text:
Big bang/a critique of Big Bang & Co.

(Review Paper) Cited in

Möbius strip, infinite space?
The Big Bang theory requires the universe to expand. There are no lengthwise boundaries on a Möbius strip although the width is limited. The Möbius strip helps to explain how the universe is able to expand by looking at it as a balloon. If the Möbius strip is thought of as a balloon then the width boundary would be eliminated.

Methods
The Möbius strip can be a useful tool to help explain universe expansion in reference to the Big Bang theory.

Results
The Möbius strip is limited in its explanation of universe expansion due to its finite width. By comparing The Möbius strip to a balloon, universe expansion is all the more realistic as width is then infinite.

title: Big bang/a critique of Big Bang & Co.


text:
Big bang/a Understanding of the structure of energy leads to incorrect arguments against BBT

(Review Paper) Cited in

Understanding of the structure of energy leads to incorrect arguments against BBT
According to Hogan's article, Einstein's Theory of Space and Time asserts that energy and light are smooth; leading to the assumption that CBR would be evenly distributed when observed. Hogan writes that CBR observations have shown that radiation fluctuates over the observed area, this suggests that the BBT is incorrect. However, because energy is filled with hills and valleys (it is not smooth), it makes sense that we would see varying densities when observing CBR. Think of a desk, at the macro level it appears to us as smooth, but micro observations prove otherwise, this same error is akin to what's happening with the CBR related arguments disproving BBT.

Further more, Hogan asserts that evidence for this error in Einstein's theory comes from the introduction of Quantum Physics to Space Time Physics supported by Stephen Hawking's Theory of Hawking Radiation which argues black holes convert energy information into different forms.

Results
While this argument does not prove the validity of BBT in itself, it attempts to argue against the assumption that CBR would be uniform as is used when attacking BBT. In effect it invalidates the CBR argument. BBT may still be false, but not for this reason.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Big bang/a critique of What Was the Big Bang?

(Review Paper) Cited in

Points Made
- Universe is made up of approximately 70% Dark Energy and causes an increased rate of expansion.

Methods
As the universe expanded and its density decreased, the reduced gravitational pull faded and the Dark Energy caused expansion to increase in speed.

Results
The increased rate of expansion will lead the Universe to reach either the Big Crunch, or a Big Freeze. The Big Crunch suggests that once the Universe reaches a certain point of expansion it will retract and collapse upon itself. The Big Freeze suggests that the Universe will cool as it expands.


text:
Big bang/A critique of Compton effect interpretation of solar red shift

(Review Paper) Cited in

Compton Effect and Redshift
Compton effect causes Redshift which implies the universe is static as opposed to the universe expanding as the Big Bang theory suggests.

Methods
based on a hypothesis, they used a model based on the mass currents in the photosphere and a formula to measure wavelengths of photons.

Results
The magnitude of the total Compton effect redshift from multiple scatterings through a region containing free electrons is proportional to the photon wavelength. The magnitude of a Compton effect redshift is indistinguishable from a Doppler effect red shift. This means that the light appears to be scattering in the expanding universe, but in reality the light is being absorbed and reflected by electrons and protons in the air.


text:
Graphic Design/Using a Grid

A designer's grid structure is key to the layout of the project. The grid is used to maintain balance, similarity and space throughout a booklet or poster. Guides are used to project the designer's vision. A grid structure should reflect both form and function of the overall design. Grids are also used to provide space for design elements, text boxes or white space.

title: Graphic Design/Using a Grid


title: File:VHDL.DataType.1.A.20120118.pdf


title: File:VHDL.DataObject.1.A.20120118.pdf


title: File:VHDL.StdPackages.1.A.20120118.pdf


text:
User:Baqeri

<div class="plainlinks" style="border:0; -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.35); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.35); box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.35); -moz-border-radius: 7px; -webkit-border-radius: 7px; border-radius: 7px; background: -moz-linear-gradient(top, #fff 75%, #F5F5F5 100%); background: -webkit-gradient(linear, left top, left bottom, color-stop(75%,#fff), color-stop(100%,#F5F5F5)); background: -webkit-linear-gradient(top, #fff 75%,#F5F5F5 100%); background: -o-linear-gradient(top, #fff 75%,#F5F5F5 100%); background: -ms-linear-gradient(top, #fff 75%,#F5F5F5 100%); background: linear-gradient(top, #fff 75%,#fff 100%); min-height:180px; padding:5px 15px; text-align: justify;"> غلامرضا باقری

title: User:Baqeri


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team15.pham

Important Links

______________________

Lecture Notes

Almost WYSIWYG Manual

Google Course Site

Report Grading Criteria

Good Model Reports

Report Table

Writing Tools

Team 15

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team15.pham


text:
User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations/2012 January

observations from Erkan Yilmaz for 2012 January

You are invited to add your comments (e.g. but my perception of this issue is different) - please sign anything you add (howto Signature).

2012 January 18: tool to see page views for every WV page
some examples from en.WV, needs a little polishing and everyone can use online:


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team10.wanzie

Edit === [Alt] [Shift] 'e'

Save === [Alt] [Shift] 's'

[Dream Team Page]

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team10.wanzie


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team9.beuses

Hi, this is Enrique...

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team9.beuses


text:
User:Egm6936.f10/Generalized polynomial chaos

=Generalized polynomial chaos=

The content of this section is mainly from Xiu 2010. For more details, one can refer to Xiu 2010, Chapter 5, p.57.

Some fundamentals of generalized polynomial chaos (gPC) will be presented in this section. Although expansion based on piecewise polynomials is possible, we will only focus on the globally smooth orthogonal polynomials expansion.

Single random variable case
Let $$\displaystyle Z$$ be a random variable with a distribution function $$\displaystyle F_Z(z)=P(Z \leq z)$$ and finite moments
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle \mathbb E[\left | Z \right |^{2m}] = \int \left | z \right |^{2m}dF_Z(z) < \infty, \;\;\; m\in \mathcal N $$ (ab1) where $$\displaystyle \mathcal N = \{0, 1, 2,..., N\}$$ and for a finite nonnegative integer N is an index set. The generalized polynomial chaos basis functions are the orthogonal polynomial functions satisfying
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle \mathbb E[\Phi_m(Z)\Phi_n(Z)] = \gamma_n\delta_{mn}, \;\;\; m,n \in \mathcal N $$ (ab2) where
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle \gamma_n = \mathbb E[\Phi_n^2(Z)],\;\;\; n \in \mathcal N $$ (ab3) are the normalization factors. If $$\displaystyle Z$$ is continuous, then its probability density function (PDF) exists such that $$\displaystyle dF_Z(z) = \rho(z)dz$$ and the orthogonality can be written as
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle \mathbb E[\Phi_m(Z)\Phi_n(Z)]=\int\Phi_m(Z)\Phi_n(Z)\rho(z)dz = \gamma_n\delta_{mn},\;\;\; m,n \in \mathcal N $$ (ab4) Similarity, when $$\displaystyle Z$$ is discrete, the orthogonality can be written as
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle \mathbb E[\Phi_m(Z)\Phi_n(Z)]=\sum_{i}\Phi_m(Z_i)\Phi_n(Z_i)\rho_i = \gamma_n\delta_{mn},\;\;\; m,n \in \mathcal N $$ (ab5) Above establish the correspondence between the distribution of the random variable $$\displaystyle Z$$ and the type of orthogonal polynomials of its gPC basis.
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Strong approximation
Let $$\displaystyle Z$$ be a function of a random variable $$\displaystyle Z$$ whose probability distribution is $$\displaystyle F_Z(z) = P(Z\leq z)$$ and support is $$\displaystyle I_Z$$. A generalized polynomial chaos approximation in a strong sense is $$\displaystyle f_N(Z) \in \mathbb P_N(Z)$$, where $$\displaystyle \mathbb P_N(Z)$$ is the space of polynomials of $$\displaystyle Z$$ of degree up to $$\displaystyle N\geq 0$$, such that $$\displaystyle \left \| f(Z)-f_N(Z) \right \| \rightarrow 0$$ as $$\displaystyle N \rightarrow \infty$$, in a proper norm defined on $$\displaystyle I_Z$$. One obvious strong approximation is the orthogonal projection. Let
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle L_{dF_Z}^2(I_Z) = \{f : I_Z \rightarrow \mathbb R | \mathbb E[f^2] < \infty \} $$ (ab6) be the space of all mean-square integrable functions with norm $$\displaystyle \left \| f \right \|_{L_{dF_Z}^2} = (\mathbb E[f^2])^{1/2}$$. Then, for any function $$\displaystyle f \in L_{dF_Z}^2(I_Z) $$, we define its Nth-degree gPC orthogonal projection as
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle P_N f = \sum_{k=0}^{N}\hat{f_k}\Phi_k(Z), \hat{f_k} =\frac{1}{\gamma_k} \mathbb E[f(Z)\Phi_k(Z)] $$ (ab7) The existence and convergence of the projection follow directly from the classical approximation theory; i.e.,
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle $$ (ab8) which is also referred to as mean-square convergence. Though the requirement for convergence ($$\displaystyle L^2$$-integrable) is rather mild, the rate of the convergence will depend on the smoothness of the function $$\displaystyle f$$ in terms of $$\displaystyle Z$$. The smoother $$\displaystyle f$$ is, the faster the convergence.
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 * f - P_N f || _{L_{dF_Z}^2} \rightarrow 0,\;\;\; N \rightarrow \infty
 *
 * }

When gPC expansion $$\displaystyle f_N(Z)$$ of a function $$\displaystyle f(Z)$$ converges to $$\displaystyle f(Z)$$ in a strong norm, such as the mean-square norm of (ab8), it implies that $$\displaystyle f_N(Z)$$ converges to $$\displaystyle f(Z)$$ in probability, i.e., $$\displaystyle f_N \overset{P}{\rightarrow} f$$, which further implies the convergence in the distribution, i.e., $$\displaystyle f_N \overset{d}{\rightarrow} f$$, as $$\displaystyle N \rightarrow \infty$$.

In this strong approximation, it is necessary to know the explicit form of $$\displaystyle f$$ in terms of $$\displaystyle Z$$. In practice, however, sometimes only the probability distribution of $$\displaystyle f$$ is known. Hence, a gPC expansion in terms of $$\displaystyle Z$$ that converges strongly cannot be achieved because of the lack of information about the dependence of $$\displaystyle f$$ on $$\displaystyle Z$$.

