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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Creativity

Overview

Do you suspect that being more creative would better reflect your values and interests? Or do you know someone that is considered to be a creative person and you long to be like them? Perhaps you are creative but you feel blocked? Perhaps you're worried that were you to openly embrace a creative life or your own creative expression that it would cause you harm. Or cause you torment? Or, indeed, make you crazy? What would you do if you could set those fearful ideas aside? What could you change right now for that to happen? What environmental and personal conditions would support your move to being more creative?

Researchers have been trying to isolate, quantify and dissect creativity since the 1950's (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). In fact, scholarly research on creativity is proliferating and the systematic study of creativity is an active area of scientific investigation (Mumford, 2003).

Historically, creativity has been viewed as both one of the most distinctive features of humanity and a mystery (Klausen, 2010). Creativity is one of the key factors in driving civilisation forward, contributing to change and evolution (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010) and is central to human functioning. Yet, creativity is also one of the most elusive human facilities.

Creativity is what Elizabeth Gilbert, in her terrific TED talk on nurturing creativity, calls an irrational process that can, at times, feel almost paranormal. If you were living in ancient Rome or Greece or even in fifteenth-century England, you would consider creativity a mysterious phenomenon not of your own making. In today's world you can take your cue from contemporary science and describe creativity as the production of ideas that are original and useful (Baer, 2010) or as a process of applied imagination (Robinson, 2011).

Creativity is of immense practical importance and even though a consensus on the definition has been and is still problematic (Klausen, 2010; Weisberg, 2010) and debates continue to loom large (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010), knowledge about the various aspects of creativity goes a long way to being able to systematically enable and influence creativity.

On a practical level, creativity is reactive and to a great extent a person's environment determines when and why a person is creative. 'The impact of environmental factors on motivation and creativity is significant and highly complex' (Hennessey, 2003, p.267).

So, what is creativity anyway? Is it merely exceptional skill? Is it a pathological condition? Is it a God-given talent granted to a privileged few? If the persistent conception of the creative person is still that of a moody genius working alone in a garret, then what has feeling good got to do with creativity? Or your social network? Or your motivational orientation? Or your perception of how much control you have over your life?

Creativity and motivation
Creativity is the ability to produce work that is 1) relatively novel, 2) high in quality, and 3) appropriate to the task at hand (Zhu & Zhang, 2011). According to Sternberg and Lubart's Investment Theory of Creativity (1991; 1995), it requires a confluence of six resources: intelligence, knowledge, style of thinking, personality, learning environmental context and motivation (Zhu & Zhang, 2011).

Intrinsic, task-focused motivation is essential for people to focus truly on creative work in an area (Zhu & Zhang, 2011). A breakthrough in research on the forces driving creativity was the identification of two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. In 1985, preeminent creativity researcher, Teresa Amabile directly tested the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation is conducive to creativity and extrinsic motivation detrimental. This is widely accepted and has been confirmed in many studies since.

Creative drive and arousal levels

There is considerable anecdotal and empirical evidence that creativity requires a high level of motivation. This high motivation expresses itself as an intense absorption in creative production. Often viewed as a kind of madness, this intensity or drive has been variously identified by twentith century researchers as tenacity of purpose, passion, devotion, driving absorption or persistence (Collins & Amabile, 1999).

Creative people have higher baseline levels of arousal and greater response to sensory stimulation (Martindale, 1999).

Arousal and stress are two motivationally based responses to stimulating, demanding environments (Reeve, 2009, p.378). Arousal is mostly a function of how stimulating your environment is. Stress is mostly a function of how demanding and controllable your environment is.

Creative inspiration occurs in a mental state where attention is defocused, thought is associative, and a large number of mental representations are activated at once. Such a state can arise in three ways: low levels of cortical activation, comparatively more right-hemisphere than left activation, and low levels of frontal-lobe activation.

Gregory Feist (1999) reviewed the dispositional characteristics of creative scientists and artists. The outcome of characteristic arousal levels in creative people (Feist, 1999) may exhibit as introversion, independence and subclinical bipolar states.

Creative people display high levels of
 * autonomy, independence, introversion
 * energy, achievement, drive, and self-confidence
 * openness, flexibility, imagination, tolerance for ambiguity
 * arrogance, hostility, and power needs.

Colin Martindale (1999) suggests that in high arousal states, attention is so focused on the arousal-inducing situation that innovative associations are less likely to come to awareness. Martindale suggests that only in situations of lower than average arousal can the mind attend to the associative connections necessary for novel ideas.

As Martindale puts it in his neural network model of creativity, creative people
 * tend to be oversensitive to stimulation and physiologically over-reactive
 * have a broad attention focus
 * habituate slowly
 * show greater variability in arousal
 * withdraw to reduce stimulation
 * seek out controlled, task-focused stimulation to compensate for this withdrawal.

Task-focused cognition may be a stimulus control strategy used by creative people to manage arousal and affect (Mumford, 2003). Stress, or high levels of arousal, will inhibit creativity when requisite coping strategies are not available.

Flaherty (2005) presented a three factor anatomical model of human idea generation and creative drive. Flaherty argues for the importance of connections between the temporal lobes (contains auditory cortex), frontal lobes (involved in motor control and cognition) and limbic system (regulates emotional behaviour, basic motivational urges and memory, as well as physiological functions) and found that frontal lobe deficits may decrease idea generation, in part because of rigid judgments about an idea's worth. Mesolimbic dopamine influences novelty seeking and creative drive. Flaherty's model differs from the previous influential neuroscientific theory of creativity, which postulated that the nondominant hemisphere is specialised for creative activity such as holistic pattern recognition, art and music. However, later evidence suggests that the function of both hemispheres is more important than selectively activating the right hemisphere (Martindale, 1999). Flaherty's model incorporates the involvement of the limbic system in generating drive.

Dopamine raises baseline arousal, mediates reward-seeking activity, and triggers the desire to communicate (Flaherty, 2005). The dopamine antagonists used as antipsychotics can suppress not only hallucinations but also creativity (Flaherty, 2005).

Flaherty (2005) stresses that creative drive is not identical to skill. For instance, hypergraphia reflects a drive to write, and not necessarily a skill to write. Mesolimbic dopamine plays a role in generating novelty seeking and creative drive. Skill depends on neocortical association areas (Flaherty, 2005). Drive, however, correlates better with successful creative output than does skill, and creative drive can secondarily improve creative skill (Flaherty, 2005). The more you practice writing or drawing, of course, the more proficient you become. In addition, when high motivation increases the number of ideas generated then the number of novel and useful ideas increases proportionately (Simonton, 1999; Flaherty, 2005).

Motivational orientation and creativity
Why is a carrot never enough? or Is that Intrinsic Motivation in your pocket?

Teresa Amabile's intrinsic motivation principle of creativity (1985) states that "people will be most creative when they feel motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself, rather than by external pressures". Deci and Ryan (1985) add that intrinsic motivation is a predilection to engage with that interest and to seek out and master optimal challenges.

Motivation plays a crucial role in your creative process (Hennessey, 2003). In a 1997 survey of individuals involved in creative research, the most critical behaviours for creative achievement were those reflecting motivation (Runco, 2004). There is a direct relation between the motivational orientation you bring to the task and the likelihood of creativity in that task (Hennessey, 2003). In order to reach your creative potential you must engage with that task for the sheer pleasure and enjoyment of the activity. This type of motivation is called intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation may not be a unitary process, but a highly complex process based on curiosity, the need for mastery, the potential for self-expression, resolution of incongruities, and contribution of others. Intrinsic motivation is the result of an internal, very individualised process.

You would be intrinsically motivated to be engaging in task if you
 * are curious about or stimulated by the presentation of the activity
 * have feelings of competence, mastery, or self-efficacy
 * feel your involvement is free of strong external control
 * feel like you're playing, rather than working
 * (Adapted from Henessey, 2003)

Can intrinsic motivation be consciously induced?

