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User talk:Rehus1

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File:Fibonacci Lesson.pdf
Hi! I noticed that you uploaded File:Fibonacci Lesson.pdf as one of the lessons. It is a great explanation - very clear, and the bees were an nice example. :) However, it seems to have been uploaded as a non-free work, and unfortunately the Wikimedia Foundation is fairly strict on non-free media, and in this case it seems that it probably won't meet the exemption policy. As a result I've removed it from the page, but I'm really happy to help if you feel that it it meets the policy, or if you would like to look at alternatives. Thanks again for your contribution, and sorry that this file doesn't quite seem to fit in. - Bilby 00:35, 17 October 2011 (UTC)

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User talk:Molly.mueller12

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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User talk:Warshy

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User talk:BrianneKilgallon

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User talk:Onabin

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User talk:Sjilek2

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User talk:Minijedi

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AIS : Event identification
Event identification : Internal and external events affecting achievement of an entity’s objectives must be identified, distinguishing between risks and opportunities. Opportunities are channeled back to management’s strategy or objective-setting processes. - Risks are those events that would have a negative impact on organization objectives. - Opportunities are events that would have a positive impact on objectives. From the description. -Risks • Driver do work is heavy so maybe tired because send many fish and many places. And maybe occur dangerous driving while to send fish. • Driver may not collect money complete. • Writing orders on paper might be lost. No convention. -Opportunities • When sales over 1000 fish per week to 120 different restaurants and stores throughout Bangkok maybe get many profit and rich.

title: User talk:Minijedi


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UC Women's Group Mentoring Program/Gaynor's story

Contact details
Name of storyteller: Gaynor Evans

Name of person recording story: Mark Spain

Location: The Education Centre, 5A22

Date of recording: 14 July 2010

How did you become involved in UC WGMP?
I applied and my participation was approved and fully supported by my supervisor.

1. What changes have you noticed since you have finished the program?

 * 1) Increased knowledge of the university and who to ask for things. I had been working here for six years but the program helped greatly. Knowledge was reinforced by speakers from the uni coming to talk eg time management and work-life integration.
 * 2) Better self organisation skills.
 * 3) Increased confidence and comfort in my existing knowledge and skills.
 * 4) Greater ability to take on work challenges. I took on more a more front and centre leadership role by training a little group/pool of four casual staff members in our systems and procedures each year.
 * 5) I did online courses through ALIA and Uni of Sheffield - one on supervision and the other on quality assurance. I worked with an online buddy from another institution. UC paid for one course and I paid for the other. I wouldn’t have stepped up to these opportunities but for the confidence I gained and became aware of from the WGMP.
 * 6) I built a broader network across the university.
 * 7) I consolidated two part time jobs into one full time job and built more satisfaction into my work.

2. What has been the MOST significant change?
My most significant change was ceasing to work in two part time jobs and applying for and getting a different full time job.

Beginning (situation before the change)

One of the part time jobs was 14hrs per week and growing in demands. It needed two people full time to do it justice. I enjoyed this job but it generated a lot of stress. This job was structured in such a way that there was never enough time to accomplish all the tasks.

I was able to talk with my mentoring group about the stress of this job and brainstorm different ways to tackle it. My supervisor was good but had no idea of the impact of the stress of the extra work that just kept coming in.

There was no sense of job satisfaction.

Middle (what happened)

A full time position at a higher level came up in the same area as my other part time job. I applied for it and won it. It was sad to relinquish the other job, because the subject matter was fascinating, but the change was better for me. This was a big decision.

In the previous job I felt like I never had a chance to finish tasks. Through discussions on the WGMP I realised that my work preferences are to be organised and to finish tasks, and look at what I have achieved and obtain a sense of satisfaction.

End (situation after)

This job change has been very good for me. It was a great benefit to me to work with my mentoring group to deconstruct what was going on and come up with some great solutions to work with. The learning insight for me was to break things down into manageable chunks and to use my improved organisation skills to help.

3. Why was this change significant for you?
It did involve a lot of thought and consideration and it’s now a whole new job for me. I’m doing a job that gives me a great sense of satisfaction. I’m now more in tune with the way I work. I like to see myself achieve things in a timeframe I can manage.

I was able to brainstorm with my WGMP buddies and follow through on the outcomes.

Whole new job! = Great significance

from Jess Dart	http://www.clearhorizon.com.au


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Dementia and motivation

Overview
Have you ever found it difficult to find the right word to explain what you are trying to say? You can feel it sitting on the tip of your tongue, but you can't quite get it out. How about forgetting a name, or that you were meant to go to the hair dressers yesterday? Most people, I imagine, would agree that these are things that happen to them on occasion. They probably aren't distressing and you generally wouldn't think twice beyond wondering why you have been so absent minded lately.

For those who tend towards forgetfulness on a more frequent basis, you may find yourself saying several times a day, "Where are my keys?" or asking someone around you, "Have you seen my phone?". This is often followed by ".. Oh! There it is!"

But have you ever picked up your keys and stared at them in bewilderment as you try to remember what on earth these strange things are used for?

How about climbing into the driver's side of the car after 40 years of driving to suddenly have no idea what to do?

These are examples of where the early symptoms for dementia start to become seriously debilitating for those who are affected by it.

This chapter discusses:
 * What is dementia?
 * The causes of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease and Korsakoff's Syndrome
 * Is there a treatment for dementia?
 * Motivational aspects of dementia
 * Why do they wander?
 * Dementia and depression

What is dementia?
The root of the word ‘dementia’ comes from the Latin words de, which means ‘apart’ and mentis, which means ‘mind’. It is defined as the progressive deterioration in cognitive functioning, or a gradual loss of the ability to process thought (Nordqvist, 2009).

Dementia is a highly disabling neurodegenerative disease, and its growing prevalence in Australia is of particular concern. In the 46 years between 1995 and 2041, Australia’s population is forecast to see an increase in population of just less than 39%. In the same period of time, the population of Australians suffering dementia are projected to increase from 130,000 to 460,000 (Jorm, 2001).

To put this into perspective, this means that for a university student who is 24-years-old in 2010, there will be an increase of 253% in dementia cases by the time they reach the age of 70.

The causes of dementia

The term 'dementia' does not refer to one specific disease, it is the name for symptoms caused by a number of disorders affecting the brain. There are over one hundred possible illnesses that can cause dementia and a person who is diagnosed with dementia could have one or more of these disorders.

At the current time there does not appear to be strong evidence to show that dementia is an inherited disease, as the incidence appears to be random rather than passed down through family lines. There has, however, been one rare form of Alzheimer’s that has been established to have a genetic link (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and is a progressive and irreversible disease (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002). Throughout the course of the disease, which usually spans anywhere from 2 to 20 years, nerve cells and the synapses connecting them slowly degenerate and die, causing a gradual decline in memory and the ability to think and reason (Synder, 2000). During the onset of Alzheimer’s disease personality changes are common as is a decline in the ability to move or swallow, a loss in language skills and ability to communicate, and a failure to recognise and identify objects or people (Adams, 2008).

In the later stages of Alzheimer’s disease, tasks such as walking and using the bathroom become increasingly difficult and memory declines further, with many patients reaching a point where they are unable to recognise close friends and family.

Alzheimer’s disease accounts for approximately 50% of all cases of dementia and is very common in the elderly population, occurring in 1 out of every 5 people over 80 years of age (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Vascular Dementia
After Alzheimer’s disease, Vascular dementia is the second most common form of dementia, accounting for approximately 20% of all cases (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Vascular dementia can be caused by either a single stroke, in which case it is called a ‘single-infarct dementia’, but it is more commonly caused by ‘multi-infarct dementia’, a series of small strokes which interrupt the blood flow to the brain (Adams, 2008).

Damage generally occurs in the language and speech sections of the brain, but the damage can be more widespread and cause symptoms similar to that of Alzheimer’s disease. Like Alzheimer’s disease, Vascular dementia is not reversible and it currently has no known cure.

Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia can occur together as a “mixed dementia”, and they do so in approximately 25% of all dementia cases (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Parkinson’s disease
Parkinson’s disease is also a progressive disease, consisting of shaking, tremors, difficulty in moving limbs and joints, and difficulty speaking. Some patients develop dementia in the late stages of Parkinson’s disease (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Korsakoff’s syndrome
Possibly the most preventable cause of dementia is Korsakoff’s syndrome, which is caused by the consumption of large quantities of alcohol over an extended period. The risk of developing Korsakoff’s syndrome is further increased if the alcohol consumption is combined with poor nutrition, falling unconscious, and frequent falling, as this causes irreversible brain damage. Like other causes of dementia, Korsakoff’s syndrome sees a decline in memory and cognition, particularly in skills such as planning and organisation, and in social skills and balance. If the intake of alcohol is stopped, there may be a slight increase in these skills, but generally the damage is permanent (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002).

