Man has no knowledge of God, empirically or rationally. Kierkegaard establishes that the only way that man can know God is through faith. And ultimately, faith is ones ability to accept the inherent paradox of Christianity: the fact that Jesus was both fully man and fully divine. Such a creature is impossible for us to comprehend, and since essential truth is impossible for us to achieve, it is presented as a paradox. So we cannot understand it, so we dismiss it. Typically, faith is dismissed as silliness because we automatically call such a paradox impossible or crazy. However, this paradox is essential to Christianity. So, the paradox creates within each person offense. Offense is, as Kierkegaard describes it, "...like standing at the crossroad. From the possibility of offense, one turns either to offense or to faith, but one never comes to faith except from the possibility of offense.... Offense...relates to the God-man and has two forms. It is either in relation to the loftiness that one is offended, that an individual human being claims to be God, acts or speaks in a manner that manifests God...or the offense is in relation to lowliness, that the one who is God is this lowly human being, suffering as a lowly human being.... The God-man is the paradox, absolutely the paradox. Therefore, it is altogether certain that the understanding must come to a standstill on it".

His Method
Kierkegaard's Method (according to Storm): Kierkegaardian dialect is difficult for the reader. Many times, the reader must be absolutely sure that the pseudonym that Kierkegaard is writing under is the voice of Kierkegaard himself, or a fallacious argument that may arise, or if he posing a view point, etc. Kierkegaard called this method of writing "indirect discourse."

Kierkegaard is most commonly associated with the existentialist philosophers. According to D. Anthony Storm and Peter Angeles, Kierkegaardian dialect is concerned primarily with the following aspects of existentialism:

 * "Truth is subjectivity."
 * "Abstratctions can never grasp nor communicate the reality of individual existence."
 * Philosophy must concern itself with the human predicament and inner states such as alienation, anxiety, inauthenticity, dread, sense of nothingness, and anticipation of death."
 * Individuals have complete freedom of the will.
 * Individuals cannot help but make choices. (in part)
 * Existence proceeds essence. (in part)

Some philosophers have called Kierkegaard's contribution to philosophy into question because, like Nietzsche, he was not a systematic philosopher. He never presents a stance and was more content to argue against Hegel. His driving force is "subjectivity is truth."

Kierkegaard believed Socrates, one of his heroes, to be one of the first men to demand that his conversing partners subject themselves to the problem, rather than fall back on unrationalized and fallacious arguments. And so Kierkegaard pictured himself for his contemporaries, no so much a philosopher, but one who demands that one question a philosophy, (specifically, Hegel's ideas and the idea of "Christianity,") rather than accept it's premise based on well worded arguments.

His influences
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

title: Søren Kierkegaard


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Talk:Filmmaking Basics/Thumbnail Storyboard/Examples/Example 1

Where can we find out about all these different lenses and camera effects?--Elatanatari 21:58, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

 * To be finished soon
 * This lesson will be finished in about four months. It is short but other lessons need to be finished first.

 * The lesson will be based on the FREE demo version of FrameForge 3D Studio.  The lesson will show two people talking together, filmed with both a wide angle and a telephoto lens.

 * Also the lesson will also show a head shot filmed with different focal length lenses. The difference is amazing.

 * I suggest that you download the FREE demo version of FrameForge 3D Studio and try photographing people with different lenses. I think this is a really fun program and very educational. Robert Elliott 13:17, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Northern Arizona University/Philosophy of Law/Wikibook

Sure you don't want this on wikibooks?--Rayc 22:08, 6 February 2007 (UTC)


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Historical Introduction to Philosophy/Descartes Scratch Page

Historical Introduction to Philosophy

Rene Descartes

Biography

Descartes was a leading figure in the scientific revolution of the 17th century. He helped shape the “new science” or the worldview that the universe was a heliocentric system, meaning that the sun not earth and humans were at the center of the universe. Also, that the world could be explained using reason and mathematical specifically geometric equations. Descartes used a method of doubt to find undisputable truth and explain how the universe worked. In order to accomplish this he must define knowledge. He relates knowledge to a tree with the roots being the foundation, physics the trunk and the branches are ethics as well as the other sciences. He believed that, if he doubted something even once, it could not be 100% certain.

List of Works The World 1633 (never published)

Dicourse on Method 1637

Meditations of First Philosophy: In which the existence of god and the real distinction of the mind and body, are demonstrated 1641

Principles of Philosophy

Influences

Descartes was largely influenced by Plato, Pythagoras, Anselm, and Aquinas, and rejected the Aristotilian world views the church so fiercely held onto. Descartes' findings findings inspired Spinoza, Libenz, Locke, Hume, and most any of the modern philosophers have been influenced by his work. Wheather or not they agree with him is another matter.

Descartes was responding to Aristorle, Aquinas, Anslem

 Philosophical Contributions Discovered Analytical Geometry Cartisiean Coordinates Cartisiean Dualism

Arguements Cogito ergo sum Mind/Spirit/Soul The existence of god The Evol Demon

Synopsis of philosophical thought

Methods Method of doubt Geometry - clear and distinct proof

Brain in Vat arguement

Linguistics? On the night of November 10, 1619, alone in a room with no distractions he sat in front of the fire to begin his famous search for the truth. He cast aside his beliefs by using a method of doubt. In order to get to the Truth he must cast doubt on his opinions and their foundations. This method had four rules. First, he suggested that the search proceed slowly and meticulously. This could be accomplished by breaking the parts of each supposed truth into small parts then rebuilding with 100% certain knowledge. He acknowledges that what he knows about the world before his great quest came from his senses. He was also aware of the fact that our senses can deceive us and give us false information. He argued that an evil demon must be the deceiver and this miline gienie can even chase us in our dreams.

Discourse on Method

The Meditations In the first meditation, Descartes refers to much of the information contained in his discourse of method. By way of self analysis he comes to the conclusion that he has a soul. He says “I will doubt not only what is obviously false, but what is even slightly doubtful.” He looks at his hands and realizes that they must be his and the he would be crazy not to think so. He admits that the fives senses can deceive man. He casts away his former beliefs and asserts that he will doubt anything and everything he knows. Descartes’s famous cogito ergo sum argument is the main focus of the second meditation. He asserts that what he sees is not to be trusted, his memory is suspect, he has no body, and no senses. So, what is he? Descartes then asserts he must exist and that some heinous demon must be deceiving him by way of the senses. Enter the “I think therefore I am.” How can he doubt that he exists, after all, he does think. He explains the “I” by using wax as an example. He studies a candle noting its size, shape, sound… next he heats the candle in the fire observing then change after it melts. He concludes that the candle has changed but that the wax is the same. This knowledge he believes is innate, something we can only get to by intellect. The third meditation contains his argument proving the existence of god. The argument is weak, but accepted by many. Descartes asserts that ideas are like atoms, they crash together when we are thinking. He proves god’s existence by saying that god is a perfect being, and that humans are imperfect. An imperfect being cannot create a perfect being therefore god is real. Descartes uses the next two meditation s to reaffirm this argument.