Amabile (1985) tested for the direct induction of intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation toward creative work. Self-perception theory predicts that if you attribute your interest in, say, a dating partner to intrinsic reasons, you should experience yourself as being more in love than if you attribute your interest to extrinsic reasons. Attribution refers to your judgments about the causes of events; attributions are the reasons you use to explain important life outcomes. Seligman, Fazio and Zanna (1980) tested this on individual members of dating couples and confirmed the prediction. In Amabile's study on creative writing, adapted from the study on romantic love, concentrating on extrinsic reasons for creative writing resulted in a temporary decrease in creativity (Amabile, 1985). Although there was no strong evidence that concentrating on intrinsic reasons for writing caused a temporary increase in creativity.

Take note: In her paper, Amabile (1985) underlined her surprise that spending merely five minutes reading and ranking extrinsic reasons (or motivations) for writing should impact so negatively and significantly on your creativity.

Creative thought is inherently demanding and resource-intensive (Mumford, 2003) and requires a good deal of psychological investment. Investment of effort depends on intrinsic motivation derived from task-focused, internally based rewards (Collins & Amabile, 1999).

Extrinsic motivations like rewards, competition, deadlines praise, status, pay, and surveillance may result in poor performance only when they draw attention away from task performance (Collins & Amabile, 1999). Feedback, for instance, can lead to diminished performance when it draws attentional resources needed to perform well on complex, ambiguous tasks (Kluger & Densi, 1996 as in Mumford, 2003). Social contexts play an important part in enabling or obstructing your engagement in creative work.

The extrinsic motives might influence your choice of field, type of task, or your implementation strategy, rather than work on the task itself.

Your self-determined creative self

 * Volition and self-expression

A psychological need is an inherent source of motivation that generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development and psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Deci and Ryan (1985) identified three inherent psychological needs, experiential nutriments we must have if we are to thrive and mature. Their self-determination theory (SDT) identifies the need for autonomy (volition and self-expression), competence (skill and mastery) and relatedness (closeness and connection).

These psychological needs are organismic, that is, SDT assumes that you are an entity that is alive and in active exchange with your environment; this assumes that you are not just reacting to your environment but that you are influencing your environment in a dialectical relationship. Both you and your environment constantly change.

Autonomy fosters creativity in the workplace, and, generally, constraints and pressures at work are detrimental to creativity. Although, under specific circumstances the informational value implicit in performance-contingent rewards has been shown to augment feelings of self-efficacy, intrinsic task interest and qualitative aspects of performance (Hennessey, 2003).

Being provided with choice enhances your sense of autonomy and intrinsic motivation; choice in aspects of how to do a task can enhance creativity and interest (Amabile, 1996). An early study into autonomy and creativity found that when children paint under autonomy-supportive conditions, and are given rationale for rules in informational language, they enjoy the painting more, are intrinsically motivated to paint and produce artwork that is creative, technically good, and of high quality (Reeve, 2009).

A self-determined person is able to resist the controlling situational and intrapersonal forces that can undermine creativity (Sheldon, 1995).

 Closeness and affect of strong ties facilitate pressures of social influence leading to conformity which will generally hinder creativity. Even though positive affect facilitates creativity, it may be that "when positive affect is a result of interconnected and overlapping social interactions, the cognitive constraint and pressure for conformity may undermine any advantages of positive affect in isolation" (Perry-Smith, 2006, p. 88). Networks of optimal size (11.47) and of weak strength are likely to boost creativity (Baer, 2010; Perry-Smith, 2006).

If you maintain an increasing number of weak ties (beyond optimal size) or interact with your network too frequently, it may drain you of your creative resources (as it did for the actors in Baer's study, 2010) or result in too strong relationships which ultimately undermine your creativity.

Your creativity is strongly influenced by your relationships, including relationship strength, network position, and outside ties. Perry-Smith (2006) suggests that creative people should be mindful of being too connected via strong ties but that you should craft your idea network from weaker relationships to take advantage of the associated informational benefits (Baer, 2010).

Enhancing creativity

Weihua Niu and Dan Liu (2009) studied the effect of two different types of instructions on creativity on Chinese high school students. The first instruction explicitly prompted students to be creative. The second was a heuristic instruction with details on how to be creative; that is, during a story completion task students were told: "To be creative, you could add or take away some characters and scenes when necessary so that the characters and scenes of the story would not limit your creative expression" (p. 95). The results of this study confirmed the hypothesis that changes in the indicative instruction could affect [Chinese] students' creativity. The results were consistent among female and male participants.

Take-away message

To achieve improvement in creativity, it may not be sufficient to induce creativity by telling someone to be creative. They must also be given 'some basic supervision on how to be creative with elaborate clues (Niu and Liu, 2009).

Enhancing children's creativity

There are certain techniques and approaches that may be particularly appropriate for children. The following are guidelines for parents and teachers (adapted from Amabile, 1996, p.261):
 * Encourage autonomy by avoiding excessive, anxious control of the child's activities
 * Respect the child's individuality
 * Maintain a loving relationship with the child. Avoid a smothering emotional closeness
 * Encourage independence as the child grows
 * Emphasise values (guiding principles) for behaviour, rather than rules
 * Teach the child the reasoning behind these values.
 * Highlight learning achievements in the classroom over grades and competitive awards
 * Emphasise the joy of learning, focus on the child's own development of competence and knowledge
 * Present a reward as a bonus not a bribe. Use the reward to confirm the child's competence
 * Celebrate the child's creativity

Enhancing creativity in all

Raymond Nickerson (1999) suggests that creativity is typically defined in terms of the results of activity. He puts forward the following recommendations for enhancing creativity in others, particularly in children, but anyone can adapt these suggestions to their own creative development: (Adapted from Nickerson, 1999, p.418)
 * 1) Establish purpose and intention.
 * 2) Build basic skills.
 * 3) Encourage acquisition of domain-specific knowledge.
 * 4) Stimulate and reward curiosity and exploration.
 * 5) Build motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation
 * 6) Encourage confidence and willingness to take risks.
 * 7) Focus on mastery and self-competition.
 * 8) Promote supportable beliefs about creativity. (The demotivating belief that creativity cannot be increased by effort becomes self-fulfilling.
 * 9) Provide opportunities for choice and discovery.
 * 10) Develop self-management (metacognitive, i.e. intentional monitoring) skills. Make time for your creative work
 * 11) Provide balance. Creativity is not necessarily fostered by a lack of restraint. 'The need for structure, discipline, self-restraint and respect for tradition and convention is as real and important as the need for freedom, spontaneity, innovativeness and risk taking'
 * 12) Teach by example. Learn by example.


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Monetary Circuit Model/Skeleton Model

This lesson explains how to set up a skeleton of the monetary circuit model in Sage. This model looks at an economy with three sectors - banks, firms, and workers - with no monetary transactions taking place in between them. While the model itself is useless, the code given here will form the basis of future models.

The basic mathematical tool used by the monetary circuit model are systems of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs). The ODE system describes the flows between sectors of the economy. Taken together with some initial values, Sage can solve the system to describe how stocks (accounts) change over time. To do this, we must first tell Sage the names of the variables and functions we wish to use:

This declares our dependent variable, t, for time. Five stocks/accounts are also declared as functions of time: the bank vault, bank transactions account, firm debt (loans), firm deposits, and worker deposits. The constant ibc is the initial bank capital, the amount of money in its vault at the beginning of the first period. It is not used until later, but kept here so all declarations are in one place.

Next, we create a skeleton ODE system:

This creates a list of differential equations named des, one equation for each of the five stocks. Notice that we use the double-equals sign to specify that this is an equation rather than an assignment.

The system of differential equations specifies our flows. The left hand side of each equation is the first derivative of each stock with respect to time - how quickly the stock changes. The right hand side specifies the flow of money into and out of that stock. For our skeleton system, we do not have any transactions taking place, so the right hand side is 0.