Lewy body disease
Dementia with lewy bodies is another of the main causes of dementia and may be responsible for between 10 % and 15% of all dementia cases. Lewy bodies are small deposits of protein in the nerve cells which interrupt the normal functioning of the brain. There are a number of similarities between dementia with lewy bodies and both Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Like Alzheimer’s disease, dementia with lewy bodies shows a decline in memory, spatial orientation and ability to communicate. Difficulty moving, stiffness in muscles, and tremors are symptoms that are similar to those in Parkinson’s disease. As well as this, those with lewy body disease are likely to suffer from faintness, hallucinations, and sleeping difficulties (Adams, 2008).

Other causes of dementia
Other causes of dementia include:
 * AIDS
 * Huntington’s disease
 * Pick’s disease
 * Fronto-temporal dementias
 * Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Treatment of dementia
Most of the diseases that cause dementia are irreversible and incurable, although in some situations the individual symptoms can be treated and the progression of the disease may be slowed. People with Korsakoff’s syndrome may experience a slight improvement if the consumption of alcohol is discontinued.

Similarly, we will go on to discuss the combination of depression and dementia and how treating the depression may lead to a dramatic improvement in the quality of life for the person with dementia. It would not, however, improve the symptoms of the dementia itself.

As far as treating the symptoms of dementia, there are a few therapies that are used in an attempt to improve the patients’ quality of life and slow down the progression of the disease.

Reality Orientation (RO)
This technique uses constant reminders about the individuals’ surroundings and environment to keep the person oriented. The use of aids and prompts is important (Alzheimer’s Australia, 2010) and involves using verbal and written reminders of the time, day of the week, and the names of people and objects (Larkin, 1994). A tool commonly used in this treatment is a memory board, or a reality-orientation board. It can be a blackboard or whiteboard and is used by both the carer and the patient to fill in information about schedules, the weather, to-do lists and other day-to-day information.

Validation Therapy
This method focuses strongly on accepting the reality of the person with dementia and working beside them, where they are at (Alzheimer’s Australia, 2010).

In using validation therapy, the carer doesn’t try to force reality on the person with dementia, but they also don’t completely leave them in their own world. Instead, this therapy takes a middle ground of concentrating on the feelings that arise and talking about emotions (Guide, 2010). For example, if a person with dementia were to tell you about their husband not coming to visit them, when you know that he actually passed away several years ago, rather than sternly telling them, “Now, now, you know that Bob died 12 years ago” or going along with them completely, you might talk with them about how they feel being apart from Bob, and their emotions in missing him.

Reminiscence Therapy
Using reminiscence therapy is aimed at assisting those with dementia to relive a small part of their lives and to trigger their memory through the use of smell, touch, sound, or photographs. It encourages the active sharing of their story with others, and aims to build self-esteem and a sense of their past and their current life having a purpose and worth (The Benevolent Society, 2005).

A valuable tool in reminiscence therapy can be a memory box, which is filled with items from the person’s past such as a thimble for someone who used to be a seamstress, or sandpaper for someone who used to be a carpenter.

Bea's perspective
'''Bea started having problems with her memory at age 72, and was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease about three years before this interview. '''

''One day I was driving into town to get my hair done. I was supposed to make a left-hand turn but instead, I went straight ahead into oncoming traffic. A policeman pulled me over, and I told him that I didn’t know why I did it. I’d driven this same route all along and never had any problems. It was so strange. It was terribly scary. I could have really hurt someone. That was the first time I knew there was something wrong. I haven’t driven again since then.''

''One of the worst things I have to do is put on my pants in the morning. This morning I kept thinking there is something wrong because my pants just didn’t feel right. I had put them on wrong. I sometimes will have to put them on and take them off half a dozen times or more. I think I’m putting them on opposite to the way they’re supposed to go on. It’s so frustrating because I look at them and try to figure it out. I think I know the way to do it and then I put them on and it’s wrong again.''

''I used to do a lot of entertaining, and I’d take pride in setting a nice table. But now I don’t even know on which side the fork or knife is supposed to go. I’ll get the plates on and then I’ll get the silverware. I’ll ask Joe, “Where do these go?” He’ll show me, but then I don’t remember the next time. That’s frustrating. Sometimes he must think I’m awfully stupid. I feel so dumb when I ask, “Where is my fork?” He’ll answer, “It’s right there.”''

Sometimes what I’m looking for will be lying right in front of me and I won’t see it. I don’t always misplace things; they’re right there, but I just don’t recognise them. That’s a real problem. Money is getting to be terrible. I just don’t want to handle money anymore because I can’t identify it. I can trust my beautician not to cheat me. But when we go anywhere else, Joe has to do all the buying because I just don’t have the ability to work it out anymore.

''I don’t like to make mistakes. I get aggravated with myself and I can cry a lot easier than I can laugh. I’d like to be perfect. But I never have been and never will be. This disease makes you feel so helpless. I’ve lost my feeling of self-satisfaction that I was capable of doing things and I resent it a little bit.''

Adapted from Snyder, 2000, pp. 17-26

Motivational aspects
In some cases of dementia, the progress of the disease sees the person losing interest in things they used to enjoy, such as hobbies or activities.

They may spend time sitting and not interacting with anything around them, either disinterested or unaware of their surroundings, or have violent mood swings where they lash out with anger for no apparent reason (Cohen & Weisman, 1991).

One possible reason for this is that the underlying motivational drives may still exist, but the person may have deteriorated beyond being able to fulfill the needs that arise from these drives. They may also feel the drive and not remember how to meet its demands, or not remember what they wanted long enough to complete the task.

Despite losing a large amount of their memory, and many abilities and skills, it is important to remember that the emotional side of the person that experiences and feels things may still be present (Adams, 2008). Either one of these - the presence of feelings that aren’t able to be communicated or drives that aren’t able to be met - could be an explanation for activities such as wandering, crying and screaming, and other behaviour that may be displayed by people with dementia.

Confused motivations: Why do they wander?
Many people with dementia will display behaviours such as wandering or pacing. When they wander away from home, this can be dangerous as they may not be able to recall the way home, and may become confused and disoriented.

An excellent short film on dementia is "Going Home" (Bay & Leng, 2009), which illustrates the fear and confusion that people with dementia face when they become lost.

It is important with behaviours like wandering to not assume that it is “just a symptom”, but to remember that there could be some underlying motivation that cannot be communicated or properly acted upon. For example, a disruption in the persons’ routine or environment could be causing anxiety that is displayed through pacing, or a look at their life history could show that they spent 50 years at the same employment and would leave the house for work at 7am every morning (Veterans’ Affairs, 1995). Repeating behaviour from their past life may simply be a habit, but they could be mentally living in back at the time when their need or drive to earn money and support a family motivated them to leave for work every morning, and their current wandering behaviour could be reflecting their confusion.

Crying, screaming, and moaning: Something isn't right

The same could be said for behaviours such as crying, screaming, or moaning. Much like a child will cry when hungry, thirsty, wet, frightened, or for a variety of other reasons, a person with dementia may not have another way of communicating their discomfort or need for assistance. Something as simple as checking the temper

Eating: Too much or too little
Another area where motivation is affected by dementia is in the biological need to eat.

Some people with dementia think they have already eaten when meal times come, and will refuse food (see the Chapter on Dieting), risking malnutrition; while others will forget that they have eaten, and will overeat, often leading to obesity (Hoffman & Platt, 1991). This is an interesting issue, because despite most of these individuals most likely having spent their lifetimes eating in a normal and reasonably healthy way, and responding to the biological triggers that cause hunger, the loss of memory can cause the cognitive side (even though it is malfunctioning) to override the biological need and cause a kind of unconscious eating disorder.

Forgetting the addiction: The easiest way to quit
An interesting effect of dementia is that it seems to allow people to give up their nicotine addiction and smoking habit. Many people with dementia will forget that they smoke and will simply stop, without even having to try. Some research has found that the effects of changes in the brain caused by Alzheimer’s disease actually reduce the craving for nicotine (Hoffman & Platt, 1991). Families of dementia patients can sometimes remove all evidence of smoking from their houses and have the family member with dementia never notice or ask for another cigarette.

Sex and dementia: "You look like my husband!"
The need to be touched and have some level of intimacy with others is a basic human need and can be fulfilled appropriately with different people in a variety of ways.