In the sixth meditation Descartes addresses the mind body problem. Asserting again, that the senses cannot be trusted with absolute certainty. He also concludes that he is a thinking being, and that his mind is not extended. He asserts that the body is extended, meaning that it takes up space thus separating the mind from the body. He reasons that there must be something outside of the mind and body that causes sense perception. This something Descartes concludes is god. For God is good and would not deceive poor little man.

Descartes moves to explains true understanding. He does this, using mathematical examples. If a square has four sides humans can understand the concept of a square. On the other hand if 10,000 demons are standing in a room, humans must use imagination. Imagination is not an essential property of the mind so again god must have something to do with human perception. Descartes is to this day a great influence for many thinkers.


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Historical Introduction to Philosophy/Hegel scratch page

Historical Introduction to Philosophy

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (German: b. 1770 in Stuttgart, Württemberg, d. 1831 in Berlin)

Born in Stuttgart, Württemberg in 1770 to Georg Ludwig Hegel and Maria Magdalena. He received his education at the Tübinger Stift, the seminary of the Protestant Church in Württemberg. Here he met Friedrich Schelling and Friedrich Hölderlin who greatly influenced Hegel’s thought.

Influenced by many, including Aristotle, Anselm, Descartes, Goethe, Spinoza, Rousseau, Boehme, Kant, Fichte, and Schelling. In turn Hegel was an influence to a wide variety of individuals including Feuerbach, Croce, Marx, Engels, Max Stirner, Bauer, Bradley, Lenin, Lee, Lukács, Heidegger, Sartre, and Kierkegaard.

Hegel was probably the greatest of German idealists. He methodically constructed a comprehensive system of thought about the world. He took the model of biology in asserting the marriage of a thesis to antithesis created synthesis.--Oxroxyox (talk) 20:28, 4 September 2012 (UTC) He thought that reality was rational and that the rational structure of reality was revealed in our thought.

Works:

Phenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes) 1807

Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik) 1812–1816

Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (Enzyklopaedie der philosophischen Wissenschaften) 1817–1830

Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) 1821

Lectures on Aesthetics

Lectures on the Philosophy of History 1830

Lectures on Philosophy of Religion


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Historical Introduction to Philosophy/Hume Scratch Page

Historical Introduction to Philosophy David Hume has been at times considered the last of the great British "empiricists" he has also been regarded as a great historian and essayists. Hume wrote on many topics, including; Personal Identity, Religion Some of Hume's major philosophical works include:

A Treatise of Human Nature 1739-1740

Enquiries Considering Human Understanding 1748

Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals 1751

Dialogues 1779

Four Dissertations 1757

Even today, these works remain extremely influential, despite the denouncment my many of his contemporaries, some labeling them works of athiesm and scepticism. Some of the people that Hume's writings have influenced have been Immanuel Kant, and in the moral philosophy and writings on economics written by Adam Smith, who was also a close friend of Hume's, he also had a great influence on Jeremy Bentham and even Chareles Darwin who at times considered him to be a central influence on his writings. These writers took very different directions in their writings, but all of them with their writing reflect the wide range of Hume's empiricism.


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Søren Kierkegaard/scratch page

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher.

Historical Introduction to Philosophy/General Introduction

Rejection of Descartes
Kierkegaard was concerned by the the way people had taken truths as given. René Descartes' 'Meditations' for example supposedly show a way in which the self is proved by thought alone: I think, I doubt my existence, My doubt proves my existence. The Preface of Kierkegaard's 'Fear and Trembling' criticizes such an idea that has been present in philosophy ever since, Descartes should not have concluded that he exists, only that doubt characterizes thought at that specific moment in time. Influenced by Socratic Method, and to some extent David Hume, Kierkegaard suggests that one should never stop doubting. The problem with philosophies since Descartes is that they always start with doubting when in fact it can never be moved passed.

Concerns with Hegel and the Importance of Agency
In the time in which Kierkegaard was writing in Copenhagen most philosophers considered themselves as followers of Hegel. Briefly Hegel suggests that 'spirit' moves through time bringing history to logical and set conclusions. Kierkegaard felt that such an idea left people as spectators of history rather than participants within in it. History has no final goal defined by the spirit moving through it, it course is set by the individual things that cause the motion of it. Thus Kierkegaard suggests each human being is a agent in history that is able to contribute, to an extent, to the outcome of events. The importance of experience is apparent in the way that Kierkegaard makes his texts challenging and open to interpretation, one has to be actively involved in deciphering his philosophical accounts. Kierkegaard's works can be challenging but rewarding, anyone attempting to read them should keep an open mind and discuss with others what they find within the texts. After all Philosophy is a social activity that requires active participation.

Should we Simply be Following the Will of God?
Some debate is apparent of whether Kierkegaard was suggesting humans should follow God's will alone. 'Fear and Trembling' for example follows the Biblical story of Abraham under the pseudoname Johannes De Silentio. Johannes may seem to suggest that only good and perfection can come from following God's will, even to the extremes of Killing one's only child. Yet at the same time Silentio seems to allude to the fact that such blind and perfect action is probably impossible and if it is possible it is only from actively practicing one's own ethical doctrine, and that such doctrines do not necessitate religious views. Kierkegaard's view that one should experience and live their own methods of living, religious or not is apparent throughout his works.

How to Read Kierkegaard
There is obviously no correct way to go about reading Kierkegaards texts but many readers find frustration with not knowing the view Kierkegaard wants to make present. When anyone comes to read Kierkegaard, it should be discussed and carefully deciphered. The reader is well served by accompanying works with other texts, for example reading Fear and Trembling can be accompanied by John Lippet's introduction to Kierkegaard.

title: Søren Kierkegaard/scratch page


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Karl Marx - a brief biography

Historical Introduction to Philosophy

A Brief Biography

Karl Marx was born in 1818 in the town of Treves in the Rhineland (Germany), and died in 1883. He was born to Jewish parents who later converted to Christianity when Karl was six. Marx studied at the University of Berlin and in 1841 he recieved his doctorate for his dissertation on the philosophies of Democritus and Epicurus. Afterwards, Marx became a journalist, since his radical views and ideas were incompatable with an academic career, and in 1842 he became the editor of the newspaper called Rheinische Zeitung.

One year after becoming editor of the newspaper it was suppressed (1843), and he then moved to Paris to study the theory and practice of socialism. It was here that he met Friedrich Engels, and the two would go on to write several works together, including the seminal work Manifesto of the Communist Party.

Marx, along with Engels, took part in the Revolution of 1848, and during this time, Marx edited the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which would also become suppressed. However, along with the suppression of the paper, Marx was also indicted with Treason. Thus, Marx was forced to live in England in exile.

