text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/Melatonin

"Melatonin acts as a neuroprotective agent in the substantia nigra and is the reason for the characteristic black appearance of its neurons."

Background
Melatonin is a multi-purpose hormone produced by the pineal gland. Among its known purposes are the regulation of sleep patterns and neuroprotection of neurons, notably in the substsntia nigra.

Research
1998

Mayo et al assessed the effect of melatonin on PD cases. The following is an abstract of their paper.

"It was recently reported that low doses of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induce apoptosis of naive (undifferentiated) and neuronal (differentiated) PC12 cells, and this system has been proposed as an adequate experimental model for the study of Parkinson's disease. The mechanism by which this neurotoxin damages cells is via the production of free radicals. Given that the neurohormone melatonin has been reported 1) to be a highly effective endogenous free radical scavenger, 2) to increase the mRNA levels and the activity of several antioxidant enzymes, and 3) to inhibit apoptosis in other tissues, we have studied the ability of melatonin to prevent the programmed cell death induced by 6-OHDA in PC12 cells. We found that melatonin prevents the apoptosis caused by 6-OHDA in naive and neuronal PC12 cells as estimated by 1) cell viability assays, 2) counting of the number of apoptotic cells, and 3) analysis and quantification of DNA fragmentation. Exploration of the mechanisms used by melatonin to reduce programmed cell death revealed that this chemical mediator prevents the 6-OHDA induced reduction of mRNAs for several antioxidant enzymes. The possibility that melatonin utilized additional mechanisms to prevent apoptosis of these cells is also discussed. Since this endogenous agent has no known side effects and readily crosses the blood-brain-barrier, we consider melatonin to have a high clinical potential in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and possibly other neurodegenerative diseases, although more research on the mechanisms is yet to be done."

1999

Mayo et al continued previous research on melatonin and this is an abstract of their follow-on paper:-

"6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is a neurotoxin used in the induction of experimental Parkinson's disease in both animals and cultured neuronal cells. Biochemical and molecular approaches showed previously that low doses of 6-OHDA induced apoptosis in PC12 cells, while high doses of this neurotoxin induced necrosis. Melatonin has been shown to protect against the neuronal programmed cell death induced by 6-OHDA, although it was not able to prevent the massive necrotic cellular death occurring after the addition of high doses of the neurotoxin. In the present work, we demonstrate by ultrastructural analysis that although low doses of 6-OHDA induced apoptosis in PC12 cells, it also damaged the non-apoptotic cells, morphologically corresponding this damage to incipient and reversible necrotic lesions. When the doses of the neurotoxin increase, there are still apoptotic cells, although most of the cells show necrotic irreversible lesions. We also found that melatonin partially prevents the incipient necrotic lesions caused by low doses of 6-OHDA. The fact that melatonin was shown in previous work to prevent apoptosis caused by low doses of 6-OHDA, but not necrosis induced by high doses of the neurotoxin, seemed to indicate that this agent is only able to protect against apoptosis. However, our present results, melatonin preventing also the incipient necrotic neuronal lesions, suggest that this hormone may provide a general protection against cell death, suggesting that higher doses should be tried in order to prevent the necrotic cell death induced by high doses of the neurotoxin.".

2005 Dowling et al compared the effects of two doses of melatonin (5mg. and 50mg.) to placebo on sleep, daytime sleepiness, and level of function in patients with PD who complained of sleep disturbances.

The result was a significant improvement in total nighttime sleep time during the 50 mg melatonin treatment compared to placebo. There was significant improvement in subjective sleep disturbance, sleep quantity, and daytime sleepiness during the 5 mg melatonin treatment compared to placebo.

2006

Maharaj et al reported the finding that 6-hydroxymelatonin administration proved successful in reducing Fe2+-induced neurotoxicity in rat hippocampus.

"This study provides some evidence of the neuroprotective effects of 6-OHM."

2008

Kim et al gave melatonin to rats with Parkinsonism induced by the application of 6-OHDA.

When the results were analysed subsequently it was noted that melatonin treatment significantly reduced the motor deficit and also resulted in the survival of dopaminergic neurons in SN and TH-immunoreactive terminals in the dorsolateral striatum.

"These behavioral and histochemical results may indicate a neuroprotective action of melatonin and suggest a potential pharmacological role in the treatment of Parkinson's disease."

Acuña-Castroviejo administered melatonin to MPTP- induced Parkinsonian mice. When the mouse brains were examined a complete reversal of the microbiological changes normally expected from MPTP was noted. This led to the conclusion:-

"These data show that melatonin is neuroprotective in this MPTP model of Parkinson's disease and suggest that melatonin, an endogenous antioxidant and nontoxic compound, may have potential beneficial effects for this neurodegenerative disorder."

2010

Tapias et al assessed the effects of melatonin on rats with PD induced by MPTP and Rotenone.

"Our findings indicate that melatonin is not neuroprotective in the rotenone model of PD and may exacerbate neurodegeneration."

2014

Videnovic et al measured serum melatonin levels in blood samples from a cohort of 20 patients with PD receiving stable dopaminergic therapy and 15 age-matched control participants. The amplitude of melatonin levels were significantly lower in PD patients. Their conclusions were:-

" Circadian function, such as timed exposure to bright light and exercise, might serve as complementary therapies for the nonmotor manifestations of PD."

Related pages
See also: Melatonin


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/Minocycline

"The results of tests on the neuroprotective qualities of minicycine to date are ambiguous."

Background
Minocycline (INN) is a broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic,

Research
2001

Du et al tested the neuroprotective properties of minocycline and found that;-

 * It prevents nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of Parkinson's disease.
 * It also blocked dopamine depletion in the striatum as well as in the nucleus accumbens after MPTP administration.

2003

Yang et al measured the effect of minocycline on rats with Parkinsonism induced by MPTP.

"We found that although minocycline inhibited microglial activation, it significantly exacerbated MPTP-induced damage to DA neurons. We present evidence suggesting that this effect may be due to inhibition of DA and 1-methyl-4-phenylpridium (MPP+) uptake into striatal vesicles."

2004

Diguet et al tried different doses of minocycline on Parkinsonian mice and monkeys with a range of results. Some improved and some worsened. Their conclusion:-

"Minocycline may have variable and even deleterious effects in different species and models according to the mode of administration and dose."

2006

NINDS NET-PD Investigators Creatine and minocycline were prioritized for testing in Phase II clinical trials based on a systematic evaluation of potentially disease modifying compounds for Parkinson's disease.

The conclusion was that both creatine and minocycline should be considered for definitive Phase III trials to determine if they alter the long term progression of Parkinson's disease.

Quintero et al observed the effects of treatment of 6-OHDA Parkinsonian rats with timed doses of minocycline. Their conclusions:-

"These data suggest that the therapeutic potential of minocycline may depend on the time of drug administration relative to neuropathogenic event."

2009

Faust et al reported on a series of tests with fruit flies.

"In the present study, a Drosophila DJ-1A model of PD was used to test potential neuroprotective drugs. The drugs applied are the Chinese herb celastrol, the antibiotic minocycline, the bioenergetic amine coenzyme Q10 (coQ10), and the glutamate antagonist 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulphamoylbenzo[f]-quinoxaline (NBQX). All of these drugs target pathogenic processes implicated in PD, thus constitute mechanism-based treatment strategies. We show that celastrol and minocycline, both having antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, confer potent dopaminergic neuroprotection in Drosophila DJ-1A model, while coQ10 shows no protective effect. NBQX exerts differential effects on cell survival and brain dopamine content: it protects against DN loss but fails to restore brain dopamine level."

2010

Radad et al Treated mice, who were rendered Parkinsonian with the application of rotenone, with minocycline. Their conclusions:-

"Minocycline has neuroprotective potential against the progressive loss of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive neurons induced by long-term rotenone toxicity in primary dopaminergic cultures."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: File:Blue Tricolour PSAG Cards.pdf

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text:
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Pdf for making cards for Tricolour Voting Game

title: File:Green Tricolour PSAG Cards.pdf


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Pdf for making cards for Tricolour Voting Game

title: File:Red Tricolour PSAG Cards.pdf


text:
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Summary
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title: File:SystemC.08.A.Events.20120514.pdf


text:
Biophysics/Introduction/Thylakoid

Thylakoids are naturally occurring stacks of photosynthetic membranes isolated from within plant chloroplasts. (See also thylakoids) and the following diagram.)

Related Endomembrane Systems

 * Cell membrane => Nucleus => Nucleolus => Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) => Golgi apparatus
 * Parenthesome, Autophagosome, Vesicles, Exosome, Lysosome, Endosome, Phagosome, Vacuole, Cytoplasmic granules, Melanosome, Microbody, Glyoxysome Peroxisome
 * Weibel–Palade bodies = ribosomes
 * Cytoskeleton
 * Microfilaments: Intermediate filaments, Microtubules, Prokaryotic cytoskeleton, MTOCs, Centrosome, Centriole, Basal body, Spindle pole body, Myofibril
 * Endosymbionts
 * Mitochondrion, Plastids, Chloroplast, Chromoplast, Gerontoplast, Leucoplast.
 * Other internal	organelles
 * RNA, Ribosome, Vault, Cytoplasm, Proteasome

 * External
 * Undulipodium, Cilium, Flagellum, Axoneme, Radial spoke, Cell wall, Acrosome
 * B strc: edmb (perx), skel (ctrs), epit, cili, mito, nucl (chro)

Хларапласт Хлоропласт Hloroplast Cloroplast Chloroplast Grønkorn Chloroplast Kloroplast Χλωροπλάστης Cloroplasto Kloroplasto Kloroplasto Chloroplaste Chloroplast Cloroplasto 엽록체 Kloroplast Kloroplasto Kloroplas Grænukorn Cloroplasto כלורופלסט Kloroplast Hloroplasts Chloroplastas Kloroplasztisz Хлоропласт 葉緑体 Kloroplast Kloroplast Cloroplast Chloroplast Chloroplast Cloroplasto Cloroplast Хлоропласт Chloroplast Chloroplast Kloroplast Хлоропласт Hloroplast Kloroplas Viherhiukkanen Kloroplast

title: Biophysics/Introduction/Thylakoid


text: Category:Photosynthesis

title: Category:Photosynthesis


text:
Biophysics/Introduction/Chloroplast

Chloroplast: see chloroplast and thylakoid membranes.

title: Biophysics/Introduction/Chloroplast


text:
Organelle

An organelle (pronounced /ɔrɡəˈnɛl/) is the general concept of a specialized subunit within a cell with a specific function. As an example, a chloroplast is a photosynthetic organelle, that is specialized in carrying out photosynthesis in plants and certain microorganisms and has its own specialized chloroplast DNA. Mitochondria are the analogue of the latter in animal cells and also have their own mitochondrial DNA

Most organelles are protected by their own membrane(s), as shown in the following schematic diagram of an 'abstract' organelle.