Next, we solve the system:

The desolve_system function is somewhat complicated. The first argument is the system of differential equations we want to solve. The second argument is a list of the dependant variables, in this case our five accounts. The third argument is a list of initial conditions. The first element of the list is the initial value of the independant variable (t), followed by the value of the five dependant variables at the initial time t = 0.

We initialize all the stocks to 0 except for the bank vault, which we initialize to the initial bank capital (ibc) declared above.

Finally, we add some code to plot the system:

You do not have to understand this last bit of code to understand the model. To show the results, save all of the code in a file such as skeleton.py and run the following in the Sage interpreter:

attach skeleton.py

Note: once attached, Sage will automatically reload the file if it is changed. If you make a change, simply press 'enter' in the interpreter to re-run the model. The resulting graph should look something like this:

So far, this is a pretty useless model, since it describes an economy with no monetary transactions. In the next lesson, we will extend the skeleton to create a simple model where banks create money by lending to firms.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Monetary Circuit Model/Skeleton Model


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Monetary Circuit Model

This is a course in Steve Keen's monetary circuit model, based primarily on this paper.

The monetary circuit model is a powerful way to model the dynamics of the macroeconomy. The model uses ordinary differential equations and stock-flow consistent accounting principles to describe transactions between the various sectors of the economy. Focusing on debt and the unique properties of modern token money, advanced versions of the model can explain how a Great Moderation becomes a Great Recession. The use of continuous time allows us to describe dynamic phenomena, such as endogenous business cycles, that would be difficult or impossible using equilibrium techniques.

The course uses the Free and open source mathematics package Sage. Some familiarity with accounting, the Python programming language, and systems of ordinary differential equations is recommended, though the concepts used are fairly simple.

For now, basic familiarity with how to use Sage is assumed. You should look through the tutorial for an introduction.

Lessons
In these lessons, we will develop a basic circuit model which seeks to explain how all sectors of the economy (bankers, capitalists and workers) can earn continuous positive incomes despite a limited stock of money borrowed into existence at interest.
 * 1) Skeleton Model: Setting up and solving a basic differential equation system in Sage. A model without monetary transactions.
 * 2) Lending and Repayment: Extending the skeleton model to support a "revolving fund" of credit.
 * 3) Wages and Consumption: Extending the model to support payment of wages by firms and consumption by households.
 * 4) Interest: Payment of interest on loans and deposits. Purchases of goods and services by banks.
 * 5) Profits: Deriving the income of capitalists from the wage share of firm revenue.

Resources

 * incomes.py: Code for lesson 5.
 * graphing.py: Utility module for graphing.

title: Monetary Circuit Model


text: User:Lucas K1

title: User:Lucas K1


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Java Tutorial/Trail: The Reflection API

The Reflection API
The Reflection API allows to analyze the structure of the classes composing the running program from inside the program and to access the data contained in those classes. The API consists of the following classes:

JRMLWriter
The class JRMLWriter is an example of a custom class that uses reflection in order to write an XML dump of a hierarchy of objects into a buffer, a stream or to a network socket. In case of a socket this allows to implement a protocol much like RMI but using XML-formatted data. JRML is used as an abbreviation for "Java Remote Method Invocation Language" in reference to RMI's Java Remote Method Protocol.

The method, for instance, iterates over a class and its super classes, retrieving the declared fields of the classes, building a flat array of all fields, changing their accessibility to "true" on the way, because private, protected and package access fields may by default be inaccessible even to reflection.

(source code from vsrs.svn.sourceforge.net)

SwingFactory
For everybody who wondered why Swing has "Pluggable Look & Feel" packages that do a lot of amazing (well at least a lot of) stuff to modify the design and behavior of the unmodified Swing classes instead of using interfaces — here is SwingFactory. My personal theory is that the Swing authors made a little joke by putting polymorphism "on the wrong side" of Swing. SwingFactory is an unfinished sketch to address the issue; the exercise is to generate widget interfaces using the Reflection API (they merely contain all the public methods in their counterparts as abstract interface methods) and to write an to redirect the calls to an actual Swing implementation, possibly residing in a different virtual machine. The exercise requires some more work to address the issue of non-widgets required to configure the components properly in order to be actually useful. A look at com.sun.j3d.exp.swing.JCanvas3D may also be interesting.

title: Java Tutorial/Trail: The Reflection API


text: Category:Project-specific templates

title: Category:Project-specific templates


text: Category:Computer science templates

title: Category:Computer science templates


text: Category:Java templates

title: Category:Java templates


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Java Tutorial/Trail: Java and Javascript

Java to JavaScript communication
The class  found in the JRE directory in the "lib/plugin.jar" archive is the object that allows communication with the JavaScript engine. The content of the JAR is automatically available inside the Java environment of the web browser. The following code instantiates the JSObject:

JSObject
offers the following methods:

JavaScript to Java communication
Calling Java methods from JavaScript is almost too easy, because the Java code exposes all public functions, not just methods intended for communication with the enclosing HTML page. If the applet or object tag has an id of "myApplet" the following code calls into the Java applet:

It is even possible to call methods unrelated to the applet itself with the  keyword:

Example: Mozilla Persona for Applets
This example applet communicates with JavaScript to permit a login to the Mozilla Persona authentication system offered by Mozilla. Discerning readers will notice that the assertion returned by the authentication system could require some sort of verification, which should, for security reasons, not be implemented in the applet. One method of verification is the Remote Verification API.


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Java Tutorial/Applets

Applets
An applet used by Wikipedia is the Cortado player, which can be selected as a video player.

title: Java Tutorial/Applets


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User talk:Imago

 Hello Imago, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 12:40, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

 Hello , you can call me Jacob Frank. I'd like to be your mascot and welcome you to Wikiversity. Even though I was a plain and untutored man back in 18th-century Europe, that still didn't stop me from contributing my ideas to the world. Neither should it stop you. As a religious leader who developed the doctrine of "purification through transgression," my advice to you is to be bold and to ignore all rules—yes, these are two of Wikiversity's official policies! Happy editing.

Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:27, 2 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Imago


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User talk:Briannorby143

 Hello Briannorby143, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 16:11, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Briannorby143


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User talk:Amalrajgenocidex

 Hello Amalrajgenocidex, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 16:12, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Amalrajgenocidex


text:
User:Hkang0839

TEAM PROJECT Boring Team Members

User:Hkang0839/enes100/poppit

Poppit Game http://poppit.pogo.com/hd/PoppitHD.html

Ballbot project

Ballpot project: BBotz
 * User BBotz

title: User:Hkang0839


text:
User talk:Thanson2045

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 16:55, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

Organization of Howard Community College pages
There are many pages being created at the top level in mainspace that are really specific pages for specific courses. In short, this is a mess, and starting to clean it up, I made more of a mess!

But, basically, I want all the HCC course pages, at this point, to be under [[Howard Community College}. It would be helpful if someone from HCC were to organize this. In moving pages I accidentally moved a lot of pages that now contain HCC twice in the pagename. I'll clean that up, but, really, I was guessing about some of the moves. It would be far better if someone from HCC would organize the Howard Community College hierarchy.