In 1864, the International Workingmen's Association was formed, and Marx returned to the political arena. Marx became a member of the organization, and would find himself an influential member of it's General Council.

Karl Marx eventually became ill, and he died in 1883.

Karl Marx and Religion The creation of 'false consciousness' refers to having been led to believe something that is not true, and at the same time is disadventagious to the holder of said belief. According to Marx, religion is a false conciousness embedded into the the minds of the proletariat (the working class) by the bourgeoisie (the ruling class). In other words, the ruling elite in society, promote religion to the masses in order to control them, or to maintain the obedience of the exploited working class. Religion is the Opiate of the Masses is commonly referred to by people trying to convey Marx's view of the repressive nature of relgion, and the intoxicating effect it has on individuals and groups.

The Communist Manifesto

Karl Marx's The Communist Manifesto is the work that Marx is most known for, or in other words it was his semnial piece of work. The fact that the work is still discussed, and argued comtemporarily, just goes to show the impact his work had on the ways in which religion, society, politics, and economics can be thought about.

Historical Relevance/Background (provided by Friedrich Engels in a preface to an 1888 English edition):

The Manifesto was published just a few weeks prior to the French Revolution, which started in February of 1848. The Manifesto was to serve as the platform for the Communist League (a workers association). The Communist League was initially an underground organization, which was due to the radical economic and political ideas of the organization. According to Engels, the French Revolution was "...the first great battle between the Proletariat and the Bourgeoisie..."

Summary of the Communist Manifesto:

In the introduction, Marx makes two important claims that help to state the purpose for drafting the Manifesto. First, communism is currently recognized as a power by all European powers. Second, communists should henceforth, be open about and publish their views, be clear about their aims/goals, and the time has come for the party to draft a Manifesto.

Part One of the Communist Manifesto: Bourgeois and Proleatarians

Bourgeois: the owners of the means of production, or the capitalists; the employers.

Proletariat: wage laborers, or those who must sell their labor to survive (workers); the employees.

"The history of hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." This is the opening statement of the Manifesto and refers to that of all written history. In other words, all the history that has been written since history has been recorded, illustrates how antagonisms between social classes have developed and have become increasingly more complex. (E.g. Feudalism giving way to Merchantalism, which developed into Capitalism). The end of feudalism gave way to the rise of the Bourgeois. With the rise of the bourgeois to power, the antagonisms between class are different than they had previously been under feudalsim. What has become different is that society is becoming a two class society: the bourgeiosie and the proletariat.

The bourgeoisie first started gaining power in the artisan guilds during the Middle Ages, and through the ever increasing world market/economy the industrial class gainded more power as these markets increased. As the world markets and demand grew, so did the power of the owners of production, and industrialisation increased as did the markets and the power of the bouregiosie. As the process continued, so did the process of creating a two class society. In other words, this was sort of revolutionary, in that the world was changing quite drastically. The bourgeois centralized their power partly by putiing control and ownership of property in the hands of the few, the decline of religious aouthority/power, and with the end of feudalism/manorialism. The rise of cities of industry (towns estsablished or saved by industry) also helped to accomidate the power of the bourgeois through centralization, since the citizens were dependent on there wages, which were nothing in comparison to their conditions and treatment.

However, the problem that arises for the bourgeois is that they must constantly grow in order to survive. As the cities grow and so does their desire for local and foreign goods, then the bourgeois must expand by either finding/conquering new markets, and finder more lucrative means of exploiting existing markets. Since capitalism is dependent upon growth (it is the system), then the bourgeois' power is likewise dependent.

Steve Ferguson

Sources:

Feuer, Lewis S., ed. Marx & Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy. New York: Anchor Books, 1959.

title: Karl Marx - a brief biography


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Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAI3020A Install and optimise operating system software

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to install operating system software and to make adjustments as a means of optimising the system to accommodate business and client needs."

Basically, that means the skills you need to get the operating system software into your computer and then get your computer to work well with your business application programs.

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI3020A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is to: 1. Get hold of a suitable machine 2. Format the hard drive (Warning: ALL data on it will be lost) 3. Install the operating system again ( from an appropriate CD. Hint you may have to alter the BIOS to boot off the CD because in step 2 you erased a\everything on the HD!) 4. customise the desktop and add more users. 5. Install any extra application software (eg. MS Office; AutoCAD; etc) 6. Test the machine. 7. You also will have to add (install the printer drivers) from the disk supplied with the printer OR download them from a suitable site and install them into the correct system folder. 8. test the printer 9 repeat steps 4 -6 for any extra equioment used with your PC.

NB to prove what you did if you were not doing under a practical test scenario is to take many screen shots or digitalimages along the way that shows you performing the process. Blog these or add them to your records for assessment (e-portfolio; brag book; web blog etc)

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

Notes and discrepancies

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title: File:Meltdown.jpg


text:
Caring for computer hardware

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to manage the selection, maintenance and siting of hardware."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAS3234A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

title: Caring for computer hardware


text:
Running standard diagnostic tests

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to conduct diagnostic tests on a range of platforms."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAT3025A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

title: Running standard diagnostic tests


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAU3004A Apply occupational health and safety procedures

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to support the organisation's occupational health and safety (OH&S) principles and practices."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAU3019A Migrating to new technology

From the official document ICAU3019A :
 * "This unit defines the competency required to apply skills and knowledge in using new or upgraded technology."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAU3019A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
User:Eco ant

Eco_Ant: An ant to some and a cockroach to others. The subterranean termite is an important part of the forest ecosystem, recycling nutrients, bringing mineral-rich sub-soils to the forest floor and aerating the soil. It also pays no heed to the bounds of property, destroying the artifices of human settlement. Interests:
 * natural resource commons
 * social science research
 * indigenous knowledge

Background:
 * consulting on land use planning for First Nations in northwestern Ontario
 * research on community-based land management in southern Africa
 * PhD in social anthropology (focus on African studies and ecological anthropology)

title: User:Eco ant


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title: File:Parcels.jpg


text:
Customizing packaged software applications for clients

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to analyse, design, implement and review the customisation of packaged software applications, using simple programming constructs."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAU3028A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

Prerequisite unit The following unit is a prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAU3126A Use advanced features of computer applications

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


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title: File:Softwarewars.jpg


text:
Implementing system software changes

ICAI3110A

From the official document:

 * "This unit defines the competency required to implement system software changes and to handover the modified system to the client's operational area."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI3110A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:

 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

Prerequisite units

The following units are prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAI3020A Install and optimise operating system software

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

title: Implementing system software changes


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAS3032A Provide network systems administration

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to technically manage elements of a network including contribution to disaster recovery plan."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAS3032A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

Prerequisite units The following units are prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAI3101A Install and manage network protocols
 * ICAS3024A Provide basic system administration

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

Notes and discrepancies

 * ...[[ Deliverables

1. Produce an Evaluation Questionnaire to evaluate how successfully a new system/technology is working for users. Incorporate the requirements for questionnaires under Tools. 2. Find a friend or colleague who has had some new software or a piece of hardware installed on their computer and:

Use the questionnaire to interview a user, to evaluate the new system/technology.

or

Give the questionnaire to the user to complete on their own. 3. Using the responses given in the questionnaire, investigate, recommend and document solutions to issues or problems with the technology, to improve user satisfaction.

