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Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Antisocial personality disorder

"Conscience is the window of our spirit, evil is the curtain. Doug Horton"

Introduction
Imagine - if you can - not having a conscience, none at all. No feelings of remorse, guilt and no limiting concern for strangers, friends or family. You are not held back by any of your desires by any moral compass. You have no internal restraints, and you are unhampered by any pangs of expectation. Do you crave money, power, control? What job would you do? The CEO of a company where you are able to work on your employees vulnerabilities through manipulation? Maybe you are a parent, a teacher (Stout, 2005)? Maybe you are involved in crime, or a law enforcement officer yourself? Such experience is often called Antisocial Personality Disorder or ASPD by mental health professionals, psychologists and professionals in the medical field.

Most psychological disorders reflect disturbances in a number of areas, including emotional processing and emotional responding (Kring & Banchowski, 1999). The nature of emotional impairment varies between disorders. In ASPD, there is a deficit in the experience of the perception and expression of emotion. These disturbances reflect a disruption in one or more components of emotional processing, and are also linked to aetiological factors at both neurobiological and psychological levels like (Kring & Banchowski, 1999). These emotional disturbances are salient to the disorder itself, with emotions influencing, interacting and contributing to the experience of the disorder itself.

This chapter discusses motivational aspects of ASPD. In particular, there are significant motivationally adaptive systems that are impaired or dysfunctional in ASPD, particularly core emotional processes which are deficient and that there is 'dulled' physiological functioning underlying the manifestation of the disorder. The clinical description and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) classification of ASPD will be discussed including neurobiological theories, and the functioning of the main brain areas. We will also look into the main motivational theories of ASPD and discuss the emotional deficits in some detail. Physiological functioning and anxiety will be touched on as well as the difference between psychopathy and ASPD.

So, as you read the following chapter ask yourself these questions;
 * How does motivation relate to psychological disorders, specifically ASPD?
 * What psychological processes underlie the manifestation of the disorder?
 * What motivates an individual with ASPD to behave in a maladaptive way?

Motivation
The Latin root of motivation means ‘to move’, so in a sense the basic definition of motivation is action. There are two pivotal questions as to what motivation is. The first is what causes behaviour, and the second is why does behaviour vary in its intensity (Reeve, 2009)? It is an essential question to daily life, as many ask themselves or others why we do what we do. Essentially, the study of motivation concerns those processes that give behaviour its energy and direction (Elliot, 2006).

As individuals, we are guided by our internal motives which encompass our needs, cognitions and emotions. We motivate ourselves to eat when we feel hungry (need), when we are sad (emotion/psychological need) we may talk to a friend, and we may discuss and make decisions about what is making us sad (cognitions) (Elliot, 2006). Within these categories, we also experience physiological levels of arousal, feelings, behave or function in creative ways, and express or communicate this to others in our environment. For more information, see What is motivation?

Motivation and ASPD
So why do people with ASPD behave the way they do?

Motivation includes both approach and avoidance tendencies. We as individuals either can be approach-oriented or avoidance-oriented (Elliot, 2006). When we are approach-oriented (e.g., interest, joy, desire, reward) we welcome an opportunity to behave in a certain way which motivates us to achieve this. When we are avoidance oriented (e.g., fear, frustration, violence) we attempt to avoid aversive, anxiety provoking stimuli (we want to escape from and disengage); and we adjust our behaviour (Elliot). As such, we as individuals seek sensation seeking stimulation through these behaviours that motivate us towards goals and too adapt socially, psychologically, physically and emotionally. Individuals with ASPD though, have been shown to display behaviours that are not congruent with typical approach or avoidance tendencies in certain social, environmental, and interpersonal situations. These individuals may not express anger when anger is appropriate, and not feel the same level of fear or experience the ‘flight or fight’ response as much as others in times of danger.

What is Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)?
Anti social personality disorder is a psychological disorder characterised by maladaptive personality traits. Personality traits are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts (APA, 2000). A personality disorder is said to exist when these traits become inflexible and maladaptive and cause either significant functional impairment or subjective distress. The DSM-IV-TR classifies personality disorders in three clusters. Cluster B is where antisocial personality disorder sits (Durand & Barlow, 2006).

Anti social personality disorder is characterised by a pattern of socially irresponsible, exploitative and guiltless behaviour as evidenced by a tendency to fail to conform to the law, to sustain consistent employment, to exploit and manipulate others for personal gain, to deceive and to fail to develop stable relationships. The individual must be of at least 18 years of age and have a history of conduct disorder before the age of 15 (APA, 2000, p. 702).

DSM Classification of ASPD

 * Diagnostic Criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder

A.	There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since the age of 15 years, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:
 * 1) Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviours as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest
 * 2) Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure
 * 3) Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead
 * 4) Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults
 * 5) Reckless disregard for the safety of self or others
 * 6) Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behaviour or honour financial obligations
 * 7) Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalising having hurt, mistreated or stolen from another

B.	The individual is at least 18 years of age

C.	There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age of 15 years

D.	The occurrence of antisocial behaviour is not exclusively during the course of a Schizophrenia or Manic Episode.

American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders: (4th Edition). Washington DC, pp. 706.