Top-level mainspace pages should be educational resources, rather than educational process. All of this could have been organized under General Engineering Projects, but it seemed cleaner to me to use Howard Community College. Teachers of courses should be identified clearly. --Abd 18:19, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Thanson2045


text:
User talk:Gristwik

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 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 19:00, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

Moving draft page to your user space
I'm moving a page you created to your user space without changing the name otherwise. For this to go into mainspace, I'd suggest that it be placed in context with topics and courses. I'll leave that for later. A resource named "Recently discovered..." is soon obsolete, and isn't really the topic. The topic is the spider, right? --Abd 19:00, 31 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Hey Richard, don't worry about this. I'll take care of it. Kaldari 22:41, 31 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Right. Just doing some page organization. (I missed that Kaldari had created the page, I didn't read far enough down in history.) We'll sort it. --Abd 22:57, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gristwik


text:
User:Rsteed

Robin Steed, PhD Assistant Professor, Occupational Therapy LSUHSC Shreveport

title: User:Rsteed


text:
File:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS EC9 1.vql.svg

Summary
See Wiki Commons Category:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS for all figures related to this transcription work.


text:
File:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS EC9 3.vql.svg

Summary
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text:
User talk:Fissbusta

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 22:36, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fissbusta


text:
User talk:Chaagii 0817

Test 1 HCC 15:16, 14 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chaagii 0817


text:
User talk:Drew Dollas

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 22:37, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Drew Dollas


text: File:Monetary circuit lending.svg

title: File:Monetary circuit lending.svg


text:
Literature/1994/Gordon

General
The "whole linguistic problem" which Ogden addressed is a vast range of linguistic features and their use and the inadequacies in existing analyses of language. It was the study of these and related questions which give his work an enduring quality of particular relevance to late twentieth century linguistics.

Contents

 * Volume 2. From Russell to Russo: Reviews and Commentaries
 * http://books.google.com/books?id=fE8JYH1eBoEC

Wikimedia

 * C. K. Ogden

Chronology

 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.
 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.
 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.
 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.
 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.
 * Florence, Philip Sargent & John Richard Lane Anderson, eds. (1977). C. K. Ogden: A Collective Memoir. London: Elek Pemberton.

title: Literature/1994/Gordon


text:
File:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS EC9 2.vql.svg

Summary
See Wiki Commons Category:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS for all figures related to this transcription work.


text:
User talk:Rsteed

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 01:15, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rsteed


text:
User talk:Alex.Timms

 Hello Alex.Timms, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 01:54, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

email address on your user page
You may do this if you wish, but it does expose your address to spammers. Most of us have email enabled, so we can be emailed through the Wikiversity user interface, the function "email user." You can set this in your preferences, and I'd highly recommend it. You can set your preferences so that you will get automatic email notification of any edits to your user talk page. It's very useful. So many times we need to contact a user, perhaps there is an attempt being made to delete something they did, but they don't have email enabled and they might not be checking their watchlist.... --Abd 00:45, 7 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alex.Timms


text:
Monetary Circuit Model/Lending and Repayment

In this lesson, we will extend the skeleton model to include lending and repayment of loans, without interest or any other transactions.

The Code
First, we set up the parameters of the model. These go before the definition of the ODE system:

The variable "lend" represents the flow of money lent by the banking sector. We assume that this is proportional to the amount of capital the bank has available, its "cash in the vault." One possible interpretation is that as the bank lends out money, its desire for liquidity makes it less willing to finance investment projects, especially high risk ones.

Repayment is assumed to be proportional to the amount of outstanding debt. Both bvo and rr are annualized rates: banks lend 3/4 of their reserves per year and

Next, we modify our ODE system to include the new flows:

What this says is that, when a loan is made, cash is transferred from the bank vault, bv, to firm deposits, fd. Similarly, when firms repay their loans, money is transferred from firm deposits back to the bank vault. fl serves to record the debt level of firms. In this model, fl and fd are equal since the only way for firms to get cash is to borrow it.

The result should look like this:

The model reaches an equilibrium when the rate of lending is equal to the rate of repayment. The exact level is determined by the liquidity preference of banks and firms. We will see in a later lesson how a sudden change in liquidity preference - a credit crunch - can affect the level of economic activity.

In the next lesson, we will add transactions between firms and workers.


text: User:Maz~enwikiversity

title: User:Maz~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Maz~enwikiversity

 Hello Maz, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 02:12, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

Welcome to Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope that you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:12, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

Book chapter feedback
FYI, I've added some comments here - Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal-setting and happiness -- Jtneill - Talk - c 20:26, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Maz. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Maz~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:38, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:15, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Maz~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Solstag/Portuguese Wikipedia Qualitative Researcher

De: pietroXXX

Para: rfpXXX

Cc: jwildXXX; solstagXXX

Enviadas: Quarta-feira, 31 de Agosto de 2011 23:27

Assunto: RFP/Portuguese Wikipedia Qualitative Researcher Pietro Roveri 02:31, 1 September 2011 (UTC)


text:
User:Egm6341.f11.team4.allen

=Report Page= Report #1

Report #2

Report #3

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title: User:Egm6341.f11.team4.allen


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Addiction

Overview
In our daily lives, we often hear the term "addiction". People use it in reference to a lot of things, from the most serious addictions such as cocaine or heroin, to the more mild habits, such as shopping, food, or even internet sites such as Facebook. To some extent, even the mild habits may be acquired and governed through similar processes, and those people may well be experiencing mild addictions to those substances or activities.

While mild addictions may not be life threatening, they can be annoying, difficult, or time consuming. So, where do we draw the motivation for these addictions, mild or otherwise, from? Why is it that we can spend so much time playing video games, and yet never find the drive to do any homework? Why are we motivated to continue smoking, even though we know it is doing damage to our bodies? And, more importantly, how can we control and remove the addiction, so as to use our time and resources in a more efficient and effective way?

This chapter defines addiction as a psychological or physical dependence on a substance or activity. The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2000) describes behavioural and substance addictions separately, with the most relevant criteria for the purposes of this topic being that of substance abuse.

In this chapter, research concerning serious addictions will be reviewed so as to provide a guideline for how to control and manage the addictions that we experience in our everyday lives, from the mildest the to the most serious. The term "stimulus" will be used to encompass both addictive substance and addictive behaviour.

Origins of addiction
Throughout our lives, certain events occur that require discretion on our part before we engage in them. Once we have experienced a type of event, such as social networking, we make a judgement on it as it whether or not we liked the activity, and whether we should continue to do similar activities in the future. We tend to persist with behaviors that rewards us with positive outcomes, and avoid behaviors that lead us to less favourable consequences. To a large degree, this is the underlying principle from which addictions arise. These principles will be outlined with reference to a number of different theories.

Social learning theory
One of the most well known processes of addiction acquisition is the concept of social learning. The theory states that as behaviours are modelled they are learned by others, regardless of how ethical these actions are (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1961). This was shown in a study by Bandura (1961) where children observed an adult violently attack a bobo doll. Subsequently, the study found that children who were exposed to the violent modelling were more likely to attack the doll themselves. It has also been asserted that the quality of the relationship with the model will contribute towards the likelihood of engaging in the behaviour (Borsari & Carey, 2006).

The effect is similar in the process of addiction (Wilson, 1987). If we observe an individual smoking a cigarette, or using Facebook, we are more likely to perceive that modelled behaviour as acceptable. As a result, we are more likely to engage in that behaviour, marking the beginning stages of the addiction process.

The social setting also has an impact on the likelihood of a behaviour occurring. The process, termed "social reinforcement", governs how acceptable an individual perceives an action to be, based on their current environment (Borsari & Carey, 2006). For example, you may be more likely to smoke in a designated smoking area than in someone's car, based on the feedback you have received for this action in the past. As a result, the social setting plays almost as critical a role in the development of an addiction as the peer group.

Conditioning principles
According to various theories of operant conditioning, behavioural responses to stimuli arise as a result of reinforcement and punishment, which can occur when the behavioural consequence is being added (positive) or removed (negative). In terms of processes of addiction, all of these operant principles play important roles.

Positive reinforcement is the first part of the undesirable path towards addiction. Positive reinforcement can be defined as an attractive stimulus given to an individual as a result of an action (Watkins, Koob & Markou, 2000). As such, when an individual initially begins to take an addictive substance, they will likely experience a euphoric sensation, immediately rewarding them for consumption (Watkins, Koob & Markou, 2000). It can be expected, then, that this reward leads to an increased likelihood of the behaviour being performed in the future. In a sense, this part of the addiction cycle is not problematic, the problem arises when the action loses any benefit, as the individual builds up a tolerance (Tiffany, 1990). When this happens, more of the substance needs to be taken in order to achieve the same sensation. At this point, addiction becomes a more serious concern (Tiffany, 1990).

