text:
IB History Review Guide/The USSR and Stalin

Rise to Power
 * Georgian from lower classes.
 * 1905- Stalin led fighting squads in bank robberies to raise money for the Bolshevik Party. He was characterized as a basic thug.
 * 1917- Stalin was the editor of the official Communist Newspaper, the Pravda. At this time, Trotsky was in the US, and Lenin in Switzerland.
 * April 1917- elected to the Politburo of the central committee.
 * 1917-1923: Commissar for Nationalities
 * 1922- Stalin made General secretary of the Central Committee; this was seen as a minor position by the others, but it allowed Stalin to build his power base. He was referred to by others as "Comrade Card-Index". Stalin began to fill positions with cronies.
 * A dying Lenin explained his fear of Stalin's imprudence in his Testament, stating that his views were too extreme and his methods too violent. However, he didn't think that his natural heir would be the best ruler for the USSR either. He believed that the best way to lead the country would be if Stalin and Trotsky were to work together.
 * 1924- Stalin forms the Triumvirate with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky.
 * Stalin organized Lenin's funeral and made a speech which religiously told of his devotion and loyalty. Stalin undermined Trotsky by misleading him about the date of the funeral, thus Trotsky did not attend. This showed the Soviet public that Stalin cared more about their fallen leader.
 * Stalin referred back to a document where Trotsky slandered Lenin pre-revolutionary doctrine. Stalin also played on the fact that Trotsky joined the Bolsheviks just before the revolution and that he was a Bonapartist threat.
 * Stalin was also extremely manipulative. As soon as Trotsky had been eliminated, Stalin joined forces with the right wing and Bukharin and went against Kamenev and Zinoviev. Using the fact that they had voted against insurrection in 1917.
 * In 1927, he turned against the right and Bukharin.
 * There was a popular appeal to Stalin since he was a man of the people. Also his Socialism in One Country appealed to a people who had been fighting since 1914 and simply wanted peace.
 * He had dominated the leadership by 1928, but would not gain control until The Purges.

Five Year Plan
 * The NEP introduced following the failure of War Communism which allowed for a sufficient degree of market flexibility under the context of socialism. This was because 1922 levels of output were at 14% of the ones in 1914.
 * Stalin established the GOSPLAN in 1927. This was a state general planning commission which had a goal to accelerate industrialization. In 1929, it wrote two drafts which eventually became the basis for the five year plan.
 * It shifted from the NEP and placed the emphasis on central planning. It focused on the transformation of a largely agrarian nation consisting of peasants into an industrial superpower. It attempted to increase coal, iron, and other vital resources.
 * 1928-1933: Pig iron rose from 3.3 million to 10 million
 * Coal from 34 to 75
 * Ore from 5.7 to 14
 * In addition, there were numerous tractor, automobile, and machinery plants built.
 * It succeeded in 4 years, Stalin announced his success. The costs were extremely high. Some 127,000 workers died during the four years that it ran. Collectivization helped induce a famine where some 10 million people died.
 * Soviets stated that Economic Growth was around 13.9%, Americans think it's around 5%.

Collectivization
 * Intended to increase agricultural output. Consolidated farms into collective farms or state farms. Transfer of land from the kulaks to the peasants.
 * 1928- Stalin blamed the kulaks for the lack of grain. To some extent this was true, as grain was hoarded by peasants.
 * 1929- tried to modernize agriculture. Predicted an increase of 200% of output. Collectivization at this point was voluntary, but only some 2% of the peasants agreed. By November of 1929, collectivization was absolutely mandatory.
 * It was good for those without land, but not good for those with it. Widespread opposition, sometimes even sabotage. Peasants were forced to join the collective farms. The kulak class was liquidated.
 * 1/6 of kulaks died.
 * 6 million peasants lost their lives.
 * 1930- number collectivized fell as 50%, peasants began to simply leave.
 * 1936- 90% collectivized. Many farmers refused to work.
 * 125,000 peasants sentenced to death for staling collective farming.
 * Lack of success lead to the Great Famine of 1932-1933. Ukraine was hit hard especially since there was no warning as the government attempted to make it secret.

Social liberalization
 * Women were given equal education, rights to employment. Stalinist development led to an improvement in health care and the quality of life. Stalin's policies granted universal access to health and education which cut down on malaria, cholera, and typhus. New generation of almost university literate. New generation of Soviet women who could give birth in hospitals.

Culture and Religion
 * Socialist realism made the official style for music, drama, literature, art, and almost everything.
 * Artists and poets persecuted.
 * Hunted down on the church.
 * Only mere hundreds of active parishes
 * Thousands of priests were killed, churches leveled.
 * Reintroduced as a patriotic organization during WW2.

Great Purge
 * Stalin's consolidation of power, justified by the assassination of Sergei Kirov, a popular leader in Leningrad. Evidence has come to light that the death of Kirov, once blamed by Stalin on the opposition was actually ordered by Stalin himself because he feared that Kirov was more popular and could take over his position.
 * Communist party itself purged. Millions died, the exact number is unknown. Carried out by the NKVD.
 * 1933- 400,000 members were expelled from the party.
 * Moscow Trials from 1936- 16 members of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre. Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev sentenced to death and executed. Another minor one in 1937.
 * 1938- Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov executed, as well as Right Wing politicians.
 * Also in 1937, purging of the military including the general Mikhail Tukachevsky who was said to have connections with the German high command.
 * Stalin would be the only living member of Lenin's politburo. Leon Trotsky would be assassinated in 1940 by with an icepick while exiled in Mexico.
 * People who were killed were removed from texts and photographs. NKVD leader Yezhov also purged in 1938.

Cult of Personality
 * Numerous towns renamed after Stalin
 * Grandesque titles such as "Father of all nations" and the "Great Helmsman".
 * Focus on literature, poetry, music, and films.

Struggle for Leadership

 * In the early 1920's, a lot of the idealism that was in the minds of Russia's people ceased to exist. In January 1923, Lenin published in article in which he supported the idea of Russia's people being educated about the revolution. Two months later, in March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke and lost the ability to speak, and implicitly, of ruling Russia.

 * This left a power vacuum in Russia. His successor would be the most powerful man in the country. There were five candidates for this:
 * Leon Trotsky. He was an able revolutionary, who had managed to win the Civil War. He had been Lenin's right hand man. He had led the Red Army, but Trotsky was idealist and very arrogant. He refused to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk and believed in world revolution. Furthermore, he had previously been a 'Menshevik,' something which Stalin successfully used against him.
 * Grigory Zinoviev. He was a colleague of Lenin, and head of the COMINTERN.
 * Lev Kamenev. He was the president of the Central Executive Committee of the Communist Party.
 * Stalin. He was the General Secretary of the Party Central Committee, Main Commissar for Nationalities. He was of Georgian descent.
 * Bukharin: Editor of the Pravda, believed that the economy should develop at its own pace and was Pro-NEP.

 * Stalin, the most powerful, managed to unite with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky, the second most powerful. This was known as the Triumvirate. It was powerful from 1922-1924 until Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Trotsky in order to oppose Stalin. Their main reason lay in Trotsky's belief that governmental control was vital in fueling a permanent revolution.

Politics from 1917 to 1924: Had to deal with internal and external opposition. Party was becoming a mass movement and the bureaucracy remained from the Tsarist regime. Council of People's Commissars formed, which has 10 main members- the most powerful body and greatest concentration of power. Stalin was appointed the General Secretary in 1922. This placed him in a position by which he could influence who obtained positions of power within the regime. By 1921, the bureaucracy was 10 times larger than the Tsarist one, consuming 90% of Russia's paper. In 1921, Lenin introduced his ban on factions. The CHEKA was used as government policy to incite the Red Terror from 1921 to 1923. The CHEKA included 30,000 members and was responsible for two million deaths.
 * Trotsky "We will not enter the kingdom of socialism with white gloves on a polished floor"

Nationalities from 1917-1924: Russia was a huge country with many different nationalities. At first, Lenin advocated self-determination, but in the 1920s he began to change his mind after the failed invasion of Poland. He made Stalin, a Georgian, Commissar for nationalities. Ukraine is retaken in 1921 and made part of the old empire. Asian states are brought into the empire. The USSR emerges in 1922.

Culture and Social Life from 1917-1924: Religion is banned, 8,000 clergy members are killed in the terror and the state acquired the wealth of the church. There is more personal freedom, it is easier to divorce, women gain equal property rights, and there is more freedom of expression. However, in 1924 all the writers and poets became exiled.
 * Even with the improvements that Lenin's NEP brought in Russia, Stalin still supported the idea of Socialism in One Country. He thought that the Soviet Union must first be a well-established country before trying to spread its communism.

 * It was clear that whoever became the ruler of Russia had to be very close to Lenin. Stalin fostered a cult of personality around Lenin, and emphasized his own close relationship with the dead leader. In this way, he could gain support from those who sympathised with Lenin's beliefs.

 * An important feature of Stalin’s rise to power is the way that he manipulated his opponents and played them off against each other. Stalin formed a "troika" of himself, Zinoviev, and Kamenev against Trotsky. When Trotsky had been eliminated Stalin then joined Bukharin and Rykov against Zinoviev and Kamenev, emphasizing their vote against the insurrection in 1917. Zinoviev and Kamenev then turned to Lenin's widow, Krupskaya; they formed the United Opposition in July 1926.

 * In 1927 during the 15th Party Congress Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the party and Kamenev lost his seat on the Central Committee. Stalin soon turned against the "Right Opposition", represented by his erstwhile allies, Bukharin and Rykov.