See also:

 * Schematic Drawing of Cell Organelles
 * Cross-section of an Animal Cell

Animal cell organelles
Different cell organelles present in an animal cell are as follows (presumed to be in the order of their importance)

1. The Cell Nucleus contains the DNA genetic material of the organism, usually coupled with histones in higher animals. Both DNA replication and the RNA synthesis based on the DNA template occurs in the nucleus in a controlled manner. The nucleus of a cell regulates the activities of the other cell organelles in the cell and it is protected by anuclear membrane with nuclear pores, or channels, via which the nucleus communicates with the cytoplasm. The biosynthesis of ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) occurs within the nucleolar organizer within the nucleus, with the latter being considered as a sub-organelle.

2. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)is a network of interconnecting pathways that enable the transport of molecules in a cell. The rough ER has ribosome molecules attached to its membrane surface, whereas the smooth ER does not have ribosome molecules attached to its surface.

3. Ribosomes or Palade bodies are involved in protein biosynthesis and consists of two sub units, a large and a small one, both containing r-RNA. Protein biosynthesis occurs primarily in the ribosomes and is controlled by specific enzymes attached to specific amino acids. The ribosomes may be found either freely floating in the cytoplasm or sometimes attached to the ER. In bacterial cells, ribosomes are attached to the cytoplasmic membranes, inside the cell.

4. The Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules synthesized by the cell mainly the proteins ready for secretion. The ER transports the proteins in their crude form to the golgi appratus. The golgi apparatus packages the proteins developing them into primary, secondary and tertiary proteins respectively.

5. The mitochondria are the `power house' of animal cells as they organize and generate energy within the cells. A mitochondrion has a double membrane--somewhat similar to a Gram-negative bacterium-- that is involved in the controlled energy production within the cell. The energy is generated biochemically in the nmitochondrion through ATP breakdown. Mitochondria also have their own genetic material called mitochondrial DNA, which is interestingly circular, being therefore similar in its biotopology to the bacterial, single chromosome. Biochemical energy is produced from certain biochemical reactions involving or 'cycles' simpler carbohydrates such as glucose and sucrose through the process called cellular respiration.

6. Lysososmes - Lysososmes are sometimes called the `suicide bags' of the cell because they are involved in clearing the anabolic, or `waste' debris from the cell. The contain, therefore, numerous hydrolytic enzymes that are breaking down the cell `debris' to simpler component molecules,and also process the toxins that would otherwise accumulate in the cell. Lysososmes are also capable of engulfing damaged organelles, viruses, bacteria, and also certain food particles.

7. Vacuole are large storage organelles floating in the cytoplasm that accumulate the excess water or food, and are present in large numbers withing the cell.

title: Organelle


text:
Network

A network is a representation of a system of connected components. The network may be represented as a connected graph, a multi-graph, hypergraph, colored graph, meta-graph or category, and it has therefore a specific topological structure, or topology specified by the connections present between the system components. The behavior(s) of a network is (are), in general, distinct from that of its components, although it is ultimately determined by the interactions between its components. Whereas the network specifying a computer, an automaton, or a machine, or device, is decomposable into certain types of major subnetworks, such as group machines (clocks) and state-permutation modules, bionetworks of highly complex systems such as organisms are not decomposable in this sense into any simpler subnetworks or bio-modules without the loss of essential physiological functions that are characteristic to Life and living organisms.

 * The genome of a cell can be represented by a genetic network which contains all the genes of the organisms that are functionally, or operationally, linked.
 * The proteome of a cell is the network of all interacting proteins in a physiologically functional (living) cell.
 * The neural network of a brain can be represented as a graph of all connected neurons in the brain.

title: Network


text:
Category

Category, in mathematics, is a fundamental, algebraic or topological (super-, or meta-) structure formed by objects connected through arrows or morphisms into (categorical) diagrams, that has an identity arrow for each object, and is subject to certain axioms of associativity, commutativity and distributivity. The objects of a category can be simple sets, or specific algebraic structures such as monoids, semigroups, groups, groupoids, rings, modules, lattices, or topological structures, such as a topological space/ a graph/ a network, a meta-graph, and so on.

Category definition
A category can be defined in several equivalent ways, as follows.

Definition #1: A category $$\mathcal{C}$$ consists of

 * A set $$O(\mathcal{C})$$ of objects.

 * For any $$X,Y\in\mathrm{Obj}(\mathcal{C})$$, a set $$\mathrm{Hom}(X,Y)$$ of morphisms from $$X$$ to $$Y$$.

The objects and morphisms of a category obey the following defining axioms:

 * There is a notion of composition. If $$X,Y,Z\in O(\mathcal{C})$$, $$f\in\mathrm{Hom}(X,Y)$$ and $$g\in\mathrm{Hom}(Y,Z)$$, then $$f$$ and $$g$$ are called a composable pair. Their composition is a morphism $$g\circ f\in\mathrm{Hom}(X,Z)$$.

 * Composition is associative. $$f\circ(g\circ h)=(f\circ g)\circ h$$ whenever the composition is defined.

 * For any object $$X$$, there is an identity morphism $$\mathrm{id}_X\in\mathrm{Hom}(X,X)$$ such that if $$Y,Z$$ are objects, $$f\in\mathrm{Hom}(X,Y)$$ and $$g\in \mathrm{Hom}(Z,X)$$, then $$\mathrm{id}_X\circ f=f$$ and $$g\circ\mathrm{id}_X=g$$.

Definition #2: A morphism $$f$$ has associated with it two functions $$\mathrm{dom}$$ and $$\mathrm{cod}$$ called domain and codomain respectively, such that $$f\in\mathrm{Hom}(X,Y)$$ if and only if $$\mathrm{dom}\,f=X$$ and $$\mathrm{cod}\,f=Y$$. Thus two morphisms $$f,g$$ are composable if and only if $$\mathrm{cod}\,f=\mathrm{dom}\,g$$.

Remark 3: Unless confusion is possible, one will not usually specify which Hom-set a given morphism belongs to. Moreover, unless several categories are being considered, one usually does not write completely $$X\in O(\mathcal{C})$$, but writes instead as a short-hand notation: "$$X$$ is an object". One may also write $$X\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}Y$$ to indicate implicitly the Hom-set $$f$$ to which it belongs to. Furthermore, one may also omit the composition symbol "o", writing simply $$gf$$ instead of $$g\circ f$$.

 * A category can also be regarded as a " of structures of the same mathematical kind, connected via their transformations or homomorphisms/ homeomorphisms". A " of categories" can also be defined for small categories; it is usually called a super-category. The objects of a super-category are categories of any kind, and the arrows of a super-category are called functors. One can also define arrows between functors that are called natural transformations, and the essence of the mathematical theory of categories. or Category Theory, is often contained in natural transformations, such as natural equivalences.

 * A proposed, logical axiomatics for categories was proposed by William F. Lawvere in the form of the Elementary Theory of Abstract Categories (ETAC), in which identities, objects, arrows, associativity, commutativity and distributivity properties are defined in logical terms and logical connectives.

 * A groupoid, for example, can be considered as a category with all arrows being invertible. It is possible also to endow an algebraic structure, such as a group, or groupoid, with a (consistent) topological structure. An example of a group endowed with a topological structure is a Lie group that plays an important role in quantum physics; its generalization to many objects is a topological groupoid called a Lie groupoid, which has more complex mathematical properties than the Lie group.

title: Category


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/Nicotine

"The long term adverse health consequences of inhaling nicotine have been well documented, but it can be administered in less harmful forms such as skin patches."

Background
Nicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants, where it functions as a deterrent to herbivores. Its formula is 3-[(2S)-1-methylpyrrolidin-2-yl]pyridine. It is the active component of tobacco which, when inhaled by humans, is both a stimulant and a relaxant. It instigates a release of glucose from the liver and epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla. Users report feelings of relaxation, sharpness, calmness and alertness.

Research
1990

Carr and Rowell exposed mice to tobacco smoke for 4 weeks, then induced Parkinson symptoms using MPTP and evaluated the results.

"Smoke exposure was found to reduce the decrease in striatal dopamine and metabolite levels caused by MPTP. Although smoke exposure inhibited cerebral MAO-B activity, tissues from smoke-treated mice were able to metabolize MPTP in a normal fashion. This suggests that inhibition of cerebral MAO may not be a major mechanism for the apparent protective effect of cigarette smoke."

1998

Ferger et al carried out a series of experiments with nicotine added in vitro to dopaminergic neuron cells and nicotine injections in mice with MPTP-induced Parkinsonism. Their findings:-

"These results demonstrate that in vitro nicotine has radical scavenging properties which might suggest neuroprotective effects. In vivo experiments with nicotine, however, showed that a low dosage of nicotine did not alleviate the MPTP-induced dopamine depletion, but a large dosage even enhanced it."

2001

Costa et al induced Parkinsonism in rats by the administration of 6-OHDA and then assessed the effects of the injection of nicotine.

"Subcutaneous nicotine (1 mg/kg) administered 4 h before and 20, 44 and 68 h after 6 microg 6-OHDA, prevented significantly the striatal dopamine loss. Administered only 18 or 4 h before or only 20, 44 and 68 h after, nicotine failed to counteract the loss of dopamine or the increase in dopamine turnover observed in the CS. Nicotine also failed to prevent significantly the decrease of striatal dopamine levels produced by the 10-microg 6-OHDA intranigral dose. Chlorisondamine, a long-lasting nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, reverted significantly the nicotinic protective effects on dopamine concentrations. These results are showing that putative neuroprotective effects of nicotine in vivo depend on an acute intermittent administration schedule and on the extent of the brain lesion."

2002

Meshul et al evaluated the effects of nicotine on Parkinsonian rats.