Weak approximation
Let $$\displaystyle Y$$ be a random variables with distribution function $$\displaystyle F_Y(y)=P(Y \leq y)$$ and let $$\displaystyle Z$$ be a (standard) random variable in a set of gPC basis functions. A weak gPC approximation is $$\displaystyle Y_N \in \mathbb P_N(Z)$$, where $$\displaystyle \mathbb P_N(Z)$$ is the linear space of polynomials of $$\displaystyle Z$$ of degree up to $$\displaystyle N \geq 0$$, such that $$\displaystyle Y_N$$ converges to $$\displaystyle Y$$ in a weak sense, e.g., in probability.

Obviously, a strong gPC approximation implies a weak approximation, not vice versa. Example: Let $$\displaystyle Y \doteqdot \mathcal N(\mu, \sigma^2)$$ be a random variable with normal distribution. Naturally we choose $$\displaystyle Z \in \mathcal N(0,1)$$, a standard Gaussian random variables, and the corresponding Hermite polynomials as the gPC basis. Then a first order gPC Hermite expansion
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle Y_1(Z) = \mu H_0 + \sigma H_1(Z) = \mu + \sigma Z $$ (ab9) will have precisely the distribution $$\displaystyle \mathcal N(\mu, \sigma^2)$$. Therefore, $$\displaystyle Y_1(Z)$$ can approximate the distribution of $$\displaystyle Y$$ exactly. However, if all that is known is the distribution of $$\displaystyle Y$$, then one cannot reproduce pathwise realization of $$\displaystyle Y$$ via $$\displaystyle Y_1(Z)$$. In fact, $$\displaystyle \tilde{Y_1}(Z) = \mu H_0 - \sigma H_1(Z)$$ has the same $$\displaystyle \mathcal N(\mu, \sigma^2)$$ distribution but entirely different pathwise realization from $$\displaystyle Y_1$$. When $$\displaystyle Y$$ is an arbitrary random variable with only its cdf known, a direct gPC projection in the form of (ab7) is not possible. At this moment, we still seek an Nth degree gPC expansion in the form of
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle Y_N = \sum_{k=0}^{N} a_k\Phi_k(Z), $$ (ab10) with
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle a_k = \frac{1}{\gamma_k}\mathbb E[Y\Phi_k(Z)],\;\;\; 0 \leq k \leq N $$ (ab11)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

where $$\displaystyle \gamma_k = \mathbb E[\Phi_k^2] $$ are the normalization factor, then the expextation in the coefficient evaluation is not properly defined and cannot be carried out, as the dependence between $$\displaystyle Y$$ and $$\displaystyle Z$$ is unknown. A strategy to circumvent the difficulty by using the distribution function $$\displaystyle F_Y(y)$$ was proposed. This results in a weak gPC approximation. By definition, $$\displaystyle F_Y : I_Y \rightarrow [0,1]$$, where $$\displaystyle I_Y$$ is the support of $$\displaystyle Y$$, $$\displaystyle F_Z(z) = P(Z\leq z) : I_Z \rightarrow [0,1]$$. Since $$\displaystyle F_Y$$ and $$\displaystyle F_Z$$map $$\displaystyle Y$$ and $$\displaystyle Z$$, respectively, to a uniform distribution in $$\displaystyle [0,1]$$, we rewrite the expectation in (ab11) in terms of a uniformly distributed random variable in $$\displaystyle [0,1]$$. Let $$\displaystyle U = F_Y(y) = F_Z(z) \doteqdot \mathcal U(0,1)$$; then $$\displaystyle Y = F_Y^{-1}(U)$$ and $$\displaystyle Z = F_Z^{-1}(U)$$. Now (ab11) can be rewritten as
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle a_k = \frac{1}{\gamma_k}\mathbb E_U[F_Y^{-1}(U)\Phi_k(F_Z^{-1}(U))] = \frac{1}{\gamma_k}\int_{0}^{1}F_Y^{-1}(u)\Phi_k(F_Z^{-1}(u))du $$ (ab12) This is properly defined finite integral in $$\displaystyle [0,1]$$ and can be evaluated via traditional method (e.g., Gauss quadrature). $$\displaystyle \mathbb E_U$$ represents that the expectation is over the random variable $$\displaystyle U$$. Alternatively, one can choose to transform the expectation in (ab11) into the expectation in terms of $$\displaystyle Z$$ by utilizing the fact that $$\displaystyle Y = F_Y^{-1}(F_Z(Z))$$. Then the expectation in (ab11) can be rewritten as
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$\displaystyle a_k = \frac{1}{\gamma_k}\mathbb E_Z[F_Y^{-1}(F_Z(Z))\Phi_k(Z)] = \frac{1}{\gamma_k}\int_{I_Z}F_Y^{-1}(F_Z(z))\Phi_k(z)dF_Z(z) $$ (ab13) (ab12) and (ab13) are mathematically equivalent. $$\displaystyle $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 I got a question on the difference between strong approximation and weak approximation used in Xiu's book. Case 1. The distinction between strong and weak lies in which function space is utilized for the function of random variable.

If the moment of the random variable is finite, that is "mean-square integrable" as from the book, and we can have corresponding gPC basis functions for approximation of this random variable, then this approximation is not only convergence in probability, but also in distribution. This is strong approximation. But if we don't have the finite moment restriction, say only require the mean is finite, we still can find corresponding gPC functions to approximate the random variable, then this approximation is weak. It only converges in probability, but not in distribution.

Case 2. The difference of strong and weak depends on the convergence rate.

If the gPC expansion converges both in probability and distribution, it is strong approximation. If it only converges in probability, it is weak approximation. But Xiu has pointed out in the book that both strong approximation and weak approximation are converges in probability and distribution.

Case 3. The difference lies in which function we used in the evaluation of the coefficient factors for the random variable.

If we use the explicit function of random variable, which actually unattainable in practice, the approximation is strong. If we use the cdf of random variable, the approximation is weak. Both approximations are converges in probability and distribution. Hylon.Chen 03:11, 15 February 2012 (UTC)


text:
User:Egm6936.f10/Stochastic Galerkin method and collocation method

=Stochastic Galerkin method=

Nonlinear issues
=Stochastic collocation method=

Pseudospectral approach
=Galerkin vs Collocation=


text:
Medicine/Falls prevention

Fall and injury prevention continues to be a considerable challenge across the care continuum.

In the United States, unintentional falls are the most common cause of nonfatal injuries for people older than 65 years. Up to 32 percent of community-dwelling individuals over the age of 65 fall each year, and females fall more frequently than males in this age group.

Fall-related injuries are the most common cause of accidental death in those over the age of 65, resulting in approximately 41 fall-related deaths per 100,000 people per year. In 2009, Adair County, MO reported 6,588 emergency room visits for falls, a total of 26.5%, higher than the state average of 25.81%. In the same year 735 individuals were hospitalized for a serious fall or injury.

title: Medicine/Falls prevention


text:
User:Marshallsumter/Radiation astronomy2/Ultraviolets

Ultraviolet astronomy is radiation astronomy applied to the ultraviolet phenomena of the sky, especially at night. It is also conducted above the Earth's atmosphere and at locations away from the Earth as a part of explorational (or exploratory) ultraviolet astronomy.

Acquiring a suntan may be a student's first encounter with an astronomical ultraviolet source. This probably occurs at the secondary level. How this source generates ultraviolet rays is usually introduced at the university or tertiary educational level.

The color of a star, as determined by the peak frequency of the visible light, depends on the temperature of the star's outer layers, including its photosphere. The effective temperature of the surface of the Sun's photosphere is 5,778 K. That's a peak emittance wavelength of 501.5 nm (~0.5 eV) making the photosphere a primarily green radiation source. The temperature of the photosphere is way too cool to generate appreciable amounts of ultraviolet. In fact, the Sun's photosphere probably generates little or no ultraviolet rays.

Notations
Notation: let the symbol dex represent the difference between powers of ten.

An order or factor of ten, dex is used both to refer to the function $$dex(x) = 10^x$$ and the number of (possibly fractional) orders of magnitude separating two numbers. When dealing with log to the base 10 transform of a number set, the transform of 10, 100, and 1 000 000 is $$\log_{10}(10) = 1$$, $$\log_{10}(100) = 2$$, and $$\log_{10}(1 000 000) = 6$$, so the difference between 10 and 100 in base 10 is 1 dex and the difference between 1 and 1 000 000 is 6 dex.

Astronomy
When any effort to acquire a system of laws or knowledge focusing on an astr, aster, or astro, that is, any natural body in the sky especially at night, discovers an entity emitting, absorbing, transmitting, reflecting, or fluorescing ultraviolet, succeeds even in its smallest measurement, ultraviolet astronomy is the name of the effort and the result.

Ultraviolet astronomy consists of three fundamental parts:

 * 1) logical laws with respect to incoming ultraviolet rays, or ultraviolet radiation,
 * 2) natural ultraviolet sources, and
 * 3) the sky and associated realms with respect to ultraviolet rays.

Radiation
Def. "the spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side at about λ3000 by the onset of atmospheric ozone absorption and on the short wavelength side at λ912 by the photoionization of interstellar hydrogen" is called the ultraviolet.

The draft ISO standard on determining solar irradiances (ISO-DIS-21348)5 describes the following ranges:

"Vacuum UV" is so named because it is absorbed strongly by air and is, therefore, used in a vacuum. In the long-wave limit of this region, roughly 150–200 nm, the principal absorber is the oxygen in air.

Minerals
Ultraviolet lamps are also used in analyzing minerals and gems. Materials may look the same under visible light, but fluoresce to different degrees under ultraviolet light, or may fluoresce differently under short wave ultraviolet versus long wave ultraviolet.

Ultraviolet lamps may cause certain minerals to fluoresce, and is a key tool in prospecting for tungsten mineralisation.

Fluorites
Many samples of fluorite exhibit fluorescence under ultraviolet light, a property that takes its name from fluorite. Many minerals, as well as other substances, fluoresce. Fluorescence involves the elevation of electron energy levels by quanta of ultraviolet light, followed by the progressive falling back of the electrons into their previous energy state, releasing quanta of visible light in the process. In fluorite, the visible light emitted is most commonly blue, but red, purple, yellow, green and white also occur. The fluorescence of fluorite may be due to mineral impurities such as yttrium, ytterbium, or organic matter in the crystal lattice. In particular, the blue fluorescence seen in fluorites from certain parts of Great Britain responsible for the naming of the phenomenon of fluorescence itself, has been attributed to the presence of inclusions of divalent europium in the crystal.

Calcites
Between 190 and 1700 nm, the ordinary refractive index varies roughly between 1.9 and 1.5, while the extraordinary refractive index varies between 1.6 and 1.4.

Diamonds
Under longwave (365 nm) ultraviolet light, diamond may fluoresce a blue, yellow, green, mauve, or red of varying intensity. The most common fluorescence is blue, and such stones may also phosphoresce yellow—this is thought to be a unique combination among gemstones. There is usually little if any response to shortwave ultraviolet.