Tools

Make sure you address these requirements for questionnaires. tips

You might like to use a tool such as the one at the Questionbuilder website to create an online questionnaire (requires free trial registration) at: http://www.questionbuilder.com/

To learn and practise the knowledge and skills for this task please work through or revise Learning Pack 6 if you haven’t done so already. Good luck!


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text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAS3024A Provide basic system administration

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to implement components of systems back-up, restore, security and licensing in a standalone or client server environment."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAS3024A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
......

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
Connecting internal hardware components

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to modify and connect system hardware components according to client and user requirements."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI3021A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
... Putting all the required hardware together in the bus system. It'll all work out for good.

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

title: Connecting internal hardware components


text:
Automatic Control and Robotics

How to build your own Nerd-Cam 2 degree of freedom robotic camera mount
Note: To run the camera once you have built it, read this. For a printer friendly version of this how-to, click here.

What you will need

 * 1) 12 Round head 2-56 3/8" machine screws + nuts.
 * 2) 14 Round head 2-56 1/2" machine screws + nuts.
 * 3) 8 Flat head 2-56 1/2" machine screws + nuts.
 * 4) 3 Flat head 2-56 1/2" machine screws + nuts.
 * 5) 8 Round Head 4-40 3/8" machine screws + nuts.
 * 6) 1/4" x 5/15" Tee nut, we used USS / 18891 from Crown Bolt, This can be purchased at Home Depot.
 * 7) Sliding screen door top roller (Model B-537 Prime-Line), I bought this at Home Depot.
 * 8) 2 STD TS-53, System 3000 servo motors from Tower Hobbies.
 * 9) A Camera, I recommend Unibrain Fire-i firewire camera (and a standard VIA chipset firewire card you can buy anywhere).
 * 10) A servo controller. We use a Mini-SSC II controller.
 * 11) Something to cut parts from, we use 1/4" Plexiglas for our camera.
 * 12) Parts diagram in Illustrator downloadable free from here, or as PDF from here. Additionally you can download the parts schematic from here. Additional PDF specs for pan and tilt with size info.
 * 13) Tools, we use a BLANK to cut the Plexiglas parts. For additional machining we use a Dremel tool.
 * 14) Safety glasses!

The first step is to machine the parts
If you use a BLANK you can cut them straight from our template. If you don't then you will have to be creative. Any rigid material will do, for the template to match up the parts must be only 1/4" thick.

You will need to drill pilot holes into the sides of the "side" parts
These will allow you to bond the "side" parts with the "bottom" and "holder" parts. The holes should be long enough so that you can insert 1/2" 2-56 screws. The bottom picture gives you an idea of what you are shooting for at this point.

Before you assemble the full holder assembly
As shown above you will also need to drill some counter sinks. This is so that the bottom base can lie flush on what ever you want to mount the camera on eventually. The picture below shows how the counter sink should look on the parts

For the "Pan bottom" you will need to insert a tee nut
This may require some chiseling since it's a very tight fit. The picture below shows how this should look. The Tee-Nut is so that you can mount the camera on a standard tri-pod camera mount.

Go ahead and assemble the bottom "pan" holder
Secure the top part with 2-56 1/2" round head screws ,but use flat head screws on the bottom so that the your camera mount will sit flush on what ever you mount it to. It should look like below.

Next insert a servo motor into the base
using the 4-40 screws as shown in the picture below

Next you will need to take the plus shaped top off the servo motor
Then connect it to the odd "tilt side" piece as shown below. Use the 3/8" 2-56 flat head screws. The left part is the same as the right part. It just shows what the part looks like before and after you mount the plus shape servo thingy. Note: be sure the screw that connects the plus shape thingy to the servo is on the plus shape thingy before you connect the plus shape thingy to the side part. Also, you will need to widen the holes on the plus shape thingy just a tad in order for the 2-56 screws to fit. I use a drill bit to do this.

Next you will need to connect the "tilt bottom" to the sliding screen door roller
To do this align the rollers center of rotation with the center of rotation for the Plexiglas arm. This is about 8 mm back from the leading edge of the "tilt bottom" part. The first step is finding the center. Then you will have to decide where to drill three holes to connect this part to the "tilt bottom" part. This is the most difficult part and requires some solid measurements to make sure you center the piece correctly. You will also need to bevel an indentation as shown below so that swivel in the screen door roller has room to breath. Since this bevel will be hidden, it doesn't need to be pretty.

This picture above shows the three new holes and the beveled region
On the other side you will need to counter sink the three new holes as shown below

Not shown, you will need to counter sink the top two holes
Do this so that the screw you use will sit below the screen door roller. You will also need to cut slight notches into the screen door roller at the the points where it is fastened so that the screws hold tighter. The bottom picture shows the final result.

Next begin to assemble and connect the top to the bottom pieces as illustrated
Be sure that as you connect the pieces to the servos that you align the pieces. That is, move the servo all the way to one side then connect the arm at that position. This means that the servo should be in the top most position with the arm pointing upwards. If you do not calibrate at this point you most likely will have to take the robot camera apart and do it at some point.

You will need to connect the top servo to the "tilt arm"
Do this using the 2-56 3/8" screws.

Connect the tilt arm to the servo
The bottom picture shows the mounting finished without the camera added yet.

and

and

If you mount the unibrain firewire camera you will need to take it apart
I'm sure this voids the warranty so consider yourself warned. Mount the base part of the camera to the robot camera mount. Be careful, the unibrain camera contains surface mounted components that can easily come off. Be sure the camera is aligned when you mount it. The image below shows the finished camera.

The next step involves making the camera go
Connect the servos to the servo controller. Connect the servo controller to the computer. Power it up. Doesn't do anything? Relax, OK so now you have to make or get some software for your controller. For the Mini-SSC you can either download control programs that work under windows from the manufacturer, or you can write a very simple program in C++ to send bytes to the serial port. The code below shows a simple method to move one of the servos on the Mini SSC II controller under Linux.