 * Stalin gained popular appeal from his presentation as a 'man of the people' from the poorer classes. The Russian people were tired from the world war and the civil war, and Stalin's policy of concentrating in building "Socialism in One Country" was seen as an optimistic antidote to war.

Collectivization

 * "We are 50 to 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this gap in 10 years. Either we do it or they crush us." (Stalin 1931) Stalin and xenophobic. By 1926, NEP is not an effective policy. 17% of what is grown is marketed. Most of the food is hoarded by peasants in fear of a famine.

 * Collectivization: Stalin's plan for agricultural reform. Attempted to increase efficiency and productivity through modernization and improvement in agricultural methods. It was piloted in Siberia in 1927, and then made the official government policy later that year. It involved large farms owned by the state of a workforce of 1,000. Resources and labour were shared on the land, the government took a percentage of what was produced regularly. It was introduced in the country in 1929 as a volunteer program, but no one wanted to join and so it was made mandatory. Between December 1929 and March 1930, 60% of peasants were collectivized. By June, only 25% of peasants are collectivized, as 35% leave their collective farms. The process happened again in by September 1930, this time much more organized and peasants were given incentives to join such as tractors. By 1936, collectivization is complete and the Kulak class (rich peasants who owned land) were collectivized or sent to Gulags.

 * Famine: (1931-1934) 10-15 million people die, but kept a secret. This is because peasants burned their crops to avoid collectivization and collectivization was slow to get going. This is due to Stalin's emphasis to push collectivization too quickly.

 * Stalin's regime moved to force collectivization of agriculture. This was intended to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, and to make tax collection more efficient. Collectivization meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry.

 * The Kulaks, the rich peasants who owned land posed the greatest problem. Stalin believed that peasants, being the backbone of the USSR, were supposed to work for the country, and not for themselves.

 * There were many problems, though. Farms were unable to benefit from modern equipment, and a great number of them still used methods developed in the Middle Ages. Transportation was also a great problem, and often the collection and distribution of goods were severely slowed down.

 * The Kulaks were killed or deported to Gulags, so that the USSR can benefit from their land. This created an immense famine, because:

Peasants the peasants were supposed to take over the Kulak's land and property. The latter, reluctant, burned everything. The produce that was meant for the rapidly-industrializing cities was slowed down by a terrible transportation system.

O:*Overall, seven million people were deported to Siberia, and most of them found their death there.

For the Communist Party, the Collectivization was a success, as it had achieved its goal of having complete control over the agriculture and what was going on in the countryside.

The Five Year Plans
The Two Five Year plans are best viewed from an Economic and Social Perspective.

Economic:
 * The GOSPLAN (state planning commission) was to guide the economy towards rapid industrialization. It established the 1st Five Year Plan (’28 – ’32), focusing on the mobilization of natural resources to build up a heavy industrial base by increasing output of coal and iron. At high human cost, this was largely successful. Output of coal rose from 35 to 75 million tons, and iron ore from 5.7 to 19. The goals were fulfilled in 4 years. The 2nd FYP (’32 –’36) saw an 80% rise in steel production, to 17 million tons. The USSR was just behind Germany as a major steel-producing country. The 2nd Five Year Plan was not uniformly successful, failing to reach the planned production levels in coal and oil. By 1936, 90% of farms were collectivized.

Social:
 * In the USSR, by 1940, employment tripled to 8.3 million. The industrialization of agriculture reduced unemployment to virtually 0. In 1924 there were 6 million students, while in 1939 there were 13 million. The people benefited from a degree of social liberalization. Women were given equal rights in labor and education. Universal access to healthcare increased life spans by decades.

Nature of the Soviet State

 * By the late 1930's, Stalin had managed to centralize and plan the USSR's economy. Priority was given to the heavy industry, as Stalin thought it to be "the way of the future".

Socially, workers in lower ranks do have a chance of succeeding, but this can only be done through their own hard work.
 * The intelligentia were used to contribute to political goals, meaning that the Communist Party benefited from everything.

Stalin created the Cult of Personality around him. His one man leadership was supported by a great deal of propaganda.
 * The USSR became, in fact, a Totalitarian Society, in which Stalin was the autocrat.

The Purges

 * Stalin's Purges originated during the early 1930's as 'means of punishing those blamed for the lack of succese of the Five Year Plans.' Eventually, it became a means by which Stalin resolved his suspicion of all those around him and managed to rid the Communist Party of those who Stalin considered "unfaithful" members. It's worth mentioning that both Kamenev and Zinoviev were executed in 1936, during the Moscow Show Trials. These trials had verdicts predetermined by Stalin, and were merely formalities. They also served as an effective warning to other members of the Communist Party. Stalin used more of these trials to dispose of other political adversaries, such as Serge Kirov.
 * Eventually, only two of Lenins's initial Politburo survived: Stalin and Trotsky. Trotsky was assassinated with an icepick in 1940 while living in Mexico. Stalin died on March 3 1953 after suffering from an apparent paralyzing stroke. Some people believe that he was poisoned by his own party members. Before his death Stalin had been on the verge of beginning a new series of purges and had considered poisoning his own party to cleanse the system, i.e. Jewish Doctor's Plot.

Foreign Relations

 * After Lenin's death, the more industrialized powers saw Russia and the Soviet Union as a threat, and therefore isolated it from commercial and political relations, even though it tried to establish political relations with the Western Countries.
 * Eventually, the USSR signed a treaty with the Weimar Republic by which the latter would give the former technology in exchange for natural resources.

The Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact that divided Poland was eventually the starter of WWII.

Nazi-Soviet Pact

 * Axis formed in Oct. 1936. Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, Nov. By this time, Stalin giving up on collective security.
 * Nazi gains in 1938, destroyed any hope of USSR getting help from West
 * Munich Conference in October, USSR not included, France and Britain surrendered Czech Sudetenland to Hitler and made Czechoslovakia indefensible
 * Stalin signs friendship treaty with China, and supplies Chiang with arms and credits
 * May 1939, Molotov replaces Litvinov as foreign commissar. Imposes rigid conformity upon Narkomindel.
 * West promises to protect Poland and Romania, but Stalin not convinced.
 * 18th Party Congress, Stalin accuses West of trying to provoke war between Germany and Russia (March)
 * August, West sends military missions. Too late, b/c Hitler already making negotiations with USSR.
 * Aug. 23, 1939, Nazi-Soviet Pact signed. Secret: delimited Soviet and German spheres; Poland disintegrated, and partitioned. Happens with other countries as well
 * USSR attacks Finland to gain land, so that they aren’t totally weak/completely dependent on Germany. Find much resistance, but finally win
 * July 1940, Hitler wants to invade USSR
 * Trying to avoid, Molotov states Soviet demands in pragmatic, power-political terms.: 1) Finland USSR’s, once German troops leave. 2) Security of USSR interests in Straits. 3) recognize area south of Batum and Baku in direction of Persian Gulf is recognized as center of the aspirations of the Soviet Union.
 * Japan renounces rights to concessions for coal and oil in northern Sakhalin


text:
IB History Review Guide/Totalitarian Europe

From the Syllabus

 * nature of one-party states, ideologies, repression, propaganda, state control
 * Mussolini's rise and rule, 1922 to 1945: domestic and foreign policies
 * rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party
 * Hitler in power, 1933 to 1945 domestic and foreign policies
 * Stalin in power, 1928 to 1953: domestic and foreign policies

Definition of Fascism: Its implications
Economic self-sufficiency: The country must be autocratic. To do this the government controlled the economy, and ran to some extent. See Corporate State.

A Totalitarian State: A state which aims to control all aspects of people's lives and attempts to subordinate the individual. See Totalitarianism.

Single-party State: There is no democracy. Support is won through the use of propaganda.

Military State

Benito Mussolini
- Modified from Jakes - Assorted revision notes

Italy at War

 * Italy was initially part of the Triple Alliance which was a defensive alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. When World War One broke out, Italy did not join despite this alliance. However, Italy saw this as an offensive war.
 * At this time, Benito Mussolini, a leader of the socialist party and and editor of the socialist paper named "The Avanti" called for intervention in the war. He was expelled from his party and from there founded his own paper called Il Popo D'Italia.
 * Italy eventually joined the war in April of 1915, but on the side of the Entente. This was after the signing of the secret Treaty of London.
 * The treaty promised Italy land from the Austria-Hungarian empire including Istria, Dalmatia, and South Tyrol. The Italians fought the Austria-Hungarians in the alps and in the battle of Caporetto, were forced to retreat.

 * Italy lost some 600,000 soldiers and had 1.2 million wounded.
 * It lost 150 billion Lira financially.
 * Huge inflation ensued, the cost of living rose to five times as much, exports stopped and unemployment rose.

 * The Italian government had continued to gain support for the war by making empty promises such as land for the peasants, jobs, pensions, benefits for soldiers, free medical care for the wounded and so on. These were never kept. Some 160,000 returning soldiers were bitter at the government.
 * In the Treaty of Versailles Italy received Istria and South Tirol, but not Dalmatia which had been promised. It was instead given to the newly formed state of Yugoslavia.
 * This fueled the sentiment of nationalism. People began to talk about the "mutilated victory". These formed into the Arditi, special fighting forces.

 * Mussolini formed the Fascio di Combattimento in March 1919 which would develop itself into the Italian Fascist Party. It originally consisted of merely 50 malcontents, and won zero seats in the 1919 elections.