Planetary sciences
The figure at right "is the first laser spectrum from the Chemistry and Camera (ChemCam) instrument on NASA's Curiosity rover, sent back from Mars on August 19, 2012. The plot shows emission lines from different elements present in the target, a rock near the rover's landing site dubbed "Coronation" (see inset)."

"ChemCam's detectors observe light in the ultraviolet (UV), violet, visible and near-infrared ranges using three spectrometers, covering wavelengths from 240 to 850 nanometers. The light is produced when ChemCam's laser pulse strikes a target, generating ionized gases in the form of plasma, which is then analyzed by the spectrometers and their detectors for the presence of specific elements. The detectors can collect up to 16,000 counts produced by the light in any of its 6,144 channels for each laser shot."

"The plot is a composite of spectra taken over 30 laser shots at a single 0.016-inch (0.4-millimeter) diameter spot on the target. An inset on the left shows detail for the minor elements titanium and manganese in the 398-to-404-nanometer range. An inset at the right shows the hydrogen and carbon peaks. The carbon peak was from the carbon dioxide in Mars' air. The hydrogen peak was only present on the first laser shot, indicating that the element was only on the very surface of the rock. Magnesium was also slightly enriched on the surface. The heights of the peaks do not directly indicate the relative abundances of the elements in the rock, as some emission lines are more easily excited than others."

"A preliminarily analysis indicates the spectrum is consistent with basalt, a type of volcanic rock, which is known from previous missions to be abundant on Mars. Coronation is about three inches (7.6 centimeters) across, and located about 5 feet (1.5 meters) from the rover and about nine feet (2.7 meters) from ChemCam on the mast."

Theoretical ultraviolet astronomy
"The Evershed effect ... is the radial flow of gas across the photospheric surface of the penumbra of sunspots from the inner border with the umbra towards the outer edge.

The speed varies from around 1 km/s at the border between the umbra and the penumbra to a maximum of around double this in the middle of the penumbra and falls off to zero at the outer edge of the penumbra.

Measurements of the spectral emission lines emitted in the ultraviolet wavelengths have shown a systematic red-shift. The Evershed effect is common to every spectral line formed at a temperature below 105 K; this fact would imply a constant downflow from the transition region towards the chromosphere. The observed velocity is about 5 km/s. Of course, this is impossible, since if it were true, the corona would disappear in a short time instead of being suspended over the Sun at temperatures of million degrees over distances much larger than a solar radius.

Many theories have been proposed to explain this redshift in line profiles of the transition region, but the problem is still unsolved, since a coherent theory should take into account all the physical observations: UV line profiles are redshifted on average, but they show back and forth velocity oscillations at the same time.

In synthesis, the proposed mechanisms are:

 * siphon flows in coronal loops driven by a pressure difference,
 * different cross-sections of the coronal loops footpoints,
 * the return of spicules,
 * multiple flows,
 * nanoflares, and
 * thermal instabilities during chromospheric condensation.

Entities
Charles Stuart Bowyer is generally given credit for starting this field.

Objects
A PG 1159 star, often also called a pre-degenerate, is a star with a hydrogen-deficient atmosphere which is in transition between being the central star of a planetary nebula and being a hot white dwarf. These stars are hot, with surface temperatures between 75,000 K and 200,000 K, and are characterized by atmospheres with little hydrogen and absorption lines for helium, carbon and oxygen. ... The PG 1159 stars are named after their prototype, PG 1159-035. This star, found in the Palomar-Green survey of ultraviolet-excess stellar objects, was the first PG 1159 star discovered.

Continuums
Lyc photon or Ly continuum photon or Lyman continuum photon are a kind of photon emitted from stars. Hydrogen is ionized by absorption of Lyc photons. Lyc photons are in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum of the hydrogen atom and immediately next to the limit of the Lyman series of the spectrum with wavelengths that are shorter than 91.1267 nanometres and with energy above 13.6 eV.

Bands
The Sun's emission in the lowest UV bands, the UVA, UVB, and UVC bands, are of interest, as these are the UV bands commonly encountered from artificial sources on Earth. The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more energetic radiation as produced by the Sun, generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking UVB and part of UVC, since the shortest wavelengths of UVC (and those even shorter) are blocked by ordinary air.

"In 1969, Chi Carinae was classified as chemically peculiar Ap star because its absorption lines of silicon appeared unusually strong relative to the lines for helium. However, subsequent examination in the ultraviolet band showed the silicon bands were as expected and it was determined the spectra is normal for a star of its type.

Backgrounds
In the figure at right, CUVOB stands for the cosmic ultraviolet and optical background.

"The first spectroscopic measurement of the diffuse cosmic ultraviolet background in the range 1700-2850 Å has resulted in the detection at high Galactic latitude of an intensity of 300 ± 100 photons (cm2 s sr Å)-1 at 1800 Å without any correction necessary for starlight or airglow, a similar intensity over the range 1900-2500 Å after correction for measured airglow, and a similar intensity over the range 2500-2800 Å after correction for zodiacal light."

Meteors
The temperature for a lightning bolt channel is 28 kK or 28,000 K with a peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation at approximately 100 nm (far ultraviolet) light.

Opticals
Optical astronomy includes those portions of ultraviolet, visual, and infrared astronomy that benefit from the use of quartz crystal or silica glass telescope components.

The color index is a simple numerical expression that determines the color of an object, which in the case of a star gives its temperature. To measure the index, one observes the magnitude of an object successively through two different filters, such as U and B, or B and V, where U is sensitive to ultraviolet rays, B is sensitive to blue light, and V is sensitive to visible (green-yellow) light (see also: UBV system). The set of passbands or filters is called a photometric system. The difference in magnitudes found with these filters is called the U-B or B–V color index, respectively. The smaller the color index, the more blue (or hotter) the object is. Conversely, the larger the color index, the more red (or cooler) the object is. This is a consequence of the logarithmic magnitude scale, in which brighter objects have smaller (more negative) magnitudes than dimmer ones.

Hydrogens
"[T]he Lyman series is the series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from n ≥ 2 to n = 1 (where n is the principal quantum number referring to the energy level of the electron).

The version of the Rydberg formula that generated the Lyman series was :

 * $$ {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R_H = 1.0968 \times 10^7 \mbox{m}^{-1} = {13.6eV \over hc} \right)$$

Where n is a natural number greater than or equal to 2 (i.e. n = 2,3,4,...).

Therefore, the lines seen in the image above are the wavelengths corresponding to $$n=2\,$$ on the right, to $$n= \infty $$ on the left (there are infinitely many spectral lines, but they become very dense as they approach to $$n= \infty $$ (Lyman limit), so only some of the first lines and the last one appear).

The wavelengths (nm) in the Lyman series are all ultraviolet:

In 1913, when Niels Bohr produced his Bohr model theory, the reason why hydrogen spectral lines fit Rydberg's formula was explained. Bohr found that the electron bound to the hydrogen atom must have quantized energy levels described by the following formula:

 * $$ E_n = - {{m e^4} \over {2 \left( 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \hbar \right)^2}} {1 \over n^2} = - {13.6 \over n^2} [\mbox{eV}]. $$

According to Bohr's third assumption, whenever an electron falls from an initial energy level($$ E_i $$) to a final energy level($$ E_f $$), the atom must emit radiation with a wavelength of:

 * $$ \lambda = {{h c} \over {E_i - E_f}}. $$

There is also a more comfortable notation when dealing with energy in units of electronvolts and wavelengths in units of angstroms:

 * $$ \lambda = {12430 \over {E_i - E_f}}. $$

Replacing the energy in the above formula with the expression for the energy in the hydrogen atom where the initial energy corresponds to energy level n and the final energy corresponds to energy level m:

 * $$ {1 \over \lambda} = {{E i-E f} \over 12430} = \left( {12430 \over 13.6} \right)^{-1} \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) = R \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) $$

where R_H is the same Rydberg constant for hydrogen of Rydberg's long known formula.

For the connection between Bohr, Rydberg, and Lyman, one must replace m by 1 to obtain:

 * $$ {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) $$

which is Rydberg's formula for the Lyman series. Therefore, each wavelength of the emission lines corresponds to an electron dropping from a certain energy level (greater than 1) to the first energy level.

Heliums
There is a He I (Is21S-Is2p2P) transition at 58.4 nm and another Is21S-Is3p1P) at 53.7 nm. The He II lines are at 25.6, 30.4, and 164.0 nm.

There is another He II line at 320.3 nm.

Berylliums
"[T]he Be II 3130 Å region ... contains the Be II resonance doublet with components at 3130.42 [313.042 nm] and 3131.07 Å [313.107 nm]."

"High-resolution, high signal-to-noise ratio spectra, obtained at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 4 m telescope, of the Be II 3131 Å [313.1 nm] region [are from] the metal-rich solar analog α Centauri A and its companion α Centauri B."

"The photospheric abundances of the light elements Li, Be, and B provide important clues about stellar structure and evolution, as they are destroyed by (p,α)-reactions at temperatures exceeding a few million degrees."

"For Cen A, ... [Be/H] = +0.20 ± 0.15, where the error reflects random uncertainties at the 1σ confidence level; systematic errors of 0.1 dex are also possible."

Boron
Boron (B I) line is at 249.67 nm.

Boron is detected in the Population II star HD 140283 by observing the "wavelength region around the resonance lines of B I at 2497 Å ... with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) of the Hubble Space Telescope on September 5, 1992, ... and continued on February 15, and 21, 1993" "The resulting B/Be ratio is in the range 9-34 with 17 being the most probable value. This is in very good agreement with predictions for cosmic ray spallation."

"[T]he solar system meteoritic NB/NBe ratio 28 ± 4 (Anders & Grevesse 1989) is within our limits of uncertainty, implying that the same process could in principle be responsible for the production of B and Be throughout the history of the Galaxy."

Carbons
There is a C III line at 97.7 nm.

Carbon has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 229.687 nm from C III, 227.089, 227.727, and 227.792 nm from C V, 207.025, 208.216, 313.864, and 343.366 nm from C VI.

Nitrogens
Several emission lines occur in plasmas at 347.872, 348.30, and 348.493 nm from N IV and 252.255, 344.211, and 388.678 nm from N VII.

Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.

Oxygens
Oxygen has three emission lines common in comets at 130.22, 130.49, and 130.60 nm from O I.

Oxygen has several emission lines that occur in plasmas at 278.101, 278.699, and 278.985 nm from O V, and 253.04, 297.569, 348.767 nm from O VIII.