It is common knowledge that when an individual builds up a dependence to a substance, and subsequently ceases to take it, withdrawal occurs (Wikler, 1980). What is less well known, is that similar symptoms have been exhibited in cases of behaviour cessation, where substances were not present (Cunningham-Williams, Gattis, Dore, Shi & Spitznagel, 2009). Research has shown that individuals who attempt to give up gambling can experience restlessness, irritability, anger, guilt and disappointment (Cunningham-Williams et al., 2009). Additionally, though less commonly, physiological symptoms, such as abdominal pain and diarrhea, may also arise (Custer, 1982; Rosenthal & Lesievr, 1992). Given that no substance is involved in this example, it can be argued that certain types of highly addictive activities may produce a dependence effect similar to that found in substance addiction. In any case, withdrawal symptoms are highly unpleasant. Not surprisingly, individuals often aim to avoid these aversive consequences, which can be achieved by avoiding the substance altogether. But if a dependence has already been formed, how does the individual avoid the unwanted consequences of cessation?

It is this exact tendency that, unfortunately, allows negative reinforcement to be so highly effective in fostering an addiction (Baker, Piper, McCarthy, Majeskie & Fiore, 2004). Individuals are rewarded for perpetuating the addiction through the absences of undesirable consequences (Baker et al., 2004). Consequently, the dependence to the substance or behaviour is strengthened, and a vicious cycle ensues.

So how does all of this research affect us? Initially, our first experience with an addictive stimulus may be the most positive, with the effect gradually declining overtime (Tiffany, 1990). For example, an Internet addiction, while it may be fun initially to browse the web, as usage reaches addiction levels the fun will wear off, becoming replaced with feelings of restlessness and unease when the behaviour has to stop (Young, 1999). As such, the focus now shifts from enjoying the behaviour to avoiding the cost of cessation, an effect similar to withdrawal avoidance (Young, 1999).

Opponent-process theory
In a similar process to the learning principles, the opponent-process theory of motivation can be applied to an understanding addiction formation (Ettenberg, 2004). The essential feature of the opponent-process theory is the idea that experiencing an extreme high or low (termed "the A process"), our bodies attempt to suppress this by adjusting the emotion in the opposite direction ("the B process"), to a small degree (Solomon & Corbit, 1973). As such, once the A process has worn off, the B process remains, leaving us in a more aroused or depressed state than we would expect to be (Solomon & Corbit, 1973).

In terms of addiction, this process displays how the stimulus creates unpredictably greater emotional states. When the individual has been without the stimulus for a period of time, they will achieve greater highs when using it (Solomon & Corbit, 1973). When the individual is using the stimulus, they will experience greater lows when it is not in use (Solomon & Corbit, 1973). While this not a massive effect, it does facilitate the development of the addiction to some extent (Ettenberg, 2004).

Environment
Psychologically, we are predisposed to pick up on cues that we have come to associate with other stimuli, especially in the case of addictions (Kuntze et al., 2001). Cues, such as sounds, smells or the sight of a particular setting are all able to elicit a particular addiction-related response. Indeed, these responses can range from a craving for the stimulus, to withdrawal symptoms and mood swings (Kuntze et al., 2001). In this way, the environment itself can foster the addiction process, as the learned responses to the particular environment may trigger these temptation effects, and lead to a compulsion to continue the adverse pattern of behaviours.

Neurological basis
A number of neurological structures are involved in the process of attaining and reinforcing an addiction. The manner in which some of these brain structures are affected by addiction will be briefly outlined here.

Basal ganglia
The basal ganglia, an area of the brain associated with procedural learning, increases production and transmission of dopamine in response to addiction (Kalivas & Volkow, 2005). Given the role of dopamine in valuing incentive and reward (Berridge & Robinson, 1998), this brain structure is one of the most important areas of the brain in facilitating addiction.

Amygdala
As the primary function of the amygdala is to govern emotional learning and memory (Everitt, Cardinal, Parkinson & Robbins, 2003), it plays a critical role in the formation of behavioural responses through its activation in response to motivationally relevant stimuli (Kalivas & Volkow, 2005).

Prefrontal cortex
Similar to the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex is activated in response to a motivationally relevant event, particularly in response to the likelihood of a reward (Berns, McClure, Pagnoni & Montague, 2001). However, this structure governs the intensity of the response, or indeed if a response will occur at all (Bush et al., 2002).

Nucleus accumbens
The nucleus accumbens is responsible for the attribution of learned associations between environment and events (Bassareo & Di Chiara, 1999), as well as governing a "liking" response to certain stimuli (Peciña & Berridge, 2005).

How to resolve addiction
Once the addiction has taken hold, the outlook may appear bleak. Not the case. Treatment options are always available, and with some self-control and regulation, breaking the addiction cycle is a distinct possibility. But which treatment will prove to be the most effective, and indeed will this treatment continue to be effective in the long term? With respect to practicality, the following treatment options are examined in-depth.

Prevention
As is the case with much of physical and psychological well-being, prevention is a very effective cure (McAlister, Perry, Killen, Slinkard & Maccoby, 1980). Of course, while it may be easy in theory to resist the temptation of an addiction, in reality it is a very difficult task. As such, in order to form a prevention strategy, the various factors which influence individuals towards the onset of an addiction must be examined.

One publicly familiar cause of addiction is social pressure, and more specifically, peer pressure. It is very difficult to say "no" to a group of friends as they compel you to try a substance, particularly when some of these friends are highly respected by you or others (McAlister, 1979). As a result, a number of government programs have been initiated, with the express aim of educating individual (in particular children) on how to resist this type of social pressure, often with surprisingly good results (McAlister, Perry, Killen, Slinkard & Maccoby, 1980). This suggests that one method of prevention is to simply to learn how to say no, and refuse the addictive behaviour before it takes hold.

Behaviour modification
It has been suggested that conditioning principles are, to some extent, a large contributor in the addiction development process (Watkins, Koob & Markou, 2000). Fortunately, these conditioning principles have also been shown to work in the opposite direction, facilitating treatment and extinction of adverse addictive behaviours (Chóliz, 2010). A number of studies (Petry, 2006; Silverman, 2004) have suggested a specific operant conditioning schedule designed to reward the cessation of addictive behaviours.

Essentially, this treatment proposes that the individual be rewarded, usually monetarily, when they present evidence of abstinence from the behaviour for a certain predetermined period of time. In this way, the individual is rewarded for not engaging in the drug behaviour, thereby facilitating the process of overcoming the addiction. In the past, this treatment has proved to be effective, across differing types of addictions (Higgins, Silverman, 1999). Indeed, this approach has even been shown to reduce usage of substances as addictive as cocaine, with one study finding over half of the participants remaining abstinent for almost the entire time-frame of the experiment (Silverman, 2004). Importantly, these studies found that the optimal level of behaviour modification occurred when the reward became greater overtime, and incentives such as "start-up bonuses" for initiating the abstinence behaviour had no additional benefit (Silverman, 2004; Silverman et al., 1998).

The research on behaviour modification has a number of implications for those of us wishing to give up an addiction. Firstly, it is not necessary to use willpower alone. It is both acceptable and ideal to reward ourselves for our own good behaviour. If a day without a cigarette is managed, reward yourself with a nice dinner. If you get through a whole week without using Facebook, buy yourself something you've wanted for a while. But in using this strategy, it is important to remember that the rewards must be consistent (Silverman, 2004), so don't forget to treat yourself if you achieve your goal.