Mussolini's Rise to Power
Italian Economic situation:
 * Inflation, the lire devalued to 1/5 of its original values.
 * Italy still had massive war loans. The Italian debt was 6x the prewar level.
 * Italian tourist trade and exports virtually came to a standstill. There was large scale unemployment.

Political conditions
 * Between 1914 and 1921- Italy had seven different prime ministers.
 * No majority could stay in power.
 * Orlando lost support and resigned in 1919.
 * The Socialist party was gaining widespread support. Party membership grew from 50,000 before war to 200,000 in 1919. With increased membership came more strikes.

Social conditions
 * Italian patriots felt the Italian government had betrayed them in 1919.
 * Occupation of Fiume. In September 1919, a volunteer force led by the poet Gabrielle D'Annunzio took over Fiume. They were not driven out until January 1921.
 * Soviets began establishing Soviets in 1920. Workers took over 600 factories.
 * Peasants began simply taking land.

 * Mussolini was the son of a blacksmith, and actively involved in Politics.
 * Editor of the Avanti, an official socialist newspaper.
 * Fought in the war, but was hurt in an army training exercise.

 * There was a general atmosphere of frustration and discontent amongst the Italian people due to the broken promises. The government was weak and failing.
 * Universal suffrage introduced in 1919.
 * Italian proportional system meant that political parties had to form coalitions in order to achieve anything in parliament.

 * A wave of strikes shook Italian cities throughout 1919-1922. Rising prices with rising unemployment explain the increase in membership of the Italian socialist and communist parties.
 * 361 strikes in May of 1919.
 * 1920: Half a million workers on strike.
 * Mussolini drew a wide assortment of support from different sections of Italian society. He was seen as a defender of private property and the social order. He organized the Fascio di Combattimento into an anti-socialist police force.

 * The Fascist's opponents were divided, the socialist and the communists did not work together. The Prime minister, Giolitti could not govern the country with the socialists opposing him in Parliament. He organized the 1921 elections, attempting to bring the Fascists in parliament, in hopes that they would back his liberal party.
 * Fascists won 35 seats, while the socialists held 122. The socialists could still block the government's policy in parliament.

 * The general strike of the summer of 1922. Mussolini organized his fighting units and started to terrorize his opponents through physical force. The socialist party called for a general strike in July of 1922, but this was in Mussolini's favor. He was able to propose an ultimatum- either the Italian government stop the strikes, or he would.

 * The March on Rome: By Autumn 1922, the fascists felt strong enough to bid for power. 50,000 fascists took to the countryside and marched on Rome. These were poorly organized and easily stopped. However, the King refused to give the Prime Minister special powers to stop the march. He instead telegrammed Mussolini asking him to become the new Italian prime minister.
 * The army leader thought 10 or 12 arrests would be enough to stop the March on Rome.
 * Train loads of fascist supporters were stopped at check points. Some 20,000 of them were stopped by 200 policemen.
 * Only 5,000 men reached the assembly which was guarded by 28,000 troops.
 * King Emmanuel III never asked the military commander of Rome what the situation was, nor did him the powers required to further disrupt the March.

From Government to Dictatorship

 * Mussolini did not have a fascist majority in parliament, and could still be dismissed by the king. He also did not have control of the army.
 * He however, did obtain the posts of Minister of Interior (control of police) and Foreign affairs in order to strengthen his position.
 * He used the squadristi to intimidate his political opponents.
 * He played on the middle class and business men's fear of socialism and communism.

 * Mussolini obtained the open support of the church by banning contraceptives and promising to introduce compulsory religious education in schools. (Being a Catholic country, and one of great importance, religion was an important factor for political support)

 * In July 1923, Mussolini introduced the Acerbo Law: This put and end to the proportional system and instead said that any party with 25% of the votes and the highest number of seats in parliament would automatically get two-thirds of the seats in parliament. This discarded the need for coalition governments.

 * In April 1924, general elections were held in Italy. The Fascists naturally won and were given two-thirds of the seats in parliament, and this the majority they needed.

 * The death of Matteotti: Socialist MP, C.Matteotti gave speeches in parliament denouncing the fascists' use of violence in the electoral campaign. In June of 1924, Matteotti was kidnapped and stabbed to death by fascist thugs. Anti-fascist feeling spread and eyes slowly turned on Mussolini as the culprit. Mussolini denied any involvement in the assassination.

 * December 1924, Mussolini introduced new reforms:
 * Press censorship established
 * Political meetings banned
 * Secret police set up

 * January 1925- Mussolini gave a speech claiming responsibility for Matteotti's death and stating that he was proud of it.

 * Gradually centralized his regime. Created a post of Head of government, which was not accountable to parliament, but only the King Victor Emmanuel III. Began to rule by decree. Set up the Fascist General Council.

 * Cult of Personality: Began calling himself "Il Duce", Italian for "the leader". Everyone loved him, he was respected worldwide. Italian newspapers called him the new Caesar.

 * Threat from Squadristi: Radical members of the PNF (Fascist party) led by secretary Farinacci put pressure on Mussolini to carry out a "Fascist Revolution". Widespread violence used from April to October 1925. Mussolini took certain measures to secure his own power and remove dissidents from his party. (Note: Excellent point to compare with Stalin and Hitler)
 * He replaced Farinacci with a more moderate leader
 * He blamed squads and gangs for the violence
 * He purged 60,000 PNF leaders by 1928
 * He reorganized local branches of the PNF- local leaders were not appointed directly from Rome

Mussolini's consolidation of power

 * Using the OVRA, secret police, Mussolini managed to ban the political opposition.
 * Mussolini introduced press censorship.
 * Mussolini brought local power under control.
 * The government also controlled education, which was used to encourage the denunciation of opponents of the regime and to give good views of Mussolini.

 * Furthermore, he recognized the Vatican as an independent state.
 * Made Christian Catholicism the official religion in Italy
 * Promised to introduce compulsory religion education.
 * Paid a large sum of money to pope in compensation for the land he lost in 1870.

 * The Corporate State: Trade unions were made illegal, and instead replaced with Fascist-controlled trade unions.
 * By 1936, there were 22 corporations.
 * Strikes were made illegal.
 * Workers lose quite a bit of freedom, but in compensation get Sundays off, paid holidays and free football and concert tickets.

Mussolini's Social Policy
Popularity
 * Lateran Treaty- recognized the sovereignty of the Vatican. Made Catholicism the state religion.
 * Various Battles, such as Battle of Births, and Battle for Grain which focused attention away from the country's real problems.
 * Formation of the Balilla (Youth group)
 * 1923- Education act which made fascist culture compulsory in schools.
 * 1925- "Leggi Facistissime" which imposed further press controls.
 * 1931- University professors were forced to swear an oath to fascism.
 * In Mussolini's own words "women do not count in our state". The role of women was emphasized as being child-bearers and were encouraged to marry and to have children. In 1927, Mussolini launched one of his many social battles, this one being the battle for births which aimed to increase the Italian population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950. He tried to do this by:
 * Giving loans to married couples, which were then canceled after a newborn child.
 * Discouraging women from working outside of the home.
 * Promotion in civil services were only given to married men.
 * Awarding medals to women with many children.

 * Much like other social battles Mussolini waged, it did not work.

Legal system
 * November 22nd- vote of confidence and the king gave him emergency powers to restore order and reforms.
 * July 1923- Acerbo law
 * Use of violence and intimidation.
 * Leggi Facistissime, prime minister became head of the state and responsible only to the king.
 * 1926- Mussolini outlaws all opposing political parties.
 * 1928: Mussolini abolishes Universal Suffrage and restricts Parliamentary elections/

Crushing of Opposition
 * 1923: MSVN which took on oath to the state and not the king. Volunteer fascist militia provided Mussolini with an army of 30,000
 * Death of Giacomo Matteotti
 * Aventine session- abused it, parties had to forgo their seats.
 * 1926- outlaws all political parties
 * 1925-1926L arrested, sentenced to death, or exiled some 10,000 fascists.

Mussolini's Foreign Policy

 * 1922-1934: Pressured Yugoslavia for Fiume, and pressure for indirect control of Albania.
 * 1935: War waged against Abyssinia.
 * 1936: Friendship with Nazi Germany.
 * Doubled the size of the army from 175,000 to 275,000 men.

 * It is difficult to be precise about Mussolini's plans and methods in his foreign policy since Mussolini himself never gave any references to it in his speeches. Though he never made remarks directly, Mussolini was very ambitious with his eyes set on the Balkans, Mediterranean, and Africa. Mussolini dreamed of reconciling a new Roman Empire.
 * There were two phases of Mussolini's foreign policy.
 * In the first, he played the peace-maker, the diplomat, participating in the formation of numerous peace treaties.
 * In the second, he drew upon the image of the Ancient Roman Empire for territorial gains and expansion
 * Italy remained in the League of Nations and signed the Kellog-Briand Pact in 1928 which agreed to refrain from using war in order to solve disputes.
 * Mussolini also joined the Stress Front with Britain and France in 1935 which attempted to resist any further breach in international agreements with Germany.

Austria
 * 1925- Locarno Pact with Britain and France promising to guarantee Germany's western frontier.
 * In 1934, Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis. Hitler tries to advance on Austria but is blocked by Mussolini who sends troops to the Austrian frontier.
 * In 1935- Stressa Front is formed which is an anti-Hitler front ensuring Austria's independence.
 * 25th October 1936- Rome-Berlin axis is formed.
 * Italy withdraws from the league in 1937.