Atomic oxygen "airglow emissions [have been] measured by using vertical-viewing photometers [on-board a sounding rocket for the] Herzberg I bands near 300 nm".

"[T]he presence of the [oxygen] green line can still be questioned, unless the 2972 Å trans-auroral line [1S - 3P] is detected (Herbig, 1976)." "The transitions involved ... in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" include 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.

Fluorines
Fluorine has several emission lines that occur in plasmas at 311.361, 311.57, 312.154, 312.478, 313.422, 314.278, 317.418, 317.476, and 321.397 nm from F III, 270.23, 270.717, 271.288, 272.106, 273.20, 273.691, and 275.62 nm from F V, 231.539, 232.335, and 232.728 nm from F VI, and 342.938 nm from F IX.

Argons
Argon has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 333.613, 334.472, 335.211, 335.849, and 336.128 nm from Ar III.

Calciums
The calcium line Ca XII at 332.8 nm occurs in the solar corona.

Chromiums
Chromium has several emission lines that occur in plasmas at 357.869, 359.349, and 360.533 nm from Cr I, and 222.67 and 223.59 nm from Cr III.

Irons
Iron has several emission lines that occur in plasmas at 371.994 nm from Fe I, 234.35 nm from Fe II, and 273.9, 274.9, and 276.9 nm from Fe XV.

Iron has two lines occurring in the solar corona in the near ultraviolet: 338.81 and 345.41 nm of Fe XIII.

Nickel
Nickel has lines occurring in the solar corona at 360.10 nm of Ni XVI and 364.29 nm of Ni XIII.

Copper
Copper has two emission lines that occur in plasmas at 324.754 and 327.396 nm from Cu I.

Sun
Ultraviolet light is found in sunlight. The sun emits ultraviolet radiation in the UVA, UVB, and UVC bands. The Earth's ozone layer blocks 97–99% of this UV radiation from penetrating through the atmosphere.

The solar transition region is a region of the Sun's atmosphere, between the chromosphere and corona. It is visible from space using telescopes that can sense ultraviolet.

The transition region is visible in far-ultraviolet (FUV) images from the TRACE spacecraft, as a faint nimbus above the dark (in FUV) surface of the Sun and the corona. The nimbus also surrounds FUV-dark features such as solar prominences, which consist of condensed material that is suspended at coronal altitudes by the magnetic field.

Coronal clouds
In the corona thermal conduction occurs from the external hotter atmosphere towards the inner cooler layers. Responsible for the diffusion process of the heat are the electrons, which are much lighter than ions and move faster.

Ultraviolet telescopes such as TRACE and Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona.

The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in 1997 with the SOHO space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) for long periods of time with stable photometry. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 millihertz (mHz, corresponding to a 1,000 second wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat.

Ultraviolet irradiance (EUV) varies by approximately 1.5 percent from solar maxima to minima, for 200 to 300 nm UV.

"1 percent of the sun's energy is emitted at ultraviolet wavelengths between 200 and 300 nanometers, the decrease in this radiation from 1 July 1981 to 30 June 1985 accounted for 19 percent of the decrease in the total irradiance".

Energy changes in the UV wavelengths involved in production and loss of ozone have atmospheric effects.

The 30 hPa atmospheric pressure level has changed height in phase with solar activity during the last 4 solar cycles.

UV irradiance increase causes higher ozone production, leading to stratospheric heating and to poleward displacements in the stratospheric and tropospheric wind systems.

A proxy study estimates that UV has increased by 3.0% since the Maunder Minimum.

"Solar satellite observatories such as ESA/NASA's Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) have been studying the sun for over 10 years, and have created images of the entire solar surface using spectroscopic techniques. [The second image at right] shows a recent full-sun image created by the Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) taken during sunspot-minimum conditions in 2008. [...] By using the techniques of imaging spectroscopy, solar physicists can isolate gases heated to temperatures of 1,500,000 K and study their motions and evolution over time."

The second image at right is "taken on December 16, 2008 during sunspot-minimum conditions, was created by isolating the light produced at a wavelength of 195 Angstroms (19.5 nanometers) by the ion Fe XII. By selecting the light from only one spectral line, a spectroheliograph works like a high-precision light filter and lets astronomers map, or image, a distant object in the light from a single spectral line. This information can be used to map the temperature and density changes in the gas."

Mercury
"[U]ltraviolet observations by Mariner 10 provided evidence for the presence of H and He in the atmosphere (~1011 and 1012 atoms cm-2 respectively3".

Aboard Mariner 10, "[t]he extreme ultraviolet spectrometer consisted of two instruments: an occultation spectrometer that was body-fixed to the spacecraft and an airglow spectrometer that was mounted on the scan platform. When the sun was obscured by the limbs of the planet, the occultation spectrometer measured the extinction properties of the atmosphere. The occultation spectrometer had a plane grating which operated at grazing incidence. The fluxes were measured at 47.0, 74.0, 81.0, and 89.0 nm using channel electron multipliers. Pinholes defined the effective field of view of the instrument which was 0.15 degree full width at half maximum (FWHM). Isolated spectral bands at approximately 75 nm (FWHM) were also measured. The objective grating airglow spectrometer was flown to measure airglow radiation from Venus and Mercury in the spectral range from 20.0--170.0 nm. With a spectral resolution of 2.0 nm, the instrument measured radiation at the following wavelengths: 30.4, 43.0, 58.4, 74.0, 86.9, 104.8, 121.6, 130.4, 148.0, and 165.7 nm. In addition, to provide a check on the total incident extreme UV flux to the spectrometer, two zero-order channels were flown. The effective field of view of the instrument was 0.13 by 3.6 degree. Data also include the interplanetary region."

Venus
When imaged in the ultraviolet (right), Venus appears like a gas dwarf object rather than a rocky object.

Earth
"This unusual false-color image [at right] shows how the Earth glows in ultraviolet (UV) light. The Far UV Camera/Spectrograph deployed and left on the Moon by the crew of Apollo 16 captured this image. The part of the Earth facing the Sun reflects much UV light and bands of UV emission are also apparent on the side facing away from the Sun. These bands are the result of aurora caused by charged particles given off by the Sun. They spiral towards the Earth along Earth's magnetic field lines."

In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.

Archaeological "[a]erial survey ... employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.

Moon
In 1911, Professor Robert W. Wood used ultraviolet photography to take images of the crater area. He discovered the plateau had an anomalous appearance in the ultraviolet, and an area to the north appeared to give indications of a sulfur deposit. This colorful area is sometimes referred to as "Wood's Spot", an alternate name for the Aristarchus Plateau.

Spectra taken of this crater during the Clementine mission were used to perform mineral mapping. The data indicated that the central peak is a type of rock called anorthosite, which is a slow-cooling form of igneous rock composed of plagioclase feldspar. By contrast the outer wall is troctolite, a rock composed of equal parts plagioclase and olivine.

The Aristarchus region was part of a Hubble Space Telescope study in 2005 that was investigating the presence of oxygen-rich glassy soils in the form of the mineral ilmenite. Baseline measurements were made of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 17 landing sites, where the chemistry is known, and these were compared to Aristarchus. The Hubble Advanced Camera for Surveys was used to photograph the crater in visual and ultraviolet light. The crater was determined to have especially rich concentrations of ilmenite, a titanium oxide mineral that could potentially be used in the future by a lunar settlement for extracting oxygen.

Mars
"Far-ultraviolet spectra ... Mars in the range 820-1840 Å at ~4 Å resolution were obtained on 1995 March 13 and 12, respectively, by the Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT), which was part of the Astro-2 observatory on the space shuttle Endeavour. Longward of 1250 Å, the spectra ... are dominated by emission of the CO fourth positive (A1Π-X1Σ+) band system and strong O I and C I multiplets. ... The Ar I λλ1048, 1066 doublet is detected only in the spectrum of Mars ... CO fluorescence in both the B−X (0,0) and C−X (0,0) Birge-Hopfield bands is identified in ... Mars ... Below 2000 Å, the ultraviolet dayglow of ... Mars is dominated by emissions of carbon monoxide and carbon (Durrance 1981; Fox 1992)."

On the right is an ultraviolet photograph of Mars. It shows clouds and other aspects of the atmosphere.

Ceres
High-resolution ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface which was nicknamed "Piazzi" in honour of the discoverer of Ceres. This was thought to be a crater. Later near-infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with the dwarf planet's rotation.

Asteroids
C-type asteroids are carbonaceous asteroids. They are the most common variety, forming around 75% of known asteroids, and an even higher percentage in the outer part of the asteroid belt beyond 2.7 AU, which is dominated by this asteroid type. The proportion of C-types may actually be greater than this, because C-types are much darker than most other asteroid types except D-types and others common only at the extreme outer edge of the asteroid belt. ... Their spectra contain moderately strong ultraviolet absorption at wavelengths below about 0.4 μm to 0.5 μm, while at longer wavelengths they are largely featureless but slightly reddish. The so-called "water" absorption feature around 3 μm, which can be an indication of water content in minerals is also present.

"F-type asteroids have spectra generally similar to those of the B-type asteroids, but lack the "water" absorption feature around 3 μm indicative of hydrated minerals, and differ in the low wavelength part of the ultraviolet spectrum below 0.4 μm.

G-type asteroids are a relatively uncommon type of carbonaceous asteroid. The most notable asteroid in this class is 1 Ceres. Generally similar to the C-type objects, but containing a strong ultraviolet absorption feature below 0.5 μm.

Jupiter
In astronomy, very hot objects preferentially emit UV radiation (see Wien's law). Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space.

At right is an ultraviolet image of Aurora at Jupiter's north pole by the Hubble Space Telescope.

"Experiments on the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft and observations made by the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) have provided evidence for the existence of energetic particle precipitation into the upper atmosphere of Jupiter from the magnetosphere."

The image at lower right "shows Jupiter's atmosphere at a wavelength of 2550 Angstroms after many impacts by fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. The most recent impactor is fragment R which is below the center of Jupiter (third dark spot from the right). This photo was taken 3:55 EDT on July 21, about 2.5 hours after R's impact. A large dark patch from the impact of fragment H is visible rising on the morning (left) side. Proceding to the right, other dark spots were caused by impacts of fragments Q1, R, D and G (now one large spot), and L, with L covering the largest area of any seen thus far. Small dark spots from B, N, and Q2 are visible with careful inspection of the image. The spots are very dark in the ultraviolet because a large quantity of dust is being deposited high in Jupiter's stratosphere, and the dust absorbs sunlight."