Dementia can have interesting effects on the way that people seek intimacy and physical touch. Some people with dementia experience an increased interest in sex following the onset of the disease, while in others the interest in sex diminishes all together.

The loss of memory that comes from having dementia can cause problems when physical drives for sex arise, with some people with dementia forgetting that they are married and making advances towards people other than their partner, or by making these advances towards a stranger who looks similar to a deceased spouse.

Dementia and depression: Excess disability
Depression is also an important aspect of motivation that must be considered when looking at dementia. Approximately half of those with dementia also have minor depressive disorder, and a further 15% are estimated to have major depressive disorder (Onega, 2006). As will be discussed in the next chapter, depression has a significant impact on motivation, and when coupled with dementia this impact is even greater. In older adults, depression is likely to include symptoms such as agitation, hypochondriasis, loneliness and feelings of isolation, difficulty sleeping, an increase or decrease in appetite, and suicidal thoughts (Onega, 2006). In these ways, dementia and depression can present in a very similar way and it can sometimes be challenging to decipher whether symptoms are the result of dementia or depression. One of the easiest ways to establish whether someone is more likely to be suffering from depression or dementia is to watch them throughout the day.

People with dementia will generally wake up at their best and function at their highest level in the early morning, slowly deteriorating throughout the day. Those suffering from depression, on the other hand, show very low drive in the morning and generally begin the day confused and unhappy, with their mood and abilities improving through the day, and at its peak during the evening (Kitwood, 1997).

Depression is especially common in the early stages of dementia, as the person is generally very aware of the changes that they are going through and, especially upon being diagnosed with dementia, realise that they are slowly losing who they are (Hoffman & Platt, 1991). In a way, the progression of the disease can be a mixed blessing as memory loss becomes worse and the person is no longer aware of what they have lost.

The combination of two diseases or disorders such as dementia and depression is called “excess disability” and it means that the person with the disease will deteriorate at a more rapid rate than is usual for that disease (Hoffman & Platt, 1991). As well as declining more quickly, behavioural changes tend to be more extreme than usual. In dementia cases, when excess disability is caused by the presence of depression, the person may cry, moan, or scream more often, be more inclined to wander, less inclined to participate in activities, and may eat either very little or excessive amounts (Hoffman & Platt, 1991).

One of the positive sides to this is that unlike dementia, many forms of depression are treatable and can be cured. With treatment, the symptoms caused by depression can be alleviated and the general well-being and quality of life of the person with dementia may be increased dramatically.

Summary
Dementia is a highly disabling and degenerative disease which is growing in prevalence worldwide.

The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, in which nerve cells and their connecting synapses degenerate and die, causing brain damage. There are over one hundred other causes of dementia, including vascular dementia, Parkinson's disease, and Lewy body disease.

Dementia does not have a cure and cannot be reversed, although some treatments do appear to slow the decline in abilities and memory of the person with dementia. The most popular technique is reality orientation, which uses prompts to remind the person of the day, time, and the names of objects and people.

Symptoms such as wandering, crying, and screaming may be as a result of experiencing motivational drives that the person with dementia cannot communicate or has lost the ability to know how to fulfill. Wandering can in some cases be due to a change in environment, and the anxiety that may come with this, or could be from a life-long pattern and the loss of short-term memory.

Depression and dementia have a high rate of correlation, with approximately 65% of people with dementia also having some form of depressive disorder. Depression in dementia patients generally makes the symptoms of dementia worse than they would normally be at that stage of the disease progression, and treating the depression can significantly improve the quality of life for the individual.

Quiz
Which of these is a symptom of early dementia: - Difficulty swallowing + Mood swings and periods of anger - Inappropriate sexual behaviour - Loss of ability to recognise close friends and family
 * type=""}

{What is the most common cause of dementia: - Vascular dementia - Korsakoff's syndrome + Alzheimer's disease - Lewy body disease
 * type=""}

{True or false, It can take anywhere from 2 to 20 years for Alzheimer's to span its course: - False + True.
 * type=""}

{What is the main cause of Korsakoff's syndrome: + Consuming large quantities of alcohol over an extended period of time - Head trauma from an accident or fall - The degeneration of nerve cells and synapses in the brain - The heavy use of recreational drugs as a teenager
 * type=""}

{Which of these is not a treatment for dementia: - Reality Orientation - Reminiscence Therapy + Forced Reality Acceptance - Validation Therapy
 * type=""}

{True or false, People with dementia lose the ability to feel emotions: + False - True.
 * type=""}

{Sexual motivation in people with dementia might sometimes: - Cause the person to wander - Be something you should giggle and make fun of + Lead to inappropriate advances towards familiar-looking strangers - Cause people to overeat and become obese
 * type=""}


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Indigenous Australians and motivation

Overview
This chapter explores motivational psychology within Indigenous Australians. This is far from an easy topic because of the lack of dedicated psychological literature to date. Indigenous psychology only became a teaching requirement within the psychology curriculum in Australia during the 2000s and there are still limited resources on this topic. This is, in part, because there are few Indigenous psychologists and social science researchers. Much of current Indigenous research work pertains to Aboriginal health and social issues, and not necessarily to specifically understanding motivational psychology. Nevertheless, this chapter seeks to identify some motivational psychology groundwork to improve on the psychological understanding of the impact of European settlement on Indigenous Australians' motivation and values.

 * Focus questions
 * 1) What are the traditional values and motivations of Indigenous Australians?
 * 2) What are the contemporary values and motivations of Indigenous Australians?
 * 3) What are the motivational differences between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian cultures?
 * 4) What kind of impact has European settlement had on influencing or affecting values and motivations within Indigenous Australian cultures?

Historical context

 * It was estimated that Indigenous Australians first arrived on the Australian continent around 68,000 years ago. This was a period in time when Australia was closer to Indonesian shores and Tasmania was still apart of the mainland.
 * Around 1606, Dutchman Willem Janszoon sailed to west coast Australia. Janszoon was the first European to meet with Indigenous Australians, where he discovered their semi-nomadic hunting and gathering behavioural habits (Broome, 1994).
 * In 1788 the First Fleet arrived in Australia. Indigenous Australian political structure was far different from European political structure, as a result, a cultural gap formed between Indigenous Australians and Europeans.
 * Lack of cultural understanding and acceptance lead to violent interactions between the two cultures. Many Indigenous people were slaughtered defending territory, family and cultural beliefs (Broome; Clancy 2004 & Kauffman, 2000).
 * Introduction of feral animals and plants added to the devastating loss in native wildlife and habitat destruction. The arrival of foreign species meant that new diseases were introduced, to which Indigenous Australians had no naturally immunity (Colley, 2002).
 * 1869 saw the removal of Indigenous Australian children from their families. These children later became known as the Stolen Generation.This period greatly added to the cultural gap already formed at the time (Broome).
 * In 1967 a referendum allowing Indigenous Australians to be recognised as Australian citizens was accepted throughout the Australian population (Murphy, 2008).
 * 1991-2000 saw the endorsement of the Declaration for Reconciliation (Kauffman, 2000).
 * 2000 to 2010 saw the Australian government issuing a public apology for the wrongful acts in the past, such as the stolen generation. Today, there is more acceptance and acknowledgment of the Indigenous Australian culture (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006).

The power of Dreaming on Indigenous motivations, beliefs and life
Traditional values and motivations within the Indigenous culture are conveyed through Dreaming. This narrative styled law reflects an understanding of truth, goodness and life values. Some of these values include equality, justice and the importance of family and community. Dreaming can be seen as a form of extrinsic motivation, in the sense that if these cultural values and expectations are achieved, then a person will be rewarded in the spirit world. From a non-Indigenous perspective, dreaming can be interpreted, as a religion that motivates and encourages a particular style of thinking and living within the world. This style of thinking is unique and spiritual. There are behavioural and cognitive motives that can be characterised by certain rituals within this spiritual religion, that have been preserved and passed down through Indigenous generations. Some examples of these rituals include ceremonial dances and dream time stories (Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001; Kauffman, 2000 & Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010).

Importance of storytelling in reflecting motivations and values
Stories from the Dreamtime are extremely complex and sacred, as such, the full meaning is only understood within Indigenous culture itself. For the non-Indigenous population the surface meaning is only explained. Therefore, on the surface, dreaming stories help explain the processes that are involved in creating the world, while also acknowledging all living forms and spirits that inhabit the worlds surface, for example the "Bat and the Butterfly" story explains the creation of bats and butterflies. Dreaming stories also draw on values within the tribal regions they are told in. As such, many stories exist that reflect the totemic belief systems and environmental history of the surrounding land (Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010). Indigenous Australians are motivated to achieve these values and cultural expectations. The bat and butterfly story teaches the lesson of respect for people. As selfishness and greed can result in social and spiritual repercussions. (Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong & Turnbull, 2006; Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001 & Kauffman, 2000).