Abyssinia Crisis (1935-1936)
 * Mussolini aims in acquiring Abyssinia in order to increase Italy's national and international prestige and for Italian economic gains. Abyssinia was one of the two remaining African colonies which were never colonized. Furthermore, it was already situated next to two Italian colonies, Eritrea and Somalia. From October 1935 to April 1936, Italy attacked Abyssinia even going as far as using poison gas against civilians. This was all, naturally, against the laws of the league of nations.
 * There were only 2,000 Italians settled in Italy's colony of Libya.
 * Italy sends an army of 400,000.
 * Mussolini still gained popularity.
 * Tensions rise with France and Britain due to their own African colonies.
 * Mussolini forges closer relations with Germany.
 * The League of Nations condemns Italy's actions and enforces very weak economic sanctions. Coal, oil, and iron are excluded from the sanctions, and the Suez Canal remains open, allowing Italian boats direct access. Nevertheless, Mussolini is disappointed in the actions of Britain and France.

Spain
 * When the civil war broke out in July of 1936, Mussolini immediately provided the nationalists with men and equipment on the grounds that he could not allow a Communist government be formed in the Medittaranean.
 * Volunteers were sent to keep the alliance secret, but eventually was disclosed when film showed Italian cars with Italian license plates.
 * Mussolini was also supplying submarines to attack Russian ships carry goods.

The Munich Conference
 * In September of 1938, it became clear that Mussolini wanted to settle the Czech crisis without resorting to war.

Adolf Hitler
Rise of NSDAP membership
 * 1925: 25,000
 * 1926: 49,000
 * 1927: 72,000
 * 1928, the NSDAP won 2.6% and were given 12 seats.
 * 1929: Young Plan
 * Alfred Hugenburg
 * Law against enslavement of German people
 * 1930 Elections
 * 6.4 million votes
 * Largest party in the Reichstag
 * Still not a majority.
 * Deception for Hitler
 * 1932 Elections
 * 13.7 million votes
 * Largest party in the Reichstag
 * Still not a majority
 * Hitler frustrated

 * Who voted for the Nazis?
 * Northerners
 * Protestants
 * Farmers
 * Extreme Nationalists
 * Youths
 * Ex-supporters of Centre-Democrats

 * Who were relatively anti-Nazi?
 * Southerners
 * Catholics
 * Urban people
 * Educated people
 * Communists and socialists

Propaganda

 * Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that "The receptive powers of the masses are very restricted: they forget easily". Goebbels, Hitler's future minister of propaganda believed that the key to successful propaganda was simplification and repetition. Hitler is thought to have invented modern propaganda.

 * Hitler used posters extensively. Every German town was full of cleverly designed Nazi posters.
 * Hitler utilized modern technology by making use of loud speakers, film, music, radio, and cinema to reach as many people as possible.
 * He used to cars and airplanes to quickly move between campaigns and give the image that he was a modern statesman.
 * Rallies were cleverly organized. They contained flags, torches, uniforms, song, and anthems. Everything was done to stir up a frenzy of excitement and make the audience behave as a group.
 * Hitler's speeches sometimes contained specific messages targeted at groups of people.
 * Violence was used on political enemies by using the SS and SA. Prussia had 461 political riots in July 1932.
 * Local party branches were told to organize events such as football matches and concerts so that individuals would be exposed to Nazi propaganda.

Why did the Weimar Republic fail?

 * The constitution contained an article 48 a measure which allowed the President to rule by decree without the consent of the Reichstag. This gave the Nazis the right to basically do whatever they wanted and Hindenburg foolishly allowed them so.
 * The Weimar Republic was born out of the Treaty of Versailles, a treaty which still left the German bitter. Many believe they never actually lost the war.
 * Economic problems.
 * Proportional government which allowed for splinter parties.
 * There was an appealing alternative by 1932, Hitler.

Why did Hitler succeed?
 * Hitler's ideas were generally appealing to the public.
 * Hitler identified popular fears and desires and responded to them.
 * Aggressive use of scapegoats (Jews and Communists)
 * Skillful use of propaganda (see above).
 * Charismatic leader
 * Divisions and weaknesses among his political rivals. The Communists and Socialists were dvided and refused to work against Hitler. Many members of the right-wing thought they could control Hitler.

Hitler comes to Power

 * Hitler is appointed Chancellor on the 30th of January, 1933
 * Weaknesses:At the time there were only two Nazi members in parliament, W.Frick (minister of interior) and Goring. He didn't have a majority of seats in the Reichstag and lacked support of the Nationalists. Furthermore, his power came entirely from Hindenburg's support.
 * Strengths: Nazi party was the largest party in the Reichstag. It was almost impossible to govern without Nazi support. Besides the Nazis, the only alternative were the communists and Social Democrats. Hitler controls the media and police and is backed by financial businessmen as well as industrialists.

 * Violence: The March 1933 electoral campaigns are marked by extensive use of violence by both the SA and the SS as well as Goring (Nazi minister of interior of Prussia) using the police against communists and all other political opponents.
 * The Reichstag Fire: On the 27th of February 1933, a young Dutch communist by the name of Van der Lubbe was found with incriminating evidence and was arrested. He confessed but insisted that he acted alone. Hitler took advantage of the fire to pass a decree on the 28th of February called the "The decree for the protection of the German people and the state" which:
 * Suspended civic and political liberties
 * Arrested communist and socialist democrat leaders and hundreds of political activists.
 * Powers of federal government in Berlin strengthened.

March 5th Elections:
 * November 1932 - 33.1%
 * March 1933 - 43.9%, still do not have a majority. Hitler disappointed.

The Enabling Act: Hitler wants to rule without a parliament, so he has the Reichstag vote to suspend all parliamentary activities for four years and hand over power to Hitler's government. This requires a 2/3 vote.
 * Hitler's image of respectability was threatened by on-going violence of the SA in the streets.
 * Hitler needed to reassure the German public that he was a moderate leader.

Day of Potsdam: 21st of March 1933. Ceremony to open the Kroll Opera house as the new house of parliament. Hitler makes a big propaganda effort to present himself as a natural leader.
 * 23rd of March 1933. Reichstag votes on Enabling Act. Entire building was surrounded by the SA as show of force and an attempt to intimidate opponents.
 * The Communists and Social Democrats were refused entrance to the Reichstag.
 * Hitler declares that he will respect the Catholic Church and uphold Catholic values in an attempt to gain the backing of the Centre party and Catholics.
 * This resulted in a stunning victory. 444 votes in favor versus 94 against. This legal revolution turns Hitler into a dictatorship.

Hitler's consolidation of Power

 * The next step was for Hitler to nazify Germany. He did so by eliminating the most obvious poles of opposition.
 * The federal states
 * Trade-Unions
 * Other political parties.

He did this by:
 * April 1933: More power given to Nazi-controlled state governments over state parliaments.
 * January 1934: State parliament abolished.
 * May 1st 1933: Hitler makes the first of May a bank holiday. This fools unions into cooperating with the Nazis.
 * May 2nd 1933: All trade unions occupied and closed down. The leaders were arrested and DAF (German Worker's Front) is set up as a replacement in an attempt to control the workers.
 * The communist party (KPD) has been outlawed since February 1933. The Social Democratic party is outlawed in June 1933. All other parties vote themselves out of existence.
 * July 14th 1933: Hitler declares Nazi Party the only legal party in Germany.

However, Hitler still has many obstacles. The Gleischaltung is not complete.
 * The army is still capable of stopping Hitler.
 * Hitler does not control the church
 * Hitler depends on big business.

Night of the Long Knives: 30th June 1934

6th

Josif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili
Better known by his adopted name, Joseph Stalin. (1878-1953)(Georgian)

See Prescribed Topic One.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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IB History Review Guide/The Rise and Rule of single-party States

The Rise and Rule of Single-party States

 * The 20th century produced many single-party states. The origins, ideology, form of government, organization, nature, and impact of these should be studied in this topic. Questions will be set on major themes. Some of these will require knowledge of two regions.

Major Themes
 * Origins of single-party states
 * conditions which produce single-party state
 * emergence of leader: aims, ideology, support

 * Establishment of single-party states
 * methods: force, legal
 * form of government, ideology (left and right wing)
 * totalitarianism, treatment of opposition

 * Rule of Single Party states
 * political, economic, and social policies
 * role of education, the arts, the media, and propaganda
 * status of women, treatment of minorities, and religious groups

 * Regional and Global impact
 * foreign policy as a means of maintaining the regime
 * impact of regime outside the state
 * as a factor in the Cold War

 * Examples of material for Detailed Study
 * China: Mao Zedong
 * Cuba: Fidel Castro
 * Germany: Adolf Hitler
 * Italy: Benito Mussolini
 * Russia: Vladimir Lenin and Josef Stalin

The Emergence of single party states in Europe after 1917
Lenin rose to power in Russia because of four main factors:
 * Witte's reforms attempting to industrialize Russia disrupted society.
 * Both the tsarist regime and the provisional government were unstable.
 * WWI had a crippling effect on Russia.
 * The Whites sided with the provisional government and ex-tsarists.