"The overall goal of this study was to determine the effects of subchronic nicotine (0.4 mg/kg) treatment for 7 or 14 days on striatal glutamate function in both naïve and in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-treated rats in which the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway was lesioned."

"The data suggests that in this 6-OHDA lesion model of Parkinson's disease, treatment with nicotine may be useful in counteracting the increased behavioral effect (i.e., contralateral rotations) observed after treatment with a dopamine agonist, such as apomorphine."

2003

Tan et al. See report under Caffeine.

2004

Quik reviewed the microbiology of nicotine.

"Putative factors and signalling pathways involved in the actions of nicotine are discussed. An understanding of the molecular basis for the reduced occurrence of PD in tobacco users is crucial for the development of intervention strategies to reduce or halt disease progression"

2006

Quik et al administered nicotine to monkeys in drinking water for 6 months and then induced Parkinsonism through injections of MPTP. Tests indicated that the nicotine treated monkeys fared better than a similar batch that were not given nicotine.

"MPTP-induced cell loss in the substantia nigra was unaffected by nicotine treatment, indicating that nicotine acts at the striatal level to restore/maintain dopaminergic function. These data further support the possibility that nicotine contributes to the lower incidence of Parkinson's disease in smokers."

2007

Ritz et al evaluated the risk of PD in relation to smoking.

"Our data support a dose-dependent reduction of PD risk associated with cigarette smoking and potentially with other types of tobacco use. Importantly, effects seemed not to be influenced by sex or education. Differences observed by race and age at diagnosis warrant further study."

2009

Simon et al published the results of an epidemiological study which showed that:-

"Risk of PD was not significantly associated with any of the reproductive factors measured or exogenous estrogen use. Use of postmenopausal hormones, however, may modify the associations of smoking and caffeine intake with PD risk."

2010

Trin et al. See report under Caffeine,--


text:
Category Theory

Welcome to the Category Theory International Project !

 * "In mathematics, category theory deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and relationships between them. Categories now appear in most branches of mathematics and in some areas of theoretical computer science and mathematical physics, and have been a unifying notion. Categories were first introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in 1942-1945, in connection with algebraic topology."

 * This is an International Project on Category Theory, Higher Dimensional Algebra and their Novel Applications, such as:

 * Topoi,
 * n-Categories
 * Nonabelian Algebraic Topology,

Applications and Applied Mathematics

 * Categorical Dynamics,
 * Computational Theory and Logic,
 * Quantum Physics and Quantum Algebraic Topology,
 * Complex Systems and Relational Biology,
 * Mathematical Medicine
 * Ecosystems
 * Biosphere
 * Sociology
 * Categorical Ontology
 * Philosophy of Science
 * (Specify your own novel application field, such as Anabelian Geometry, Noncommutative Geometry, Nondistributive Logics, Monassociative Mathematics, NonNewtonian analysis, etc)

Category theory topics Homological algebra: Abelian category • Sheaf theory • K-theory

Topos theory • Enriched category theory • Higher category theory

Monoidal category • Closed category • Dagger category

More category theory topics

Things to do

 * Improve the category theory articles, expand the category theory stubs
 * Keep building this entry

List of Participants
. ..
 * 1
 * 1) 2 User:Bci21
 * 3
 * N

Resources

 * Introduction to Category Theory
 * Category Theory Wikibook

 * "Abelian Categories" (fr) by Pierre Gabriel
 * Grothendieck, Alexander. Éléments de géométrie algébrique (rédigés avec la collaboration de Jean Dieudonné) : I. Le langage des schémas. Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS, 4 (1960), p. 5-228
 * Des Catégories Abéliennes-Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, 90 (1962), p. 323-448

title: Category Theory


text: File:Sampling.6.B.Prefilter.20120605.pdf


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/NSAIDs

"There are strong indicators of positive neuroprotection from PD by NSAIDs in the following citations, but there are also some contra-indications."

Background
NSAIDs is an abbreviation of Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. They are also referred to as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics (NSAIAs) or nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs). They are drugs with analgesic and antipyretic (fever-reducing) effects and which have, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects.

Common forms, which can be purchased over the counter in most countries, are aspirin, ibuprofen and nuproxen.

Research
1998

Aubin et al reported that The neurotoxic effects of the dopamine-selective neurotoxin MPTP (15 mg/kg, s.c.), in mice, were totally prevented by systemic administration of salicylate (ED50 = 40 mg/kg, i.p.), aspirin (ED50 = 60 mg/kg, i.p.), or the soluble lysine salt of aspirin, Aspegic (ED50 = 80 mg/kg, i.p.).

2000

Casper et al examined the effects of aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen on cultured primary rat embryonic neurons. All three NSAIDs significantly attenuated the decrease in dopamine uptake caused by glutamate, indicating preservation of neuronal integrity.

2003

Sairam et al evaluated the effect of NSAIDs on rats with induced (MPP+) Parkinsonism.

Celeoxib showed no effect. Diclofenac was effective only at high doses. Cyclooxygenase inhibitor significantly attenuated striatal DA depletion.

"The present study establishes potent neuroprotective activity of SA and suggests the use of aspirin in adjuvant therapy in Parkinson's disease."

Chen et al carried out an epidemiological study of 44,507 men and 98,845 women which included 415 cases of PD. They concluded that regular aspirin users had a lower risk of PD.

2005

Chen et al reviewed a large cohort of people and found that ibuprofen use may delay or prevent the onset of PD., but the same was not the case for aspirin or other NSAIDs.

2006

Ton et al evaluated a cohort of 206 PD cases and 383 controls. Their findings:-

"Our results provide only limited support for the hypothesis that use of aspirin may reduce the risk of this disease, and no indication of protection from other NSAIDs."

2007

Esposito et al reviewed the potential role of NSAIDs in the treatment of PD.

Wahner et al compared 293 PD cases with 286 controls and found:-

•	A decreased risk of PD among regular aspirin users. (especially women)

•	A stronger protective effect among non-aspirin NSAID users

2011

Gao et al reviewed a cohort of 136,197 people including 291 PD cases. They confirmed a reduced PD risk amongst regular users of ibuprofen but not among other NSAID users.

Driver et al made a study of a very large cohort and concluded:-

"This case-control study did not find evidence that NSAID use reduces Parkinson's disease risk"

Becker et al sought to resolve contradictions trown up by prevous studies into the neuroprotective potential of NSAIDs using a large health database. Their conclusions:-

"In this large observational study with data from the UK primary care, the long-term use of NSAIDs, aspirin, or acetaminophen was not associated with a substantially altered risk of developing PD."


text:
Computational complexity theory

|Computational complexity theory studies the complexity of problems amenable to algorithmic solutions, classifying them according to the amount of resources (time, workspace, ...) needed to solve an arbitrary instance of a problem.

Introduction
To define complexity classes, one usually starts from a concrete machine model, for example the 1-tape deterministic Turing machine. (Deterministic) time is then the number of steps needed to compute the solution to a problem instance of a certain length. Space is the number of cells the machine needs to use, again depending on the length of the instance. It must be noted at this point that the asymptotic behaviour, or growth, independent of additive or multiplicative constants is more interesting than the actual number obtained for some machine. Complexity measures more specific to a certain machine model can also be found, such as the number of reversals (which has some surprising properties ), or ink (which is consumed when overwriting a tape symbol). Also the joint restriction of space and time resources leads to useful classes.

An important distinction is between deterministic and nondeterministic computation; a nondeterministic Turing machine may "guess" how to proceed in a computation, and reject a problem instance for which a positive answer would be correct if the guesses turn out to be wrong, but never the other way round. Also, by making the right guesses it must be able to accept any instance that should be accepted.

Many central questions in computational complexity theory remain open today. Many inclusions between classes follow directly from the definition, while showing that the inclusion is proper (separating two classes, showing there are problems in the upper class that are not solvable by algorithms of lower complexity) is often inordinately hard. Some of the best-known open questions ask whether the non-deterministic and deterministic variants of certain resource-bounded computations are equally powerful.

Complexity classes may also have logical characterisations. That branch of computational complexity theory is called descriptive complexity, and is usually taught second.

External Resources

 * The |Complexity class article on Wikipedia
 * The |Computability and Complexity wikibook
 * The | Complexity Zoo, providing a large list of complexity classes and links to the scientific publications establishing them

title: Computational complexity theory


text:
Complexity theory in biology

Complexity theory in Biology relates to complex systems biology. This indicates "an approach to biology which is well rooted in complex systems science."

"A very rich and promising area for complexity theory in biology is the study of the origin of biological form, known as morphology."

title: Complexity theory in biology


text:
Category:Complexity

Category:Complexity

title: Category:Complexity


text:
Category Theory/RelatedPortals

Category Theory/RelatedPortals:

 * Portal:Mathematics
 * Portal:Mathematics
 * Portal:Physical Sciences

Mathematics-related content development projects also exist on pages in "School:" or "Topic:" namespaces. Schools: Mathematics - Computer Science - Economics - Olympiads-School:Biophysics-Category Theory Projects

Topics: (Edit within the MathDeps Template)

title: Category Theory/RelatedPortals


text:
User talk:Tmoliterno

Social Entrepreneurship
Course page for MGMT491B Fall 2012

title: User talk:Tmoliterno


text:
User:Tmoliterno

This is the main Wikiversity page for Prof. T. Moliterno, Isenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts Amherst.

title: User:Tmoliterno


text:
History of Korea

Welcome to History of Korea course.

Prehistoric Era

 * /Gojoseon Empire/
 * Pre Three States of Korea
 * Buyeo States
 * Eastern Buyeo
 * Northern Buyeo
 * Jolbon Buyeo
 * Choi Nakrang
 * Goguryeo
 * Three Hans
 * Mahan
 * Byeonhan
 * Jinhan

Three States of Korea and Gaya Confederacy

 * Goguryeo|Goguryeo State
 * Goguryeo Kingdom
 * Goguryeo Empire
 * Baekje Kingdom
 * Silla Kingdom
 * Gaya Confederacy

Northern and Southern States

 * Balhae Kingdom
 * Silla Kingdom

Later Three States of Korea

 * Later Goguryeo
 * Later Baekje
 * Silla Kingdom

Dynasties

 * Goryeo Dynasty
 * Joseon Dynasty

Modern Era

 * Korean Empire
 * Japanese Occupation Period of Korea
 * Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
 * Modern Korea

title: History of Korea


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Theory Design Lab/Evolution and the categorical imperative

Cleaning symbiosis
The cleaner fish can swim into the jaws of fish of prey and is not attacked. The larger fish even spit out the cleaner fish when the fish has finished removing parasites.