Case Study
Steve is a 32 year old man who has ASPD. He has always had difficulties maintaining his accommodation, and as such, is often transient with no stability. Steve has had many relationships, yet often these relationships end after three months due to his repeated physical abuse towards his partner and penchant for buying prostitutes. Steve has had numerous employment prospects as he is quite intelligent, yet he often looses his job after a short period of time due to lack or appropriate interpersonal skills. Steve has a criminal history of petty crimes involving minor fraud, and driving under the influence. Steve has never committed a violent offence, yet he does state that it is possible in the future "if he needs to".

Steve is a chronic alcoholic and an avid gambler. He will often spend the majority of his money on this. Steve does not believe this is a problem, as he states that he always feels 'numb' anyway, so what’s the point? Steve has a violent family history, suffering physical abuse at the hands of his stepfather and having an alcoholic mother. Steve when questioned on this does not believe this is the reason he is abusive himself, or that this is why he drinks chronically.

Steve admits he sometimes thinks that there is something a bit 'odd' about himself, yet he believes this is not a problem, and he 'kinds of enjoys not 'caring'. Steve's mental health worker believes Steve lacks the insight to change his behaviours and has difficulty maintaining or adhering to behaviour modification strategies. Steve has moved in and out of the mental health system for years, many workers state that he is a pleasure to work with due to his charm, yet is also frustrating as he lacks the ability to see the 'error of his ways'.

Clinical Description and Symptomology in ASPD
Individuals with ASPD tend to have long histories of violating the rights of others, and as such they are often described as aggressive. They frequently show no remorse for their actions, and it is very common for them to be substance abusers (83%). ASPD appears to be associated with low socioeconomic status and urban settings (APA, 2000). The overall prevalence of ASPD is approximately 3% of males and 1% of females. The Course of ASPD appears to be chronic, with a ‘tapering off’ of symptoms after the age of approximately 40 (Kring & Banchowoksi, 1999). ASPD is more common amongst first degree biological relatives (Durand & Barlow, 2006). The risk to biological females is higher than with first degree relatives of biological males.

Those with ASPD lack empathy and tend to be callous, cynical and contemptuous of the feelings, rights, and sufferings of others. They may have inflated and arrogant self appraisal and may be excessively opinionated, self assured or cocky (APA, 2000). They may display a glib, superficial charm. They can be irresponsible and exploitative in their sexual relationships. They may have a history of many sexual partners, and may not have ever sustained a monogamous relationship (Durand & Barlow, 2006). They may be irresponsible as parents, as evidenced through malnutrition of their children; illness in their child due to lack of hygiene; a failure to arrange for caretakers of the child when away from home; and the child may be dependent on others for food or shelter, there may also be repeated squandering of household money required for necessities. These individuals may become impoverished or even homeless, or may spend years in correctional institutions (APA, 2000). Individuals with the disorder may complain of; an inability to tolerate boredom, tension and a depressed mood (Durand & Barlow, 2006).

Neurobiological Processing and Theories of ASPD
So what processes underlie the manifestation of the disorder?

In the following section we will discuss neurobiological research and theory to discover the answer.

Deficiency in Emotion Regulation and the Amygdala

The neurobiological processing of ASPD is centred on two main brain areas, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala will be discussed here as it plays a main role in the neurobiological processes in ASPD. The amygdala is an almond shaped structure located in the medial temporal lobes. Along with other brain systems, the amygdala is part of the limbic system that regulates the expression of emotion and emotional memory (Blair & Mitchell, 2009). The amygdala is also responsible for multiple physiological cues, such as fear. It has also been shown to have a role in emotional states of aggression, maternal, sexual and eating behaviours (Delisi, Umphress & Vaughn, 2009).

Due to this the amygdala mediates defensive behaviour in stages of fear and anxiety, is involved in instrumental learning and aversive conditioning; and is activated in response to fearful and sad facial expressions (Delisi et al., 2009). In individuals with ASPD, the amygdala has been shown to be somewhat dysfunctional in its ability to interpret emotions and the processing of punishment and reward behaviours (Blair & Mitchell, 2009).

Those with antisocial personalities show reduced neural responses to threatening stimuli, aversive conditioning, emotional response in anticipation of imagined life events and reduced startle reflex to aversive stimuli which will be discussed later (Delisi et al., 2009). The amygdala is responsible for two capacities that are essential for successful socialisation. The ability to elicit an aversive emotional response to distress or fear in other people, and the capacity to internalise the ‘right and wrong’ of this. Individuals with ASPD are lacking in both these capacities, showing significantly reduced autonomic response to distress cues of others, including decreased fear recognition. Due to this, they are unable to empathise with others because of the lack of stimulus-response and stimulus-reinforcement associations, leading to maladaptive motivations for behaviours (Blair & Mitchell, 2009).

Decety, Michalaska, Akitsuki and Lahey (2009) studied young people diagnosed with conduct disorder, a known developmental disorder that can lead to ASPD. They investigated the brains response of the young people while they viewed pain and empathy eliciting stimuli. These young people showed less amygdala and prefrontal cortex ‘coupling’ and activity when they were watching pain inflicted on another (Decety et al... 2009).

As you can see, the neurobiological processing of individuals with ASPD is significantly impaired compared to those without the disorder. Next we will examine the main neurobiological theories about ASPD.

Neurobiological Theories about ASPD
There are three main theories on the underlying neurobiological functioning of ASPD. Each theory ties into the other, giving a better overall better understanding of the processes that are involved in the presentation of the disorder.