Io
"The Cassini ultraviolet images [of Io] ... reveal two gigantic, actively erupting plumes of gas and dust. Near the equator, just the top of Pele's plume is visible where it projects into sunlight. None of it would be illuminated if it were less than 240 kilometers (150 miles) high. [The Cassini ultraviolet] images indicate a total height for Pele of 390 kilometers (242 miles). [One] Cassini image ... shows a bright spot over Pele's vent. Although the Pele hot spot has a high temperature, silicate lava cannot be hot enough to explain a bright spot in the ultraviolet, so the origin of this bright spot is a mystery, but it may indicate that Pele was unusually active when the picture was taken."

At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image in the ultraviolet of Io.

"Measurements at two ultraviolet wavelengths indicate that the ejecta consist of sulfur dioxide 'snow,' making the plume appear green in this false-color image. Astronomers increased the colour contrast and added false colours to the image to make the faint plume visible."

Saturn
"One of a series, this image [at right] of Saturn was taken when the planet's rings were at their maximum tilt of 27 degrees toward Earth. Saturn experiences seasonal tilts away from and toward the sun, much the same way Earth does. This happens over the course of its 29.5-year orbit. Every 30 years, Earth observers can catch their best glimpse of Saturn's south pole and the southern side of the planet's rings. ... NASA's Hubble Space Telescope [captured detailed images of Saturn's Southern Hemisphere and the southern face of its rings."

The movie at right records Saturn "when its rings were edge-on, resulting in a unique movie featuring the nearly symmetrical light show at both of the giant planet's poles. It takes Saturn almost thirty years to orbit the Sun, with the opportunity to image both of its poles occurring only twice during that time. The light shows, called aurorae, are produced when electrically charged particles race along the planet's magnetic field and into the upper atmosphere where they excite atmospheric gases, causing them to glow. Saturn's aurorae resemble the same phenomena that take place at the Earth's poles."

Powered by the Saturnian equivalent of (filamentary) Birkeland currents, streams of charged particles from the interplanetary medium interact with the planet's magnetic field and funnel down to the poles. Double layers are associated with (filamentary) currents, and their electric fields accelerate ions and electrons.

"Towering more than 1,000 miles above the cloud tops, these Saturnian auroral displays are analogous to Earth's. ... In this false color image, the dramatic red aurora identify emission from atomic hydrogen, while the more concentrated white areas are due to hydrogen molecules."

"The best view of Saturn's rings in the ultraviolet indicates there is more ice toward the outer part of the rings, than in the inner part, hinting at the origins of the rings and their evolution."

"Images taken during the Cassini spacecraft's orbital insertion on June 30 show compositional variation in the A, B and C rings. From the inside out, the "Cassini Division" in faint red at left is followed by the A ring in its entirety. The Cassini Division at left contains thinner, dirtier rings than the turquoise A ring, indicating a more icy composition. The red band roughly three-fourths of the way outward in the A ring is known as the Encke gap."

"The ring system begins from the inside out with the D, C, B and A rings followed by the F, G and E rings. The red in the image indicates sparser ringlets likely made of "dirty," and possibly smaller, particles than in the icier turquoise ringlets."

The image at right "was taken with the Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph instrument, which is capable of resolving the rings to show features up to 97 kilometers (60 miles) across, roughly 100 times the resolution of ultraviolet data obtained by the Voyager 2 spacecraft."

The image at second left Saturn's northern UV auroras. These exhibit changes in shape over the course of the observing interval.

"Saturn’s magnetosphere -- the big magnetic bubble that surrounds the planet -- is compressed on the side facing the sun, and it streams out into a long “magnetotail” on the planet’s nightside. Just like with comets, the magnetotails of Earth and Saturn are made of electrified gas from the sun."

"Now it appears that when strong bursts of particles from the sun hit Saturn, the magnetotail collapses and then reconfigures itself -- a disturbance of the magnetic field that’s reflected in the dynamics of auroras."

“We have always suspected this was what also happens on Saturn. This evidence really strengthens the argument.”

"The ultraviolet images were taken by Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys during April and May of last year from the space telescope’s perspective in orbit around Earth. The images are able to provide the first detailed look at dynamics in the “choreography” of auroral glow because Hubble captured them right at that very moment when Saturn’s magnetic field is blasted by particles streaming from the sun."

"Hubble managed to capture a particularly dynamic light show: Some bursts of light shooting around the polar regions traveled at least three times faster than the speed of Saturn’s rotation. (The planet has a 10-hour rotation period.)"

“We can see that the magnetotail is undergoing huge turmoil and reconfiguration, caused by buffering from solar wind. It’s the smoking gun that shows us that the tail is collapsing.”

Comets
"Ultraviolet spectra of comets show strong emission in the hydrogen Lyman-α line, the O I 130.2 nm resonance lines, and the OH Α 2Π-Χ 2Σ+ bands."

"Discovery of the S2 molecule in comets came from UV spectroscopy of the comet IRAS – Araki – Alcock ( 1983d) which passed close to the Earth [59]. ... Emission from S2 was shown to be confined to a small region ( < 100 km) around the nucleus. Outside this region, S2 is destroyed. ... its presence in comet Hyakutake [60] suggests it is ubiquitous and only its narrow survival zone close to the nucleus inhibits regular detection."

"The transitions involved (allowed and forbidden) in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" are 557.7 nm, 630.0 and 636.4 nm, 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), 799.0 nm, 844.7 nm, and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.

"Measurements of the spatial distribution of the hydroxyl radical in cometary atmospheres [may be] made by observations of ultraviolet emission at 309 nm ... The distribution depends upon the velocities of the parent water molecules from which OH is produced by photodissociation and on the lifetime of OH ... The ultraviolet data ... yield a lifetime of OH at 1 AU from the Sun for Comet Bennett (1970 LI) of 2(+1,-1)105 sec (Keller and Lillie, 1974), for Comet Kobayashi-Berger-Milon (1975 IX) a lifetime of 2.3(+1.5,-1.3)105 sec (Festou, 1981b), for Comet Kohoutek (1973 XII) a lifetime of 2(+2,-0.7)105 sec (Blamont and Festou, 1974; Festou, 1981b), and for Comet Bradfield (1979X) a lifetime between 5 x 104 and 1.6 x 105 sec (Weaver et al., 1981 a)."

"Measurements of hydrogen Lyman alpha emission from comets indicate the presence of two populations of hydrogen atoms, one with a velocity of about 20 km sec-1, the second with a velocity of about 8 km sec-1 ... the high-velocity component [may arise] from photodissociation of H2O and the low-velocity component from photodissociation of OH".

Fermi glow
The Fermi glow are ultraviolet-glowing particles, mostly hydrogen, originating from the Solar System's Bow shock, created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the heliopause and the interstellar medium and undergo Fermi acceleration, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from Voyager 1 and the Hubble Space Telescope.

Interstellar clouds
"Carbon monoxide is the second most abundant molecule, after H2, in interstellar clouds. In diffuse clouds, the amount of CO is mainly derived from measurements of absorption at UV wavelengths."

Subdwarf B star
The subdwarf B star is a kind of subdwarf star with spectral type B. They differ from the typical subdwarf star by being much hotter and brighter. They are from the "extreme horizontal branch stars" of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.

Subdwarf B stars, being more luminous than white dwarfs, are a significant component in the hot star population of old stellar systems, such as globular clusters, spiral galaxy bulges and elliptical galaxies. They are prominent on ultraviolet images. The hot subdwarfs are proposed to be the cause of the UV-upturn in the light output of elliptical galaxies.

Betelgeuse
"The yellow/red "image" or "photo" of Betelgeuse usually seen is actually not a picture of the red giant but rather a mathematically generated image based on the photograph. The photograph was actually of much lower resolution: The entire Betelgeuse image fit entirely within a 10x10 pixel area on the Hubble Space Telescopes Faint Object Camera. The actual images were oversampled by a factor of 5 with bicubic spline interpolation, then deconvolved."

The image at lower right is "of the supergiant star Betelgeuse obtained with the NACO adaptive optics instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope. The use of NACO combined with a so-called “lucky imaging” technique, allows the astronomers to obtain the sharpest ever image of Betelgeuse, even with Earth’s turbulent, image-distorting atmosphere in the way. The resolution is as fine as 37 milliarcseconds, which is roughly the size of a tennis ball on the International Space Station (ISS), as seen from the ground. The image is based on data obtained in the near-infrared, through different filters. The field of view is about half an arcsecond wide, North is up, East is left."

Betelgeuse has an estimated diameter of ~8.21 x 106 km, but "[t]he precise diameter has been hard to define for several reasons:

 * 1) The rhythmic expansion and contraction of the photosphere [may mean] the diameter is never constant;
 * 2) There is no definable "edge" to the star as limb darkening causes the optical emissions to vary in color and decrease the farther one extends out from the center;
 * 3) Betelgeuse is surrounded by a circumstellar envelope composed of matter being ejected from the star—matter which both absorbs and emits light—making it difficult to define the edge of the photosphere;
 * 4) Measurements can be taken at varying wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum, with each wavelength revealing something different. Studies have shown that angular diameters are considerably larger at visible wavelengths, decrease to a minimum in the near-infrared, only to increase again in the mid-infrared.  The difference in reported diameters can be as much as 30–35%, yet because each wavelength measures something different, comparing one finding with another is problematic;
 * 5) Atmospheric twinkling limits the resolution obtainable from ground-based telescopes since turbulence degrades angular resolution.

"Assuming a distance of 197±45pc, an angular distance of 43.33±0.04 mas would equate to a radius of 4.3 AU".

"Images of hotspots on the surface of Betelgeuse [are] taken at visible and infra-red wavelengths using high resolution ground-based interferometers".

Mira
Mira A is a red giant variable star in the constellation Cetus. This ultraviolet-wavelength image mosaic, taken by NASA's GALEX, shows a comet-like "tail" stretching 13 light year across space. The "tail" consists of hydrogen gas blown off of the star, with the material at the furthest end of the "tail" having been emitted about 30,000 years ago. The tail-like configuration of the emitted material appears to result from Mira's uncommonly high speed (about 130 km/s (81 mi/s)) relative to the Milky Way galaxy's ambient gas. Mira itself is seen as a small white dot inside a blue bulb.

Lyman-alpha blob
A Lyman-alpha blob (LAB) is a huge concentration of a gas emitting the Lyman-alpha emission line. LABs are some of the largest known individual objects in the Universe. Some of these gaseous structures are more than 400,000 light years across. So far they have only been found in the high-redshift universe because of the ultraviolet nature of the Lyman-alpha emission line. Since the Earth's atmosphere is very effective at filtering out UV photons, the Lyman-alpha photons must be redshifted in order to be transmitted through the atmosphere.