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User:Leonard787

Hey guys

title: User:Leonard787


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User talk:World historia

You can ask anything.

Q&A
Anything to ask?

Welcome
 Hello World historia, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! -- dark lama  13:38, 8 June 2012 (UTC)

Project
I'm from your brother country, Korea! Nice to meet you. Are you interested in Goguryeo Project?.Since it was created yesterday, I'm the only member. I hope others to join. And I want you to join my project. My project is both a learning project and a research project about Goguryeo Empire. Goguryeo was very friendly with your country's ancestry. Turk has participated Goguryeo-Sui War as a Goguryeo's supporter. World historia (talk) 10:22, 8 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Sorry for the delayed response. I don't know a good level of English. I can not understand some things :) I have friends from Korea :). I hope... I am interested :) Thank you! Emperyan (talk) 15:25, 29 June 2012 (UTC)

Probationary custodianship request
Sorry for slow response - is your request at WV:CC still active? Sincerely, James -- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:58, 21 December 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:World historia


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Theory Design Lab/Prime Directive of the United Federation of Planets

United Federation of Planets
Assume there is something like the United Federation of Planets found in Star Trek movies. Assume further that the United Federation of Planets has a Prime Directive stating that full contact with civilizations unable to cope is prohibited.

Technological progress
In the current century humanity will make significant technological progress, which in some areas could almost be seen like receiving gifts from a more advanced society.


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Talk:Dominant group/History

Goguryeo Empire in Korean history
Please visit Goguryeo Project and help this develop. World historia, 7 June 2012.

title: Talk:Dominant group/History


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Cuban Refrigerator Art

Cuban Refrigerator Art utilizes old refrigerators as the foundation on which to create large art pieces as a form of customization in which old appliances are re-purposed and given meaning as symbols of Cuban cultural heritage. This method of art was highlighted in the Cuban based project, "Monster-Devouring Machines." A total of 55 artists created 50 of these refrigerators. The exhibit was initiated in 2006 and has traveled to a number of locations around the world. .

History
Cuban Refrigerator Art uses discarded refrigerators and transforms them into large art pieces. As part of the Energy Revolution, old refrigerator models were being replaced with newer and more energy efficient models. As more and more of the large appliances were discarded, this project of customization grew. Inspired by Mayito and Fabelo's work, a number of artists (well-known and otherwise) became interested in doing their own pieces. When the decorated refrigerators could no longer be contained in Mayito’s house and garden, they were moved to the convent of Santa Clara and "Energy-Devouring Monsters" began its circuit. .

From Appliances to Masterpieces
The Cuban way of art is finding resources available and transforming them into a work of art with cultural meaning. This process is called Customization. Customization is the transformation of an object by redesigning it into something new, and thus the object is given a whole new meaning. The old refrigerators, that were originally intended as a method of preserving food, underwent an artistic transformation through painting and resculpting to became icons of Cuban cultural heritage. The refrigerators now represent Cuban history as well as artistic meaning. The art shows Cuban culture through the creation. For example, one artist sculpted a fridge into a classic Cuban car and others painted ocean scenery on theirs to show the island’s beauty. Customization played a key role in the creation process of Cuban refrigerator art. This process allowed the art to be a new cultural object.

Cuban Energy Revolution
The Cuban Energy Revolution (Revolución Energética) is a program instituted to cut Cuban energy consumption in order to alleviate problems, such as frequent blackouts that the country has faced in the last few decades. This program worked to replace over 9 million incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs within 6 months. Under this program, Cuban citizens purchased more than 2 million energy-efficient refrigerators, 1 million fans, 182 thousand air conditioners, and 260 thousand water pumps. The Cuban Ministry of Education also created an educational program on energy conservation in 1997, and has been educating Cuban citizens about energy conservation and renewable energy resources through weekly television programs, ads and news articles. The program also institutes increasing rates the more energy a household uses, with the incentive that if a household can keep its energy usage low then their rates will remain low as well. Cuba has also constructed two wind farms, a grid-connected solar electric plant and 180 micro-hydro power plants. Over 8000 solar electric systems have been installed in schools, health clinics, social centers and many residential buildings. This program has practically eliminated the almost daily power blackouts of the mid 2000’s.

Energy-Devouring Monsters
Energy-Devouring Monsters (Originally titled Instruction Manual) is a Cuban based art project started by curator Mario González (Mayito) and painter Roberto Fabelo. The idea for creating the refrigerator art project exhibition was conceived after Mayito and other artists attended a book launching. They began to look for refrigerators and invited other artists to join the refrigerator project. .

The exhibition was first displayed in the Havana Biennial in the old convent of Santa Clara. In total 55 artists produced 52 refrigerators. The refrigerator, in Cuba, is considered part of the family, it is the “central object” of urban Cuban life. It is a kitchen appliance but it is crucial in the everyday life of Cubans. The hot weather in Cuba renders the refrigerator a necessity. It is not only needed to keep food cold and store perishables, but it is also a place where people put their clothes to keep them cool before going out in the hot sun. Many Cubans consider the refrigerator part of the family because the same refrigerator could be in someone’s family for 40 to 50 years. .

The team formed by Roberto Fabelo, Mario Miguel Gonzalez “Mayito”, Jorge Luis Montesinos and Axel Li invited other artists to form part of the refrigerator art project. This project took an ordinary kitchen appliance and transformed it into a piece of art. Together they created what Mayito refers to as a very pleasant and very respectful atmosphere in which they could work on this project. He believes that one of the most significant aspects of this project, at least for him, was the recreation of the workshop atmosphere. They created a work space that facilitated collaboration. The artists would meet Wednesdays and Fridays to work on the project. They created an environment where they could work but also listen to music and play dominos. . The refrigerator art project was a project where the artists came together as a community around an object that has an essential place in Cuban life. The customization of the refrigerator serves to preserve the history and culture of Cubans by linking it to an object that is in near extinction and is considered integral part of Cuban life. The old refrigerators are being replaced by newer models and the old ones are sent to plants where they are recycled for parts.

To create the refrigerator art, the artists used old refrigerators as a base. Using paints, power tools, cardboard and in some cases materials like paddles and books, the 55 artists created unique and creative pieces of art. . David Rodriguez’s piece Yesterday was made to look like a clock that represents the passage of time. Jorge Perugorria’s refrigerator Good-bye Rocco was transformed into a coffin. It is decorated with flowers and the refrigerator’s worn-out motor is displayed where the face of the deceased would be.

Refrigerators in Cuba
Mayito recounts that when he purchased a refrigerator from a woman she said, “You are taking my family’s history with you.” He asked her, “What do you mean by history ma’am?” “Look,” she replied, “this refrigerator was bought by my father, who raised me and my brother. And I raised my two sons, and now I’m selling it to you. But I’m selling it to you with a feeling of joy and pain, because it’s like a member of my family.” This kitchen appliance for generations has provided families with a place to store food. It however, also symbolizes Cuban resistance and ingenuity. .

With the U.S. embargo on the Island in the early 1960s, Cubans had to learn to preserve the technology and materials that they had. Most of the technology that they had was from the 1950s. The “dragon which devours our electricity” is how Fidel Castro refers to these refrigerators. But the Cuban people look at their old refrigerators with pride. They are proud of the fact that they have kept the refrigerators functioning for 50 years. Despite the U.S. embargo, Cubans and the refrigerators have survived. The old refrigerators are big and “devour” energy much in the same way as the U.S. embargo has “devoured” the Cuban economy. Yet, both the refrigerators and Cubans have resisted.

The old refrigerators or monsters that devour energy are being replaced by the more energy-efficient Chinese models. These refrigerators are smaller than the old ones and require a significant investment on the part of many working class Cubans. For many Cubans purchasing these new Chinese refrigerators is a large investment and requires that they set up a ten-year payment plan. The Cuban government has attempted to promote the exchange of the old refrigerators for the new ones by claiming that reducing one’s electricity bill is patriotic. But reducing energy consumption is not the only reason why the Cuban government favors getting rid of the old refrigerators. Cuba has limited resources and very few countries are willing to undermine the U. S. embargo and trade with the Island. Therefore, old refrigerators are recycled to make new products. In plants like Antillana de Acero, the steel from the refrigerator is used for construction materials. The Empresa Conrado Benitez extracts the copper to produce telephone and electric cables. The aluminum is taken to make kitchen utensils and kitchen appliances.

Mario González (Mayito)
Mario González is a founder and creator of a Cuban cultural project called “What we are.” What we are is a Cuban contemporary art project that was created by a group of artists that collaborated together to make an exhibit at a famous monument called the Castillo del Morro that is known for its history. The artists used the monument as a common gallery to display their art to the public. González has directed many collaborative art projects around the globe including the Devouring Monsters. His goal is to create spaces for the public to view art.

Roberto Fabelo
Roberto Fabelo is the most famous artist in Cuba. He is known for his half-human, half-animal figures. His pieces comment on human conditions using fantasy. His work creates a division between reality and fantasy. His art was used to illustrate Gabriel García Márquez stories. Due to his fame Mario González asked him to help with his ideas of painting on old refrigerators and together they found the Devouring monsters exhibit. Fabelo was born in 1951 in Camagüey, Cuba where he has been dedicating his life to art.

Luis Enrique Camejo
Luis Enrique Camejo is a Cuban painter who paints scenery of urban Cuban life. He is known for capturing the busy noise and movement of modern society. His works are of city streets, trains, skyscrapers and moving cars. His “fast food” piece in the refrigerator art exhibit, the Devouring Monsters, is a sculpture that represents Cuban cars. He studied art in Habana at the school of art de Pinar del Rio in 1983 -1986. He has displayed his exhibits of urban life around the world since 1991 and more recently in 2012 his exhibit called art Wynwood was displayed in Miami, Florida. He has won several awards for his art, two in 1990, 200, and 2003.

Kcho
The Cuban drawer and sculpture Alexis Leyva Machado is known to the world as Kcho. He is famous for his art installations that resemble Cuban history and famous icons. He works with materials that he can find on the island of la juventud, Cuba to create sculptures with meaning. He works with boats and paddles that represent the mass exodus during the Cuban Revolution. His piece in the devouring monsters is a refrigerator with paddles called, “obejecto soñado,” the object of dream signifying the dream of fleeing to the United States. He was born in 1970 in la Isla de Juventud, Cuba and studied at the National art school in Havana Cuba in 1986-1990. He has won numerous awards, his most recent in 2007.