00121 bool moveRaw(const int servo, const byte rawpos) 00122 { 00123     // Command Buffer: 00124     // [0] is start character 00125     // [1] is which servo to move 00126     // [2] is position to move servo to (0 to MAX_POSITION) 00127     char command[3]; 00128     command[0] = 255; 00129     command[1] = servo; 00130     command[2] = rawpos; 00131     int fd = open("/dev/ttyS0",O_RDWR); // open serial port 0 00132     if(fd==-1) LFATAL("open failed"); 00133     if(write(fd,command, 3)==-1){ 00134          perror("open"); 00135          LFATAL("write failed"); 00136     } 00137      close(fd); 00138     return true; 00139 }

 * Note that here we input an integer from 0 - 256 for the int servo. This tells the servo what absolute position to move to. Notice that this is one limiting factor of using R/C servos, our precision is limited to 0.71 degrees if our camera is set to rotate by 180 degrees.
 * LFATAL can be anything you want the code to do if it fails. You might even omit this if you want it to silently fail (for some reason).
 * On many Linux machines writing to the serial port is only open to root. You may need to change the permissions on the serial port device if you have trouble writing to the serial port.

Nerd-Cam Notes

 * Camera accuracy can be influenced by the voltage applied to the servos. As such, if you give the servos more voltage the camera will move faster, but have an increased likelihood of overshoot the mark. If this seems to happen, a simple fix is to put in a resister to limit the voltage a little. You may need to experiment a little to find what works best. However, if you have access to an actual power supply with voltage adjustment, this is even more ideal.
 * Firewire cables tend to be rather rigid. While the Nerd-Cam can hold the weight of a firewire cable, care should be taken not to let it pull to hard on the camera.
 * Don't leave the camera powered all the time with the servos used here. They seem to wear out. In general the gears seem to wear down. A more expensive servo might fix this problem. However, if a servo does go bad it can be replaced within the housing.
 * If your camera is not perfectly calibrated, you can measure the amount of error in its movement and program corrections into your software. Thus, if it seems to be off by three degrees, you can set its movement back by three degrees to completely compensate.
 * To grab firewire images under Linux use the dc1394 library. For more info check http://www.linux1394.org/

Connecting up the Camera
For the Mini-SSC controller, both serial and power can be carried over a single Ethernet CAT-5e cable. This is possible since CAT-5e has 8 wires inside. The current needed by the servos and Mini-SSC are low enough to make this option work. This also cuts down on costs considerably since a single CAT-5e cable is Dirt cheap.

Additionally, if you have several cameras, you can power them all from an old AT computer power supply. This provides both the 5 and 12 volts the Mini-SSC and servos need. It also provides way more power than one needs to run several cameras all at once. Additionally, if your Firewire cable does not carry power (Notebook PCMCIA Firewire usually does not) you can power the camera from the 12 volts. The use of the old AT power supply is helpful over the standard ATX power supply since you can manually switch it on. ATX requires a signal from either a motherboard or a power supply testing device to turn on. However, this is also an option if you can't find an AT power supply.

Manual Override Auto Switch Design
You can build a switch that allows you to override the computer servo inputs from a standard R/C car controller and then run the camera from the remote control manually. This is useful for any robot that is controlled by R/C servos. The design shown below allows such a switch to work. It was originally designed for a mobile robot, to allow for emergency manual override of the robot, but it can be adapted to be used with the Nerd-cam quite easily.

The override for the switch is provided by toggling the Transmission gearbox switch. On a normal R/C car, this causes it to change gears. Since we do not need this function, we use the transmission switch on the R/C controller to toggle the manual override. This switch has been tested and works well with a Traxxas EVX remote control and speed controller. However, there are probably cheaper R/C radio controllers that will also do the trick.

title: Automatic Control and Robotics


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAS3034A Determine and action network problems

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to document network-related problems, determine the resources required, solve the client problem or escalate the problem to a new support level."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAS3034A.

Prerequisite units The following units are prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAS3024A Provide basic system administration
 * ICAT3025A Run standard diagnostic tests

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


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text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAB3018A Develop macros and templates for clients using standard products

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to develop macros and templates for clients using industry-recognised software applications."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAB3018A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

Prerequisite unit The following unit is a prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAU3126A Use advanced features of computer applications

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
File:Installvista.jpg

Summary
Original image: 'First impression of Windows Vista' http://www.flickr.com/photos/44124477206@N01/171671284 by: Everett

title: File:Installvista.jpg


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAI4030A Install software to networked computers

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to plan, manage and support the installation of new or upgrade software to networked computers according to vendor and organisation specifications."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI4030A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
Talk:Automatic Control and Robotics

This is a work in progress. I have to split but will finish tomorrow.
 * Have you seen this?--Rayc 02:02, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

This looks interesting! Is there a radio link between the robot and a controlling computer or a serial cable? Mirwin 02:10, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

It's connected via serial port. There are many options on where to go from there. They make radio serial connectors so you can make it radio controlled if you want to. Blue Tooth also has a serial over Blue Tooth option. My friends and I used it to emulate a Null Modem so we could play the old Master of Orion II head to head. For this set up, I run the serial and power over standard CAT-5 cable. I should add that to the how-to since it cuts back on the number of wires you need by a whole bunch. Mundhenk 01:20, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Should I move the Nerd-cam how-to to its own page and build a page like the one suggested by Rayc here. I don't want to replicate the page already at: this, but we should have a portal I think here. Maybe we should make this page more technical and hands on, and suggest that this should be more theory? Comments? Nathan 02:53, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Automatic Control and Robotics


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title: File:Installip.jpg


text:
Australian Vocational Education and Training/ICAI3101A Install and manage network administration protocols

From the official document:
 * "This unit defines the competency required to install and manage network protocols in a networking environment."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAI3101A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:

Notes and discrepancies
nice, helped a fair bit though


text:
Configuring and administering a network operating system

ICAS3120A

From the official document: "This unit defines the competency required to create the network configuration required by a client and to set up and use administrative tools to manage the network."

Basically, that means ... (translate above into plain english)

You can read more about this unit on the National Training Information Systems Official document for ICAS3120A.

This unit is part of the following qualifications:
 * Cert III Applications Qualification in Australia

Prerequisite units The following units are prerequisite for this competency:

 * ICAI3020A Install and optimise operating system software
 * ICAS3024A Provide basic system administration
 * ICAS3032A Provide network systems administration

How this unit will help you
After learning and applying the skills required by this unit you'll be able to demonstrate your skills in:

 * translate the above elements and performance criteria into plain english and summarise here...

Ideas for learning the required skills
...

Ideas for demonstrating this unit
The best way to demonstrate these skills is ...

Grading
If you are demonstrating this unit as part of a formal course, you might find that the unit is graded (meaning you can not only demonstrate your competence, but can also gain a credit or distinction). Your facilitator may already have set criteria that your college uses. If not, here are some ideas for possible credit/distinction activities that you can discuss with your facilitator:


text:
Draft:Mathematics

Mathematics is about numbers (counting), quantity, and coordinates.