Galaxies
The ultraviolet image at right is "of the giant spiral galaxy Messier 101 (M101) was obtained by the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope during the Astro-2 mission of the Space Shuttle Endeavour."

"M101 is an Sc-type galaxy, meaning a spiral galaxy with a relatively small central bulge and a system of spiral arms that is not tightly wound. At a distance of about 16 million light years, it is considered relatively close to the Earth."

"M101 is known to contain many giant HII regions, meaning huge glowing nebulae shine as a result of ultraviolet radiation from the massive stars within them. The UIT images will be used to determine the far-ultraviolet energy outputs of these stars and nebulae. Also, the astronomers will study the ages of the nebulae, their dust contents, and the "initial mass functions" of their stars, meaning the relative numbers of stars of different masses when they first formed in the nebulae. This is equivalent to finding the relative numbers of newborn babies of different weights. The investigators will also determine the total mass of all the young massive stars in each HII region or nebula."

"UIT is a 15-inch (0.38-m) telescope which was designed and built at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. ... The exposure time was 1310 seconds and the photograph was made at an effective wavelength of 1520 angstroms (152 nanometers), with a bandwidth of 354 angstroms (35.4 nanometers). The photograph was obtained during nighttime portion of Endeavour's orbit on March 11, 1995. The region shown here is about two-thirds the apparent diameter of the full moon. The original UIT image was recorded on black and white film; the image is displayed here with color coding indicating intensity of the ultraviolet light."

Geography
The Large Binocular Telescope is located on Mount Graham (10,700-foot (3,300 m)) in the Pinaleno Mountains of southeastern Arizona, and is a part of the Mount Graham International Observatory.

The first image taken shown at right combined ultraviolet and green light, and emphasizes the clumpy regions of newly formed hot stars in the spiral arms.

The Very Large Telescope (VLT) is a telescope operated by the European Southern Observatory on Cerro Paranal in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. The UTs are equipped with a large set of instruments permitting observations to be performed in the near-ultraviolet. It includes large-field imagers, adaptive optics corrected cameras and spectrographs, as well as high-resolution and multi-object spectrographs and covers a broad spectral region, from the deep ultraviolet (300 nm).

History
The first launch of a V-2 by the Naval Research Laboratory was an effort to place an ultraviolet spectrograph over 160 km above the desert at White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico. The spectrograph would record how much high-energy solar radiation reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere.

The first image at right shows the launch complex. On either side of the rocket are extension ladders to allow technicians access to the nose of the rocket for a final instrument check, color image. On June 27th, liquid oxygen is pumped into one tank and kerosene into a separate fuel tank. This was followed by filling the smaller hydrogen peroxide and permanganate tanks for the turbopumps.

On June 28, 1946, the missle is launched on a flight that lasts 354 s, reaches an altitude of some 100 km, and crashes back to Earth.

The third image show the impact crater created by the V-2 when it returned from its suborbital flight. An approximate size of the crater is indicated by the crane brought in to help find the photographic film taken during the measurements. Excavation of the crater continued throughout the summer, but the cassette carrying the film was never found.

Mathematics
Opacity depends on the frequency of the light being considered. For instance, some kinds of glass, while transparent in the visual range, are largely opaque to ultraviolet light.

"Opacity" is another term for the mass attenuation coefficient (or, depending on context, mass absorption coefficient $$\kappa_\nu$$ at a particular frequency $$\nu$$ of electromagnetic radiation.

If a beam of light with frequency $$\nu$$ travels through a medium with opacity $$\kappa_\nu$$ and mass density $$\rho$$, both constant, then the intensity will be reduced with distance x according to the formula
 * $$I(x) = I_0 e^{-\kappa_\nu \rho x}$$

where
 * x is the distance the light has traveled through the medium
 * $$I(x)$$ is the intensity of light remaining at distance x
 * $$I_0$$ is the initial intensity of light, at $$x = 0$$.

For a given medium at a given frequency, the opacity has a numerical value that may range between 0 and infinity, with units of length2/mass.

Physics
"The absorption of a photon of wavelength λ(nm) in a superconductor is followed by a series of fast processes in which the photon energy is converted into a population of free charge carriers known as quasiparticles in excess of any thermal population. For typical transition metal superconductors this conversion process is of order of a few nanoseconds. At sufficiently low temperatures (typically about an order of magnitude lower than the superconductor's critical temperature Tc) the number density of thermal carriers is very small and the number of excess carriers N0 created as a result of the absorption of a photon of wavelength λ is inversely proportional to the photon wavelength."

"In general N0 can be written [approximately as]:" $$ 7 x 10^5 \over \lambda \Delta (T).$$

"Here the wavelength is in nm and the energy gap is in meV."

Sciences
The Markarian galaxies are a class of galaxies that have nuclei with excessive amounts of ultraviolet emissions compared with other galaxies.

The nuclei of the galaxies had a blue colour that in a star would be classed from A to F. This blue core did not match the rest of the galaxy. The spectrum in detail tends to show a continuum that Markarian concluded was produced non-thermally.

The First Byurakan Survey commenced in 1965 using the Schmidt telescope at the Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory. ... The purpose of the survey was to find galaxies with an ultraviolet excess.

Seventy galaxies with UV-continuum appeared on lists, and the term "Markarian galaxies came into use. Two more lists brought the number of galaxies up to 302 in 1969.

Technology
XUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but it is possible to synthesize multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50% of XUV radiation at normal incidence. This technology, which was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging (current examples are SOHO/EIT and TRACE).

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) is a robotic space probe mission to Mars launched by NASA on November 26, 2011, which successfully landed Curiosity, a Mars rover, in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012.

Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS): Meteorological package and an ultraviolet sensor provided by Spain and Finland. It measures humidity, pressure, temperatures, wind speeds, and ultraviolet radiation.

Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI): This system consists of a camera mounted to a robotic arm on the rover, used to acquire microscopic images of rock and soil. It has white and ultraviolet LEDs for illumination.

Glasses
"Ordinary glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas silica or quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Ordinary window glass passes about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocks over 90% of the light below 300 nm.

Telescopes
Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet, the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites. Ultraviolet telescopes [10 nm - 400 nm] resemble optical telescopes, but conventional aluminium-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead. The OSO 1 satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (1978) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years, using a 45 cm (18 in) aperture telescope with two spectroscopes. Extreme-ultraviolet astronomy (10–100 nm) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (1992) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths.

Astron
Astron was based on the Venera spacecraft design and was operational for six years as the largest ultraviolet space telescope during its lifetime.

"The Soviet Astron orbital station [...] designed primarily for UV and X-ray astrophysical observations [...] was injected into orbit on 23 March 1983. The satellite was put into a highly elliptical orbit, with apogee ~200,000 km and perigee ~ 2,000 km. The orbit kept the craft far away from the Earth for 3.5 out of every 4 days. It was outside of the Earth's shadow and radiation belts for 90% of the time. The spacecraft was over 6m long, and its main instrument was Soviet-French 5m long UV telescope."

Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer
The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) detected light in the far ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 90.5-119.5 nanometres, which is mostly unobservable by other telescopes. Its primary mission was to characterize universal deuterium in an effort to learn about the stellar processing times of deuterium left over from the Big Bang. The telescope comprises four individual mirrors. Each of the four mirrors is a 39-by-35 cm (15.4-by-13.8 in) off-axis parabola. Two mirror segments are coated with silicon carbide for reflectivity at the shortest ultraviolet wavelengths, and two mirror segments are coated with lithium fluoride over aluminum that reflects better at longer wavelengths. Each mirror has a corresponding astigmatism-corrected, holographically-ruled diffraction grating, each one on a curved substrate so as to produce four 1.65 m (5.4 ft) Rowland circle spectrographs. The dispersed ultraviolet light is detected by two microchannel plate intensified double delay-line detectors, whose surfaces are curved to match the curvature of the focal plane.

Galileo spacecraft
The Galileo spacecraft has on board an ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) and an extreme ultraviolet spectrometer (EUV).

The Cassegrain telescope of the UVS had a 250 mm aperture and collected light from the observation target. Both the UVS and EUV instruments used a ruled grating to disperse this light for spectral analysis. This light then passed through an exit slit into photomultiplier tubes that produced pulses or "sprays" of electrons. These electron pulses were counted, and these count numbers constituted the data that were sent to Earth. The UVS was mounted on Galileo's scan platform and could be pointed to an object in inertial space. The EUV was mounted on the spun section. As Galileo rotated, EUV observed a narrow ribbon of space perpendicular to the spin axis. The two instruments combined weighed about 9.7 kilograms and used 5.9 watts of power.

Kosmos 215
Kosmos 215 ... was used to study radiation and conduct optical observations of the Earth's atmosphere. It was equipped with eight telescopes for optical observation, and one for ultraviolet astronomy. It was primarily used to study the Sun, although several other X-ray emissions were detected. Kosmos 215 performed ultraviolet photometry of 36 A and B stars from parallel telescopes and two UV photometers with maximum responses at 274.0 and 227.5 nanometres.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Ultraviolet astronomy is an indirect indicator of stellar surface fusion.


text:
Automated external defibrillator

An automated external defibrillator(AED) is a light weight, battery operated, portable device that can check heart rhythm and send an electric shock to restore normal rhythm if needed ("What is an," 2011). The chances of survival after a cardiac event diminish by 10 percent for each minute without the use of an AED ("Automated external defibrillators," 2011). In fact, the victim’s best chance for survival lies within the 4 minute mark after the event had occurred. Overall, the American Red Cross estimates that 50,000 lives could be saved each year if AEDs were more used ("Automatic external defibrillators," 2012).

AEDs are advantageous in several ways. If an AED is present, any bystander could grab it and easily connect it to the victim to assess the heart rhythm. If the AED perceives that the heart rhythm can be treated with a shock, the AED automatically sends an electrical current to the heart. This shock briefly stops the electrical signal that is preset in the heart which can reset the heart’s electrical current therefore resetting the rhythm and saving a person’s life.

Any place can have an AED and it can even be bought for home use. All AEDs on the market are FDA approved and work reliably. This makes it easily accessible to the public with the exception of its cost. Additionally, an AED can be used on any adult and children as young as 8 weighing at least 55 pounds (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). AEDs use visual and voice prompts to guide the rescuer through the use of the device. All devices have electronic self-tests to test their own circuitry and batteries regularly therefore allowing the AED to tell you if it is ready to use. Finally, they all come with 5-year manufacturer’s warranty ("Aed - defibrillators," 2011). Training for use of an AED is highly recommended. It is simple and easily available to the general public. Training will walk the rescuer through the four universal steps of using an AED. The first step is to power on the AED. This starts the voice prompts that provide the directions for every step to follow. Step two is to attach the electrode pads to the victim. A picture is placed on the AED with directions to visually demonstrate where to place the pads and directions are written on the pads. The third step is to analyze the rhythm of the victim’s heartbeat. During this step it is important that no one is touching the victim. The final step is to clear the victim and administer the shock by pressing the shock button. Be sure that no one is touching the victim when the shock button is pressed. In many cases, the AED itself can detect if the victim is not clear and will loudly state clear the patient again. The victim should be analyzed again after the first shock is performed ("Part 4: The," 2012).