Jorge Perugorría
Jorge Perugorría is a very famous figure in Cuba. He is a well -known actor who stared in many movies including his most famous Fresas y Chocolate. Not only does he act, but he is a very talented artist who paints in abstract art using cubes. Also he has made several sculptures, one that is in the Devouring Monster series called Goodbye y Rocco. This piece was made in humor because it is a coffin that is saying goodbye to the old refrigerators that were once considered apart of the Cuban family. This was made in memory of the past. Perugorría was born in Havana in 1965 where he stayed and flourished as an artist working on his acting and other forms of expression. He is now a famous Cuban icon.

Exhibits
Cuba, Santa Maria: Centro Nacional de Conservación, Restauración y Musicología (27 March - 27 April 2006)

Spain, Madrid: Casa de América (1 February - 8 April 2007)

Italy, Milano: Triennale di Bovisa (21 June - 12 July 2007)

France, Paris: Le Grand Palais (17 July - 3 August 2007)

title: Cuban Refrigerator Art


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User:Numiri/KinderCalculus/bionic numbers

Bionic numbers is the KinderCalculus name for Complex numbers. With children, naming a lesson "Complex" and to study "Imaginary" objects is tantamount to setting the teaching exercise up for failure. We choose the term Bionic because the numbers have 2 components and they are more powerful -- that is, they can solve more equations. Bionics # have 2 ticks: ( horizontal, vertical ). We draw them on a number sheet, instead of a number line.

Here's the KinderCalculus vocabulary for bionic numbers:   tick = coordinate  grid = coordinate system  round ticks = polar coordinate  square ticks = cartesian coordinate

Motivation
There are lots of equations we cannot solve with reals, x^2 = -1, so we need bionic. There are no numbers on the line that will fit this self-times. We need something else.

Let's go back to Kindergarten. We started out with the counting numbers -- 1, 2, 3, ... With them, we can state how much money we have -- $1, $2, $3, ...  But we cannot state how much money we owe. The negatives are missing. But it can be argued that having money and owing money are completely different things, so the counting numbers can be forgiven for not covering 2 different concepts.

Worse yet, if we use the counting numbers to indicate distances from where we stand, we can only use distances in one direction, say 10ft to the right of us. Those numbers cannot point to the left. Now, the left side of our body and the right side of our body are equally valuable, unlike the example of having money and owing money, so we cannot forgive the counting numbers for its gaps. Counting numbers are lop-sided. We even it out with negatives.

The same can be said of the real numbers -- they are lopsided. If positive and negative numbers are on par like the left and right side of your body, then why is it that we cannot draw a negative snowflake for x^2 = -8, but we can for x^2 = 8? Bionic numbers brings justice to the left side of the number line.

The rest of bionic number arithmetic follows the normal curriculum.

Bionic Arithmetic
Bionic arithmetic is best visualized by the "stick" operation below: ( a    b )

|    |          |     |  |     |     =    | ,  |           =  ( a+c , b+d ) = (a+c) + i(b+d) |    |          |     |

( c    d )

( a     b )

| \ / |         |   |     \ /  |  x   |    =    | - | ,   +     =  ( ac - bd, ad + cb ) = (ac - bd) + i(ad + cb) | / \ |         |   |     / \

( c     d )

Visualizing Bionic Arithmetic
Bionic number arithmetic is still much the same as real number line arithmetic:
 * bionic addition is vector addition, which is a shift in a vector on the number line
 * bionic multiplication, multiplying size and rotating angles also have origins in real number line multiplication, with the angle on the real number line being 180 degrees.

Below is a convenient depiction of bionic number addition. When we add bionic numbers, the shift of vector A is analogous of a shift of a length in adding real numbers along the number line.

The Thumbprint of God
With bionic numbers, we now have an accessible introduction to how the world might have been formed, via Mandelbroit fractal set. Fractals offer one glimpse of how self-similarity may have formed the intricate patterns in nature -- from leaves, to trees, to mountains. For this reason fractals are sometimes referred to as the thumbprint of god. God here refers to Nature, not necessarily any religious diety. Fractals are the signature in these patterns, much like a thumbprint signature.

Special Relativity
A variant of bionic numbers, the Split Complex numbers offer a more compact form of the Lorentz Transformation via hyperbolic functions cosh & sinh ...

Exercises
Visualizing bionic arithmetic:

assign the standard exercises for adding, subtracting, multiplying a bunch of bionic numbers ...


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Quantum Algebraic Topology

Quantum Algebraic Topology is a theoretical subfield of quantum physics focused on quantum operator algebra and topology of quantum spaces. Both topological quantum field theory and noncommutative geometry may be considered related fields.

title: Quantum Algebraic Topology


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Collectives/Silenzio Statico

The information here is presented as a sort of case study and data to be anlyzed in relation to learning, teaching, and research regarding collectives, art, music and culture.

Discussion/essay questions/ideas
Discussion questions, research ideas, and essay ideas related to above case study are as follow; as noted on collectives, here are some ideas for case study related ideas to consider related to Silenzio Statico.
 * How might this collective influence the culture of Los Angeles
 * How successful has this collective been in reaching its goals?
 * If one were to perform a program evalutation of Silenzio Statico, how might this case study be structured?
 * What information would be useful in performing the case study? How could the data be collected?

 * What factors have influenced the culture and mission of this collective?

Analysis of one aspect
The Silenzio Statico label has on it a band called Drapetomania. Why might the members of this band have this band chosen its name?

According to Wikipedia, Drapetomania was "a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape".

Quotes on Drapetomania include, ""What had been drapetomania became depression. [...] Modern man runs away from a life that seems to him a kind of slavery." -psychiatrist Thomas Szasz

Essay/discussion ideas for Drapetomania
Drapetomania is a band, that is part of the Drapetomania collective.
 * Why might musicians in Southern California, choose Drapetomania as a band name?
 * What might that potentially indicate about culture or politics in Southern California?
 * Might band members in Drapetomania be open to an ethnographic interview for the sake of learning and understanding?
 * Why might a band called Drapetomania have songs and lyrics (in Spanish) that "deal with border and police state violence, United States empire, oppressed people/working class struggle," and so forth?

 * "Drapetomania [bands on the Silenzio Statico Label] started in 2009 as a side project called Atake De Nervios with Tony Abarca (of Vakraant, Asko, Rayos X, etc.) on guitar, Abe Social (of Hit Me Back, Asko, Tuberculosis) on bass and vocals, and Austin Delgadillo (of Tuberculosis, Mata Mata, Sadicos, Zoloa) on drums. They changed their name to Drapetomania after changing guitarists, replaced by Robert, and released a demo in 2011 through Silenzio Statico, a 4-track self-titled EP through Todo Destruido and Silenzio Statico in July 2012, and lastly a cassette titled "Cabesas De Odio" in September 2012. Lyrics are in Spanish and deal with border and police state violence, United States empire, oppressed people/working class struggle, etc. Musically, Drapetomania are influenced by a mixture of 80's punk from South America to Eastern Europe and a touch of Oi!. Drapetomania played their last show on April 2013 but members have gone on to play in other projects; Abe is now doing vocals for Ugly Heads, Austin is playing drums for Sadicos and also doing vocals for Blazing Eye, and Robert plays guitar and vocals for Sadicos." (from the below data)

Data/information about Silenzio Statico
Information and data related to Silenzio Statico, to utilize Silenzio Statico as a case study topic in relation to collectives is as follows.

Silenzio Statico is a collective, initially, based in South Central Los Angeles, which has been documenting and producing radical punk culture. The collective began in 2007 as a group of young punks screen-printing, bootlegging old punk shirts, making mix tapes, and throwing all-ages shows in the South/East Los Angeles areas. In the Fall of 2008, the Silenzio Statico collective has also served as a label to put out music, with the goal to help document the Los Angeles area punk bands which have been mainly been coming from the [[Wikipedia:DIY_ethic|D.I.Y. (Do It Yourself)] “backyard scene.” Since then, the label has continually been releasing cassettes by Latin@ punk and hardcore bands from the Los Angeles areas as well as running a graphic design and print shop, creating a print and video zine, opened an independent record store, and have also put together a weekly radio show and audio zine. They have released material from Los Angeles area bands: Rayos X, Tuberculosis, Asko, Mata Mata, Drapetomania, Poliskitzo, and several others.  Most of the bands through this label have an old school punk and 80's feel to them and have a lot of attitude and style.  Much more is to come from these L.A. punks in the near future.

Their focus, initially, was to document the South Los Angeles "backyard scene" but now include bands from Long Beach and East Los Angeles to their label. Silenzio Statico got its name from a song by mid-80’s Italian hardcore punk band, "Indigesti". Their main vision is to be part of a creative and radical punk movement with D.I.Y. beliefs.

Background
Abe Social, co-founder of the Silenzio Statico has been involved in the South Los Angeles punk scene long before the inception of the collective. He was the vocalist for a band called Hit Me Back, which played thrashy/hardcore punk and toured nationally as well as internationally over its years of activity, from early-2000 until 2008. They were almost always willing to play any kind of show, whether it was a venue, house or backyard show. They have also notably played in Latino Fest 2008 at Terraza Jamay in Montebello, CA; playing with bands: Sin Orden, Boom Boom Kid, Outraged, Venganza and Fronterrorismo. Hit Me Back has been well-known for their anthem type songs, positive lyrics, and high-energy performances. They released several records, including: splits with bands Cinder, Out Of Vogue, and Crucial Section as well as putting out one full-length LP titled “Life” and a handful of EPs. Their sound is aggressive, catchy, and motivating, reminiscent to 7 Seconds, Life’s Halt, and Scholastic Deth. The break–up of Hit Me Back was simply the stepping stone to the formation of the Silenzio Statico collective.

Tony Abarca, former contributor to the Silenzio Statico collective, formed a band in 2001 called Violent Disorder but eventually changed its name to The Vagrants. Shortly after, formed Vakraant which are a D-Beat influenced punk band from South Los Angeles and played in numerous backyard shows throughout the Los Angeles areas, which is how he came to meet Abe Social as they were both in active bands during the same time. The members comprising of Vakraant were just about 15 years old and many didn't know how to play their instruments at the time. Vakraant released several demos throughout its existence unitl breaking-up in 2008. They officially played their last show as a band on October 16, 2009 at the Project Infest Warehouse; opening up for D-Clone and Nerveskade. A CD version of their discography came out in 2009 by SMYT Records which was limited to about 70 copies.