Spirituality
Spirituality is a key feature within the Indigenous Australian dreaming and culture. The concept of spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. Spirituality is used as a motivation for health and well-being, where the mind, body and spirit are connected in sickness and healing. All of which ultimately creates purpose and meaning for life and death as it incorporates past, future and present experiences (Kauffman, 2000 & McLennan, 2003).

Dreaming and spirituality are believed to be forms of psychological resilience within the Indigenous culture. For instance, Indigenous Australians who were part of the stolen generation, where they were acculturated from their Indigenous culture, were found to be more susceptible to mental illness than culturally-connected Indigenous Australians. In addition, McLennan's (2003) study suggested that higher levels of stress within Indigenous Australians at that time was related to their difficulty adapting to this changing social structure. Recent studies suggest that dreaming can create opportunities for Indigenous Australians who are experiencing cultural dislocation or stress to reconnect to their ancestors and spiritual aspects of their culture. This connection is highly motivating and significant to their identity and well-being (McLennan). By redeveloping this spiritual bond, McLennan found mental illness to decrease. Stress levels lowered and there was a stronger ability to cope. McLennan's study highlights the potential importance of spirituality in maintaining a sense of purpose and connection to Indigenous identity and cultural beliefs, all of which seems to be a source of motivation in regard to psychological survival (McLennan).

A contemporary link to Indigenous Dreaming, in the aspect of helping to develop meaning and direction in one's life, can be seen within the narrative style therapies that have been employed within counselling settings. Found to be very successful, narrative knowing is based on the idea of making sense of the world by telling stories, which individuals are surrounded by in everyday life. Similar to the ideas behind Indigenous dreaming, the narrative is a representation of knowledge, culture, family, life and living. Both the narrative therapy and dreaming emphasise collectiveness and collaboration. Individuals are members of a network and society, which can be interpreted as family, therapist or community type networks. Ultimately, both cultures use narrative style to externalise problems in an expressive and collective nature in order to find solutions (Percy, 2008).

Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion dedicated to the landscape and to the living and spiritual forces. There is a deep sense of respect that transcends from the dreaming, motivating aborigines to understand, acknowledge and pass on the cultural values that are portrayed as sacred and necessary for the survival of this culture (Kauffman, 2000).

Identity
de Souza and Rymarz (2007, p. 279) define cultural identity as "the level of identification and integration that individuals have with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of life. It is critical time in adolescent growth and establishment of cultural identity as an individual moves beyond the perceived control of parents in an attempt to establish ones own identity, which may or may not conflict with community expectation."

History has a strong influence on identity, as cultural identity is highly reliant on being passed down to younger generations by elder community members for its survival. The key feature in keeping cultural identity alive comes down to maintaining a sense of community. It is argued that community offers a variety of basic services and activities. If an Indigenous adolescent is unable to obtain the services or have access to particular activities, there is a high chance he or she will search for another community. This may involve finding new social networks with people that do not share the same cultural beliefs, ultimately resulting in a change of cultural identity and motivational source (de Souza & Rymarz, 2007). Research highlights that urbanised Indigenous children face a loss of identity due to a high degree of dislocation from their cultural heritage. Indigenous identity has evolved overtime as a result of diverse cultural ideologies and practices that have developed in Australia since before European settlement. Urbanised Indigenous people may struggle to reunite with their identity and cultural beliefs. This is believed to be the result of growing urban populations that marginalise the smaller number of Indigenous members in such areas. Loss of identity or culture is thought to be a major contributor for lowing motivation to reconnect with one's heritage (de Souza & Rymarz).

Kinship
Kinship within the aboriginal community instills a great sense of togetherness regardless of genetic linkage. Totems are given to individuals in order to create a place for that person within a community. It can link them to other relatives (via links to totems) in different locations. If an aboriginal has no family in other communities then they can be adopted, if their totem links to another family. They are then termed 'brothers' of that family kinship or new community. Kinship can therefore be seen as a form of human support, this is one of the fundamental needs that maintains or allows motivation to grow. Aboriginal Australians can then develop motivation from the degree of kinship felt within their lives (Broome, 1994; Kauffman, 2000).

Contemporary values and motivations of Indigenous Australians
Traditional Indigenous values, beliefs and motivations have evolved since the arrival of Indigenous Australians approximately 68,000 years ago. This evolution is a result of diverse cultural interactions in Australia since European settlement. While the basic concept of dreaming is still strong in the aboriginal culture, there are some changes as a direct result of the technological advances in societies and new awareness of other ideologies and cultural beliefs. This is a large area of interest for Fogarty and White (1994), Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) and Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) who came up with a set of psychological human values with the belief they could be replicated cross-culturally (Schwartz and Bilsky). These values included the biological needs of human beings, the necessity of organised social interaction, survival and welfare in terms of group needs and cognitively formed values that strengthen through socialisation, development, and conscious goal setting. From the above human requirements, 11 motivationally associated values were constructed. (Fogarty & White, 1994, pp. 4-5; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990).
 * 1) Self-direction: encompassing creativity, freedom, goal choice, independency and curiosity.
 * 2) Stimulation: formed from variety and excitement.
 * 3) Hedonism: the pleasures and enjoyment of life itself
 * 4) Achievement: the successfulness and capabilities that are the result of ambition, motivation and intelligence.
 * 5) Power: level of authority, wealth, social influence, public perception and recognition.
 * 6) Security: social order, family security, national security, reciprocation of favours, cleanliness, sense of belonging, health.
 * 7) Conformity: obedience and self-discipline, respecting elders and honouring family.
 * 8) Tradition: respect for customs, humility, devoutness, acceptance of role in life, moderation.
 * 9) Benevolence: helplessness, loyalty, forgiveness, honesty, responsibility, truth, friendship, mature love.
 * 10) Universalism: broadmindedness, social justice, equality, world at peace, unity, with nature, wisdom, protection of the environment.
 * 11) Spirituality: meaning of life, sense of inner harmony, sense of detachment

Fogarty and White (1994) suggest that only items six to eleven relate to Indigenous Australians, as these reflect a more collectivist society. Below are the ten motivational values that were ranked highly for Indigenous university students.

The top 10 Indigenous motivational values were ranked:
 * 1) Family security
 * 2) Honoring parents
 * 3) Health
 * 4) Honesty
 * 5) Choosing own goal
 * 6) True friendship
 * 7) Self-respect
 * 8) Equality
 * 9) Politeness
 * 10) Social justice

This list indicates the motivational values of security and family as being the most important item for Indigenous students. Some of the unique motivational values chosen within the Indigenous experimental group included honouring parents, equality, politeness and social justice. These values reflect the sixth to eleventh items of Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) motivational associated values. In comparison, non-Indigenous student values were found to have more individualistic-oriented rankings, such as family, security, true friendship, health, self-respect, choosing own goals, inner harmony, honesty, freedom, mature love and success.

Motivational differences between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian cultures
Over the years, a popular area of investigation within cross-cultural psychology has been the differing cultural perspectives in Australia (Fogarty & White, 1994). The primary difference in perspectives is believed to come from motivational sources such as values (Vernon, 1976, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994). Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong and Turnbull (2006) add that life perspectives differ between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people as a result of cultural heritage and value systems. For Indigenous populations, education and health systems are inadvertently seen as unnecessary or shameful in regard to cultural pride and values. On the other hand, non-Indigenous cultures, such as the dominant white Anglo-Saxon Protestant, highly value education and government health systems. When Indigenous people experience a burden of values between conflicting cultures, which can occur within an education system, then their motivational value system prioritises attitudes and relationships.

Table 1. Some major comparisons between Australian cultures (Harris, 1988, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994, p. 3)

Table 1 presents differing Australian cultural perspectives and focuses on what is more salient for each culture. Traditional Aboriginal cultures place a significant weight on personal qualities and relationships as well as a deep sense of respect for the environment and what it has to offer. Christie (1985, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994) highlights that Australian Aboriginals' survival is highly reliant upon communal cooperation and co-existence. Therefore, motivations tend to reflect a collective nature within Indigenous Australian populations. These motivations differ to white Australian populations which are more individualistically-oriented (Fogarty & White, 1994). Schwartz (1990) developed a 56 item questionnaire to determine motivational values across cultures. The questionnaire was used on Indigenous and non-Indigenous university students. Results found differences in motivational values, providing further evidence to suggest that Indigenous Australian student values reflect collective tendencies.