Underarousal Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, ASPD sufferers have low levels of cortical arousal. The Yerkes-Dodson law states that individuals who have a very high or very low levels of arousal tend to experience negative affect and perform poorly in many situations. Individuals with a medium level of arousal tend to be relatively content and perform better in most situations (Durand & Barlow, 2006). Due to this, low levels of arousal are hypothesised to be characteristic of ASPD sufferers; and are the primary cause of antisocial and risk taking behaviours (Durand & Barlow). Basically, they seek constant stimulation to reach a higher level of arousal.

A related theory, the cortical immaturity hypothesis states that the cerebral cortex in ASPD sufferers is relatively primitive in its stages of development. Often this is reported to explain why ASPD sufferers have impulsive and childlike behaviours (Durand & Barlow, 2006). This could also explain the constant drive for stimulation of those with ASPD, and the common feelings of boredom and 'listlessness'.

The Fearlessness Hypothesis
According to this theory, ASPD sufferers possess a higher threshold for experiencing and reacting to fear than most other individuals. This fearlessness is said to give rise to all the major features of the disorder (Durand & Barlow, 2006).

The fearlessness is secured by the inability to respond to and learn from the punishing consequences of antisocial and violent behaviour. The startle reflex when viewing aversive stimuli is often used to measure fearlessness in sufferers of ASPD. This has led researchers to conclude that these individuals have problems with passive avoidance or punishment induced behavioural inhibition. Due to this, societal control over individual’s violence will have little effect as social correction has no effect on their behaviour (Honk & Shutter, 2006).

Lykken (1957) begun to explore the low fear model in ASPD many years ago, using the concept passive avoidance. In his aversive conditioning paradigms it was repeatedly shown that individuals with ASPD traits have a lesser tendency to avoid behaviour that had previously been associated with a punishment in the form of a shock (as cited in Honk & Shutter, 2006). This was later shown by Fowles (2000), in use of physiological responses to aversive stimuli and startle reflex simulations. Subsequent research has found that individuals with ASPD do poorly on anxiety mediated avoidance learning (Honk & Shutter, 2006). As a result, individuals with ASPD are seen as ‘having no fear’ and ‘blunted response in times of high stress and fear’ (Honk & Shutter). Later in the chapter anxiety and physiological response will be discussed in relation to these fearlessness and blunted affect response.

Gray’s (1987) Biological Personality Theory
Gray theorises that there are two main brain systems that regulate withdrawal and approach behaviour in response to environmental stimuli. The behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioural activation system (BAS). The BIS serves to alert the person to the possibility of danger and punishment. It is sensitive to signals of non-reward and novelty, resulting in behavioural inhibition in anticipation of possible threats; as well as increments of arousal and attention (Bjornebekk, 2007). Activity in the BIS gives rise to feelings of anxiety and induces passive avoidance, enabling the individual to scan the environment for further cues. The BAS is sensitive to reward and is connected to approach behaviour. An individual with high BAS reactivity will have greater motivational reaction to conditioned stimulus for reward, and is more aware of cues of reward, as well as cues for non-punishment or escape from punishment (Bjornebekk, 2007). Activity in the BAS produces impulsive behaviour, inducing the individual to pursue vigorously an action that might result in reward, with little regard for negative consequences (Bjornebekk, 2007)

Reactivity in the BIS and the BAS is thought to explain some of the main aspects of the motivation for antisocial behaviour. This will be further discussed in detail in motivation-avoidance behaviours under Motivation in ASPD.

Motivational Theory and Research on ASPD
Individuals with ASPD have profound adjustment problems is spite of above average intelligence and social skills. In light of this intact reasoning and executive functioning ability and the mismatch between their maladaptive behaviours in the environment such as school, employment and interpersonal relationships, researchers examine motivational theories of ASPD (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997). Some have theorised that the ability to perform, yet experiences of chronic maladjustment in individuals with ASPD, is due to a lack of motivation to conform. Research has looked into apparent inabilities to learn from punishment and reward, and deficient emotional responses to these cues. It has largely be concluded that individuals with ASPD differ in their behavioural reactions to a variety of motivational signals which is further complicated by diminished affect, anxiety and physiological responding (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997).

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do" Bentham, (1879), p 1.

Response Modulation Hypothesis
Individuals with ASPD have difficulty in learning to inhibit punished responses (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997). Yet they appear to have no difficulty in avoiding punishment if avoidance learning is their only goal, the avoidance contingency is made salient at the start of a task, and if positive and negative feedback are provided during the extended intertrial interval. This pattern of results is suggested to be due to their inability to process contextual information that is unexpected or peripheral to a dominant response (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997). This finding was hypothesised by Patterson and Newman (1997) as response modulation. Response modulation involves an automatic shift of attention from the effortful implementation of goal directed behaviour to its evaluation. The idea was been extended by Newman and Wallace (1997) to propose that a defect in the automatic processing that underlies the ability to screen, detect and redirect attention in response to significant stimuli provides a strong mechanisms for motivational, affective and cognitive idiosyncrasies in ASPD (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997).