Emergence of Mussolini and Hitler
 * Post war governments faced many difficulties- very unstable.
 * Fear of Communism
 * Shame of WWI

China- Mao Zedong
The Establishment of Single Party Rule

Land Reform (June 1950) - land of landlords taken away by peasants - millions of landlords died - peasants were given a stake in the revolution - however, at this stage, ownership of land still remained private

The First five Year Plan (1953-57) - aimed to imitate Soviet model of socialism - huge new industrial centres, employing 35 000 workers, were built - boost of urbanisation - urban population increased from 57 million to 100 million between 1949-1957 - Industrial output increased significantly - rose by 70% - targets were exceeded by 20% and important infrastructure improvements, such as a construction of railroads and bridges, were made - by 1956, China saw nationalisation of all private in industries and bisinesses - however, by 1957, 20$ of heavy industry and 60% of light industry had still been under private ownership

The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957) - can be seen as a form of rectification - a safety-valve, designed to let off steam so that grievances did not accumulate to exploding point - can also be seen as a trap set by Mao to lure and flush out critics

The Great Leap Forward (1958) - Mao abandoned Soviet model - placed more emphasis on agriculture and light industry - set up 26 000 communes in 1958 - responsible for agricultural enterprises, industry, education and defence - intended to break down distinction between peasnat and worker; town and countryside - backyard furnaces built - however produced poor quality - making it unsusable - agriculture in the countryside was disastrous - poor harvest due to the useof Lysenko's agricultural ideas led to catastrophic famine and millions of starvations - CCP officials failed to deal with the challenges - terminated in 1961 - China was in a state of crisies, suffering famine and starvation

The Cultural Revolution (1966-76) - Mao wanted to re-assert power over the CCP - cult of Mao reached its peak - Red Guard units were set up to purge imposters and rigthists - millions of men and women denounced and tortured to death - Education systems were abandoned and Chinese culture became sterile - hysterical masses went out of control and factionalised - Red Guards were sent off to the rural - leading to further deaths

Italy - Benito Mussolini
Mussolini was born into a socialist house. He remained a socialist until he returned from WW1 with a new perspective. He then started the fascist party. He and his fascist black shirt marched on Rome and claimed to have forced the government to allow Mussolini to be prime minister. Yet, the truth is the president of Italy liked Mussolini and gave him the position of minister without conflict. From this point, Mussolini gained support until he became the leader of Italy in 1920.

Italian Economic situation:
 * Inflation, the lire devalued to 1/5 of its original values.
 * Italy still had massive war loans. The Italian debt was 6x the prewar level.
 * Demobilization, returning soldiers
 * Italian tourist trade and exports virtually came to a standstill. There was large scale unemployment.

Political conditions/weaknesses
 * Between 1914 and 1928- Italy had thirty different prime ministers.
 * No majority could stay in power.
 * Orlando lost support and resigned in 1990.
 * There was a general atmosphere of frustration and discontent amongst the Italian people due to the broken promises; the victory in the Great War was regarded as incomplete because Italy did not receive control of regions it wanted - e.g. Fiume. The government was weak and failing.
 * Universal suffrage introduced in 1918.
 * Italian proportional system meant that political parties had to form coalitions in order to achieve anything in parliament.
 * The Fascist's opponents were divided, the socialist and the communists did not work together. The Prime minister, Giolitti could not govern the country with the socialists opposing him in Parliament. He organized the 1921 elections, attempting to bring the Fascists in parliament, in hopes that they would back his liberal party.
 * 1919 Elections: Fascists won 339 seats, while the socialists held 12. The socialists could still block the government's policy in parliament.

Social conditions Mussolini’s background
 * Italian patriots felt the Italian government had betrayed them in 1919.
 * Occupation of Fiume. In September 1919, a volunteer force led by the poet Gabrielle D'Annunzio took over Fiume. They were not driven out until January 1921.
 * Soviets began establishing Soviets in 1920. Workers took over 600 factories.
 * Peasants began simply taking land.
 * Increasing strikes (worker-employer relations were strained), e.g. in the Po valley, and social unrest; the Liberals maintained a stance of neutrality, leaving workers and employers to work out problems themselves whereas the Fascists broke up strikes. The Fascists were thus able to appear as the only group willing and able to do something about Italy's social problems.
 * Mussolini was the son of a blacksmith, and actively involved in Politics.
 * Had lots of distant family from Germany making him culturally diverse.
 * Fought in the war, but was hurt in an army training exercise.

Threat of Socialism Cult of Personality
 * The Socialist party was gaining widespread support. Party membership grew from 50,000 before war to 200,000 in 1919. With increased membership came more strikes.
 * A wave of strikes shook Italian cities throughout 1919-1922. Rising prices with rising unemployment explain the increase in membership of the Italian socialist and communist parties.
 * 361 strikes in May of 1919.
 * 1920: Half a million workers on strike.
 * The general strike of the summer of 1922. Mussolini organized his fighting units and started to terrorize his opponents through physical force. The socialist party called for a general strike in July of 1922, but this was in Mussolini's favor. He was able to propose an ultimatum- either the Italian government stop the strikes, or he would.
 * Mussolini drew a wide assortment of support from different sections of Italian society. He was seen as a defender of private property and the social order. He organized the Fascio di Combattimento into an anti-socialist police force. However, Mussolini drew on a violent cult who gave their support to him more during his time in power than in his rise to.

March on Rome
 * By Autumn 1922, the fascists felt strong enough to bid for power. 50,000 fascists took to the countryside and marched on Rome. These were poorly organized and easily stopped. However, the King refused to give the Prime Minister special powers to stop the march. He instead telegrammed Mussolini asking him to become the new Italian prime minister.
 * The army leader thought 10 or 12 arrests would be enough to stop the March on Rome.
 * Trainloads of fascist supporters were stopped at checkpoints. Some 40,000 of them were stopped by 2,000 policemen.
 * Only 5,000 men reached the assembly which was guarded by 28,000 troops.
 * King Trubauld III never asked the military commander of Venus what the situation was, nor did him the powers required to further disrupt the March.

Germany- Adolf Hitler
Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany (1919-1933/34) Characteristics of Fascism National Socialist Deutschland Arbeit Part NSDAP (NAZI for short) Adolf's Rise Methods
 * 1921 Hitler was the Nazi party leader
 * Due to people being afraid and due to the bad state of Germany people joined the Nazi party.
 * Totalitarian states want to test their power and start war. “War is ultimate test”
 * Master race, sub-human, Aryan race
 * After Weimar Republic was over, Hitler breaks all laws and does what he wants, he ignores the Treaty of Versailles and no one hinders him.
 * 1921: Nazi party sets up SA
 * 1923: Tried to seize power in Munich (capital of Bavaria), Beer hall putsch, walked through street, stopped by police and shot at, Hitler wounded and later arrested and sent to prison.
 * 1923: Nazi party choses Judge and the judge allows Hitler to speak freely/propaganda of the Treaty of Versailles and that they are the true traitors
 * 1923: Sentenced to 5 years but comes out after 9 months
 * 1923/4: Writes Mein Kampf in prison, he has his own secretary
 * 1924: Comes out of prison
 * 1925: re-establishes Nazi party
 * 1929: Slowly Nazi party gains power again after Weimar Republic was over, problems came back, people seek powerful leader
 * 1933: Hitler Chancellor
 * totalitarian
 * aggressively nationalistic
 * nation is more important than the individual
 * stressed emotion over reason
 * violent
 * against major monopolies, big business, big banks
 * loves small business, small landowners
 * destroy everything that exploits the German worker
 * allows capitalism: not free, but not totally controlled
 * Anti-Marxist since Hitler was focused on race
 * he couldn't believe the Germans lost World War I, blamed the communists and Jews
 * amazing talent of public speaking
 * Lebensraum-living space for the Germans
 * he used emotion, not reason/logic
 * eliminated crushing unemployment by expanding military
 * Hitler Youth- he was idolized by the young
 * Joseph Goebbels- chief propagandist, "Minister of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda"
 * German broadcasting by means of the "Peoples' receiver" and the "German mini-receiver" (cheapest set in the world) which allowed for propaganda
 * 1934-no German news agency was independent
 * anti-Semitism: hatred of Jews taught in schools, systematic persecution of the Jews, their civil rights were stripped away, Jews were used as scapegoats for Germany's problems
 * Hitler targeted the youth, they were the future of Germany
 * 1933- bonfires of literature
 * Heinrich Himmler controlled German Police- head of the feared Gestapo (secret police)
 * "Night of the Long Knives" (1934)- elimination of political opposition

Russia- Josef Stalin
USSR-Russia. Goverenment and Opposition: Government and Opposition: Rises to power with the death of Lenin in 1924 by using his position as General Secretary and his good connections with people. He eliminated his adversaries, Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, etc. He turned against the NEP by 1928. Post-WW2 purge. Frequent purges of dissenters, and other nationalist groups, as well as those loyal to the party, perceived as a threat to command structure. When quotas weren't met or there were other problems, the government used scapegoats to blame. Common scapegoats were: landlords, kulaks, journalists, capitalists, Mensheviks, priests, and drunkards. Stalin had a huge Cult of Personality: he did nothing wrong (scapegoats), credited with things he did not do, instilled fear into people, intense propaganda and education, Socialist Realism. Foreign Policies: Unlike Lenin and Trotsky, who believed in global communism and attempted to finance communist revolutions in Europe in the early 20s, Stalin adopted a policy of 'Socialism in One Country.' Following later allegiance with Western allies, against Nazi Germany, joins the war against Japan, gaining control of Northern China. Used this to support pro-Soviet regimes in China and North Korea, and later Vietnam. Domestic Policies: 1928- 1932 First Five Year plan (lots of industrial improvements and collectivization); was a blueprint for a command economy: it was a list of targets for industries, power supplies, and transport. There was a policy of eliminating the kulaks ("wealthy" peasants who did not want to collectivize) as a class. It is quite probable that in the end all the persons described as kulaks were in fact deported. 5 Year Plans initiated strict central control of industry and agriculture through collectivization. 25,000 loyal communists were sent out to "educate" the peasants about collectivization. Enlarged prison system of Gulags, work camps. Legal system controlled through the appointment of judges. Show trials. The secret police once called the Cheka but enlarged into the OGPU, headed by Genrikh Yagoda. The OGPU's task: root out and destroy the opposition and terrorize ordinary people into silence and passive obedience. Agricultural policies resulted in systemic shortages, including famine-genocide in Ukraine 1932-3. Great Purification 1937-8.