Notations

 * {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="none"

! colspan="3" |Notational locations
 * Weight
 * Oversymbol
 * Exponent
 * Coefficient
 * Variable
 * Operation
 * Number
 * Range
 * Index
 * }
 * Range
 * Index
 * }
 * }

For each of the notational locations around the central Variable, conventions are often set by consensus as to use. For example, Exponent is often used as an exponent to a number or variable: 2-2 or x2.

A common Oversymbol is one for the average $$\overline{Variable}$$.

Operation may be replaced by a function, for example.

All notational locations could look something like

 * {| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="none"

where the center line means "a x Σ f(x)" for all added up values of f(x) when x = n from say 0 to infinity with each term in the sum before the summation is multiplied by bn, then divided by n for an average whenever n is finite.
 * bx
 * x = n
 * a
 * $$\sum$$
 * f(x)
 * n
 * }
 * f(x)
 * n
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

Abstractions
Def.
 * 1) a "separation from worldly objects",
 * 2) "the withdrawal from one's senses",
 * 3) the "act of focusing on one characteristic of an object rather than the object as a whole group of characteristics;"
 * 4) "the act of separating said qualities from the object or ideas",
 * 5) the "act of comparing commonality between distinct objects and organizing using those similarities;"
 * 6) "the act of generalizing characteristics; the product of said generalization",
 * 7) an "idea of an unrealistic or visionary nature", or
 * 8) any "generalization technique that ignores or hides details to capture some kind of commonality between different instances for the purpose of controlling the intellectual complexity of engineered systems, particularly software systems"

is called an abstraction.

The image on the right is an example of the literature of abstraction.

Reasoning
Def. the "deduction of inferences or interpretations from premises" is called reasoning.

Def. "for application of common sense and/or intuition regardless of technical parameters" is called a duck test.

From the expression: "If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck."

Def. "a fried egg generally means an egg (and generally a chicken egg or similar) fried in a particular way that generally doesn't denote a scrambled egg, which is nonetheless cooked by frying" is called a fried egg test.

Numbers

 * {|style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin:auto" cellspacing="20"

 * $$1, 2, 3,\ldots\!$$ || $$\ldots,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2\,\ldots\!$$ || $$ -2, \frac{2}{3}, 1.21\,\!$$ || $$-e, \sqrt{2}, 3, \pi\,\!$$ || $$2, i, -2+3i, 2e^{i\frac{4\pi}{3}}\,\!$$
 * Natural numbers|| Integers || Rational numbers || Real numbers || Complex numbers
 * }
 * }

A metric prefix or SI prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a decadic multiple or fraction of the unit. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol.

A significant figure is a digit in a number that adds to its precision. This includes all nonzero numbers, zeroes between significant digits, and zeroes indicated to be significant.

Leading and trailing zeroes are not significant because they exist only to show the scale of the number. Therefore, 1,230,400 has five significant figures—1, 2, 3, 0, and 4; the two zeroes serve only as placeholders and add no precision to the original number.

When a number is converted into normalized scientific notation, it is scaled down to a number between 1 and 10. All of the significant digits remain, but all of the place holding zeroes are incorporated into the exponent. Following these rules, 1,230,400 becomes 1.2304 x 106.

It is customary in scientific measurements to record all the significant digits from the measurements, for example, 1,230,400, but the measurement may have introduced an error which when calculated indcates the last significant digit has a range of values where the most likely one is the "4". The range may be 3-5 so that the last significant digit plus this error may be written as (4,1) meaning 4-1=3 and 4+1=5.

Another example of significant digits is the speed of all massless particles and associated fields—including electromagnetic radiation such as light—in vacuum. The most accurate value is 299792.4562±0.0011 km/s. The magnitude of the speed is 299792.4562 and the actual measured variation is ±0.0011 so that the last two significant digits "62" are most likely within a variation from "51" to "73".

Most calculators and many computer programs present very large and very small results in E notation. The letter E or e is often used to represent times ten raised to the power of (which would be written as "x 10b") where b represents a number and is followed by the value of the exponent.

Def. any "real number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers" is called an irrational number.

Def. incapable "of being put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers or any subset thereof" is called uncountable.

An uncountable set of numbers such as the irrational numbers lies somewhere between a finite set of numbers, for example, the set of natural factors of 6: {1,2,3,6}, and an infinite set of numbers such as the natural numbers.

Def. the "branch of pure mathematics concerned with the properties of integers" is called number theory.

Theoretical mathematics
Def. an "abstract representational system used in the study of numbers, shapes, structure and change and the relationships between these concepts" is called mathematics.

Arithmetics
Notation: let the symbol > represent greater than.

For example, the integer five (5) is greater than the integer (2): 5 > 2.

Notation: let the symbol < represent less than also known as smaller than

For example, 2 < 3.

Notation: let the relation symbol ≠ indicate that two expressions are different.

For example, 2 x 3 ≠ 5 x 7.

Notation: let the relation symbol ~ represent similar to.

For example, depending on the scale involved, 7 ~ 8 on a scale of 10, 7/10 = 0.7 and 8/10 = 0.8. Relative to numbers between 0.5 and 1.0, 0.7 ~ 0.8, but 0.2 ≁ 0.7.

Similarity may be close such as 0.7 ≈ 0.8, but 0.5 ~ 0.8. Or similarity may include equality, 5 ± 3 ≃ 4 ± 2. When the degree of equality is greater than the degree of similarity, the symbol ≅ is used. The reverse is represented by ≊.

Def. the "mathematics of numbers (integers, rational numbers, real numbers, or complex numbers) under the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division" is called an arithmetic.

Def. a "symbol ( = ) used in mathematics to indicate that two values are the same" is called an equal sign.

Consider the integers: 1 and 2. The statement, "1 + 2 = 3", contains the operation + (addition) and the relation = (equals).

The exponent can require a different operator of arithmetic.

The number $$e$$ is an important mathematical constant, approximately equal to 2.71828, that is the base of the natural logarithm.

 * $$e = 1 + \frac{1}{1} + \frac{1}{1\cdot 2} + \frac{1}{1\cdot 2\cdot 3} + \frac{1}{1\cdot 2\cdot 3\cdot 4}+\cdots$$

 * e2 + e3 ≠ e5. Yet
 * e2 x e3 = e(2 + 3) = e5.

Usually, pure arithmetic only involves numbers. But, when arithmetic is used in a science such as radiation astronomy, dimensional analysis is also applicable.

To build an observatory usually requires adding components together.

 * 1 dome + 1 telescope + 1 outbuilding + 1 control room + 1 laboratory + 1 observation room may = 1 observatory.

Yet,

 * 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 components in 1 simple observatory.

However, attempting to add 1 dome to 1 telescope may have little or no meaning. The operation of addition would be similar to the operation of construction.

If 1 G2V star is added to 1 M2V star the result may be a double star. The operation of addition here usually requires an explanation (a theory).