Contemporary issues facing Indigenous Australians
Indigenous families and community are believed to experience greater levels of exposure to stressors that have the potential to be detrimental to well-being. These stressors can include health issues like, mental disorders, death of family members or friends, accidents and disability. There are stressors that relate to relationship breakdowns, unemployment issues, risk seeking behaviours in regard to alcoholic consumption and taking drugs, witnessing violent, abusive acts and associating in criminal activity. Lastly, there are stressors in relation to imprisonment, overcrowded living arrangements, anxiety from pressures to achieve cultural responsibilities and dealing with experiences of racism and discrimination. Current literature highlights the increased likelihood for Indigenous populations to experience one or more of the above stressors than non-Indigenous populations (Fordham & Schwab, 2007, p. 15).

As one of the most disadvantaged cultures in Australia, governments and communities are highly motivated to help form better living conditions and respect for the Australian Indigenous culture. Below are just some of the problems Indigenous populations are still facing today: Much of these problems are the result of dispossession, racism and lack of understanding from the wider Australian community (Colley, 2002; Fordham & Schwab, 2007; & Kauffman, 2000). As a result of this, governments are trying to find ways of empowering and assisting the Indigenous community. This includes providing better educational opportunities such as giving scholarships to study at universities; creating more job opportunities, introducing government social support systems, like helping individuals who can not find jobs and promoting reconciliation through awareness on Indigenous cultures. (Colley, 2002; & Kauffman, 2000)
 * Poor housing
 * Lower life expectancy
 * Higher unemployment
 * Lower incomes
 * Lower participation in education
 * Higher imprisonment rates
 * Higher alcohol consumption rates

Indigenous motivational behaviours within academic settings
Another area of differences in motivation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian populations can be seen in academic settings. A study by McInerney (2008) revealed differences in motivations using the personal investment theory. This theory is based on motivational components of achievement goal, which embodies an individual's abilities, mastership and adeptness within life, sense of self, where an individual has purpose, resilience and a self concept, and finally, facilitating conditions, which encompasses external support from people such as family, teachers and friends. According to personal investment theory these key motivational elements assist in the learning processes within academic settings. The study revealed that aboriginal students more often missed school then non-Indigenous students. This is one possible explanation for lower academic levels within this population. McInerney believes this aspect of personal investment theory is linked to negative self concept, where school is not seen as important and therefore motivation to go or participate is low. This may be a direct result of minimal facilitating conditions as defined in the personal investment theory. Results found aboriginal students had lower levels of family support when it came to encouraging school attendance and achieving goals at school. It was further found that Aboriginal students were exposed to higher levels of negative peer influence for things like truancy. Aboriginal student awareness and acknowledgment of lacking social support is believed to be a major contributor for decreasing motivation in academic settings. This is then thought to create a chain reaction effect that later impacts on learning and future opportunities (Bodkin-Andrews, Craven & Martin, 2006 & McInerney, 2008).

Impact of European settlement on values and motivations within Indigenous Australian culture

Motivations can be used as a valuable resource in the face of adversity, it can help people to adapt to environmental, social and personal challenges that arise overtime. When individuals feel helpless or a loss of control, then motivation can act as a driving force to help cope with unpredictable situations. In 1788, a sense of helplessness and loss of external control were real threats to the Indigenous population at the time. The arrival of European settlers changed the Indigenous social system dramatically, as there was a push for acculturation by the Europeans as a solution to the violent political struggles over land issues and for ultimate cultural dominance (Chur-Hansen et al., 2006). It is thought that one of the reasons Indigenous Australians survived this unsettling era, was due to high levels of motivational adaptation through self determination (Colley 2002 & Murphy, 2008). Despite the dispossession, loss and human suffering, the Indigenous population fought for their human and political rights, with the motivational belief that land taken away centuries ago should be returned. Furthermore, there was a push from state and federal governments to have a better understanding of Indigenous culture, society and identity, with the belief it should be preserved not repressed (Colley; Finlayson & Curthoys, 1997 & Murphy).

Cultural differences
Can you remember some of the major differences in Indigenous cultures and non-Indigenous cultures?

Here is a quick test to see how much you have learnt.

INSTRUCTIONS: Are the following statements more characteristic of Indigenous or non-Indigenous cultures?
 * 1) Land is seen as part of identity, gives feeling of strength and belonging, it is sacred.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

 * 1) Culture portrays collectivist tendencies.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

 * 1) Has greater levels of support and motivation in academic contexts.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

 * 1) Views world in terms of science rather than spiritually.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

 * 1) World view and progress entails development, change and control.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

 * 1) Uses narrative styled storytelling to explain the earths creation.
 * Indigenous OR non-Indigenous

True or false

 * 1) For any human being, supportive conditions allow motivation to maintain or grow.  True/False
 * 2) Motivations can assist in dealing with personal challenges and can help  an individual to adapt to environmental and social changes out of their control. True/False
 * 3) Culture is a static concept, where culture stays the same throughout time. True/False
 * 4) According to personal investment theory, Indigenous students show lower levels of motivation to learn and attend school as a result of poor intelligence. True/False
 * 5) Some of the motivational values found in Indigenous university students were equality and social justice, which reflect a collectivist culture.  True/False
 * 6) Indigenous Australians believe the mind, body and spirit are connected to well-being. True/False
 * 7) Dream time stories are only created as an entertainment tool for bored remote Indigenous children. True/False

Conclusion

 * The traditional values and motivations of Indigenous Australians are carried through generations by storytelling.
 * Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion that instills values and social law.
 * Spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. It motivates health and well-being through the connection of mind, body and spirit.
 * Spirituality and dreaming can build resilience within individuals that are stressed or have mental illnesses.
 * Cultural identity relates to the level of identification and integration with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of living.
 * Loss of identity can contribute to lower levels of motivation.
 * Kinship, social support and facilitating conditions all influence the growth of motivation.
 * Indigenous Australians regard values such as, security, family, health, honesty, goal setting, friendship, self-respect, equality, politeness and social justice most highly within their culture.
 * Major differences in environmental perspectives between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
 * Indigenous Australians face contemporary issues, some of which includes unemployment, heavy alcohol consumption, lower income and higher imprisonment rates. This is believed to be the result of racism, lack of understanding and insufficient social and government support.
 * Indigenous students lack the motivation in academic settings as a result of inadequate social and family support.
 * By using motivational resources, such as self-determination, Indigenous Australians have been able to adapt to the changing social and political structure overtime.


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Emotion management

Introduction
People who are considered professionals, whether they are doctors, psychologists, airline hostesses or police officers, are required to put on a “face”. That is, they need to keep a professional persona in order to do their jobs effectively. This requires a good amount of emotional control. Imagine that you are a doctor. Everyday you see patients and you are faced with their medical problems. Some problems are simple and others are complicated. You may have to inform patients that they are dying, or that they will live a bit longer, or that they simply have the flu. No matter what, as a doctor, you need to rein in your own emotions and force a professional air so that you may perform your job well. Without such control, emotions may affect you personally which will prevent you from doing your job and will thus affect your patient negatively. It would help no one, for instance, if a doctor were to go into hysterics when their expertise is needed in the emergency room.

In this case the doctor used his or her emotional intelligence in order to perform the task at hand. Emotional Intelligence is the perception, identification, understanding and management of emotions (Ashkanasy, Zerbe & Hartel, 2002; Matthews, Zeidner & Roberts, 2002). Within this chapter the focus will be on the management of emotions. Emotion management, also known as emotion regulation, affect regulation, mood management, stress management or coping strategies, can be defined as the controlling of private and spontaneous feelings in order to express them in publicly scripted and socially desirable ways (Joseph & Newman, 2010; Payne & Cooper, 2001). In the doctor’s case this would happen in a situation, such as in the emergency room, where he or she would be required to control their emotions in order to fit the role of ‘doctor’. A desire, particularly in the workplace, to manage emotions successfully in an effort to perform in a socially or corporately desired way has driven a massive amount of research in the area (Payne & Cooper). As a result theories or how people regulate or should manage their emotions have arisen. Such theories and strategies encompass professionals who need to appear calm and detached in their line of work and customer sales which requires forms of acting out corporately desired emotional states (Ashkanasy et al.; Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper; Smith & Kleinman, 1989). Thus, most of this research is focused on the workplace and involves emotional suppression or evasion (Lively; Payne & Cooper). Such tactics have been seen to have a greater negative effect on physical, psychological and emotional well-being, than positive effect (Payne & Cooper). It is argued, that increase in research into new emotional management strategies, especially those without emotional suppression, would be greatly beneficial.