Cuba- Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro began his rise to power with his attempt to overthrow the then-dictator of Cuba, General Fulgencio Batista. He began with the attack on the Moncada Barracks on 26 July 1953. The attack failed and most of the rebels involved were captured, tortured, killed, and/or imprisoned. Fidel Castro was sentenced to 15 years in prison and Raul Castro to 13, but due to calls from members of the Catholic Church and other notable international figures, and possibly because Batista himself knew the Castros as boys, they served only two years and were then exiled to Mexico. There, the Castros joined with Cienfuegos and Che Guevara, among others, to form the crew of the Granma, the yacht that would sail for Cuba in December 1956. This was the official beginning of the M-26-7, named for the date of the failed Mancada Barracks attack. The crew landed but the initial crew of over 100 was quickly diminished to between 10 and 20, because the Granma's landing date and location were off, throwing their meeting with the llano (urban guerrilla) section of the rebellion. The remaining warriors retreated into the Sierra Maestra, which became their headquarters. After several battles with the Cuban army, numbered 30-40,000, Castro's forces, at their peak numbering 800, were able to take the country. Batista fled in the early hours of January 1, 1959, fulfilling Castro's promise that they would take the country by 1959. From there, Castro went to set up his revolutionary government, incorporating the sierra (mountain guerrilla) forces from the revolution as top of the government, and eventually naming himself what can loosely be translated to "big boy of the revolution," where he would remain until February 2008.

One of the most significant aspects of Castro's rule was his relation with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Castro formed close relations with the USSR, adopting a more hardline Marxist-Leninist ideology, in response to actions by the United States to limit or eliminate trade with Cuba. Contrary to the claims of many US leaders, the Cuban Trade Embargo only forced Cuba closer to the USSR and communism, due to the nation's desperate need for a trade partner. The US does not still support this embargo, with the OAS, EU, and other countries and international organizations having denounced it.

Other events worth researching to fully understand Castro's rule include the revolutionary exploits of Che Guevara in Bolivia, Africa, etc. Guevara was sent to spread what Castro wished to be an eternal, worldwide revolution throughout Latin America and the Third World. Many of these attempts were unsuccessful and the Bolivian attempt led to Guevara's death. Also significant are the Cuban Missile Crisis, in which the hardline policies of President Kennedy and, to a lesser extent, Khruschev, nearly led to nuclear war.

Political Policies: -1961- revolutionary organizations against Batista are unified (ORI, later becoming PURSC)

Economic Policies: -Agrarian Reform (gained him peasant support) -nationalized foreign companies -Voluntarism and moral incentives -Revolutionary Offensive- expropriation of all privately owned property -1970-Year of 10 Million Zafra (failure) -1986-Rectification Campaign-bans farmers markets and self-employment (communist ideals)

Social Policies:


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Talk:IB History Review Guide

issues after importing

 * Chapter 3 was deleted on Wikibooks . Asking if it can be imported also.
 * The category b:Category:International Baccalaureate can be found at WB, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) PS: Tag a learning project with completion status !! 21:06, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

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Select a wiki and page title to import from. Make sure the page exists, is the correct page (e.g isn't a redirect) and the page hasn't already been imported.

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Talk:Filmmaking Basics/Animated Storyboard/Cast and Costumes

How would it be if this was renamed to Cast and costume animation, or some variant thereof? --Remi 00:47, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

This page is about the Lesson on the selection of off-the-shelf Poser figures and their costumes needed for the cast of the movie created with character animation. You can use that name if you wish. Robert Elliott 04:04, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Note: this page is NOT about the animation of the cast and characters. That is another lesson. This is only for the selection of the cast and characters for the animated version of the motion picture exercise. Robert Elliott 04:06, 29 May 2008 (UTC)


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Portal:Arts/Introduction

The arts represent an outlet of expression. They are usually influenced by tradition and culture and it turns to help to change culture. As such, the arts are a physical manifestation of the internal creative impulse. Major constituents of the arts include literature, poetry, novels, short stories, and epics; performing arts such as music, dance, and theatre; culinary arts such as baking, chocolatiering, and winemaking; media arts like photography and cinematography; and visual arts, including drawing, painting, ceramics, and sculpting. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance (e.g. film) and the written word (e.g. comics).

We can also say that art is present in everything we do. Even a homeowner decorating a house or a chef plating food on a plate and garnishing can be considered artists. We can see that art is everywhere and all times. Writing, reading, sleeping, even eating apply. Everything comes under art.

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Portal:Arts/Learn/Selection

Practice forming a selective eye:

Take your camera, be it a DSLR, a point and shoot camera, or your cell phone. Take ten photos a day for a week. Every day, select just one to keep. Every week, select one of those "finalist" photos to keep.

This will help develop your selective eye for judging quality works. Drawing or any other medium can be reasonably substituted for photography.

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Portal:Arts/Featured Picture

Featured Pictures

 * Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg
 * Chenxin Liu - Don Quichotte, Kitri - Prix de Lausanne 2010-7 edit.jpg
 * Louis Armstrong restored (color version).jpg

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Computer Skills/Fundamentals/Typing

Typing is the process of writing or inputting text by pressing keys on a typewriter, keyboard, cell phone, or a calculator. It can be distinguished from other means of text input, such as handwriting and speech recognition.

Learners should practice typing for fifteen minutes each day until their typing speed is at least 30 words per minute.

Multimedia

 * YouTube: Learn To Type: Get To Know Your Keyboard (~7 minutes)
 * How To Teach Yourself To Touch Type - Kidztype

Tutorials for Children

 * Dance Mat Typing

Tutorials for Children and Adults

 * Typing.com: Learn to Type
 * AgileFingers
 * TypeRacer
 * FreeTypingGame.net
 * TypingTest.com
 * Ratatype
 * Type Online
 * Nitro Type Competitive Typing
 * FunToType Typing Games
 * TypeRush Worldwide Typing Racing Game
 * KidzType Typing Games
 * Typing Speed Test

Tutorials for Adults

 * GCFLearnFree.org: Typing Tutorial
 * GCFLearnFree.org: Keyboard Shortcuts
 * DigitalLearn.org: Getting Started on the Computer - the Keyboard
 * Typing Study - Free online touch typing lessons, speed tests, typing games
 * Sense Lang - Online touch typing lessons
 * Wpm Test - Word Per Minute Test

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User:Danluedert

Grew up on a farm in Nebraska. Discovered philosphy at an early age - didn't discover thinkin' was a science till he went ta college.

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Running

There are two types of running:
 * Aerobic, endurance training.
 * Anaerobic, sprinting.

These two types or running require very different types of training:

Endurance Training
Muscles need to convert glucose into energy quickly and effectively a long period of time.

Sprint Training
Sprinting requires the body's muscles to ferment, transforming glucose into energy and lactic acid without the supply of oxygen.

Training Advice

 * Example 1: If you are training and you feel like you can’t run anymore, just keep running. It doesn’t matter at what speed, just don’t start walking. Once you start walking it is SO HARD to start running again, so just don’t do it.

 * Example 2: If you feel like you can’t run anymore, decrease your speed until you feel comfortable with it. You will see that after a few minutes you will come back to breath and your speed will increase automatically.

 * Example 3: If you aren’t able to run for three miles straight, you can implement this advice later on, when your shape has improved.

 * Example 4: Motivation helps a lot when you 'feel' like you can’t run anymore, but it is a bad advice when you break your leg ;) You understand what I mean. Don’t force anything, if you think it’s unhealthy to continue running, then simply stop.

Other pages

 * Motivation_and_emotion/Book/Exercise_motivation

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 * --Jomegat 21:19, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

2009 Logs

 * Jomegat 00:22, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

Recent Logs

 * Jomegat 23:27, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

title: BCP/Viburnum acerifolium/Logs


text:
Template:Participant

 * This template can be used to provide links to a user's page and contributions.
 * Example:  will show   User: - c

title: Template:Participant


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User talk:Jesuisjules

Salut, welcome around here. I hope we can help you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) PS: Tag a learning project with completion status !! 16:14, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack(Russell). I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

 Hello Jesuisjules, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) PS: Tag a learning project with completion status !! 16:14, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

French Mentoring
Salut, Jules. You are listed at the French stream as being a beginning student of French with prior French-language experience, who is interested in learning French at Wikiversity. The French Mentoring project has recently been launched, and if you add your name to that list, I will do my best to put you in contact with an appropriate Mentor who would be glad to help you. The Jade Knight (d'viser) 09:01, 22 November 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jesuisjules


text:
User talk:He7d3r

__NOINDEX__Contact information: [ @pt.wikibooks]

title: User talk:He7d3r


text:
User:Jim Mahoney

Jim Mahoney Marlboro College

title: User:Jim Mahoney


text:
User talk:Jim Mahoney

 Hello Jim Mahoney, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Countrymike 21:12, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jim Mahoney


text:
User:Bstone

I am on the English Wikipedia.

title: User:Bstone


text: User:Elmacenderesi

title: User:Elmacenderesi


text:
User talk:Elmacenderesi

Merhaba Elmacenderesi, nice to see you also finally here at Wikiversity. I knew you would be here in the end. :-) Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) PS: Tag a learning project with completion status !! 23:19, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 Hi! Our name is Vicky-Verity. We are twins and are Wikiversity mascots. We think Wikiversity is a great place to learn and make friends (when we aren't sleeping). Leave us a message!