The response modulation hypothesis hypothesis has been extended to predict that deficient avoidant learning will be specific to conditions requiring individuals to suspend dominant responses to negative feedback (Arnett, Smith & Newman, 1997). This means that individuals with ASPD are equally responsive to rewards and punishment in most situations, but have difficulty inhibiting a dominant response set when cues for punishment are present as they are less adept at interrupting BAS activation (Arnett, Smith & Newman). More generally, the response modulation hypothesis states a situation specific deficiency in the processing of contextual cues regardless of whether these involve threat of punishment, whereas the hypotheses that involve low fear or insensitivity to punishment cues of the individual with ASPD yield predictions that are specific to the punishment stimuli (Newman, Schmitt & Voss, 1997).

Newman, Schmitt and Voss (1997) conducted a study to formulate the generalisablity of the response modulation hypothesis. They studied 112 male, minimum security inmates at a prison in the USA. The study aimed to examine the effect of neutral motivational cues unrelated to punishment on those with ASPD. Using a picture task, participants were asked to locate two pictures or words that were related, with each corresponding picture confused with the wrong label attached. Each participant was informed they would receive 5 cents for responses that were quicker; aiming to formulate motivation and a dominant response set. What they found was that those who scored the highest in ASPD traits and lowest in anxiety had the hardest time with the task; showing the slowest response time. Newman, Schmitt and Voss' (1997) hypothesis that individuals with ASPD show deficiencies in interpreting motivationally neutral cues was supported.

So the response modulation hypothesis means that those with ASPD have difficulty suspending reward orienting behaviour in order to accommodate feedback from the environment (Kring & Bachowoski, 1999). Rather then saying there is impairment in either the BAS or BIS systems, this model predicts that a primary disturbance is in the deficit of the reciprocal inhibition of the activation and inhibition systems. This model can also account for cognitive characteristics like attention, but can also account for notable emotional features of ASPD like low fear and low anxiety (Kring & Bachowoski, 1999). Much of the above theory can explain why those with ASPD have problems with impulse control (i.e. substance abuse, risky behaviours) and long-term management of their daily lives (i.e. long term employment and relationships).

Approach and Avoidance Motivation in ASPD
Arnett, Smith and Newman (1997) sought to study sensitivity to reward in ASPD, using only the behavioural activation system (BAS) in context. Fowles (1980) asserted that individuals with ASPD show normal BAS activity or ‘normal approach and active avoidance’ in regards to rewards and cues. Yet Arnett et al. (1997) found that ASPD sufferers show exaggerated BAS activity, especially in regards to rewards. They also found that they experience a poor response modulation or variation due to failures to suspend goal directed behaviour when punishment was encountered (Arnett, Smith & Newman, 1997). This has been called the approach / avoidance theory of motivation in ASPD. This was also hypothesised by Arnett to be mediated by a hypersensitivity to reward not just punishment for individuals with ASPD; as it has been previously hypothesised that individuals with ASPD appear to be sensitive to punishment (Arnett, Smith & Newman, 1997).

Through two consecutive studies on 63 male inmates at a Wisconsin prison in America, Arnett, Smith and Newman (1997) studied goal directed reward and punishment behaviour on those with ASPD. They asked the participants to respond to five response buttons on a computer screen. Each participant was asked to press a button for when the lights flashed green. A tone would sound if the participant got it right, and there was no tone if they got the flash wrong. Participants were told they would receive 5 cents each ‘round’ if they received 80 right (out of 120 rounds). The participants with ASPD showed a mediated goal directed behaviour only when reward was evident, not for when no reward was present (Arnett, Smith & Newman, 1997).

The Motivational Imbalance Model
As discussed, Gray (1987) theorised that there were two main systems that regulate withdrawal and approach behaviour in response to external stimuli, the BAS and the BIS. Extending on this theory, Fowles (1980) and Arnett (1997) have conceptualised the motivational imbalance model of behaviour. Arnett argues that the inhibitory properties of the key motivational systems create the maladaptive tendencies in ASPD. This has been found when individuals show insensitivity for punishment particularly when reward is pending (as cited in Honk & Shutter, 2006).

Fowles (1980) believes that a weak or deficient BIS occurs in ASPD. Normally cues for punishment act as inputs to the BIS and various emotional and behavioural consequences ensue. In contrast, a weak BIS means that the punishment cues are less likely to activate the BIS. In the absence of this engagement, there is no inhibition for ongoing behaviour, reflection and the experience of anxiety (Kring & Bachowoski, 1999). Due to this, the behavioural problems that occur in ASPD arise because the psychological processes that normally function to motivate adaptive, socially acceptable behaviour do not occur in the presence of punishment.

The BAS and BIS are two motivationally adaptive systems typically referred to as goal directed approach and withdrawal systems. Although it is not clearly discussed by motivation theorists, discrete emotions can be aligned with activity in either the approach or avoidance behaviours of ASPD (Kring & Bachorowski, 1999). Some emotions for example, can be directly meaningful to motivations systems. “Anger” can lead to overt aggression or active avoidance. Yet we must remember, especially in ASPD, that positive emotions are not always associated with approach behaviours, the same for negative emotions in avoidance activity, which can be seen in the literature on ASPD (Kring & Bachowoski, 1999). Which leads us to the imbalance that is found in the motivational phenomenology of ASPD.

What is most notable is the ability to apply this theory to the potential rates of recidivism found in conduct disorder and ASPD. By not being able to suspend and coordinate adaptive behaviours after a crime, for example, the individual with ASPD may find it difficult to suspend committing more offences after being charged with a crime (i.e. the punishment).