The dissolve of both Hit Me Back and Vakraant, very shortly after, resulted in the formation of South L.A.'s Asko in the Summer of 2008. Asko consisted of 3 friends, whom two of them were Tony Abarca (on guitar and lead vocals) and Abe Social (on bass and backing vocals); the third member being Gaby (on drums), which had previously been in The Beatings. Pure boredom had fueled this short-lived project. Asko had been a heavily 80’s-influenced raw/hardcore punk band; their main influences for this project were The Stalin, Ratos de Parão and R.I.P., having played a somewhat similar style to them. Asko had only lasted a couple of months and played a total of 12 shows until finally deciding it was time to call it quits later in 2008. Although short lived, they managed to record their first, and only, release “Me Das Asko”, on cassette, through their own label Silenzio Statico. The tape was recorded within the month but the majority of the songs were already written by the first two weeks. The Asko cassette was Silenzio Statico's first release as a label and proved to be the first of many releases to come in the future.

The break-up of yet another band resulted in the formation of several other projects which featured members formerly from Asko. This transition period also witnessed greater involvement as well as a growing number of contributors to the Silenzio Statico collective. On the same year that Asko broke-up, Tony Abarca formed another band from the South Los Angeles area called Rayos X with members whom he had met and/or played with in previous bands. They played a heavily influenced Spanish 80's sound that was most influenced by bands: Toreros After Olé, Eskorbuto, R.I.P., etc. Former Vakraant bandmate, Juan (A.K.A. Kaye Jero), joined Tony in this new project, this time playing guitar and vocals. Tony played drums and also did vocals for Rayos X. Before they had started to play shows, they had been known as Polucion but later decided upon a different name to better-suit their band. Rayos X has since then been a very active band, playing consistently in backyards, as well as venue shows and touring throughout the West Coast several times. Many times playing energetic shows with crowds singing along and dancing to every song. Their first release was in 2009 called “Mirando A Traves De Sus Mentiras,” recorded in 5 hours in SABER M's (South Los Angeles pogo-punk band) garage; it was Silenzio Statico's second cassette release. Rayos X then began working on new material and came out with their second cassette released on 2010, titled “Sufrimiento,” which featured 6 songs. These same songs were then later re-relased into vinyl format featuring the B-Side of the tape as their first vinyl release titled “Mi Desorden,” which was recorded at the Lynwood House (formerly the Silenzio Statico headquarters), this time released through a D.I.Y. label owned by Martin Sorrondeguy (of Los Crudos, Limp Wrist, Harto, Tragatelo, etc.), called Lengua Armada. The A-Side of the “Sufrimiento” tape was also released on vinyl the following year by Damaging Noise Records, which was also recorded during the same session as the “Mi Desorden” vinyl release. Since then, Rayos X have officially decided to call it quits and continue with different projects. Their final vinyl release was an LP titled “Soledad” on May 2012 through the label Mata La Musica. “Soledad” was recorded at the Crash Pad in the Spring of 2011; all the drums were done in one take but the bass took a few days to get done correctly. Rayos X re-formed in late-2012, having played their first show back together on December of that year. The band now has a different line-up thus changing their sound; Kaye is the only original member. Since getting back together, Rayos X has come out with their third cassette release through the Silenzio Statico label, titled "Ansiedad" on January 2014, and are still playing shows.

In 2010, while Tony and Kaye were still active with Rayos X, they had formed a side-project with long-time friend and Silenzio Statico contributor, Kiwi, called Generacion Suicida. The trio had managed to self-release a demo cassette until adding Koopa (of Krüel) on second guitar and releasing a self-tiled EP on Mata La Musica late-2012. Generacion Suicida had faced member changes, replacing Kaye (who had been playing bass) and Koopa due to a falling out between Tony and the aforementioned members. Since the dissolution of the original Rayos X line-up in May 2012, Generacion Suicida has become a full-time band; also releasing a LP on Going Underground records titled "Con La Muerte A Tu Lado" and touring extensively throughout the West Coast and Europe. A new LP is scheduled for release some time in 2014.

Aside from Rayos X, the dissolve of Asko had also resulted in former members Gaby and Abe to form a band of their own. They simply wanted to continue playing music so they recruited two other fellow Silenzio Statico-mates to join them in this project, completing the line-up: Reyna, with no previous band experience, on vocals, Austin Delgadillo, on guitar, Abe on bass and Gaby on drums. This band became known as Tuberculosis and formed in late-2008; playing a harder and more politically driven sound and writing their lyrics in both Spanish and English, taking influences from female fronted punk bands. They played their first shows in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas in late-March 2009, also recording a demo tape and releasing it through Silenzio Statico, toured the West Coast as well as opened the independently-owned Musica Para La Destrukcion record shop, all during the Summer of 2009. They all moved into a collective house in Lynwood, CA (A.K.A. the Lynwood House) soon after and recorded their second release, their first to be pressed on vinyl, titled “Disfrasandose” on 2010 for the San Francisco-based label Lengua Armada. Tuberculosis has been playing a wide-range of shows throughout the Los Angeles area and toured the West Coast with Rayos X in 2010. The band is now inactive as of late-2011 but, as usual, members have gone on to start other projects. Abe Social has since taken over bass and vocal duties for Drapetomania (formerly known as Atake De Nervios, or A.D.N.) with former Tuberculosis bandmate Austin on drums and bassist of Mata Mata, Robert, on guitar. Drapetomania lasted until 2013. Abe currently does vocals for Ugly Heads with Gaby on drums. Austin is now doing vocals for Blazing Eye. Both are currently active bands in the Los Angeles punk scene. Aside from Ugly Heads, Gaby also plays bass and does vocals in Sadicos with Austin on drums as well as including former Drapetomania bandmate, Robert, on guitar and sharing vocal duties.

Since its inception, Silenzio Statico has been greatly involved in helping to document the backyard/punk scene through other ways apart from the record label. A video and print zine, titled Fronteras Desarmadas, was started on early-2009 and created by Tony Abarca as well as two other contributors of the Silenzio Statico collective — Kiwi (currently plays drums and does vocals for Generacion Suicida) and Frank (bassist for Krüel). In the beginning, the three of them were the sole contributors to the print zine, but shortly after the first issue, it expanded to include more contributers. The print zine would normally feature a band interview, some “ponk chisme” (any news about the Los Angeles punk scene), reviews, segments written by female punks (titled “Ponkeras”) and several other sections. The video zine was slightly different from the print zine and captured the live performances by local shows from both touring bands and local Los Angeles area bands. The video zine also featured interviews from Los Angeles area bands as well as members of the Silenzio Statico collective. Due to issues, Tony has refused to contribute to the Silenzio Statico collective, thus putting an end to the video and print zine he started.

“Solo Se Oye Punk” was a short-lived pirate punk radio station that pretty much piggy backed on airwaves of radio stations that had licenses. Although you were supposed to be able to hear it through the radio, you couldn't unless you were right outside the house. It was mainly internet radio through raisethefist.org. It has been inactive for quite some time now.

Musica Para La Destrukcion was a record shop located on: 7230 Maie Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90001. The shop closed down sometime in 2013, and was co-managed by Austin, Abe, Gaby and Robert (Members of Silenzio Statico bands and the collective).

Silenzio Statico throw shows for local and out of town bands. They are involved with different kinds of art projects and raise money for touring bands. When they can, Silenzio Statico offer their resources to help people in the Los Angeles community who need funds for funeral or legal costs or screen printing. They also strongly support families and friends who have had their loved ones killed by law enforcement.

Poliskitzo
Formed in 2009 in Lennox, CA. Contains former members of Moral Decay, Oi Toi, and La Banda Ya Basta. Poliskitzo consists of all but one member of La Banda Ya Basta and play a very similar style to the latter but rather utilize a more melodic approach to their songwriting. Their first demo cassette was released through the Silenzio Statico label and have various other self-released material put out through tape format. Their first vinyl release, "Dulce Del Systema" EP, was put out through the Texas-based label Todo Destruido on 2012. Poliskitzo has also put out a 10" EP titled "Armado Con Palabras" through All Welcome records released on February 2014.

Krüel
Krüel are a raw punk/D-Beat band based off of Cudahy, CA. They formed in early-2008 with a revolving shift of members ever so often. They have put out their demo through the Silenzio Statico label, released a handful of other cassette releases, put out splits with Unlearn (from Canada) released on 2011 through Crucificados Pelo Sistema and with Aspex (from L.A.) on 2012 on Konton Crasher as well as a self-titled EP also on the Crucificados Pelo Sistema label.

Mata Mata
Mata Mata is a hardcore punk band highly influenced by the Japanese, Swedish, and Finnish sounds from the 80's. Formed in late-2009, Mata Mata has since released one tape on Silenzio Statico and managed to complete a few small tours in 2010. Mata Mata had been set to release a 6-track EP on 540 Records (from Austin, TX) in early-2011 but those plans were delayed. Members consist of Austin Delgadillo (from Tuberculosis, Drapetomania, Sadicos, Blazing Eye) on drums, Robert (from Sadicos) on bass, Philip on vocals, and Eddie on guitar. Mata Mata is currently on hiatus.

Drapetomania
Drapetomania started in 2009 as a side project called Atake De Nervios with Tony Abarca (of Vakraant, Asko, Rayos X, etc.) on guitar, Abe Social (of Hit Me Back, Asko, Tuberculosis) on bass and vocals, and Austin Delgadillo (of Tuberculosis, Mata Mata, Sadicos, Zoloa) on drums. They changed their name to Drapetomania after changing guitarists, replaced by Robert, and released a demo in 2011 through Silenzio Statico, a 4-track self-titled EP through Todo Destruido and Silenzio Statico in July 2012, and lastly a cassette titled "Cabesas De Odio" in September 2012. Lyrics are in Spanish and deal with border and police state violence, United States empire, oppressed people/working class struggle, etc. Musically, Drapetomania are influenced by a mixture of 80's punk from South America to Eastern Europe and a touch of Oi!. Drapetomania played their last show on April 2013 but members have gone on to play in other projects; Abe is now doing vocals for Ugly Heads, Austin is playing drums for Sadicos and also doing vocals for Blazing Eye, and Robert plays guitar and vocals for Sadicos.