AEDs are critical. It is estimated that 95% of all cardiac arrest victims die before reaching the hospital. 60% of these people could have been saved if an AED was used. In a cardiac emergency without the presence of an AED, the average response time for emergency personnel is about 12 minutes according to the American Heart Association. Permanent damage to the brain and body occurs after only 10 minutes without oxygen (Cardiac Science). Of those victims that are taken to the hospital for care after a cardiac event, 5% or less are successfully resuscitated and discharged alive ("Interesting aed facts," 2003).

Because AEDs are vitally important in the rescue process, they have become one of the most important steps in the American Heart Association’s “Chain of Survival.” The “Chain of Survival” is a four step process for response when a cardiac issue arises. Recognition of the symptoms and contacting emergency personnel is the first part of this chain. The second step is early CPR until an AED is available. The third step is early defibrillation with an AED. This step is one of the most important steps in the chain that can truly make the difference between life and death. The final step is early advanced medical care ("Chain of survival," 2008).

RESOURCES:
 * Automatic external defibrillators (aed). (2012). http://www.acep.org/content.aspx?id=26022
 * Aed - defibrillators. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.themedsupplyguide.com/aed/
 * Cardiac Science. (n.d.). Aed usage: statistics. www.cardiacscience.com/assets/012/6382.pdf (on archive.org)
 * Chain of survival. (2008). http://www.chainofsurvival.com/cos/COSOverview_detail.asp
 * Emergency room: Residents of adair county. (2009). http://health.mo.gov/data/mica
 * Interesting aed facts. (2003, August). Retrieved from http://aed4u.com/aed_factsfigures.cfm
 * Heart disease profile - for adair county. (n.d.). http://health.mo.gov/data/mica/ASPsHeartDisease/header.php?cnty=001
 * NEMO heart health brings aeds to city. (2011, December 22). Kirksville Daily Express. http://www.kirksvilledailyexpress.com/features/x1980196202/-7-NEMO-Heart-Health-brings-AEDs-to-city
 * Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 10). Automated external defibrillators: Do you need an aed?. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/automated-external-defibrillators/HB00053
 * Part 4: The automated external defibrillator. (2012). http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/automated-external-defibrillators/HB00053
 * Symptoms and diagnosis of a heart attack . (2011, November 22). http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartAttack/SymptomsDiagnosisofHeartAttack/Symptoms-and-Diagnosis-of-Heart-Attack_UCM_002041_Article.jsp
 * What is an automated external defibrillator?. (2011, December 02). http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/aed/
 * What is sudden cardiac arrest?. (2011, April 1). http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/
 * Women's Heart Foundation. (2007, February). Heart attack facts. http://www.womensheart.org/content/heartattack/heart_attack_facts.asp

AED Shocking Information AED or Automated External Defibrillator is a portable device that both diagnoses and treats cardiac arrhythmias. It treats these disorders through defibrillation. Defibrillation sends a shock through the heart which causes it to stop and then reestablish or reset an effective rhythm ideally. Despite the complicated technology in AEDs, they are very easy to use. AEDs are simple to understand with both audio and visual prompts, however AED certification is an important skill in life-threatening situations. AED certification classes through the Red Cross can be found on their website by simply putting in some information on the type of certification you would like. They offer two types of AED certification: Lay Responder and Professional certifications. Many first aid, first responder, basic life support, and CPR courses also certify in AED. 34% of people who have implemented an AED have used it at least once to save a life. With heart attacks and heart disease complications being such a big part of our community, it is so important to have an AED readily available with someone who knows how to use it. When present, AEDs can greatly reduce the time between the heart event and treatment (shock). The less time between those two, the greater the chance that the person will live. Without AED intervention, every minute after a cardiac event chances of survival decrease by 10%. Over 300,000 Americans die of sudden cardiac arrest every year. Up to 50,000 of those could still be alive if someone on scene had been trained in First Aid/CPR and if an AED had been readily available. AED availability along with trained individuals can save lives. Make sure your place of employment is equipped with an AED and a training program for its use. Knowledge really can change lives.

Works Cited
 * AED Awareness Week: AEDs and the numbers. (2009, June 4). Retrieved January 27, 2012, from Cardiac Science: http://www.cardiacscience.com/blog/2009/06/aed-awareness-week-aeds-numbers/
 * Blank, M. (n.d.). AED Lifesaving Equipment. Retrieved January 27, 2012, from http://www.atri.org/LifesavingEquip.htm
 * Saving a Life Is as Easy as A-E-D. (n.d.). Retrieved January 27, 2012, from American Red Cross: http://www.redcross.org/portal/site/en/menuitem.d229a5f06620c6052b1ecfbf43181aa0/?vgnextoid=66e0057a43531210VgnVCM10000089f0870aRCRD

title: Automated external defibrillator


text:
User:Egm6322.s12.TEAM1.HW/HW1

Problem 1: Constructing the Gram Matrix for Fourier Basis Functions
 Solved without assistance

Given Equations
Fourier Series with basis functions:

Scalar (inner) product:

Wronskian:

Find: Gram Matrix and Properties
A. Construct the Gram Matrix for the given Fourier basis functions using the scalar product. B. Determine the property of this Gram Matrix. C. Show that $$

\left \{ \cos \theta\ \, \sin \theta\ \ \right \} $$ are linearly independent using the Wronskian.

Solution
A. From Wolfram Mathworld the Gram matrix is defined as a set $$ \mathbf{V} $$ of $$ \mathbf{m} $$ vectors (points in $$ \mathbb R ^n $$), the Gram Matrix $$ \mathbf{G} $$ is the matrix of all possible inner products of $$ \mathbf{V} $$, i.e. where $$ \mathbf{A}^T $$ denotes the transpose. The Gram matrix determines the vectors $$ \mathbf{v}_i $$ up to isometry. For this problem the value of $$ \mathbf{v}_i = g(x)= \cos n \omega\ \theta\ \ $$ and $$ \mathbf{v}_j = h(x)= \sin n \omega\ \theta\ \ $$ Then, and B. This Gram matrix is invertible C. The Wronskian is defined as: Using $$ u_1 = \cos \theta\ $$ and $$ u_2 = \sin \theta\ $$, then $$ u_1' = -\sin \theta\ $$ and $$ u_2' = \cos \theta\ $$ The Wronskian now becomes: If the determinant of the Wronskian doesn't equal zero, the terms are condidered linearly independant, i.e. Thus $$ \cos ^2 \theta\ - (- \sin ^2 \theta\ ) \ne \ 0 $$ can be shown as a true statement and $$ \left \{ \cos \theta\ \, \sin \theta\ \ \right \} $$ are proven linearly independant.

Problem 2: Fourier Coefficients
 Solved without assistance

Find
A. Verify Eq 2.1 is valid. B. Recover from Eq2.2 the Fourier coefficients found with the trigonometric identities given.

Solution
A. Verify Eq 2.1 is valid.

if $$ n=m$$, then:

if $$ n\ne m$$, then:

B. Recover from Eq2.2 the Fourier coefficients found with the trigonometric identities given.

From the definition of the coefficients in the lecture, we can get: Then, the Fourier coefficients can be found from above:

Problem 3: Alternative Coefficients
 Solved without assistance

Given & Find
show that, equivalent to (2)-(3)P.42-10, the Fourier series can be written as

$$f(\theta )=\operatorname{Re}(\sum\limits_{n=0}^{+\infty }{{e}^{in\omega \;\theta \;}})$$

An advantage of (2)-(3)P.42-10 is a simple and elegant computation of the coefficients as shown in (1) p.42-12.

Solution
Starting from eqation (1) in P42-10, the following can be derived.

in which:

$${{\overline{a}}_{n}}={{a}_{n}}-i{{b}_{n}}$$, for n>0.

In comparison, the coefficients in equation (1) p.42-12 is obviously more simple and elegant than equation(3.1) above.

Problem 4: Plot the following pairs in separate figures
 Solved without assistance

Given
From [[media:pea1.f11.mtg42.djvu|Mtg 42]] Pg 42-2

Legendre polynomials

$$\begin{align} & {{P}_{0}}(x)=1 \\ & {{P}_{1}}(x)=x \\ & {{P}_{2}}(x)=\frac{1}{2}(3{{x}^{2}}-1) \\ & {{P}_{3}}(x)=\frac{1}{2}(5{{x}^{3}}-3x) \\ \end{align}$$

Legendre functions

$$\begin{align} & {{Q}_{0}}(x)=\frac{1}{2}\log \left( \frac{1+x}{1-x} \right) \\ & {{Q}_{1}}(x)=\frac{1}{2}x\log \left( \frac{1+x}{1-x} \right)-1 \\ & {{Q}_{2}}(x)=\frac{1}{4}(3{{x}^{2}}-1)\log \left( \frac{1+x}{1-x} \right)-\frac{3}{2}x \\ & {{Q}_{3}}(x)=\frac{1}{4}(5{{x}^{3}}-3x)\log \left( \frac{1+x}{1-x} \right)-\frac{5}{2}{{x}^{2}}+\frac{2}{3} \\ \end{align}$$ And the fourth pair: $$ \begin{align} P_4(x)&=\frac{35}{8}x^4-\frac{15}{4}x^2+\frac{3}{8} \\ Q_4(x)&= ((105*atan(x*i)*i)*x^4 + 105*x^3 + (-90*atan(x*i)*i)*x^2 - 55*x + 9*atan(x*i)*i)/24 \end{align} $$

(Q4 is the result calculated by Matlab)

Find
1.Plot the above 5 pairs in separate figures

2.Observe even-ness and odd-ness of {Pi,Qi},i=1,...,4 and guess the value of the scalar products: $$ =\int^{\mu=+1}_{\mu=-1}P_i(\mu)Q_i(\mu)d\mu $$

Solution

So, for Pn: when n is odd, Pn is odd; when n is even, Pn is even;

for Qn: when n is odd, Qn is even; when n is even, Qn is odd;

Thus, PnQn is always odd

So, $$ =\int^{\mu=+1}_{\mu=-1}P_i(\mu)Q_i(\mu)d\mu=0 $$ for i=0,...,n

Problem 5: Proof problems
 Solved without assistance

Find
1. Show that if g is odd, then f is odd. 2. Show that if g is even, then f is even.