Emotional Processing Deficits in ASPD
It is clear, through much research on ASPD, that the experience of the disorder is emphasised by deficient emotional processes, lack of emotional reactions, lack of anxiety and a disjunction between the actual and experiential components of emotion (McKendrick, Sullivan, Bank & Sacks, 2006). These individuals are cognitively intact, but are unable to appreciate the emotional significance of their behaviours. Due to this, the lack of affect experienced has a direct impact on their motivations and subsequent behaviours. As such, the maladaptive behaviours that are present in ASPD directly motivate the individual in responding to external and internal cues differently than those without the disorder (Kosson, Suchy, Mayer & Libby, 2002).

Based on the research performed on emotion in ASPD there has been a consensus that these individuals have difficulty responding to expressions of certain emotions more so than others (Reidy, Zeichner & Hunnicut-Ferguson, 2008). As seen in the fearlessness hypothesis, and also found in expressions of sadness, those with ASPD react and experience these expressions at a higher threshold than those without the disorder. Using lexical decision tasks (LDTs), researchers study this response. LDTs involve classifying letter strings of words or non words on a computer, which are emotional (love, hate, pain, happy) or neutral (table, chair, book, later) categories, and participants respond as quickly as they can (Lorenz & Newman, 2002). The LDT measures the network activation of the stimulus words, with faster reaction times to the words suggesting less activation. For example, individuals prone to anger should respond faster to anger words, and those with deficits in the experience of fear or sadness will respond slower to corresponding words (Reidy, Zeichner & Hunnicut-Ferguson, 2008). LDT research has also been supported by its ability to measure implicit and uncontrollable thought process, furthering its reliability.

Individuals with ASPD show more emotional facilitation to negative words than positive ones, and show a longer response time specifically when viewing angry or sad emotional categories. Lorenz and Newman (2002) performed a LDT on 237 male and 172 female inmates residing in a American correctional institution. Each participant was assessed on the DSM ratings of ASPD and Hare’s psychopathology ratings. They found the participants with ASPD showed higher facilitation to the negative words than control subjects. They also found that this sensitivity was also present for positive words showing higher levels of emotion facilitation (Lorenz & Newman, 2002).

Habel, Kuhn, Salluom, Devos and Shneider (2002) studied the emotional discrimination and emotional reactivity to mood induction of those with ASPD. Thirty-three participants were shown a facial discrimination test consisting of happy and sad facial expressions. They found that individuals with ASPD had an impaired ability to discriminate the different emotions in the faces, concluding that those with ASPD had significant deficits in their internal emotional reactions (Habel et al.). Kosson, Suchy, Mayer and Libby (2002) furthered this finding by adding the facial expression of disgust and finding that individuals with ASPD had deficient abilities in determining this emotion, more so than for sadness and anger.

Physiology and Anxiety in ASPD
Individuals with ASPD have been found to have reduced anxiety and less intense physiological responses to emotional experiences than those without the disorder (Patrick, Bradley & Lang, 1993).

In one of the earliest studies, Lykken (1957) hypothesised that individuals with ASPD experienced little to no anxiety, and had lowered physiological responses than those not diagnosed with the disorder. Using questionnaires and electrodermal response activity (facial response, heart rate and skin conductance) he studied participants with ASPD and a control group with no diagnosis (as cited in Patrick, Bradley & Lang, 1993). He found reduced anxiety levels in the individuals who had ASPD, also finding they had low electrodermal responses to shocking stimuli. He theorised after these findings that individuals with ASPD symptomology have less intense emotional reactions to many everyday experiences which is believed to underlie the manifestation of lack of affect and emotional depth (Patrick, Cuthbert & Lang, 1994).

Further empirical evidence has suggested that individuals with ASPD have ‘dulled’ physical responses to stressors, shocking stimuli and aversive experimental events (Schneider, Habel, Kessler, Posse, Grodd & Muller-Gartner, 2000), often found when using electrophysiological methods such as those used by Lykken. This blunted experience has been hypothesised to contribute to the reduced anxiety experienced, yet some researchers have begun to conclude that some individuals who score highly in ASPD and Psychopathy traits show a hypersensitivity to shocking stimuli, with heightened physiological responses and anxiety (Patrick, Bradley & Lang, 1993).

Empathy
What is empathy, and can you imagine what it would be like not to have any?

Empathy is the natural ability to understand the emotions and feelings of others, whether one actually witnessed his or her situation, perceived it from a photograph, read about it in a fiction book or merely imagined it (Decety & Jackson, 2004). It is a phenomenological experience that is not a learned skill as when we are born the building blocks for it are already in the brain; it is just waiting for development and interaction with others to be shaped. Empathy denotes a familiarity of similarity with someone else’s plight, or a self/other awareness that is commonly referred to as being able to ‘put yourself in someone else’s shoes’ (Decety & Jackson). Certain disorders though are characterised by a lack of empathy, including ASPD.