 Hello Elmacenderesi, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) PS: Tag a learning project with completion status !! 23:19, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elmacenderesi


text:
BCP/Amelanchier bartramiana

Amelanchier bartramiana

title: BCP/Amelanchier bartramiana


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BCP/Amelanchier bartramiana/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * (no logs yet)

title: BCP/Amelanchier bartramiana/Logs


text: Template:Search

title: Template:Search


text: User:Synthebot

title: User:Synthebot


text: User talk:Synthebot

title: User talk:Synthebot


text: User:Julian Mendez

title: User:Julian Mendez


text: User talk:Julian Mendez

title: User talk:Julian Mendez


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Category:Social research

This category lists various methods of social research and related pages:

title: Category:Social research


text: Category:Criminal justice

title: Category:Criminal justice


text: Category:Cultural studies

title: Category:Cultural studies


text:
User:Sanjaysivakumar

Sanjay siva kumar

title: User:Sanjaysivakumar


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User:Paulcrawshaw

I am a amature writer, photographer and musician from england.

title: User:Paulcrawshaw


text: Category:School of Media Studies

title: Category:School of Media Studies


text:
User:Marshallsumter/Languages and language families

Languages are the methods of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.

Universals
Def. a "set of languages which have evolved from a common ancestor" is called a language family.

If "we are going to claim that something is universal, we had better test languages in a sample that includes as many language families as possible."

"In our study, we had data from 31 languages in total, and these derived from 16 distinct language families. This sample represents only a fraction of the world’s languages, but in practice, a sample of this size and kind is sufficient to falsify many possible claimed universals. If Huh? were not universal in the sense we claim, chances are high that at least one of the 31 languages would lack it."

Indo-European migrations
The animated map on the right gives an overall impression; in the details, many things are not exactly right, of the migrations of Indo-Europeans. The first migration into the Danube Valley, for example, did not proceed from the Yamna culture, which started almost a millennium later. But altogether, the idea is to give an general impression of the migrations.

Proto-Indo-European languages
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of the ancient common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, the most widely spoken language family in the world.

PIE is estimated to have been spoken as a single language from 4500 BC to 2500 BC during the Late [Neolithic to Early Bronze Age, though estimates vary by more than a thousand years. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis, the proto-Indo-European homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Europe. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has also provided insight into the proto-Indo-European culture and proto-Indo-European religion of its speakers.

No direct evidence of PIE exists – scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the linguistic comparative method.

Since there is a consistent correspondence of the initial consonants that emerges far too frequently to be coincidental, one can assume that these languages stem from a common parent language.

A common ancestry of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek has been postulated.

In the 1500s, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent became aware of similarities between Indo-Iranian languages and European languages.

A proposal was published for a proto-language ("Scythian") for the following language families: Germanic, Romance, Hellenic languages (Greek), Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, and Iranian.

The analogy between Sanskrit and European languages has been demonstrated.

Anatolian languages
Under the Kurgan hypothesis, there are two possibilities for how the early Anatolian speakers could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus, and from the west, via the Balkans, the latter of which is considered somewhat more likely by Mallory (1989), Steiner (1990) and Anthony (2007). Statistical research by Quentin Atkinson and others using Bayesian inference and glottochronological markers favors an Indo-European origin in Anatolia, though the method's validity and accuracy are subject to debate.

The following classification has proposed:
 * Proto-Anatolian
 * Hittite
 * Palaic
 * Luwic
 * Luwian
 * Lycian
 * Milyan
 * Carian
 * Sidetic
 * Pisidian
 * (?) Lydian

Luwian
Luwiya is the name of the region in which the Luwians lived, as Luwiya is attested, for example, in the Hittite laws.

Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian, Lycian, Lydian and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of the Anatolian branch.

Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic.

Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa. It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca. 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian, and long after the extinction of the Hittite language, Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as Milid and Carchemish, as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC.

The earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were the horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük (Eskisehir Province) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC, were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula.

"Türkmen-Karahöyük [is] a large Bronze and Iron Age mounded settlement [see second image down on the right] occupied between about 3,500 and 100 BC."

"A local farmer [...] had found a big stone [in the first image on the right] with strange inscriptions while dredging a nearby irrigation canal the previous winter."

"My colleague Michele Massa and I rushed straight there, and we could see it still sticking out of the water, so we jumped right down into the canal up to our waists wading around."

"Right away it was clear it was ancient, and we recognized the script it was written in: Luwian, the language used in the Bronze and Iron ages in the area."

"The survey team immediately identified a special hieroglyphic marking that symbolised the message came from a king."

"The inscription boasted of defeating Phrygia, the kingdom ruled by King Midas, famous from the mythical story where he developed a golden touch."

The "city covered 300 acres, making it one of the largest in Bronze and Iron Age Turkey."

"We had no idea about this kingdom. In a flash, we had profound new information on the Iron Age Middle East."

"Inside this mound are going to be palaces, monuments, houses. This was a marvelous, incredibly lucky find but it’s just the beginning."

Major geographical language families
In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.

Afro-Asiatic languages
Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian and traditionally as Hamito-Semitic (Chamito-Semitic) or Semito-Hamitic, is a large language family of about 300 languages and dialects.

Niger-Congo languages
The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers and number of distinct languages. It is generally considered to be the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, ahead of Austronesian, although this is complicated by the ambiguity about what constitutes a distinct language; the number of named Niger–Congo languages listed by Ethnologue is 1,540.

Families of Europe, and North Asia, West Asia, and South Asia

 * Indo-European languages
 * Dravidian languages (some include Dravidian languages in a larger Elamo-Dravidian language family.)
 * Caucasian languages (generally thought to be two separate families, North Caucasian and South Caucasian)
 * Altaic languages (disputed)
 * Uralic languages
 * Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct)
 * Yukaghir languages (Some include Yukaghir in the Uralic family.)
 * Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
 * Yenisei-Ostyak languages
 * Andamanese languages

Families of East Asia and Southeast Asia and the Pacific

 * Austroasiatic languages
 * Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages
 * Sino-Tibetan languages (some include Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien in the Sino-Tibetan family)
 * Tai-Kadai languages
 * Hmong-Mien languages
 * Australian Aboriginal languages (multiple families)
 * Papuan languages (multiple families)

Families of the Americas

 * Alacalufan languages (South America) (2)
 * Algic languages (including Algonquian) (North America)
 * Arauan languages (South America) (8)
 * Araucanian languages (South America) (2)
 * Arawakan languages (South America, Caribbean) (60)
 * Arutani-Sape languages (South America) (2)
 * Aymaran languages (South America) (3)
 * Barbacoan languages (South America) (7)
 * Caddoan languages (North America)
 * Cahuapanan languages (South America) (2)
 * Carib languages (South America) (29)
 * Chapacura-Wanham languages (South America) (5)
 * Chibchan languages (Central America, South America) (22)
 * Choco languages (South America) (10)
 * Chon languages (South America) (2)
 * Chumash languages (North America) (7)
 * Harakmbet languages (South America) (2)
 * Hokan languages (North America)
 * Huavean languages (North America)
 * Inuit-Aleut languages (North America)
 * Iroquoian languages (North America)
 * Jivaroan languages (South America) (4)
 * Katukinan languages (South America) (3)
 * Keres languages (North America) (2)
 * Kiowa-Tanoan languages (North America) (6)
 * Lule-Vilela languages (South America) (1)
 * Macro-Ge languages (South America) (32)
 * Maku languages (South America) (6)
 * Mascoian languages (South America) (5)
 * Mataco-Guaicuru languages (South America) (11)
 * Mayan languages (North America), (Central America)
 * Misumalpan languages (Central America)
 * Mixe-Zoque languages (North America, Central America)
 * Mosetenan languages (South America) (1)
 * Mura languages (South America) (1)
 * Muskogean languages (North America)
 * Na-Dene languages (Athabascan) (North America)
 * Nambiquaran languages (South America) (5)
 * Oto-Manguean languages (Central America)
 * Paezan languages (South America) (1)
 * Panoan languages (South America) (30)
 * Penutian languages (North America)
 * Peba-Yaguan languages (South America) (2)
 * Quechuan languages (South America) (46)
 * Salishan languages (North America)
 * Salivan languages (South America) (2)
 * Siouan languages (North America)
 * Tacanan languages (South America) (6)
 * Tucanoan languages (South America) (25)
 * Tupi languages (South America) (70)
 * Uru-Chipaya languages (South America) (2)
 * Uto-Aztecan languages (North America)
 * Witotoan languages (South America) (6)
 * Yanomam languages (South America) (4)
 * Zamucoan languages (South America) (2)
 * Zaparoan languages (South America) (7)

Proposed Language Super-Families

 * Austric
 * Indo-Pacific
 * Ural-Altaic
 * Pontic
 * Ibero-Caucasian
 * Alarodian
 * Amerind
 * Macro-Siouan
 * Kongo-Saharan
 * Super-Families that would include Indo-European
 * Eurasiatic
 * Nostratic
 * Proto-World

Creoles, Pidgins, and Trade languages

 * Bislamic languages
 * Bislama
 * Broken
 * Pijin
 * Tok Pisin
 * Chabacano - a Spanish creole spoken in southwestern part of Philippines.
 * Chinook Jargon
 * Hawaiian Creole English
 * Haitian creole
 * Hiri Motu
 * Lingua franca
 * Portuguese Creole languages
 * Sango

Isolate languages
Def. "[a] natural language with no proven relationship with another living language" is called a language isolate.