Algebras
Notation: let the symbol * designate an as yet unspecified operation.

Notation: let the symbol R designate an as yet unspecified relation.

Def. a "system for computation using letters or other symbols to represent numbers, with rules for manipulating these symbols" is called an algebra.

Fundamentally, algebra uses letters to represent as yet unspecified numbers. The numbers may be integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, or any real number or complex number. As an experimentalist, eventually you must find a way to change unspecified numbers into specified ones. But, as a theoretician, first you are free to leave the numbers in some algebraic form, then to have your theory tested by any experimentalist you need to relate the algebraic terms of your theory to real or complex numbers.

Consider the lower case letters of the English alphabet: a and n. The statement, "a * n R an", contains the operation * (followed by) and the relation R (spells the word).

The manipulations of these symbols are performed using operations.

Def. "a procedure for generating a value from one or more other values (the operands; the value for any particular operand is unique)" is called an operation.

Notation: let the symbol $$\sum$$ represent the summation of many terms.

Notation: let the symbol $$\Pi$$ represent the product of many terms.

The results are recorded using statements of relation.

Def. a "relation in which each element of the domain is associated with exactly one element of the codomain" is called a function.

Linear algebras
Through any 2 points A(0,0), B($$x_o,y_o$$) a straight line can be drawn. The slope of the line is
 * $$m = \frac{y_o}{x_o} $$

Therefore,
 * $$y_o = m x_o$$

For a point C($$x,y$$) on the same line of the slope m

 * $$m = \frac{y-y_o}{x-x_o}$$
 * $$y = y_o + m (x-x_o)$$

A linear equation has the general form
 * {|width=100%

 * $$Ax = 0$$ || $$x=0$$
 * $$Ax = C$$ || $$x=\frac{C}{A}$$
 * $$Ax + B = C$$ || $$x=\frac{C-B}{A}$$
 * $$Ax + B y = C$$|| $$x=\frac{C}{A}$$ with $$y=0$$ $$y=\frac{C}{B}$$ with $$x=0$$
 * }
 * $$Ax + B = C$$ || $$x=\frac{C-B}{A}$$
 * $$Ax + B y = C$$|| $$x=\frac{C}{A}$$ with $$y=0$$ $$y=\frac{C}{B}$$ with $$x=0$$
 * }
 * }
 * }

Geometries
Def. of "geometrical figures including triangles, squares, ellipses, arcs and more complex figures, having the same shape but possibly different size, rotational orientation, and position; in particular, having corresponding angles equal and corresponding line segments proportional; such that one can be had from the other using a sequence of operations of rotation, translation and scaling" is called similar.

Def. "a branch of mathematics that studies solutions of systems of algebraic equations using both algebra and geometry" is called algebraic geometry.

Def. "a branch of mathematics that investigates properties of figures through the coordinates of their points" is called analytic geometry.

Def. "a branch of mathematics that investigates those properties of figures that are invariant when projected from a point to a line or plane" is called projective geometry.

The universe as often perceived may be described spatially, sometimes with plane geometry, other occasions with spherical geometry.

Def. the "act of turning around a centre or an axis" is called a rotation.

A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates always around an imaginary line called a rotation axis. If the axis is within the body, and passes through its center of mass the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin. A rotation about an external point, e.g. the Earth about the Sun, is called a revolution or orbital revolution

Def. "the traversal of one body through an orbit around another body" is called a revolution.

Conic sections
Def. any "of the four distinct shapes that are the intersections of a cone with a plane, namely the circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola" is called a conic section.

In mathematics, a conic section (or just conic) is a curve obtained as the intersection of a cone (more precisely, a right circular conical surface) with a plane.

Various parameters are associated with a conic section, as shown in the following table. (For the ellipse, the table gives the case of a>b, for which the major axis is horizontal; for the reverse case, interchange the symbols a and b. For the hyperbola the east-west opening case is given. In all cases, a and b are positive.)

Spherical geometries
Def. the "non-Euclidean geometry on the surface of a sphere" is called spherical geometry.

Spherical geometry is the geometry of the two-dimensional surface of a sphere. It is an example of a geometry which is not Euclidean. Two practical applications of the principles of spherical geometry are to navigation and astronomy.

A sphere suggested by the image of the Earth at right is not a Euclidean space, but locally the laws of the Euclidean geometry are good approximations. In a small triangle on the face of the earth, the sum of the angles is very nearly 180. The surface of a sphere can be represented by a collection of two dimensional maps. Therefore it is a two dimensional manifold.

The great-circle or [Great Circle] orthodromic distance is the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere measured along a path on the surface of the sphere (as opposed to going through the sphere's interior). Because spherical geometry is different from ordinary Euclidean geometry, the equations for distance take on a different form. The distance between two points in Euclidean space is the length of a straight line from one point to the other. On the sphere, however, there are no straight lines. In non-Euclidean geometry, straight lines are replaced with geodesics. Geodesics on the sphere are the great circles (circles on the sphere whose centers are coincident with the center of the sphere).

Through any two points on a sphere which are not directly opposite each other, there is a unique great circle. The two points separate the great circle into two arcs. The length of the shorter arc is the great-circle distance between the points. A great circle endowed with such a distance is the Riemannian circle.

Trigonometries
Def. "the relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and the calculations based on them" is called trigonometry.

Trigonometry studies triangles and the relationships between their sides and the angles between these sides. Trigonometry defines the trigonometric functions, which describe those relationships and have applicability to cyclical phenomena, such as waves.

Calculuses
Notation: let the symbol $$\Delta$$ represent change in.

Notation: let the symbol $$d$$ represent an infinitesimal change in.

Notation: let the symbol $$\partial$$ represent an infinitesimal change in one of more than one.

Def. significant "change in or effect on a situation or state" or a "result of a subtraction; sometimes the absolute value of this result" is called a difference.

Def. a result of an "operation of deducing one function from another according to some fixed law" is called a derivative.

Let
 * $$y = f(x)$$

be a function where values of $$x$$ may be any real number and values resulting in $$y$$ are also any real number.

 * $$\Delta x$$ is a small finite change in $$x$$ which when put into the function $$f(x)$$ produces a $$\Delta y$$.

These small changes can be manipulated with the operations of arithmetic: addition ($$+$$), subtraction ($$-$$), multiplication ($$*$$), and division ($$/$$).

 * $$\Delta y = f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)$$

Dividing $$\Delta y$$ by $$\Delta x$$ and taking the limit as $$\Delta x$$ → 0, produces the slope of a line tangent to f(x) at the point x.