Empathy can be found organically in most individuals, and it is thought that the right prefrontal cortex contains the capacity to reason about the feelings of others (Decety & Jackson, 2004). The tendency to have a low concern of the needs of others and the consequences of ones own actions seem to be common for many personality disorders, most specifically though with ASPD. This ‘empathy deficit’ in ASPD is theorised to come from the reduced ability to read and feel another’s emotional state, particularly sadness and fear (Decety & Jackson). The lack of empathy is ascribed to disrupted affective processing, as many such individuals have their executive and cognitive functions ‘intact’. Therefore, individuals with ASPD may be very good at perceiving others' intentions, while disregarding the emotional content, and taking advantage. In essence, they can simulate the emotions they cannot experience, but must rely on cognitive inputs to process such experiences in their ‘theory of mind mechanism’ (Decety & Jackson). For an individual who is able to experience empathy, the thought of not feeling for others is an alarming dichotomy, yet it goes a long way in explaining the antisocial acts that often come from maladaptive disorders such as ASPD, especially considering the indiscriminate self appraisal, selfishness and apparent 'lack or morals'.

Criminality, Psychopathology and ASPD
ASPD is one of the most common mental disorders seen in those who commit crimes and end up incarcerated. The assumption that all criminals are antisocial is not true though (McKendrick, Sullivan, Banks and Sacks, 2006). ASPD and Psychopathy are conceptually quite similar, and the words are often used interchangeably (Kosson, Lorenz & Newman, 2006). At the measurement level, ASPD focuses more on affective and interpersonal features and their links to broad antisocial tendencies, while Psychopathy emphasises explicit anti-sociality, such as violent crime and underlying personality traits (Hare & Neumann, 2009). Most people who meet the criteria with Psychopathy also meet the criteria for ASPD, yet they qualify for a similar, yet different diagnosis (Hare & Neumann, 2009). As such, not all people with ASPD have a criminal history and many lead relatively successful lives in the community (Durand & Barlow, 2006).

Conclusion
Individuals with ASPD experience a range of maladaptive psychological experiences. Neurological research reveals that the amygdala and related brain regions process interpret and respond to certain emotions in a deficient way. Through neurobiological theory we have seen that those with ASPD have a higher threshold for experiencing fear, that their withdrawal and approach behaviour motivates their antisocial tendencies, and they experience underarousal. Through motivational theory it can be seen that individuals have difficulty inhibiting behaviours after punishment and reward and that these tie into the inability to respond appropriately to approach and avoidance behaviours. This chapter also discussed the imbalance found in the behavioural inhibition and activation systems in response to external stimuli.

The emotional processing deficits found in ASPD show that these individuals lack in emotional reactions and interpretation and have difficulty interpreting and the emotions of others. Furthermore, these individuals show less anxiety when viewing shocking and aversive stimuli, and have been shown to have 'blunted' physiological responses. Finally, those with ASPD are often labeled psychopathic, yet those with psychopathic traits require a similar, yet different diagnosis (Hare & Newmann, 2009).

When you feel the pain of another's heartbreak, or the joy of someone else's success imagine that taken away and you will have a small idea of what it is like to live with ASPD.

He who feels nothing is an empty man. Aristotle.

Glossary of terms
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 * Amygdala: An almond shaped structure located in the medial temporal lobes in the brain. Part of the limbic system it regulates the expression of emotion and emotional memory
 * Antisocial Personality Disorder: A personality disorder that is characterised by a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.
 * Anxiety: A psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry.
 * Avoidance motivation: That individuals experience approach behaviour when rewards are evident, and avoidance behaviour when punishment is encountered.
 * Behavioural Inhibition system (BIS): System which alerts individuals to the possibility of danger and punishment, preparing for anticipation of potential threats, arousal and attention.
 * Behavioural Activation system (BAS): System which is connected to approach behaviour, and is sensitive to reward, which increases motivational reactions.
 * Electro dermal response: Used in physiological testing to measure facial response, skin conductance and heart rate.
 * Emotion: Emotion is the complex psychophysiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) influences.
 * Empathy: Empathy is the capacity to share the sadness or happiness of another individual being through consciousness rather than physically. Empathy develops the ability to have compassion towards other beings.
 * Fearlessness Hypothesis: That individuals with ASPD have a higher threshold for experiencing and reacting to fear.
 * Lexical Decision Task: A common task used to measure emotion; involves classifying letter strings of words or non words as quickly as possible on a computer, which are emotional (love, hate, happy) or neutral (table, chair, book, later).
 * Motivation: Concerns the processes that give behaviour its energy and direction.
 * Motivational Imbalance Model: Consists of the behavioural activation system (BAS) and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS), when one or both systems are maladaptive and inhibiting appropriate approach and avoidance behaviour.
 * Prefrontal cortex: The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas. This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behaviours, personality expression, decision making and moderating correct social behavior
 * Response modulation: Involves the automatic shift of attention from the effortful implementation of goal directed behaviour to its evaluation.
 * Startle reflex modulation: Physiological testing method of measuring the amount of eye blinks per minute on individuals while viewing images, words or some form of stimulus the researcher is attempting to elicit arousal levels from.
 * Under arousal hypothesis: Hypothesizes that individuals with ASPD have low levels of cortical arousal; as those with low or very high levels experience negative affect- while those who experience a medium level tend to be relatively content.
 * Valance: Directionality of the elicited action disposition; either approach or avoidance.