Aversion therapy
Given the conditioning principles at play during the formation of an addiction, one factor is clear. In most cases, the immediate response to performing an addictive behaviour is positive reinforcement (Chóliz, 2010). That is, the individual immediately feels good about taking a substance or performing and adverse behaviour, even if that same individual feels guilt or regret moments later. The power of the immediacy of the reinforcement has been shown the play a large role in facilitating the addiction (Chóliz, 2010). As such, the fundamental goal of aversion therapy is to pair aversive and unpleasant stimuli with the desired stimuli, in order to replace this immediate reinforcement with punishment (Cannon, Baker, Gino & Nathan, 1986). An effective treatment, aversion therapy has been shown to reduce cravings for substances as addictive as cocaine (Bordnick, Elkins, Orr, Walters & Thyer, 2004), and is often used in the treatment of alcohol (Howard, 2001).

Generally, aversion therapy would need to be administered by a registered and trained health professional, due to the involvement of drugs and other potentially hazardous techniques (Cannon & Baker 1981). However, simplified versions are available for everyday use. For example, specific chemicals designed to be painted on fingernails can help to remove nail biting behaviours as a result of their repulsive taste. In any case, as long as the stimulus is undesirable, and presented simultaneously with the desired stimulus, a negative association can occur, leading to a reduction in craving responses to the addictive stimulus.

Environment
As human beings, we pick up and respond to various cues we have associated with particular stimuli, and this is especially true in the case of addictions (Kuntze et al., 2001). In this way, there are two possible resolution pathways for overcoming cue-elicited cravings: Desensitizing ourselves to these cues, or changing the environment.

Desensitisation has proven to be an effective method of eliminating the cue-elicited behaviours (Kuntze et al., 2001). As the individual is repeatedly exposed to the cues associated with the stimulus, over time the effect of these cues is lessened as the association tends towards extinction (Kuntze et al., 2001). While this does not resolve the addiction entirely, the removal of elicited responses will contribute significantly towards controlling cravings.

Secondly, if the environmental pressures are too much to handle, a change of social environment may be necessary. Given the role of cues in various settings (Kuntze et al., 2001), and social pressure (McAlister, 1979), removing the source of both of these will help significantly in overcoming an addiction. This may not be easy, as it would mean that contact with friends needs to be broken, but in the long-term it may prove to be a highly effective method.

Summary
The processes of acquisition and extinction of an addiction are relatively straightforward in theory, even if they are more difficult to implement or maintain in reality. The origins of addiction have been explored, shedding some light on how we acquire the motivation to pursue an addictive behaviour or substance, rather than focusing our attention on more positive and healthy activities. Social learning theory was examined, and the process of peer-influence and modelling showed how adverse behaviours can be acquired if modelled by the correct individual (Borsari & Carey, 2006).

Secondly, insight into the underlying learning principles suggested some processes by which addiction arises, notably the immediate positive reinforcement of the sensation (Chóliz, 2010), and the punishment of abstinence and withdrawal (Young, 1999). The opponent-process theory showed how these processes can be magnified, and the effect of the learning processes are increased as a result (Ettenberg, 2004). The effect of environmental cues was also shown to foster the addiction process (Kuntze et al., 2001). To complete the examination of addiction origins, a brief overview of brain structures was given, with sections of note being the basal ganglia, amygdala, prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens.

Once the process of acquisition was examined, the methods of breaking an addiction were also considered. Prevention was one method, which can be achieved by learning how to resist social pressure (McAlister, Perry, Killen, Slinkard & Maccoby, 1980). Secondly, some techniques of behaviour modification could be of use, such as rewarding oneself for more desired behaviour patterns (Silverman, 2004). Aversion therapy can also assist, as pairing the cues normally associated with addictive stimuli, with aversive stimuli can lead to a reduction in cravings overall (Cannon, Baker, Gino & Nathan, 1986). Finally, a change in environment, or desensitization to associated cues (Kuntze et al., 2001) might prove to be useful in controlling and breaking the addiction.

It is clear that while the process of addiction can be easily acquired, it is not impossible to break once it has been established, especially if appropriate measures are taken. In this way, as long as we utilize the treatment process that is right for us, anywhere from the most serious addiction to the smallest habit can be kept under control.


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-regulation of overeating

What is overeating?

At its simplest form, overeating is characterised by excessive consumption of food beyond what is needed to achieve satiety. While this is a reasonably common occurrence, compulsive overeating is linked to more serious conditions such as bulimia or binge eating disorder and obesity (Stoebe, 2008, p. 7).

Although there are physiological cues for hunger and satiety, most people cognitively control what, when and how much food they eat. This self-regulation often fails and results in overeating, which increases the risks of weight gain and the associated adverse health affects of obesity (Baumeister, Heatherton & Tice, 1994, p. 242).

This chapter aims to determine the physiological hunger cues, patterns of self-regulation and the possible reasons why self-regulation of eating fails. In doing so this chapter also points out practical applications of the theory and research to help the reader avoid lapses in self-regulation that result in overeating.

"One should eat to live, not live to eat. - Benjamin Franklin"

The physiological motivation to eat
The consumption of food is a basic physiological need, meaning that eating is essential to maintain life as well as support growth and well-being. In being a physiological need, the motivation to eat is to some extent biological, controlled by neural and hormonal mechanisms. These mechanisms include:

The glucostatic theory
This concept, proposed by Jean Mayer in the 1950’s, states that nerves in the lateral hypothalamus of the brain detect a rise in blood glucose levels (BGLs). When stimulated these nerves cause a sense of satiety and eating behaviour is stopped. Conversely the decline of BGLs in-between meals causes increasing hunger by stimulating the ventromedial hypothalamus (Chaput & Tremblay, 2009).

This theory of short-term appetite control is supported by recent research into the effect of high and low glycaemic index (GI) foods on hunger and satiety. Low GI foods, which slowly increase BGLs, are linked to increased satiety and a reduction in food intake throughout the day. What is more, high GI foods which cause a rapid rise and fall of BGLs, are associated with only short term satiety, resulting in an earlier sense of hunger and increased overall food intake (Warren, Henry & Simonite, 2003).

Stomach distention
Stomach distention is another short-term regulator of appetite. During a meal the stomach expands to accommodate the intake of food. The expansion is detected by gastric stretch receptors, which send a neural signal to various parts of the brain, including the amygdala and insula. This process results in a perception of fullness and causes eating behaviour to stop (Wang et al., 2008).

The stomach empties at a constant rate of approximately 880 kilojoules (kJ; aprox 210 calories) per hour. Thus, high kJ meals take longer to exit the stomach than low kJ meals, keeping the stomach distended for longer and increasing the time before appetite returns (Hunt & Stubbs, 1975)

Other short term appetite controls
Sight, smell, taste and thought cues

All of these sensations stimulate the cephalic reflexes. The cephalic reflexes are autonomic and endocrine responses, including increased saliva and gastric juice secretion, which prepare the body for digestion. These reflexes are the cause of the drooling over the smell of something cooking, or the tummy grumbles at the thought of a favourite food.

While these are primarily physiological responses to sensory inputs we can be trained to associate things, that are originally unrelated to eating, with food. Ivan Pavlov proved this by conditioning dogs to associate the ringing of a bell with food, thereby causing the stimulation of the dog’s cephalic reflexes. Similarly, in everyday life people associate midday with lunch and start to salivate and have tummy grumbles (Giduck, Threatte & Kare, 1987).

Temperature

Based on studies in animals, it may be that people have a greater intake of food in cold environments than warm ones. In cold climates the body must use energy to maintain core body temperature. This phenomenon is possibly caused by increased energy expenditure required to maintain core temperature in colder conditions. The evidence surrounding this physiological control of appetite is limited and this is definitely an area for further research (Brobeck, 1960).

Lipostatic theory
Long-term energy intake is suspected to be regulated by hormones secreted from adipose tissue, namely ghrelin and leptin. As adipose tissue is our store of energy for times of fasting, the body aims to keep fat mass a optimal homeostatic levels. A drop in fat mass stimulates an individual to consume more to replace those fat stores. This is mediated by the hormone ghrelin, which is secreted by adipose tissue when fat stores decrease. Ghrelin causes the stimulation of the, which promotes the weight gaining behavior of increasing food intake. However, when fat stores exceed the homeostatic level adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin. Leptin stimulates the ventral medial hypothalamus, which increases satiety, decreases eating behaviour and prevents further weight gain (Cummings & Shannon, 2003).