For example,

 * $$f(x) = x^2$$

 * $$f(x + \Delta x) = (x + \Delta x)^2 = x^2 + 2x\Delta x + \Delta x^2$$

 * $$\Delta y = x^2 + 2x\Delta x + \Delta x^2 - x^2 = 2x\Delta x + \Delta x^2$$

 * $${\Delta y\over \Delta x} = {2x\Delta x + \Delta x^2\over \Delta x} = 2x + \Delta x$$

as $$\Delta x$$ and$$\Delta y$$ go towards zero,

 * $$dy/dx = 2x + dx = limit_{\Delta x\to 0}{f(x+\Delta x)-f(x)\over \Delta x} = 2x.$$

This ratio is called the derivative.

Let

 * $$y = f(x,z)$$

then

 * $$\partial y = \partial f(x,z) = \partial f(x,z) \partial x + \partial f(x,z) \partial z$$

 * $$\partial y/ \partial x = \partial f(x,z)$$

where z is held constant and

 * $$\partial y / \partial z = \partial f(x,z)$$

where x is held contstant.

Notation: let the symbol $$\nabla$$ be the gradient, i.e., derivatives for multivariable functions.

 * $$\nabla f(x,z) = \partial y = \partial f(x,z) = \partial f(x,z) \partial x + \partial f(x,z) \partial z.$$

For

 * $$\Delta x * \Delta y = [f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)] * \Delta x$$

the area under the curve shown in the diagram at right is the light purple rectangle plus the dark purple rectangle in the top figure

 * $$\Delta x * \Delta y + f(x) * \Delta x = f(x + \Delta x) * \Delta x.$$

Any particular individual rectangle for a sum of rectangular areas is

 * $$f(x_i + \Delta x_i) * \Delta x_i.$$

The approximate area under the curve is the sum $$\sum$$ of all the individual (i) areas from i = 0 to as many as the area needed (n):

 * $$\sum_{i=0}^{n} f(x_i + \Delta x_i) * \Delta x_i.$$

Notation: let the symbol $$\int $$ represent the integral.

 * $$limit_{\Delta x\to 0}\sum_{i=0}^{n} f(x_i + \Delta x_i) * \Delta x_i = \int f(x)dx.$$

This can be within a finite interval [a,b]

 * $$\int_a^b f(x) \; dx$$

when i = 0 the integral is evaluated at $$a$$ and i = n the integral is evaluated at $$b$$. Or, an indefinite integral (without notation on the integral symbol) as n goes to infinity and i = 0 is the integral evaluated at x = 0.

Def. a branch of mathematics that deals with the finding and properties of infinitesimal differences or changes is called a calculus.

Calculus focuses on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series.

"Although calculus (in the sense of analysis) is usually synonymous with infinitesimal calculus, not all historical formulations have relied on infinitesimals (infinitely small numbers that are nevertheless not zero)."

Line integrals
Def. an "integral the domain of whose integrand is a curve" is called a line integral.

"The pulsar dispersion measures [(DM)] provide directly the value of

 * $$DM = \int_0^\infty n_e\, ds$$

along the line of sight to the pulsar, while the interstellar Hα intensity (at high Galactic latitudes where optical extinction is minimal) is proportional to the emission measure"

 * $$EM = \int_0^\infty n_e^2 ds.$$

Vectors
Def. a quantity that has both magnitude and direction"
 * 1) "the signed difference between two points" or
 * 2) an "ordered tuple representing a directed quantity or the signed difference between two points" is called a vector.

"An observed time series consists of N data values x(tα) taken at a set of N discrete times {tα}. Hence it defines an N-dimensional contravariant vector in sampling space, by taking as the αth component of the vector, the value of the data at time tα, i.e.,
 * $$x^\alpha = [x({t_1}),x({t_2}),...,x({t_N})].$$

This representation is the canonical basis for sampling space."

Tensors
Def. a "mathematical object consisting of a set of components with n indices each of which range from 1 to m where n is the rank and m is the dimension" is called a tensor.

"An impressive array of time series analysis methods are equivalent to treating the data as a vector in function space, then projecting the data vector onto a subspace of low dimension. A geometric approach isolates and exposes many of the important features of time series techniques, directly adapts to irregular time spacing, and easily accommodates variable statistical weights. Tensor notation provides an ideal formalism for these techniques. It is quite convenient for distinguishing a variety of different vector spaces, and is the most compact notation for all the sums which arise in the analysis."

"[T]he generally invariant line element

 * $$ d s^2 = g_{\mu \nu} dx^{\mu}dx^{\nu} $$

[contains] the spacetime metric tensor $$g_{\mu \nu} (x^{\rho}), \mu, \nu, \rho = 0, 1, 2, 3,$$ [which] plays a dual role: on the one hand it determines the spacetime geometry, on the other it represents the (ten components of the) gravitational potential, and is thus a dynamical variable."

Electronic computers
Def. "[a] programmable electronic device that performs mathematical calculations and logical operations, especially one that can process, store and retrieve large amounts of data very quickly; now especially, a small one for personal or home use employed for manipulating text or graphics, accessing the Internet, or playing games or media" is called a computer.

A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

Programmings
A computer program (also software, or just a program) is a sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task with a computer. A computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor.

Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of designing, writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code of computer programs.

Probabilities
Def. "a number, between 0 and 1, expressing the precise likelihood of an event happening" is called a probability.

Probability is a measure of the expectation that an event will occur or a statement is true. Probabilities are given a value between 0 (will not occur) and 1 (will occur). The higher the probability of an event, the more certain we are that the event will occur.

A simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the coin is fair, the two outcomes ("heads" and "tails") are both equally probable; the probability of "heads" equals the probability of "tails"; and when no other outcomes are possible, the probability of either "heads" or "tails" is 1/2 (which could also be written as 0.5 or 50%). But, even with a fair coin of finite thickness, a probability exists that the coin could "land" stably on edge. With three outcomes, the probability of "heads" equals the probability of "tails", where the total probability for a coin toss is 0.5 - δ for "heads" or "tails" and the probability of "edge" is 2δ.

Statistics
Def. a "mathematical science concerned with data collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation" is called statistics.

Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.

A statistic (singular) or sample statistic is a single measure of some attribute of a sample (e.g. its arithmetic mean value). It is calculated by applying a function (statistical algorithm) to the values of the items of the sample, which are known together as a set of data.

Def. a "quantity calculated from the data in a sample, which characterises an important aspect in the sample (such as mean or standard deviation)" is called a statistic.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Mathematics can be described with set theory.

Wikipedia

 * Future of mathematics
 * Lists of mathematics topics
 * Areas of mathematics
 * List of mathematics journals
 * Portal:Mathematics
 * Experimental mathematics
 * List of unsolved problems in mathematics

title: Draft:Mathematics


text:
User talk:Eco ant

Hello and welcome Eco ant. Are you planning on nibbling on boundaries locally? Mirwin 02:16, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, just locally for now but i'm "thinking globally". Thanks for the welcome.  I've wandered around the wikipedia but this is a new commons for me to contribute to. Eco ant 00:54, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Eco ant