Mania
Early-80's UK-influenced punk band from Long Beach, CA. They've released a demo tape titled “Radiation Acid Clash” through Silenzio Statico on 2011. New material is scheduled to be released in the near future.

Zoloa
A three-piece Crust and Metal-influenced band from Los Angeles with Austin (of Tuberculosis, Mata Mata, Drapetomania, Sadicos) on drums as well as containing other members from past Silenzio Statico projects. They have come out with two cassette releases, the first one titled “Cocolia” which is a 8-track tape on Silenzio Statico and Zoloa Records. The second a 7-track cassette, “Todo El Mundo Es Una Tumba y Nada Escapa,” on 2011 through Zoloa Records. Zoloa played their first show in San Francisco on December 30th, 2011. The band is currently inactive.

Sadicos
This band had been a project of the Silenzio Statico punks for 2 years (since 2010) and have finally released their first cassette in 2012. The band plays dual male and female Spanish sung vocals. Contains members from Asko, Tuberculosis, Mata Mata, Drapetomania, etc.

Releases

 * Asko - "Me Das Asko" (SS-1)
 * Rayos X - "Mirando A Traves De Sus Mentiras" (SS-2)
 * Tuberculosis - "S/T" (SS-3)
 * Poliskitzo - "S/T" (SS-4)
 * Krüel - "Terror Tape" (SS-5)
 * Mata Mata - "S/T" (SS-6)
 * Rayos X - "Sufrimiento" (SS-7)
 * Mania - "Radiation Acid Clash" (SS-8)
 * Drapetomania - "S/T" (SS-9)
 * ? (SS-10)
 * Zoloa - "Cocolia" (SS-11)
 * Sadicos - "S/T" (SS-12)
 * Drapetomania - "S/T" EP (SS-13)
 * Destruye Y Huye - "S/T" (SS-14)
 * Drapetomania - "Cabesas De Odio" (SS-15)
 * Damages - "Defection" (SS-16)
 * Rayos X - "Ansiedad" (SS-17)

External Links and References

 * Silenzio Statico Website
 * Fronteras Desarmadas
 * "Accept the Darkness" Zine Volume 3, January 2011
 * Personal Interviews With Silenzio Statico Members
 * Terminal Escape Blog
 * Hardcore Por Vida Blog
 * Cola De Rata Blog
 * LA weekly article on the "Backyard Scene"

title: Collectives/Silenzio Statico


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User:Orschstaffer/Archive 1

[[File:Tiffany Education (center).JPG|thumb|Centerpiece of Education (1890), a stained glass window by

Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University.

It depicts Science (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and Religion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of Light, Love, Life. ]]

Greetings: "So much can be learned when efforts are applied to accomplishing the goals at hand. Learning by experimentation, practical application, research of available resources, differentiating multiple intelligences, and simple browsing of interesting subject matter is at the forefront of producing excellent work, art, music, knowledge bases and spearheads the future of invention, creativity and the beauty of humanity ~Pappy"

Annotations about such: <-- What was that I saw about closing references in sectional use? -->

Or even so much as this: File uploads to Wikimedia Commons

 Classroom Assignment (Illustration of references)

'''Illustration of

Annotations

Education

Education from a different perspective with creative tendencies toward illustrations. Experiments make research and development work for you. Annotations

Classroom Assignment
The Heirarchi(e)cal <-- Creativists! Unite, for now is the time to install the editor speller --> "The philosophy which lead to a vision of creative education coupled with an ample opportunity of resource to create the model of gaining knowledge."

Annotations about such: or even so much as this:

Agalychnis callidryas
Sister classroom assignment at be-x-old.wikipedia.org Артыкул. Talk page for be-x-old-wikipedia.org request for translator. , Meta-Babel,

Global message delivery system (wrong page? You can fix it.)

Science project with inter-language, biology, alternate education, education, inter-culture, other, (a project of the Orsch non-public school in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.).

Red Eyed Tree Frog
The link above (Section header) takes you to the Contents (The purpose of this is Academic research)
 * For other species commonly known as the red-eyed tree frog, see Litoria chloris

The Red eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas) is an arboreal hylid native to Neotropical rainforests in Central America.

Consideration for Red eyed tree frog

 * Science, the art of learning creative ways to educate (age 7); stuffed frog with innards sewn (stitched) into anatomy. The sewing class will construct innards from a concensus of scientific facts. The resultant stuffed red eyed tree frog will literally be stuffed with its own innards and Whip stitch.jpg(whip stitched) to allow dissection repeatedly .EskimoChildrenSewing.jpg

 * Science Lab: A red eyed tree frog prepared to be dissected.

WikiSource Information data related to science experiments and sewing. Annotations

Inter-wiki Russian User Orschstaffer
Участник:Orschstaffer will be my user page at Russia Wikipedia. The talk page has begun a discussion beginning with a request for Russian - English translator. There is something called EdwardBot which delivers general messages translated.

Is there anyone out there who would like to teach Russian language (or some equivicable device for understanding the inter-language complications of collaboration in two or more languages); the content of my Участник(user) page will consist of:
 * breaching the language barrier,
 * requesting collaboration and discussion with education/alternative education/or culturally significant education entity (like a typical rural community schoolhouse) on the science/biology topic of the preparation to the dissection of a red eyed tree frog. A volunteer from the toybox has kindly given permission to illustrate this with two photos, which can be attractively viewed as a gallery.

Orschstaffer on the Russia Wikipedia

Relativity to Other Matter

Quizzes | Gunnison County Resource | Orschstaffer (talk) 04:28, 1 July 2012 (UTC)

English Literature preserving the arts and humanity The Oldest English Epic
 * Beowulf: Gummere Translation - Internet History Sourcebooks
 * www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/beowulf.html
 * Beowulf, Translated by Francis B. Gummere, The Harvard Classics, Volume 49. (P.F. Collier & Son., 1910). This text is in the public domain, released July 1993.

References pertaining to

 * 2. ↑ photoimage of education above

title: User:Orschstaffer/Archive 1


text:
Java Tutorial/Trail: The Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT)

The Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT)
...


text: Java Tutorial/Overview of Swing components/Sidebar


text: File:Sampling.6.B.Prefilter.20120608.pdf


title: File:CORDIC.BAM.5.A.20120608.pdf


title: File:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120608.pdf


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Commutative property

The commutative property is one of the three basic laws of regular algebras that greatly simplify equations and the derivation of their solutions. In essence, it assumes that one can commute, or interchange the positions of two variables $$x$$ and $$y$$ without changing the value of the result, (such as a product for multiplication, or a sum for addition), under an operation "$$*$$", that is: $$x * y = y * x .$$ Thus, commutativity can also be considered as a kind of symmetry caused by mirroring.

The associativity and distributivity laws are the other two simplifying properties of algebraic variables for operations such as multiplication and addition.

title: Commutative property


text:
User talk:Download Gemscool

No promotional content, please
Please refrain from adding promotional content and spam. Further violations may incur a block. Mathonius (talk) 18:12, 8 June 2012 (UTC) Gemscool Forum Login

title: User talk:Download Gemscool


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User:Bci21/Exact sequence

An exact sequence is defined as follows. The sequence of morphisms $f_i$ in $\mathcal{A}$: $$ \cdots \rightarrow A_{n+1} \buildrel {f_{n+1}} \over \longrightarrow A_n \buildrel {f_n} \over \longrightarrow A_{n-1} \rightarrow \cdots $$ is said to be {\em exact} if each pair of adjacent morphisms $(f_{n+1}, f_n)$ is exact; in other words, if $${\rm im} f_{n+1} = {\rm ker} f_n$$ for all $n$. $A_i$ above are objects in $\mathcal{A}$.

One should also compare this concept of {\em exactness} with the notion of a homology chain complex.

title: User:Bci21/Exact sequence


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TESOL/Errors in the spoken English of EFL learners

EFL, English as a Foreign Language, is for learners who rarely have contact with English in use. They are often people studying English in a country where English is rarely spoken. As such they lack the opportunity to develop a sense of what sounds natural and lack the chance to absorb fixed everyday expressions, so even advanced learners produce errors like "she go home" or "my glasses is expensive" because they don't get to hear "she goes" or "..es are" enough for it to become automatic.

Errors
Sometimes learners produce expressions which are correct but strange. They may lead to confusion since listeners are unaccustomed to hearing them.

Addressing weak points
Some errors indicate an area of weakness, which the teacher can address with instruction targeted to that weakness. Many teachers employ drills to teach specific language skills such as grammatical skills.

Passive verbs
"'I gave him a present' is the same as 'He was given a present by me.'"

(write this down)

"I will say a sentence, and please change it. Ready? Okay."

 * I found a ring.
 * I ate a cake.
 * I made dinner.


title: File:SystemC.08.A.Events.20120609.pdf


title: File:SBF.1.A.TimeFreqBF.20120609.pdf


text: File:Sampling.6.B.Prefilter.20120609.pdf


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User:Wildscop

About Me
Originally from Bangladesh.

My favorite quote
Give a man a fish, you have fed him for today. Teach a man to fish, and you have fed him for a lifetime.

Thoughts about Wiki
Interested in contributing to Statistics related pages.

Edit Statistics
To check my edits, click here.

bn:User:Wildscop

title: User:Wildscop


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Category:User nb

Users in this category indicate they have knowledge of language Norwegian Bokmål.

title: Category:User nb


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Category:User nb-1

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 1 for language Norwegian Bokmål.

title: Category:User nb-1


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Category:User nl-1

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 1 for language Dutch.

title: Category:User nl-1


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Gene transcriptions/Degenerate nucleotides

A degenerate nucleotide is a nucleotide that can perform the same function or yield the same output as a structurally different nucleotide.

Within the nucleotide is a nitrogenous base derived from either purine (Pu) or pyrimidine (Py).

Pyrimidines
Def. any "six-membered aromatic heterocycle containing four carbon atoms, two nitrogen atoms and three double bonds" is called a diazine.

The diazines have the two nitrogens at the one and two positions (1,2-diazine, pyridazine), one and three (1,3-diazine, pyrimidine), and one and four (1,4-diazine, purazine).