 Take Home Message

There are several biological mechanisms utilised by the body to regulate hunger and satiety. These mechanisms are designed to prevent a person from consuming to much or too little energy. Despite these physiological mechanisms to control food intake people regularly exceed their energy needs through over eating. Clearly the motivation to eat, and therefore overeat, is more than physiological. People cognitively decide what to put in their mouths, when they choose to eat and how much they consume

Failure to self regulate food intake
"Don't dig your grave with your knife and fork - English Proverb"

Self-regulation
Self-regulation of eating refers to deliberate attempts to control food intake, often in defiance of normal regulatory influences, and usually with the goal of achieving or maintaining weight loss (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Self-regulation is influenced by several psychological, social, cultural and environmental factors, many of which contribute to a failure of self-regulation resulting in overeating. According to Baumeister, Heatherton and Tice (1994) the factors that cause self-regulation failure are distinguished into two patterns of behaviour: under regulation and misregulation

Under regulation
Under regulation refers to failure to exercise self-control and is made up of four patterns of behaviour: Conflicting standards, a reduction in monitoring, inadequate strength or willpower and psychological inertia.

Conflicting standards
In recent decades the Western world has experienced a movement towards the thin ideal, the social desirability of a slender body shape, particularly in women. Perpetuated by the modern media, this aesthetic standard of beauty has a significant impact on women’s eating patterns. Dieting is the conscious restriction of food intake to reduce or maintain weight.

Restraint theory
Restraint theory was developed in the 1970’s and focuses on the association between cognitive control of eating and food intake, in order to determine the causes and consequences of restrained eating (Ogden 1994). While restrained eating or dieting aims to reduce food intake, and in some cases this does work, often restrained eating results in increased food intake. The restraint theory suggests that restraint not only precedes overeating but contributes to it.

People consume more when they restrain eating and allow themselves to become exceptionally hungry. While this seems obvious (people who are hungry eat more than those who are not hungry), people feeling ‘starving hungry’ then overeat, consuming more kJ than necessary to satisfy hunger (Polivy 1996). Several studies support this theory and demonstrate that restrained eatin, often leads to a loss of control, poor food choices and a tendency to overeat or binge (Vitousek 2004; Polivy and Herman 2006; Polivy 2008). For instance, in a study by Polivy, Coleman & Herman (2005) it was shown that individuals deprived of chocolate for a week experienced greater craving and consumed more chocolate at the end of deprivations compared to those who were not chocolate deprived.

What is more, food restriction causes neurological adaptations relating to the reward of food. Food restriction can prevent negative alliesthesia, the process in which a sweet food becomes unpleasant to taste. This means that sweet foods that become sickening to non-restrained individuals do not become unpleasant to food-restricted individuals, causing them to consume more of these high-energy foods (Cabanac & Lafrance 1996; Cabanac et al 1971).

Goal conflict theory
The goal conflict theory of eating was developed by Wolfgang Stroebe and colleagues to provide a realistic model of the cognitive processes by which restrained and unrestrained individuals control their food intake. This theory suggests that restrained eaters experience a conflict between two goals, the goal to loose or maintain weight and the goal to enjoy palatable food. While these are both highly desirably end states for restrained eaters, the desire to loose weight is often the stronger of the two. Despite this, chronic dieters are sensitive to an environment rich in stimuli signaling or symbolising palatable food. Temptation activates automatic attempts to achieve the goal of weight loss through inhibiting thoughts of the pleasure of eating. However continued exposure to palatable foods is likely to override the long-term goal of weight loss in chronic dieters and result in over eating (Stroebe, 2008, p. 163).

This theory is supported by research including a study by Papies, Stroebe and Aarts (2008), which examined the effect of food cues on restrained eaters' attention for food. It was found that restrained eaters paid more attention to palatable food when they had been pre-exposed to food cues such as appetising food words, while unrestrained eaters did not increase attention to palatable food.

Advertising and food availability
The findings of Papies et al. (2008) along with similar research findings, suggest that food intake can be primed by external messages such as advertising. Priming refers to increasing the sensitivity of an individual to a particular stimuli as a result of a prior experience. Research by Harris, Bargh and Brownell (2010) revealed that both children and adults consumed more snack foods after being exposed to an advertisement, compared to other conditions. This increase in food intake was not related to hunger reports and foods that were consumed were not necessarily the foods advertised.

This is a particularly important issue in current western society, in which food advertising is so prevalent. In an Australian study showed that between 7am and 9pm 31% of television advertisements were for food and beverages, approximately 80% of which were for unhealthy foods (Worsley, 2008). Furthermore, TV advertising exposure is linked to increased fat mass children and adolescence (Worsley, 2008). Thus, overeating is encouraged by the priming effect of unheathly food advertisement.

Conversely, self-regulation can also be enhanced through priming. Another study by Papies & Hamstra (2010) demonstrated that when primed with dieting messages, restrained eaters reduced eating behaviour, while unrestrained eaters showed no effect. By being subjected to a diet reinforcing poster, restrained eaters were less likely to snack on foods provided, indicating that diet priming may provide a tool to prevent overeating.  Take Home Message

By restricting our eating we try to bring hunger and satiety under cognitive control. This self regulation often fails, causing people to overeat. Underreguation through having conflicting standards contributes to this failure.

Based on the information presented, strategies to prevent overeating include:
 * Avoid restricting food intake during the day to prevent becoming excessively hungry. You will be less likely to binge, or to cause neurological alterations that are counter productive
 * Avoid exposure to highly palatable foods or unhealthly food advertising before doing the shopping or having a meal. This can reduce the overeating priming affect of these ads.
 * Prime yourself with healthy eating messages before a meal. Watch a youtube clip, look at a picture or think about what healthy eating means, which will prime you to eat onle based on hunger.
 * Be conscious of the priming affect or food advertising when watching TV. By doing so you will be more likely to recognise what is real hunger and what cravings have been bought on by advertising.

Reduction in monitoring
The second behavioural pattern of under regulation is a reduction in monitoring of food intake. People fail to self-monitor when they experience reduced self-awareness. In narrowing attention to external factors, an individual disengages with the normal processes that inhibit eating, allowing them to overeat (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991). Self-awareness can be reduced by a number of distractions including TV, socialisting, variety, and intoxication.

TV
Increased television viewing has been linked to weight gain. Although, this is potentially due to a reduction in physically activity, television viewing is also related to a greater intake of energy dense foods. In a study by Blass et al (2005), individuals consumed considerably more kJ when eating in front of the TV when eating alone. While the time taken to eat a food such as pizza remained the same in both conditions, when eating in front of the TV the time between slices reduced, allowing the subjects to consume more in the same time period.

Socialising
People often consume more food when they are with other people than when they are eating alone (Salvy et al., 2009). This phenomenon may occur through subconscious modelling of other people's behaviour or through a decrease in self awareness due to conversational distractions (Vartanian et al., 2008). Interestingly some research suggests that some people consume less when in the presence of strangers, which may be a result of increase self awareness (Salvy et al, 2007).

Variety
The link between variety of foods and overeating has been researched for several decades. Variety, and the desire to sample, distract an individual from monitoring their food intake. It is clear that the greater the variety of food provided the more an individual is likely to consume (Remick et al., 2009; Rolls, et al, 1981). Brondel et al. (2009) found that food intake even increased with the simple introduction of condiments such as tomato sauce or whipped cream.

Intoxication
Alcohol consumption reduces self-awareness and monitoring by disinhibiting an individual. People consuming alcohol are less likely to keep track of what they are eating and are more likely to overeat (Hull, 1981). A study by Caton, Ahearn and Hetherington (2004) found that the consumption of 4 standard drinks (10g of alcohol) increased appetite and food intake in males under laboratory conditions. This observation conforms with other studies on the relationship between alcohol and overeating (Polivy & Herman, 1976).