The Process of Professionalization
The process of professionalisation refers to the type of emotional management undertaken by individuals in professional ‘roles’ and circumstances (Payne & Cooper, 2001; Posluszny & Arnold, 2009). This kind of emotional management is considered indirect emotion control because it is not directly put onto the individual by a corporation or organization per say (Payne & Cooper). Rather, it is a part of a professional culture which assists people in job performance. The process of professionalization essentially instills the idea of looking, sounding and acting the part of a professional when interacting with others (Payne & Cooper). This can be done through repeated instruction, education or imitative learning in different organizational settings (Payne & Cooper; Smith & Kleinman, 1989). This process occurs to individuals entering certain organizational areas where a professional image is integral to good job performance, such as medical practitioners, lawyers, doctors, police officers, teachers, psychologists etc. This kind of emotional management is important in such professions because they assure affective neutrality is maintained (Payne & Cooper; Smith & Kleinman). Without such social distance individuals in these positions would be open to the emotional harm that comes with doing their jobs. For instance, if a police officer allowed personal feelings to influence them when dealing with a potential murder suspect they may be blinded by feelings, such as anger, disgust or hatred, which fuel bias and hinder rational and objective thinking.

The Five Strategies focuses on how medical practitioners learn how to manage their emotions and thus keep a cool professional manner whilst performing their jobs (Smith & Kleinman, 1989). In addition, studying how medical practitioners control their emotions may shed light on how to manage emotions in other settings. The five strategies were identified by Smith and Kleinman from their study of medical students in clinical situation during training. The researchers studied students in clinical settings during the first three years of medical training. Smith and Kleinman focused particularly on major body contact situations, such as dissection or physical examinations, where they argued student would require emotional control more so than any other situation. The uncomfortable feelings attached to the personal nature of such physical contact drove students to use strategies learnt during their education. The researchers discovered that medical students learned to control their emotional states by use of five strategies; transforming the contact, accentuating the positive, using the patient, laughing about it and avoiding the contact (Smith & Kleinman).

Transforming the contact
Students learnt to transform the emotional meaning of body contact from being personal in nature. They tended to transform the contact into a more clinical and analytical form by mentally concentrating on step-by-step procedure.

Accentuating the positive
By identifying and revelling in the learning or actual practice of medicine students’ gain a sense of privilege and power. These emotional states assisted the students in becoming excited and enthusiastic about their profession rather than focusing on the uncomfortable feelings previously experienced.

Using the patient
To avoid the uncomfortable feelings students also shifted their awareness of such feelings onto the patients through projection or blame.

Laughing about it
Students used humour found or created in situations that caused emotional discomfort. This allowed them to release tension and to connect with other students. Furthermore, students were able to redefine the situation into something humorous and therefore less serious. Thus assuring themselves that they could handle the situation.

Avoiding the contact
Lastly, avoiding contact by controlling the visual field, covering body parts and by eliminating or avoiding parts of the examinations, students avoided uncomfortable emotions.

Quiz

 * 1) What are the five strategies?
 * 2) What kind of professions are typically involved in the process of professionalization?
 * 3) Do you think you would mind being addressed by a professional who didn't subscribe to the process of professionalization? Why? Why not?

Affective Events Theory

The Affective Events Theory (AET) is the closest thing to an all-encompassing theory of emotions in the workplace (Ashkanasy et al., 2002). In AET it was posited that parts of the workplace environment actually introduce emotions into them (Ashkanasy et al.). These parts would include environmental conditions, job roles and job design, and they would constitute the “affective events” which could hinder or help the situation within the workplace (Ashkanasy et al.). Thus affective events would influence attitudes or behaviour in the workplace (Ashkanasy et al.). When considering emotional management AET is considered of high importance because of the theory’s implications. Affective events theory reveals that organizational characteristics and managerial policies can influence the emotional states of its members and consequently also their attitudes and behaviour (Ashkanasy et al.). So although the theory does not have an emotional management strategy it is needed to understand organizational emotional interplay. The theory, originally posited untested by Weiss and Cropanzano, has supportive empirical evidence on its core ideas but is still considered to be in the early stages of development (Ashkanasy et al.).

Deep and Surface Acting
A more direct form of emotional control, this strategy is well known in literature on organizational emotional management (Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper, 2001). This is because deep and surface acting are strategies used by individuals who work in areas that are in the public eye and usually rely on sale profits, such as sales assistants, airline attendants and real estate agents. Such individuals use these strategies to manage their emotions in the workplace and also in response to the constant barrage of the ever spreading “smile industry” (Payne & Cooper). The “smile industry” refers to the pressure from organisations on their employees to meet a desired emotional state when at work, this emotional state is normally includes being constantly bubbly, happy, enthusiastic and talkative (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Payne & Cooper). Such a requirement of workers can be described as emotional labour, a term coined by Hochschild in 1983 (Payne & Cooper). It is the outward display of feelings or emotions that is sold for a wage. For instance, this happens when employees are required to display particular kinds of emotional states as a part of their jobs (e.g. flight attendants).

In order to manage their emotions successfully individuals in such workplace environments tend to pretend that they are feeling the desired emotion even if they are experiencing completely contrary emotions at the time. This strategy results in either two subtypes depending on the resilience of the person; deep acting or surface acting. Deep acting, is the negative result of acting out the corporately desired emotional state by allowing it to affect the individual’s personality to the extent that it becomes their actual personality (Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper, 2001). Deep acting can therefore lead to emotional problems where the person experiences confused identity and difficulty identifying and handling their real emotions (Lively; Payne & Cooper). Comparatively, surface acting is the act of insulating against the negative effects of performing the corporately desired emotional state by doing so only on the “surface” without allowing it to infiltrate the individual’s real persona (Payne & Cooper). This is the more desirable affect of emotional labour because the individual’s identity stays intact allowing the person to drop the “mask” after work and continue managing their emotions.

Emotional Segueing and Affect Control Theory
Based on data from a 1996 General Social Survey’s emotion module Lively and Heise in 2004 used a structural equation model to propose the theory of emotional segueing (Lively, 2008). In forming the idea, Lively and Heise analysed the correlational structure of nine latent emotion components; tranquillity, hope, joy, pride, self-reproach, anger, rage, fear and distress (Lively). They posited that emotions, such as those examined by the researchers, which co-occur in the same seven day period can transition between one another with ease (Lively). That is, these regularly occurring emotions can segue from one to the other easier than those emotions that do not occur as frequently. This proposed phenomenon was described as shorter emotional pathways whereas those emotions that were not regularly co-occurring were harder to transition between if not impossible and are thus longer emotional pathways (Lively).

In order to identify the shorter emotional pathways from the longer a remoteness index of emotional states was devised by using the correlations between the states (Lively, 2008). The researchers argued that the correlational remoteness between the emotions would be a good representation of how much emotional management is required in order to segue from one to the other (Lively). The theory of emotional segueing is based in part on the Affect Control Theory (ACT).

The Affect Control Theory separates emotions into three fundamental components; evaluation, potency and activation (Lively). Evaluation refers to how good or bad something is, potency is how powerful or weak something is, and activation is how lively or quiet something is (Lively). These elements make up what is termed EPA profiles. The study which introduced ACT done by Osgood, May and Miron in 1975 found that emotions with EPA profiles that are alike are more akin than those that have EPA profiles which are not alike (Lively). In addition, they discovered that the short pathways, or easier segues, between positive and negative emotions are identified by emotions that are alike in potency and in activation (Lively). Conclusively, emotional management is easier when one can transition from one similar emotion to the next especially when those emotions are alike in potency, weakness or power and in activation, liveliness or sedateness (Lively).

Attentional Deployment

Johnson (2009) argued that Attentional Deployment is one of the principal emotional management strategies. The theory posits that people tend to manage emotions by intentionally moving their focus away from negative stimuli and towards positive stimuli in a goal-directed behaviour (Johnson, 2009). For example, when you go to the doctor to receive a flu vaccination, instead of focusing your attention on the pain of having an injection you attempt to switch your attention to something else, like a happy memory or the photos on the wall of the doctor’s office. Several theories of clinical and nonclinical anxiety argue that stressful, worrisome and intrusive thoughts are one of the main sources of anxiety (Johnson). Furthermore, amongst such literature it has also been found that individuals who experience high anxiety have difficulty moving their attention from one emotional stimulus to the next. So if we go back to the flu injection example, a person with trait anxiety will have great difficulty or will be unable to focus their attention on anything else other than the injection.