Solution
If g is odd, g(x) is following that

This shows that if g is odd, f is also odd. If g is even, g(x) is following that

This result shows that if g is even, f is also even.

Problem 6: Legendre Polynomials for even or odd numbers
 Solved without assistance

Find
Show $$\displaystyle P_2k(x) $$ is even $$\displaystyle P_{2k+1}(x)$$ is odd When k = 0,1,2,3,....,

Solution
When n= 2k,the above equation is following that

The above results show that if n is even, f(x) = f(-x).

When n = 2k+1, the equation is following that

When x= -x,

This shows that

Problem 7: Computing Coefficients
 Solved without assistance

Given
$$ q(x)=-4-7x+3{{x}^{2}}+2{{x}^{3}}-5{{x}^{4}}+{{x}^{5}} \ $$

Find
Find $$ {{d}_{i}} \ $$ such that: $$q(x)=\sum\limits_{i=0}^{n}{{{d}_{i}}{{P}_{i}}(x)}\in {{\Rho }_{n}}$$ plot q(x) in two figures

Solution
According the Lecture 42-15, components can be computed by:

And the Legendre polynomials are known as: And, The components can be computed by substituting Eq 7.2 and Eq 7.3 into Eq 7.1 within Wolfram Alpha.

From the following figure, we can see that these two equations produce almost identical curves.

=Contributing Members & Referenced Lecture=

=References=

title: User:Egm6322.s12.TEAM1.HW/HW1


text:
Geriatric Eye Health

Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness throughout the world (Quillen). Twenty percent of older adults have a cataract and fifty percent of adults after age seventy-four have a cataract (“Vision”). Cataracts become much more common as age increases. Less than five percent of persons under the age of sixty-five (Quillen), twenty percent of older adults, and fifty percent of adults over the age of seventy-four (“Vision”). Each eye has a lens that helps the eye focus images. The lens is made of protein and as a person ages the protein builds up on the lens (Stibich). This causes the lens to appear cloudy or opaque (“Vision”). This cloudiness may make it seem like the person is looking out of a frosted or yellowed window. Besides blurred vision, cataracts are accompanied by other symptoms such as: glare, light sensitivity, poor night vision, double vision, a need for brighter light to read, and fading or yellowing of colors. Cataracts can be detected by an eye care professional, like an optometrist or ophthalmologist (“American”). The progression of cataracts is typically slow (Quillen). Eyeglasses or contact lenses can aid vision if the cataracts have not progressed very far (“Vision”). If the cataracts have progressed, the cataract will need to be removed by surgery to improve vision. Surgery is suggested when the cataract is developed enough to interfere with the persons job or his or her ability to drive, read, or perform other daily tasks comfortably (“American”). Cataract surgery is easily available, safe, and effective in treating cataracts (Quillen). About 1.5 million cataract surgeries are performed each year in the United States. The surgery usually takes less than fifteen minutes and is done under local or topical anesthesia (“Vision”). Cataract surgery is a very low risk procedure. Ninety percent of patients notice improved vision following cataract surgery (Quillen).

American Academy of Opthalmology. (2007). Eye disease on the rise among older Americans, few realize risk [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.aao.org/newsroom/ press_kit/upload/eyesmart_MEDIA_KIT.pdf Quillen, D., M.D. (1999, July 1). Common causes of vision loss in elderly patients. American Family Physician, 60(1), 99-108. Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/1999/0701/ p99.html?printable=afp Stibich, M., Ph.D. (2007, May 24). Aging and eye diseases. Retrieved January 18, 2012, from about.com website: http://longevity.about.com/od/healthyagingandlongevity/ a/aging_eyes.htm Vision loss and other eye diseases. (2005, April 1). Retrieved January 18, 2012, from American Geriatrics Society website: http://www.healthinaging.org/agingintheknow/chapters_ch_trial.asp?ch=26

title: Geriatric Eye Health


title: File:Pea2.s12.sec43.a.djvu


text:
User talk:Improver

Welcome
 Hello Improver, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Cirt (talk) 15:57, 19 January 2012 (UTC)

-- Cirt (talk) 15:57, 19 January 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Improver


text:
User:Myraahmad

Myra Ahmad, now 17 is considered to be the youngest published and recognized writer and poetess in Pakistan. Her published works, at the age of 14, include "The Gasp" (2009) and "My Passions" (2009).

Especially signed copies of Myra's books have also been placed at The Glowinski Library in Poland, maintained by the honourable Mr. Tadeusz Glowinski, along with other famous authors like J. K. Rowling.

She was nominated for the Foyle Poets of the Year 2007 award, and has won numerous poetry competitions online. She's also been published in leading magazines such as Us Magazine, Smash!, The Secret Attic book and Devozine, USA. Her books have been featured on websites like fRedo.

In 2011, She won a gold medal in the Inter-School Maths Olympiad, organized by PakTurk International Schools.

She is also an avid books reader, a wanna-be blogger and graphics designer, a tech junkie, a casual gamer and a quiet twitterer.\

title: User:Myraahmad


text:
Health/Essays/Depression in older adults

Because the word depression is used so commonly in our society, it is important to learn what depression is and what that actually means. According to the Centers for Disease Control, Someone who is depressed has “feelings of sadness or anxiety that last for weeks at a time. He or she may also experience feelings of hopelessness and guilt, irritability, restlessness, loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, fatigue and decreased energy, difficulty concentrating, insomnia, overeating or appetite loss, Thoughts of suicide or suicide attempts, Persistent aches or pains, headaches, and cramps.” When a person has depression, signs are seen and symptoms are felt even after healing time and even treatment. While this is a serious matter at any age, older adults are prone to have a heightened danger of developing depression. According to the CDC, about 80% of older adults have at least one chronic health condition, and 50% have two or more. Depression is more common in people who already have other illnesses or when their body’s function and mobility start to lessen (“Depression and Suicide Facts” n.d.). Because the human body and mind deteriorate with age, older adults are often misdiagnosed and undertreated for depression (“Depression and Suicide Facts” n.d.). Healthcare providers could easily mistake an older adult's symptoms of depression as just a person’s natural reaction to illness life changes. Because of this people would not see depression as something to be treated. Older adults could agree the feelings being felt at that time are just part of life (“Depression and Older Adults” n.d.). Some older adults don't understand that they could feel better with appropriate treatment and can continue to live a life that has quality and happiness as its foundation. An important aspect of learning about depression is that there are treatments available to combat this illness. Costs for the depression care had a mean cost of $580 per patient (“Depression and Older Adults” n.d.). If this cost could be reduced and eventually be eliminated, that in itself could be seen as a perk to older adults feeling uneasy about treating their depression. A popular treatment method is the home or clinic based depression care management. This involves using a team approach. A trained social worker, nurse, or other practitioner oversees patient education, tracks specific outcomes, and delivers an evidence-based treatment that a primary care provider and psychiatrist would prescribe (“Depression in the Elderly” n.d.). This treatment could be in a clinical setting when an older individual lives in a nursing home or home care could be provided where every treatment option happens within the home environment. Another popular treatment option is cognitive therapy. This form of therapy gives the patient an opportunity to battle against the negative thoughts triggering depression. According to WedMd, patients with depression have continual negative thoughts that feed the depression. These thoughts are known to be automatic, which is a good benchmark of knowing when someone has depression. Cognitive therapy, defined by WebMd, is a treatment plan that helps patients recognize and correct the constant negative thoughts that continually pop into the patient’s head. Studies have shown that cognitive therapy works at least as well as antidepressants in helping people with mild to moderate depression (“Depression in the Elderly” n.d.). This plan does not need medication to be effective which can be seen as a benefit. Older adults already take medication for other problems, patients should recognize there is treatment available and it does not need to come in the form of a pill. Treatment with therapy can shorten the course of depression and can help reduce symptoms seen in depressed patients (“Depression in the Elderly” n.d.). Treatment is such a pivotal part of what depression is and how it can affect someone’s life forever but the harsh reality is that 75% of depressed older adults do not receive appropriate treatment and 80% of nursing home residents fail to receive appropriate treatment. (“CDC Promotes Public Health Approach” n.d.). There is so much that has been learned about depression over the years through multiple studies and scientific breakthroughs but there is so much more out there to be learned and even more people that need help.

Depression in the Elderly: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments. (n.d.). WebMD – Better information. Better health.. Retrieved January 15, 2012, from http://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/depression-elderly NIMH Older Adults: Depression and Suicide Facts (Fact Sheet).(n.d.). NIMH Home. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/older-adults-depression-and-suicide-facts-fact-sheet/index.shtml

Missouri Department of Mental Health. (2006). Depression and Older Adults. Mental Health – Mental Illness. Retrieved January 15, 2012, from http://dmh.mo.gov/docs/mentalillness/elderlydepress.pdf

CDC Data & Statistics. (n.d.). CDC Promotes Public Health Approach To Address Depression among Older Adults. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved January 14, 2012, http://www.cdc.gov/aging/pdf/CIB_mental_health.pdf


text:
User:Xxsuperskillzxx

Sup Yall! Welcommen to my page bro!

title: User:Xxsuperskillzxx


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team2

Introduction
This is the page for Team 2 for Loc Vu-Quoc's Intermediate Engineering Analysis class in spring of 2012. Awww, its our first report

Team Members
Branden Blackwell Rachel Dzadek Nicolas Ellis Jonathon Ladin Stephen Leshko John Plunkett Corey Williams gonna check now

Report Archive
Report 1 Due Wed, _1 Feb 12; 22:00 UTC (Awww, its our first report) Report 2 Due Wed, _8 Feb 12; 22:00 UTC Report 3 Due Wed, 22 Feb 12; 22:00 UTC Report 4 Due Wed, 14 Mar 12; 21:00 UTC Report 5 Due Wed, 28 Mar 12; 21:00 UTC Report 6 Due Wed, 11 Apr 12; 21:00 UTC Report 7 Due Wed, 25 Apr 12; 21:00 UTC

Practice Equations
$$ax^2+bx+c=f(x)$$ --Egm4313.s12.team2.williams.ccw 02:53, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

$$ \bar{r} = y $$

--Egm4313.s12.team2.sleshko

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team2


title: File:Iea.s12.sec3.djvu


text:
Talk:Liberté (game)

Metrics

 * Metrics, December, 2011
 * Metrics, January, 2012
 * Metrics, Feruary, 2012
 * Metrics, March, 2012
 * Metrics, April, 2012

title: Talk:Liberté (game)


text:
User talk:Luitpold2012

 Hello Luitpold2012, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --HappyCamper 02:27, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Luitpold2012