 Take-home message

There are several external factors which influence our ability to monitor self-regulation and may cause us to overeat. Strategies to prevent overeating include:
 * Try to be conscious of physiological satiety cues when eating. Intentionally chew every mouthful and recognise when fullness is occurring
 * Avoid eating in front of the TV, computer and other situations that draw attention and awareness away from the process of eating
 * It is impractical to avoid eating with people, but when you are eating with others be mindful of what you are doing and remember that you are more likely to over eat in a social setting.
 * When there is a large variety of food accept that you do not have to try everything - pick a few things that you are really interested in eating and let go of the other foods, they will only cause you to overeat.
 * Avoid becoming intoxicated. Drinking will only inhibit your ability to monitor eating and can result in overeating

Inadequate strength
The third behavioural pattern of under regulation is inadequate strength or willpower to act against the power of an impulse. An impulse refers to a desire to perform a particular action such as eating a particular food on a particular occasion (Baumeister et al, 1994). Stopping oneself from having a slice of cake at a birthday party is a difficult task and relies on a great deal of strength or will power. There are some recognised causes of faltering willpower including:

Fatigue
People are less effective at self-regulation when they are physically or mentally fatigued. Evidence of this exists in dieters, who are most likely to overeat late in the day when they are tired (Mitchell et al 1991). This trend indicates that dieting is hard work and that physiological hunger signals can build up leading to a binge in the afternoon or evening.

Distress
Many people, particularly restrained eaters, overeat when they are sad, bored or in a bad mood (Chua et al., 2004; Wallis and Hetherington, 2004). This observation has resulted in several theoretical hypotheses, including the Emotion Hypothesis and the Cognitive Investment Hypothesis. According to the Emotional Hypothesis, restrained eaters overeat in an effort to reduce distress, causing food to act as a comforter (Stroebe, 2008). The Cognitive Investment Hypothesis suggests that constant self-regulation requires cognitive resources. During times of emotional distress, cognitive resources are diverted to coping with those emotions and away from self-regulation. As a result, people’s willpower crumbles and many people overeat (Wallis and Hetherington, 2004).  Take Home Message

Fatigue and emotional stress inhibit the willpower needed to avoid acting on impulses that could cause overeating. A good way to avoid over eating when tired and stressed is to have predetermined strategies to cope with either the fatigue and stress or the impulse. This could mean learning to recognise when you are tired, sad, bored or angry and dealing with those feelings by having a nap or talking to someone about it. It could also mean preparing healthy food options or activities that provide an alternative to the impulse to overeat.

Psychological inertia
The fourth and final behavioural pattern discussed by Baumeister et al (1994) is that of psychological inertia, the tendency to continue a particular behaviour once it has begun. This concept is at the heart of not being able to stop at one chocolate biscuit, or one potato chip.

In a seminal study, Herman, Polivy and Esses (1987) found that restrained eaters consumed more ice-cream than unrestrained eaters when everyone first consumed a milkshake ‘preload’. This trend to overeat once a diet has been ‘broken’ has been termed the ‘what the hell effect” or counter-regulation. Counter-regulation has been observed in several study designs.

Interestingly, the likelihood of a chronic dieter to counter regulate and overeat was dependent on the perceived energy content of the preload rather than the actual kJ content. Knight and Boland (1989) found that restrained eaters, who were told their preload was high in kJ when it was not were more likely to counter regulate. Restrained eaters who were told that their preload was low in kJ when it was in fact highly energy dense, were less likely to overeat and maintain their dietary restraints afterwards. These observations exemplify the inability of chronic dieters to detect and respond to physiological hunger and satiety cues.  Take Home Message

As one of the major contributors to diet failure, counter-regulation or the "what the hell effect" is an important factor in overeating. While it is easy enough to say "Just get back on the horse" after consuming a "forbidden food" it may be more effective to change your mentality about what is forbidden. If you can think of all food as neutral, rather then good or bad, you are less likely to feel that you have broken any diet when you consume high kJ foods. This will, in effect, stop the counter-regulation at its source and you will feel less likely to overeat.

Misregulation
"Gluttony kills more than the sword - Proverb"

Misregulation entails exerting self-control but in a way that is misguided, preventing the desired result from being achieved. Misregulation can occur because people have inadequate or incorrect knowledge and unrealistic and inconsistent standards (Baumeister et al., 1994). Prime examples of this include the increase in portion size over time and the desire to achieve the thin ideal.

Portion sizes
Recent decades have seen an increase in the commercial serving sizes of food and drinks. What is more, the average dinner plate size has increased in response to the increases portion sizes (Wansink & Cheney, 2005). This increases causes a distorted perception of a normal serving size and encourages over-consumption of food. A study by Rolls and colleagues (2004) demonstrated that the larger the package size of potato chips, the more the individual would eat. Even those who are self-regulating can be deceived by the portions presented to them, causing unintentional overeating.

Unrealistic "thin ideal"
The struggle towards the thin ideal in women, and the muscular ideal in men, can create an unrealistic perception of one’s own body and what constitutes a healthy body. While for some restrained eaters the aim of dieting is to lower weight to a healthy level, many chronic dieters are within or below healthy weight ranges, yet still feel the need to loose weight for aesthetic reasons. This type of body dissatisfaction is a distorted perception of their own body as well as the mistaken belief that being exceptionally thin is attractive and healthy (Williams & Germov, 2008). As you have seen from the studies presented restraining, food intake not only precedes overeating but also contributes to it, potentially causing weight gain, the opposite of what a chronic dieter aims to acheive.  Take Home Message

Unlike under-regulation, misregulation is not a failure to uphold standards but a problem with the standards themselves. This can be a difficult task to correct. One potential way to overcome misregulation is to become informed. Reading and research can help you to determine what is healthy for your body and what nutrition is needed to optimise your health. Learning the kJ content off food and you own kJ needs is an effective way of determining if a portion of food is too big and will cause inadvertent overeating. Government initiates are often a good place to find this sort of information

Summary
Although there are physiological mechanism to regulate hunger and satiety many people attempt to cognitively control their food intake. However, many people who explicitly try to control their eating through dieting, can develop self-regulatory problems. These include under-regulation through conflicting standards, reduced monitoring, inadequate willpower, and psychological inertia. Misregulation through inaccurate perceptions of standard also contributes to failure of self regulation. In being conscious of these behavioural patterns which lead to self-regulation failure, an individual can become more self aware, better able to respond to physiologial hunger and satiety cues and less likely to overeat.


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User:Dhugo

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Literature/1980/Bohm

Authors

 * David Bohm

Wikimedia

 *  Wholeness and the Implicate Order

title: Literature/1980/Bohm


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Java Tutorial/Trail: Qt Jambi

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title: Java Tutorial/Trail: Qt Jambi


text:
Literature/1975/Percy

Contents

 * 1) The Delta Factor
 * 2) The Loss of the Creature
 * 3) Metaphor as Mistake
 * 4) The Man on the Train
 * 5) Notes for a Novel About the End of the World
 * 6) The Message in the Bottle
 * 7) The Mystery of Language
 * 8) Toward a Triadic Theory of Meaning
 * 9) The Symbolic Structure of Interpersonal Process
 * 10) Culture: The Antinomy of the Scientific Method
 * 11) Semiotic and a Theory of Knowledge
 * 12) Symbol, Consciousness, and Intersubjectivity
 * 13) Symbol as Hermeneutic in Existentialism
 * 14) Symbol as Need
 * 15) A Theory of Language

Wikimedia

 * The Message in the Bottle

title: Literature/1975/Percy


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User:Dcaldero8983

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text:
Literature/1975/Polanyi

Authors

 * Michael Polanyi
 * Harry Prosch

title: Literature/1975/Polanyi