Based on this research Johnson decided to test the attentional control capacity for emotional representations (ACCE) in relation to both trait anxiety and present levels of worrisome thoughts. In addition and most importantly Johnson also tested the theory of Attentional Deployment by analysing whether emotional attention set-shifting predicts a person’s capability to manage their emotions. Conclusively, Johnson (2009) found that indeed individuals who suffer from trait anxiety and worrisome thoughts experiences more difficulty moving focus, or switching, their attention from one stimulus to another. Most importantly however, Johnson’s experiment supported the theory of Attentional Deployment in regards to successful management or regulation of emotions.

Quiz

 * 1) What is deep and surface acting? Is one a better strategy than the other?
 * 2) What factors make it easier to emotionally segue from one emotion to the other?
 * 3) How important is Affect Control Theory to the idea of emotional segueing?
 * 4) How do "short" and "long" pathways work?

Maladaptive Emotional Management
There are times when emotions become more painful than uncomfortable and managing them becomes extremely difficult. In such times people may turn to abnormal emotional management. The most commonly known form of abnormal emotional management is self harm. Intentional self-harm is defined as “the deliberate, direct destruction or alteration of body tissue, without apparent or conscious suicidal intent but resulting in injury severe enough for tissue damage to occur” (Mikolajczak, Petrides & Hurry, 2009). It is argued that this strategy is taken up by individuals, most commonly adolescents, who experience intense negative emotions on a regular or near constant basis (Mikolajczak et al.). A study was done by Mikolajczak et al. on adolescents and the choice of self-harm as an emotional regulation strategy. They found that indeed the connection between emotional intelligence and self-harm was in part conciliated by the choice of emotion management strategy. The results also showed that the choice emotional coping, as a strong factor in relation to self-harm, supported the argument that self-harm is a tactic used to diffuse negative emotions that are worsened by maladaptive emotional coping strategies (Mikolajczak et al.). Although this study contributes greatly to research on abnormal emotional coping strategies and shows promise, it cannot be generalised to the whole population due to the focus on youths.

Quiz

 * 1) What important is Affect Events Theory to emotional management?
 * 2) What is Attentional deployment?
 * 3) Can you think of an example where you have needed to use Attentional Deployment?

Emotional Suppression and Its Impact
Emotional suppression is when emotions are intentionally ignored and mentally “pushed away” so as to manage them (Johnson, 2009; Payne & Cooper, 2001). It is one of the primary tactics used and can be seen in most strategies and theories regarding emotion management. For instance, surface acting involves ignoring one’s own feelings and displaying an emotional state due to emotional labour (Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper). However, this form of emotional control has both positive affects and negative affects on the individual (Ashkanasy et al, 2002; Lively; Payne & Cooper).

Positive Impact
The positive effect from emotional suppression somewhat depends on the individual themselves. For instance, surface acting is considered a positive impact of emotional suppression because it allows the individual to do their job well without affecting their personality and ability to regulate their emotions (Payne & Cooper, 2001). But as previously discussed surface acting is usually successful with people who have good resilience to deep acting, that is, the negative affects of pretend emotional states (Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper). The positive impact of emotional suppression is defined as a functional emotional response from an organizational perspective (Payne & Cooper). Functional Emotional Responses (FERs) are emotional responses in the workplace that are considered “functional” because they enhance job performance (Payne & Cooper). Emotional suppression in this case is positive due to the amount of control achieved over emotions without any serious repercussions. However, the positive affect only seems to be related to the workplace and one’s ability to perform well in their ‘role’ (Ashkanasy et al, 2002; Payne & Cooper).

Negative Impact
There are considerably more negative consequences related to the use of emotional suppression (Payne & Cooper, 2001). These consequences include physical and psychological negative impacts in addition to any occupational problems (Johnson, 2009; Payne & Cooper). Physical affects from ongoing emotional suppression, which are mostly seen in emotional management strategies used in organizational settings, include hypertension and coronary artery disease (Payne & Cooper). These medical problems are a direct result from an elevation in the sympathetic autonomic tone which only occurs when emotions are suppressed rather than expressed (Payne & Cooper). The psychological impact is in part connected with daily workplace hassles. These take place due to dysfunctional emotional responses which occur due to poor capability in emotional suppression (Payne & Cooper). Dysfunctional Emotional Responses (DERs) are emotional responses in the workplace that are considered “dysfunctional” because they interfere with job performance. Such work hassles or workplace interference may include for instance; equipment failure, information problems or inappropriate behaviour towards co-workers (Payne & Cooper). Furthermore, such workplace problems brought on by difficulties suppressing emotion have been seen to identify end-of-day mood, fatigue, negative thinking, stress, bad decision making, subjective workload and burnout (Ciarrochi & Mayer, 2007; Payne & Cooper). Conclusively, the negative impacts of emotional suppression seem to far outweigh any positive impact that may be achieved. But strangely enough emotional suppression remains the most used strategy despite the negative affects.

Quiz

 * 1) What are the positive outcomes of emotional suppression?
 * 2) What are the negative outcomes to emotional suppression?
 * 3) What would a person lack if they were more susceptible to the negative affects of emotional suppression?
 * 4) What is a maladaptive emotion management strategy?

Critique and Recommendations
Within the subject of emotional management there is a lot of research contributed by organisations and corporations (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Callahan, 2008; Payne & Cooper, 2001). There is also some research on maladaptive emotional management and social emotional strategies but these areas have gaps and therefore lack full empirical evidence to support the theory in such areas (Mikolajczak et al., 2009; Ryan, 2008). For instance, studies in maladaptive coping strategies there is sole focus on either youths or on the mentally ill or suicidal. There is thus very little to generalise to the rest of the population (Mikolajczak et al.). And in the case of emotional management tactics used in social situations, there is little to no statistical research done (Ryan, 2008). This is ultimately the problem with emotional management literature today. There is very little statistical research done outside of the workplace environment and therefore the literature that is available is concentrated in one particular form of emotional management – emotional suppression (Ashkanasy et al.; Callahan; Freudenthaler, Neubauer & Haller, 2008; Payne & Cooper). This is because emotional suppression is a desired form of emotional control encouraged by corporations (Payne & Cooper). Subsequently, any other forms of study into emotional management have been overshadowed by the vast amount of work done by organizational studies.

On account of this overshadowing by studies in emotional management in the workplace there has been a significant lack of research done in areas that may greatly benefit society. Firstly, there needs to be more examination done on interpersonal and intrapersonal emotional management. Learning how people manage their emotions daily, on their own and socially, would greatly benefit all society. Furthermore, research in such an area and more in maladaptive coping strategies could assist people in improving their own emotional management skills. Perhaps even avoiding getting to the point where self-harm is an appealing strategy (Mikolajczak et al., 2009). Moreover, there really needs to be more study dedicated to forming emotional management strategies that actually focus on managing emotions. Most strategies, if not all, use varying forms of emotional suppression or types of evasion, such as the attentional deployment theory, and as previously discussed emotional suppression is not a healthy way to regulate emotions (Payne & Cooper, 2001). Overall, health emotional management strategies with an interpersonal-intrapersonal focal point would greatly benefit and contribute to emotional management literature. Finally, it should be suggested that more research go into studying emotional expression as a possible strategy in managing emotions (Payne & Cooper). Emotional expression has appeared to be a somewhat successful coping strategy, but the small amount of study is not enough to support it yet as an outright theory (Payne & Cooper). Therefore, there should be a renewed focus into alternatives such as emotional expression for possible management strategies.

Quiz

 * 1) What are the chapter's main criticisms?
 * 2) What are the chapter's main recommendations?