/Isolate languages/ share no apparent traits with any known language family.
 * /Basque/ (The language of the Basques, people of unknown origin inhabiting the western Pyrenees and the Bay of Biscay in France and Spain.)
 * /Burushaski/
 * /Ainu/
 * /Vascan/

Sign languages

 * Department of Deaf studies
 * American Sign Language (ASL)
 * Auslan, used in Australia
 * British Sign Language (BSL)
 * Dutch Sign Language (NGT)
 * Quebec Sign Language (LSQ)
 * French Sign Language (LSF)
 * Flemish Sign Language "Vlaamse Gebarentaal" (VGT)
 * German Sign Language "Deutsche Gebärdensprache" (DGS)
 * Swiss-German Sign Language "Deutschschweizer Gebärdensprache" (DSGS)
 * Irish Sign Language (ISL)
 * Nicaraguan Sign Language (LSN)
 * Taiwanese Sign Language (TSL)

Other Natural Languages of Special Interest

 * Endangered languages
 * Extinct languages

Artificial Languages
Besides the above languages that have arisen spontaneously out of the capability for vocal communication, there are also languages that share many of their important properties.
 * Esperanto
 * constructed spoken languages


text:
User talk:Paulcrawshaw

 Hello Paulcrawshaw, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Gbaor 11:39, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paulcrawshaw


text:
User talk:Frank

 Hello Frank, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Gbaor 12:03, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

Welcome to the Bloom Clock!
Hello, Frank, and thanks for signing up as a contributor to the Bloom Clock!

To get started, all that you need to do is keep your eyes open for flowers on plants growing outdoors. Then, depending on how well you know plants, you can either try to find the plant using the global keys, or just check the master list where plants are listed by their scientific names.

Assuming you find a log page for the plant you saw, all that you need to do is click [edit] above the list of signatures, and add *~ on a new line below the last signature and above the line that begins with, which will make your signature appear on the profile page.

If you don't find a log page, just add an entry for the plant to the Master List using. Someone can then show you how to create a profile and log page for the plant.

If you don't know the name of the plant you saw, try asking on Bloom Clock/Unknown Plants using the template there. Photographs are very helpful, but if you don't have a digital camera, just give the best description you can and hopefully someone can identify it for you.

After you've logged 10 or more plants as flowering for your location, another bloom clock contributor will help you set up the categories and templates used to construct a key for your region, and try to match up your region to the global keys.

If you have any questions, ideas, or need something explained, please feel free to leave a message on my talk page, and I'll get back to you as soon as I can!--SB_Johnny | talk 10:42, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Frank


text:
User talk:Sanjaysivakumar

 Hello Sanjaysivakumar, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Gbaor 12:04, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sanjaysivakumar


text:
Category:Requests for own page deletion

__EXPECTUNUSEDCATEGORY__

title: Category:Requests for own page deletion


text:
BCP/Spergularia

Spergularia

title: BCP/Spergularia


text:
BCP/Spergularia/Logs

2008 Logs

 * --Jomegat 02:41, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jomegat 17:50, 16 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jomegat 03:34, 21 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jomegat 17:21, 30 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jomegat 19:58, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 17:34, 17 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 17:18, 24 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 22:44, 1 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 02:55, 8 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 02:44, 15 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 17:14, 22 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 17:02, 28 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 00:54, 2 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 02:25, 13 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 20 August, 2008
 * Jomegat 16:20, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

2009 Logs

 * Jomegat 00:38, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 15:53, 21 May 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 01:58, 4 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 00:13, 15 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 00:54, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

Recent Logs

 * Jomegat 23:23, 5 May 2010 (UTC)

title: BCP/Spergularia/Logs


text:
User:Una Smith

Home page on English Wikipedia User:Una Smith

title: User:Una Smith


text:
Introduction to Swedish/Possessive forms

The possessive case
Add an s'' to indefinite and definite forms. If the word already ends on an s, no extra s should be appended.''

Combined words
''A lot of words have been merged to form new words. The declension is set by the last word in the combination:''

Example sentences
Min bil är stor. My car is big. Tavlornas färg är blå. The colour of the paintings is blue. Trädets blad har fallit. The leaves of the tree have fallen. Han är vän till mig. He is a friend of mine. Hon tycker om sin man. She likes her husband. De är hundägare. They own dogs. Det är en stor segelbåt. Dess höjd är 15 meter. ''It's a big sailing boat. The height of it measures 15 meters.'' Man är sin egen chef här. You are your own boss here.

Exercise
Please translate into English.  Mina byxor är för stora. Han har lovat att äta upp sin hatt. Jubilarens vänner har ordnat en fest åt honom. Svenska flaggans färger är gul och blå. Pyramidernas toppar syns på långt håll.

Please translate into Swedish.

The wheels of the car are new.

The owner of the dog is a criminal.

Hans Holmer led the Palme investigation.

The Falun copper mine was started in the eighteenth century.

Your objection is not valid.


text: User:Cyclonenim

title: User:Cyclonenim


text:
Night vision

Night vision is the ability to see in (relative) darkness. All natural vision involves reception of some light by the eye. This is true even in the dark; vision is possible only when light is present. Often, what appears to be total darkness is not the absence of light but rather the poor reception of available light. To see well in the dark, humans either enhance reception of limited available light, or provide more light.

Light in the dark
Many techniques and technologies for improving night vision involve reception of certain frequency bands (colors) of light. These frequency bands include:

 * infrared light (heat)
 * red light
 * soft ultraviolet (UV) light (also known as blacklight)

Infrared light
Because the human eye does not detect IR light, our visual detection of this light requires some kind of electronic imaging device. Many military and civilian SAR helicopters are equipped with forward looking infra red (FLIR) devices.

Infrared (IR) imaging is used to search for clues that are expected to have a temperature far above ambient. Thus IR imaging is used most often at night (when ambient temperatures are lower) but also may be used in daylight, especially in cold weather. IR-detectable clues include hot engines, campfires, and live subjects. IR imaging cannot detect a clue that is not above ambient temperature, due to lack of contrast between clue and background. Thus, IR imaging may be ineffective during early night in hot deserts, and when the subject is under cover, dressed in heavy winter clothes, or deceased.

Red light
In humans, the rod cells that provide normal night vision are not sensitive to red light. Thus, a source of red light (such as a flashlight with a red filter) can be used to provide sufficient light for the cone cells without "blinding" the rod cells.

Black light
Scorpions appear black in daylight but under black light they glow blue. Black light flashlights are used to find scorpions in the wild.

Humans normally do not glow under black light, but often our clothing does. Most laundry detergents contain optical brighteners, fluorescent dyes that absorb black light and emit blue light. These dyes make clothing appear brighter under daylight; under black light, they glow (fluoresce ) blue. Black light may be used at night to search for a subject's clothing. Because these dyes are in most laundry detergents, even in those labeled "no dyes", it may be not helpful to ask the subject's household members what brand of laundry detergent they use. Shining a black light on a sample of the subject's clothing may be helpful.

In 2007, the United States Air Force distributed laundry instructions for camouflage uniforms that included the instruction to use no detergents containing these dyes. The Air Force later rescinded this instruction on the ground that research by the US Army found the effect was not important in the context of military combat. Because horses' eyes are highly receptive for blue light, the combination of black light flashlights and mounted SAR field teams may be particularly effective.

Seeing in the dark
Reception of limited available light can be enhanced by using advanced technology and/or ancient behaviors most widely used by trackers and hunters.

 * electronics

 * larger lenses: animals with very large eyes (eyeballs) tend to have very large lenses.  Thus, horses have far better night vision than humans do.  Humans can enhance their own night vision by using binoculars or scopes with lenses of very large diameter.  All else being equal, due to the high cost of manufacturing large high quality lenses, these devices are far more expensive than others.

 * rods instead of cones

 * peripheral instead of central vision

Questions

 * 1) Why is the US military not concerned about dyes on camouflage uniforms? Because the effect of these dyes occurs only when illuminated with black light, and for combat use artificial illumination has limited tactical advantage and greater tactical disadvantage.

 * 1) Does this lack of concern mean black light is not useful for SAR? Why?  No, because for SAR black light illumination has more tactical advantages than disadvantages.

title: Night vision


text:
Category:Wikiversity metatemplates

 * See also mw:Help:Magic words

title: Category:Wikiversity metatemplates


text:
Category:Wikipedia resources for researchers

This category is for user's listed under "Wikipedia resources for researchers"


text: Category:Islamic studies

title: Category:Islamic studies


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Gender

title: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Gender


text: Category:User knowledge-psyc-3

title: Category:User knowledge-psyc-3


text: Category:African studies

title: Category:African studies


text: Category:Wikiversity doppelganger accounts


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/France

title: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/France


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