Def. a "diazine in which the two nitrogen atoms are in the meta-positions" is called a pyrimidine.

Purines
Def. any "of a class of organic heterocyclic compounds composed of fused pyrimidine and imidazole rings" is called a purine.

The hydrogen occurring at the purine seven (7) position is called 7H-purine.

Nitrogenous bases
A nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base is a nitrogen-containing molecule having the chemical properties of a base. It is an organic compound that owes its property as a base to the lone pair of electrons of a nitrogen atom.

Adenine (A, Ade) is a nucleobase that is a purine derivative. The shape of adenine is complementary to thymine.

Cytosine (C, Cyt) is a nucleobase that is a pyrimidine derivative. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.

Guanine (G, Gua) is a nucleobase that is a purine derivative. In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine.

Thymine (T, Thy) is a nucleobase that is a pyrimidine derivative. In DNA, thymine (T) binds to adenine (A) via two hydrogen bonds, thus stabilizing the nucleic acid structures.

Pentoses
Def. a "sugar or saccharide containing five carbon atoms" (usually as a furanose, five-membered ring, or pyranose, six-membered ring) is called a pentose.

Def. a "pentose that is also a ketose" [having an oxygen atom joined to a carbon atom by a double bond] is called a ketopentose.

Def. a pentose that is also a aldose having an H-C=O carbonyl functional group attached to a hydrocarbon radical and a hydrogen atom is called an aldopentose.

Nucleosides
Def. an organic molecule in which a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (or nucleobase), which can be either a double-ringed purine or a single-ringed pyrimidine, is covalently attached to a five-carbon pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA) is called a nucleoside.

Nucleotides
Def. the monomer that consists of a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (or nucleobase), which can be either a double-ringed purine or a single-ringed pyrimidine; a five-carbon pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA); and a phosphate group is called a nucleotide.

At the top right is a diagram which shows the components that make up inosine diphosphate.

The image at the left shows the components for inosine triphosphate.

Degeneracies
"Within biological systems, degeneracy refers to circumstances where structurally dissimilar components/modules/pathways can perform similar functions (i.e. are effectively interchangeable) under certain conditions, but perform distinct functions in other conditions. Degeneracy is thus a relational property that requires comparing the behaviour of two or more components. In particular, if degeneracy is present in a pair of components then there will exist conditions where the pair will appear functionally redundant but other conditions where they will appear functionally distinct.

Degeneracy contributes to the robustness of biological traits through several mechanisms. Degenerate components compensate for one another under conditions where they are functionally redundant, thus providing robustness against component or pathway failure. Because degenerate components are somewhat different, they tend to harbour unique sensitivities so that a targeted attack such as a specific inhibitor is less likely to present a risk to all components at once. There are numerous biological examples where degeneracy contributes to robustness in this way. For instance, gene families can encode for diverse proteins with many distinctive roles yet sometimes these proteins can compensate for each other during lost or suppressed gene expression, as seen in the developmental roles of the adhesins gene family in Saccharomyces. Nutrients can be metabolized by distinct metabolic pathways that are effectively interchangeable for certain metabolites even though the total effects of each pathway are not identical. In cancer, therapies targeting the EGF receptor are thwarted by the co-activation of alternate receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) that have partial functional overlap with the EGF receptor (and are therefore degenerate), but are not targeted by the same specific EGF receptor inhibitor. Other examples from various levels of biological organization can be found in.

Codons
A position of a codon is said to be a fourfold degenerate site if any nucleotide at this position specifies the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glycine codons (GGA, GGG, GGC, GGU) is a fourfold degenerate site, because all nucleotide substitutions at this site are synonymous; i.e., they do not change the amino acid.

There is only one threefold degenerate site where changing to three of the four nucleotides may have no effect on the amino acid (depending on what it is changed to), while changing to the fourth possible nucleotide always results in an amino acid substitution. This is the third position of an isoleucine codon: AUU, AUC, or AUA all encode isoleucine, but AUG encodes methionine.

A position of a codon is said to be a twofold degenerate site if only two of four possible nucleotides at this position specify the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glutamic acid codons (GAA, GAG) is a twofold degenerate site. In twofold degenerate sites, the equivalent nucleotides are always either two purines (A/G) or two pyrimidines (C/U), so only transversional substitutions (purine to pyrimidine or pyrimidine to purine) in twofold degenerate sites are nonsynonymous.

A position of a codon is said to be a non-degenerate site if any mutation at this position results in amino acid substitution.

Notations
Alphabetically,

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries. IUPAC's Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IUPAC nomenclature) is the recognized world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and compounds. Some important work IUPAC has done in these fields includes standardizing nucleotide base sequence code names.

These nucleotide notations are an International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) representation for a position on a DNA sequence that can be have multiple possible alternatives.

An alternative way of writing the degenerate bases has, e.g., B: (C/G/T).

Hypotheses

 * 1) No promoters for the transcription of A1BG use degenerate nucleotides.


text:
User:DarafshBot

Javayou userpage on fa.wiki

title: User:DarafshBot


text:
User:Darafsh

My user page in fa.wiki

title: User:Darafsh


text:
Mobile Web Applications/Ch02

Section 1: Model-View-Controller
The Model-View-Controller (MVC) is a design pattern used to design the user interface and activities of a software application. In other words, what does a web page or mobile application look like and how does it work. How is the software designed so pictures, words, links and buttons show up, and what happens when someone clicks on a button or a hyperlink. The individual items of Model, View and Controller each serve a purpose; the Model is the business and related data and processes, the View is what is displayed to the end user and the Controller handles the events between what is displayed and how the business responds.

The Challenge
To explain the Model-View-Controller (MVC) pattern within a different analogy. Understanding the MVC pattern can have a steep learning curve which can be lessened by conceptualizing the role of each element. During this chapter section try to understand the MVC within a different analogy.

The View
is what is rendered (drawn) on the screen. How it is rendered is where the software part comes in. The technology (programming) behind rendering a View (or screen full of information) includes many options and approaches. Beyond a lot of formatting and graphic design, what makes the work behind the View is that there are many screens to that the software has to render a view. These screens come from different types of computers (PCs, Mobile, Tablets, Etc.), different browsers (firefox, safari, chrome, ie), different sized screens, Etc. Writing software for these different screens takes work and isolating the code into that responsible for only rendering the View greatly simplifies what can become complicated.

The Model
is the business logic or software that collects and retrieves any data required for the View. When data needs to be retrieved from or saved to the data storage it is the model which is responsible. The model can contain a lot of complicated business logic. As an example, someone submitting a credit card transaction may have only a few data fields and one button click on the view but the amount of different business activities (or software modules) that get utilized to complete the credit card transaction can be numerous and span different computers and businesses.

The Controller
responds to user events. The events can trigger changes or activities from both the View and the Model. As a simple example; a user enters their user credentials (user name, password) and clicks the log in button. The Controller then initiates a call to the Model which in turn executes the software required to find the user name and confirm the password... the Model then returns a call to the View with the pass or fail of the log in and the View re-renders itself with either a logged in user interface or the "forgot password?" user interface.

The design pattern
There you have it, simply put; the View is responsible for drawing the screen, the Model is responsible for retrieving and adding / updating information and the Controller is responsible for managing the events between the View, the end-user and the Model. Once you feel comfortable with your understanding of this MVC design pattern, move of to the next section describing the three-tier architecture. Hold off asking yourself how the Model-View-Controller (MVC) fits in the three-tier architecture for now. That will be discussed later.

title: Mobile Web Applications/Ch02


text:
User:Peterrawsthorne/ALD/Ch06

=Chapter 06: Planning and finding community=

Reference

 * 1) Critical technology blog: Agile Instructional Design: PLAN

title: User:Peterrawsthorne/ALD/Ch06


text:
User:Patrice Marie

My given name was Calea-Pattrice Jolie Pappas. It was changed to just Patrice Marie Walker after my adoptive mother married. The circumstances of my birth, mother and father's names are not known at this time. Their absence is believed to be a product of evolution, social issues and war. It has become apparent that my name became gender neutral to for economic advancement, to avoid further social conflict, as related to the history of my family. It is not for certain if I am a direct descendant of the legendary, Cleo-Patra, however there are, intentional or unintentional, aspects of our lives which are similar in nature. It is well known that those in the theatrical community like the further exploitation and dramatization of historical events for increased revenue, and entertainment purposes.

I was raised in the city of Chicago, Illinois. My adoptive mother remarried and moved in to the suburbs where we lived until I married becoming, Patrice Marie Pugh. Being married is a learning experience that I have come to appreciate. Teaming, customer service, relationship building, and management are skills learned in theory and forced to practice continually, whole-heartdly and earnestly achieve desired results. However, as the old saying goes, "...nothing good last for ever" and I would like to add, neither should anything else. We have since divorced, and I intend to maintain a separate life-style for the justified good of all further relationships to come.

My educational achievements include pre-school, elementary, junior high, high school and college with very good academic results. I also was given the appreciated opportunity to study the Arts. I learned to model, act, sing and dance. I performed early on in life for many years. I then returned attention education, engulfing my time and efforts into general and secretarial studies, before entering the world of business.

My business education and career include insurance, real estate, small business management, and telecommunications, with an emphasis in sales, collections, customer service, and supervisory management. I also spent time learning and using the arts of: verbal communications, writing, bookkeeping, budgeting, expense reporting, scheduling, attendance, project, labor relations, human resource, training and most importantly, time management.

A series of health setbacks which has given me time to reflect, re-evaluate my beliefs, and reaffirm my intelligble needs. My horizons now include studying the physical world inside, and around me. I seek information, guidance, and enlightment of physcial science, the human anatomy, and sociology. I hope to use the knowledge and information I gain to forge a better relationship with myself and others.

I hope to one day teach what I am learning to others.

Inquisitively yours, Patrice M. Walker-(Pugh)

title: User:Patrice Marie


text:
Teaching About Africa Using New Media Resources In the Classroom

K-12 Teacher's Summer Institute on Africa, June 11-22, 2012 Center for African Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida

Topics Included

 * Website Creation
 * Information Visualization
 * Open Source Tools
 * Informational Websites
 * Online Resources for Audio and Video Materials
 * Interactive Comics
 * Audio Editing
 * New Technology (Natural User Interface, Augmented Reality)
 * Learning to Use Social Media:
 * Blogs
 * Wikis
 * Google Maps
 * Image Sharing