In Summary

 * Theories and strategies in emotional management are to be largely found in literature on the workplace and in organisational settings. The Process of Professionalization occurs particularly with individuals who work frequently in the public eye and require an emotional state of calm and professionalism (Payne & Cooper, 2001; Posluszny & Arnold, 2009). For instance, doctors, police officers and teachers would require such a strategy to keep a professional distance from their charges (Payne & Cooper; Posluszny & Arnold).  The best known strategy for professionals would be the five strategies discovered by Smith and Kleinman (1989) in their long-term study of medical students and coping strategies.  The five strategies include; transforming the contact, accentuating the positive, using the patient, laughing about it and avoiding the contact (Smith & Kleinman).
 * The closest theory to an all-encompassing hypothesis of emotions in the workplace is the Affective Events Theory (Ashkanasy et al., 2002). The theory asserts that parts of the workplace itself introduce emotions into those people who work in that environment (Ashkanasy et al).  This theory gives no strategy but it remains important to understanding emotional management in the workplace.
 * Deep and surface acting are tactics used mostly by individuals who work in areas where customer service is central (Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper 2001). Both use acting as a strategy and essentially pretend to be feeling the emotional state that is desired of them by their employers.  However, deep acting is a negative outcome of the strategy it is what happens acting has become a part of the individual’s real personality (Lively; Payne & Cooper).  Surface acting is a positive outcome because it means the person is genuinely pretending and will return to themselves when the job is complete (Payne & Cooper).
 * The theory of emotional segueing, when a person is able to transition easily from one emotion to the other, is based in part on the Affect Control Theory (Lively, 2008). The Affect Control Theory separates emotions into three components; evaluation, potency and activation (Lively). These components in turn make up the EPA profiles and help identify which emotions are more compatible (Lively).
 * Attentional Deployment is a common emotional management tactic that most people are instinctually familiar with (Johnson, 2009). If involves switching attention from negative stimuli to positive stimuli in an effort to manage difficult emotions.
 * Maladaptive emotional management is when people are experiencing intense and regular negative emotions and are no longer able to manage them in a healthier way Mikolajczak et al., 2009). Commonly, people tend to turn to self-harm in order to manage difficult emotions; however research in this area is mostly focused on youths and the mentally ill and suicidal (Mikolajczak et al.).
 * Most of the theories discussed above use emotional suppression or some kind of evasion in order to manage emotions (Johnson, 2009; Payne & Cooper, 2001). Unfortunately, emotional suppression has been seen to have greater negative effects on physical, psychological and emotional health, with some small positive factors in regards to occupational success (Ashkanasy et al, 2002; Lively, 2008; Payne & Cooper).
 * Overall, there is not enough literature on real emotional management per say, but there is a lot on emotional management strategies in the workplace (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Callahan, 2008; Payne & Cooper, 2001).. There needs to be a shift in attention towards emotional coping strategies that address interpersonal and intrapersonal issues as well as strategies that are alternative to the negative emotional suppression tactic.

Glossary
Deep Acting = The negative result of acting out the corporately desired emotional state by allowing it to affect the individual’s personality to the extent that it becomes their personality.

Dysfunctional Emotional Responses (DERs) = Emotional responses in the workplace that are considered “dysfunctional” because they interfere with job performance.

Emotional Intelligence = Is the perception, identification, understanding and management of emotions.

Emotional Labour = A term coined by Hochschild in 1983, It is the outward display of feelings or emotions that is sold for a wage.

Emotional Management = Also known as emotion regulation, affect regulation, mood management, stress management or coping strategies. Emotional management can be defined as the controlling of private and spontaneous feelings in order to express them in publicly scripted and socially desirable ways.

Emotional Supression = A tactic used to manage difficult or uncomfortable emotions by supressing them through evasion, denile or an intentional switching of attention. Essentially a way to avoid confronting such emotions.

Functional Emotional Responses (FERs) = Emotional responses in the workplace that are considered “functional” because they enhance job performance.

Self-harm = The deliberate, direct destruction or alteration of body tissue, without apparent or conscious suicidal intent but resulting in injury severe enough for tissue damage to occur.

Surface Acting = The act of insulating against the negative effects of performing the corporately desired emotional state by doing so only on the “surface” without allowing it to infiltrate the individual’s real persona. {{Hide in print|


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team6.Kim.MK/hw1

Problem Statement
The equation of motion of a wheel on flexible guide rail type problem that is consistent with what occurs when the wheel of a high speed train interacts with its guiderail is given as :

$$ {C}_{3} \left(Y^1,t \right) \overset{..}{Y^1} + {C}_{2} \left(Y^1,t \right) (\overset{.}{Y^1})^2 + {C}_{1} \left(Y^1,t \right)\overset{.}{Y^1} + {C}_{0} (Y^1, t) = 0 $$(1)

where the coefficients may be expressed as:

$$\begin{align} & {C}_{0}(Y^1, t) : = - F^1[1- \bar{R} {u^2_{,SS}}(Y^1, t)] - F^2{u^2_{,S}}(Y^1, t) - \frac{T}{R} \\ & {}+ M [[1- \bar{R}{u^2_{,SS}}(Y^1, t)[u_{,tt}^{1}(Y^1,t) -\bar{R}{u_{,Stt}^{2}}(Y^1, t)] \\ & {}+ {u_{,s}^{2}(Y^1, t) u_{,tt}^{2}(Y^1,t)}] \end{align}$$ (2)

$$ C_{1}(Y^1, t) := 2M[[1 -\bar{R}u_{,SS}^{2}(Y^1,t)][u_{,St}^1(Y^1,t)-\bar{R}u_{,SSt}^{2}(Y^1,t)]+u_{,S}^2(Y^1,t)u^2_{,St}(Y^1,t)] $$(3)

$$C_{2}(Y^1, t) := M\left[[1-\bar{R}u_{,SS}^{2}(Y^1,t)][u_{,SS}^1(Y^1,t)-\bar{R}u_{,SSS}^{2}(Y^1,t)]+u_{,S}^2(Y^1,t)u^2_{,SS}(Y^1,t)]\right]$$ (4)

$$ C_{3}(Y^1,t):= M[1-\bar{R}u_{,SS}^{2}(Y^1,t)]^2 + \frac{I_w}{R^2} $$ (5)

Required
Prove the following is non-linear:

$$ {C}_{3} \left(Y^1,t \right) \overset{..}{Y^1} $$ (6)

Solution
In general a function may be considered linear if the following conditions are met :

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$$f\left( \alpha x \right)=\alpha f\left( x \right)$$ (7)
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$$f\left( {{x}_{1}}\pm {{x}_{2}} \right)=f\left( {{x}_{1}} \right)\pm f\left( {{x}_{2}} \right)$$ (8)
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$$ {F\left({\alpha}u + {\beta}v\right) = {\alpha} F(u) + {\beta} F(v)} $$  (9)
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$$ F\left( \alpha {Y^1} \right) = \alpha {F ( {Y^1})} $$ (10)
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Consider for a moment the differential operator. The differential operator is a linear operator, and as such the above conditions will be met if the the differential operator is applied to an arbitrary function. For example:

First let us examine the first condition of linearity given in eq. 7. According to eq. 7 the result if we multiply the differential operator by some constant C should be exactly the same as if we multiply function by some constant C and then take the derivative.

$$\begin{align} & C\frac{d{f(y)}}{dy}=\frac{d{f(C\cdot y)}}{dy} \\ & C\frac{d\left( 5y \right)}{dy}=C\left( 5 \right)=5C \\ & \frac{d\left( 5Cy \right)}{dy}=5C \\ \end{align}$$

Clearly the placement of the scalar multiple C has no effect on the result, and therefore the differential operator is linear. If we were to apply the second condition of linearity it would also hold.

For this particular problem we will apply the first condition of linearity to prove that the function given in eq. 6 is non-linear. By applying the first condition of linearity using an arbitrary constant α we obtain:

$$ \left( M{{\left[ 1-\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {({{\alpha}{Y}^{1}},t)}} \right]}^{2}}+\frac \right)\ddot{Y}^{1} {\left( {{\alpha}{Y}^{1}},t \right)}\overset{?}{\mathop{=}}\,{\alpha}\left( M{{\left[ 1-\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)}} \right]}^{2}}+\frac \right) \ddot{Y}^{1}{\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)} $$ (12)

Since the differential operator is linear we can take the scalar multiply from within the derivative terms to obtain:

$$ \left( M{{\left[ 1-{\alpha}\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {({{Y}^{1}},t)}} \right]}^{2}}+\frac \right){\alpha}\ddot{Y}^{1} {\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)}\overset{?}{\mathop{=}}\,{\alpha}\left( M{{\left[ 1-\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)}} \right]}^{2}}+\frac \right) \ddot{Y}^{1}{\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)} $$ (13)

Doing some simple algebraic manipulation we obtain the following:

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$$ \left( {\alpha}M{{\left[ 1-{\alpha}\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {({{Y}^{1}},t)}} \right]}^{2}}+{\alpha}\frac \right)\ddot{Y}^{1} {\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)}{\neq}\left({\alpha} M{{\left[ 1-\bar{R}u{{_{,ss}^{2}} {\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)}} \right]}^{2}}+{\alpha}\frac \right) \ddot{Y}^{1}{\left( {{Y}^{1}},t \right)} $$ (14)
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Clearly the left and right sides of eq. 12 don't match (there is second power scalar on the right, but only a first power on the left), therefore eq. 6 is non-linear.

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team6.Kim.MK/hw1