text:
User:Vanished user adhmfdfmykrdyr/RCC invitation

Hi. I'd like to invite you to RecentChangesCamp 2011. It is being held in Canberra from January 28 to January 30, 2011. RecentChangesCamp is an unconference for wiki lovers organized by wiki lovers. It is an opportunity to meet face to face with members of the community, discuss various issues you'd had with editing, wiki culture, wiki software, etc. RecentChangesCamp is also an opportunity to strengthen ties in the wiki community in Australia, New Zealand and Southeast Asia. Additional details can be found at RecentChangesCamp.org. I hope to see you there! --- LauraHale

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:Anniequai

 Hello Anniequai, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
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 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Anniequai


text:
User talk:Videodesigner77

 Hello Videodesigner77, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Videodesigner77


text:
User talk:Keanewheeler

 Hello Keanewheeler, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

=Welcome! Need help?= Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:18, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Likewise for me Keane. great to see you striding into Wikiversity. Certainly take mikeu up on the offer. Building connection with people in the Wikiversity project helps big time Leighblackall 06:07, 9 November 2010 (UTC)

=Sister Project Search Boxes= Hi Keane, I've temporarily added the Sister Project search box on each of your project pages, to assist librarian services to search for free teaching materials related to the title of the page. My thinking is that we'll create a sub page to each Unit, and list good materials. Leighblackall 04:46, 29 November 2010 (UTC)

Copyright problems on photos
Hello. There is a problem with one or more files you have uploaded. Every file you upload must have a clear statement of the copyright position. If you took the photos yourself, add PD-self if you are placing it unreservedly in the public domain. If you wish to retain minimal rights, add Cc-by-sa-3.0. If you did not take the photo, please add an explanation of why it can be hosted here. I am afraid that if you do not do this, the file wil be deleted. Let me know if you have any problems.--Collingwood (talk) 21:13, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Keanewheeler


text:
User talk:Piyenk

 Hello Piyenk, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 13:10, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Piyenk


text:
User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution

Wikistution

The Wikistution of the United States of America

"The Wikistution of the United States of America" is an experiment in the possibilities of twenty-first-century collaborative technology applied to a political framework inherited from the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is the United States Constitution in wiki format. If this wikistution is a disappointment, the experiment would have performed the worthy service of demonstrating the value of methods we have inherited from earlier centuries. Thus the wikistution will have been a worthwhile exercise even if the experiment is a failure. If, on the other hand, we find that the wikistution can evolve prudently into a hypothetical frame of government that would more perfectly derive its just powers from the consent of the governed, better securing citizens' unalienable rights, then this project will serve as a useful example to all bodies wishing to represent and serve their constituents.

I first proposed the Wikistution of the United States to students in a class at the University of Virginia on October 25, 2006. I thought that eventually someone would start it. With the exception of some jokes, no one has. So I hereby present it, the Wikistution of the United States.

Mohandas Gandhi is alleged to have said “First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you, then you win.” We will not be disappointed if the wikistution is ignored for a period, if only to give it some time to develop before those who laugh at it add their wittiest amendments. Perhaps by then, a community of editors who see possibilities in it will care enough to delete amendments to make the Capitol building a petting zoo, and to extend the vote to hamsters.

The framers of the Constitution recognized it as an imperfect document that should be gradually improved through an amendment procedure intended to reflect the national consensus. This procedure, implemented in 1788 as Article V, still governs. It makes the Constitution, in effect, an eighteenth-century wiki, employing eighteenth-century techniques for collaborative document revision. Can we not take advantage of twenty-first-century technology to implement a collaborative revision technique that is at least equally representative and far more flexible and adaptive?

All readers are invited to add new amendments, and to revise old ones and the original seven articles. Before they do so, however, they will first have to revise the amendment procedure itself (Article V). This will presumably require a twenty-eighth amendment.

In the wikistution, italicized text in brackets ([like this]) presents provisions that were later superseded.

Table of Contents
See also Amending the Constitution

The Constitution of 1788 The Bill of Rights Amendments XI to XXVII The Wikistution Amendments
 * /Preamble/
 * /Article I (The Legislature)/
 * /Article II (The Executive)/
 * /Article III (The Judiciary)/
 * /Article IV (The States)/
 * /Article V (Amendments)/
 * /Article VI (Debts, Supremacy, Oaths)/
 * /Article VII (Ratification)/
 * /Amendment I (Freedom of Religion, of the Press, and of Assembly)/
 * /Amendment II (Right to Bear Arms)/
 * /Amendment III (Quartering of Soldiers)/
 * /Amendment IV (Search and Seizure)/
 * /Amendment V (Trial and Punishment; Compensation)/
 * /Amendment VI (Speedy Trial; Confrontation of Witnesses) /
 * /Amendment VII (Trial by Jury in Civil Cases)/
 * /Amendment VIII (Cruel and Unusual Punishments)/
 * /Amendment IX (Construction of the Constitution)/
 * /Amendment X (Powers and Rights of the States and of the People)/
 * /Amendment XI (Judicial Limits)/
 * /Amendment XII (Selection of the President and Vice President)/
 * /Amendment XIII (Abolition of Slavery)/
 * /Amendment XIV (Citizenship Rights)/
 * /Amendment XV (Voting Rights)/
 * /Amendment XVI (Income Tax)/
 * /Amendment XVII (Election of Senators)/
 * [Amendment XVIII (Prohibition)]
 * /Amendment XIX (Woman Suffrage)/
 * /Amendment XX (Presidential and Congressional Terms)/
 * /Amendment XXI (Alcohol Consumption Age)/
 * /Amendment XXII (Term Limit of the President)/
 * /Amendment XXIII (Presidential Vote for District of Columbia)/
 * /Amendment XXIV (Abolition of Poll Taxes)/
 * /Amendment XXV (Presidential Disability and Succession)/
 * /Amendment XXVI (Voting Age)/
 * /Amendment XXVII (Regulation of Pay for Congress)/
 * /Amendment XXVIII/ (Amendment by Wikiocracy)
 * /Amendment XXIX/ (Congressional Term Limits)

title: User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment III (Quartering of Soldiers)

Amendment III (1791)

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment II (Right to Bear Arms)

Amendment II (1791)

[A well regulated Militia,] The ability of protection of home and self being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment IV (Search and Seizure)

Amendment IV (1791)

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment IX (Construction of the Constitution)

Amendment IX (1791)

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment I (Freedom of Religion, of the Press, and of Assembly)

Amendment I (1791)

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment VIII (Cruel and Unusual Punishments)

Amendment VIII (1791)

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment VII (Trial by Jury in Civil Cases)

Amendment VII (1791)

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment VI (Speedy Trial; Confrontation of Witnesses)

Amendment VI (1791)

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment V (Trial and Punishment; Compensation)

Amendment V (1791)

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XIII (Abolition of Slavery)

Amendment XIII (1865)

Section 1

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XII (Selection of the President and Vice President)

Amendment XII (1804)

The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; -- the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; -- The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. [And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President [superseded by Amendment 20, section 3].] The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XIV (Citizenship Rights)

Amendment XIV (1868)

Section 1

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5

The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XIX (Woman Suffrage)

Amendment XIX (1920)

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XI (Judicial Limits)

Amendment XI (1795)

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XVIII (Prohibition)

Amendment XVIII (1919)

Section 1

After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Section 2

The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section 3

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XVII (Election of Senators)

Amendment XVII (1913)

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XVI (Income Tax)

Amendment XVI (1913)

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.


text:
User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XV (Voting Rights)

Amendment XV (1870)

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2

The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section 3

All ballots will be blank. To vote, a citizen writes the name of the chosen candidate.


text:
User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXIII (Presidential Vote for District of Columbia)

Amendment XXIII (1961)

Section 1

The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


text:
User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXII (Term Limit of the President)

Amendment XXII (1951)

Section 1

No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

Section 2

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXIV (Abolition of Poll Taxes)

Amendment XXIV (1964)

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay poll tax or other tax.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXI (Prohibition Repealed)

Amendment XXI (1933)

Section 1

The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2

The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or Possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Section 4

The legal drinking age of the United States is 18 years of age. The citizen wishing to drink will be required to obtain authorization in the form of an alcohol consumption license. This license can be obtained by passing an alcohol awareness exam at a state run facility and completing a probationary period. Additionally, the alcohol consumption license can be suspended or revoked upon receiving alcohol related offenses, in accordance with the severity of the crime.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXVIII

This amendment, as of October twentieth of the year two thousand ten, shall henceforth govern the process of amending the Wikistution.

The People, whenever it is deemed to be necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Wikistution, and by process of democratic editing, the proposed Amendments will be ratified or argued over or whatever. Furthermore, all previous articles and amendments are subject to this same process of democratic editing.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXVII (Regulation of Pay for Congress)

Amendment XXVII (1992; originally proposed in 1789)

No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of representatives shall have intervened.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXVI (Voting Age)

Amendment XXVI (1971)

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States, who are seventeen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


text:
User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XXV (Presidential Disability and Succession)

Amendment XXV (1967)

Note: Article II, section 1, of the Constitution was affected by the 25th amendment.

Section 1

In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

Section 2

Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3

Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

Section 4

Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment XX (Presidential and Congressional Terms)

Amendment XX (1933)

Note: Article I, section 4, of the Constitution was modified by section 2 of this amendment. In addition, a portion of the 12th amendment was superseded by section 3.

Section 1

The terms of the President and the Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section 2

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Section 3

If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

Section 4

The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

Section 5

Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

Section 6

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Amendment X (Powers and Rights of the States and of the People)

Amendment X (1791)

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article III (The Judiciary)

Article III

Section 1

The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section 2

The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;-- [between a State and Citizens of another State,]--between Citizens of different States,--between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section 3

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article II (The Executive)

Article II

Section 1

The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

[''The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.'']

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; an exception shall be made for any citizen who has been a citizen of the United States for forty consecutive years, while not simultaneously holding citizenship in any other country, except this rule can be blocked after the individual has won the Presidential election if two thirds of both the House and Senate oppose; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been ten Years a Resident within the United States.

[In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.]

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section 2

The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section 3

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section 4

The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article IV (The States)

Article IV

Section 1

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section 2

The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

[No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.]

Section 3

New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section 4

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic Violence.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article I (The Legislature)

Article I

Section 1

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members, one third of which are chosen every third Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

[Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.] The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section 3

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, [chosen by the Legislature thereof] for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; [and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.]

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section 4

The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5

Each House shall be the Judge of the Selections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was selected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section 7

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States: If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section 8

The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section 9

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, [unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken].

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another; nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article VII (Ratification)

Article VII

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.


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User:Norton~enwikiversity/Wikistution/Article VII Ratification

Article VII

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.