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User:B9 hummingbird hovering/Blog/Learning Tibetan Weblog/Samdhinirmocana Sutra (Unicode Continuum)

༄༅༎ །འཕགས་པ་དགོངས་པ་ངེས་པར་འགྲེལ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ་ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོའི་མདོ། ༎ 'phags pa dgongs pa nges par 'grel pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo Ārya-saṁdhinirmocana-nāma-mahāyāna-sūtra -- །དོན་ཟབ་དགོངས་པ་ངེས་པར་འགྲེལ་གྱི་ལེའུ་སྟེ་དང་པོ། The Chapter of the Gambhīrārthasaṁdhinirmocana The Setting and Chapter One ༄༅། །རྒྱ་གར་སྐད་དུ། ཨཱརྱ་སན་ངྷི་ནིར་མོ་ཙ་ན་ནཱ་མ་མ་ཧཱ་ཡཱ་ན་སཱུ་ཏྲ། བོ་སྐད་ དུ༑ འཕགས་པ་དགོངས་པ་ངེས་པར་འགྲེལ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པོའི་མདོ། སངས་རྒྱས་དང་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་ཐམས་ཅད་ལ་ཕྱག་འཚལ་པོ། །འདི་སྐད་་ བདག་གིས་ཐོས་པ་དུས་གཅིག་ན། བཅོམ་ལྡན་འདས་གཞལ་མེད་ཁང་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་སྣ་ བདུན་མཆོག་ཏུ་འབར་བ་བཀོད་པ། འཇིག་རྟེན་གྱི་ཁམས་དཔག་ཏུ་མེད་པ་རྒྱས་པར་ འགེངས་པའི་འོད་ཟེར་ཆེན་པོ་ཤིན་ཏུ་མངའ་བ། གནས་ཀྱི་བྱེ་བྲག་ཞིན་ཏུ་རྣམ་པར་ཕྱེ་བ། མཐའ་ཡས་པ་རྣམ་པར་གཞག་པ། དཀྱིལ་འཁོར་ཡིངས་སུ་མ་ཆད་པ། ཁམས་གསུམ་ པ་ལས་ཡང་དག་པར་འདས་པའི་སྤྱོད་ཡུལ། འཇིག་རྟེན་ལས་འདས་པ་དེའི་བླ་མའི་དགེ་ བའི་རྩ་བ་ལས་བྱུང་བ། དབང་སྒྱུར་བའི་རྣམ་པར་རིག་པ་ཤིན་ཏུ་རྣམ་པར་རིག་པའི་མཚན་ ཉིད༑ དེ་བཞིན་གཤེས་པའི་གནས། བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་དཔའ་དཔག་ཏུ་མེད་པའི་ དགེ་འདུན་རྗེས་སུ་དོང་བ། ལྷ་དང་ཀླུ་དང་གནོད་སྦྱིན་དང་དྲི་ཟ་དང་ལྷ་མ་ཡིན་དང་ནམ་ མཁའ་ལྡིང་དང་མིའམ་ཅི་དང་ལྟོ་འཕྱེ་ཆེན་པོ་དང་མི་དང་མི་མ་ཡིན་པ་མཐའ་ཡས་པ་རྣམ་ པར་རྒྱུ་བ། ཆོས་ཀྱི་རོའི་དགའ་བ་དང་བདེ་བ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྟན་པ། སེམས་ཅན་ཐམས་ ཅན་ཀྱི་དོན་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡང་དག་པར་ཐོབ་པར་མཛད་པས་ཉེ་བར་གནས་པ། ཉོན་མོངས་ པའི་དྲི་མའི་གནོད་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་དང་བྲལ་པ། བདུད་ཐམས་ཅན་ཡོངས་སུ་སྤངས་པ། ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་བ་ཀོད་པ་ལས་ལྷག་པ། དེ་བཞིན་གཤེགས་པའི་བྱིན་གྱི་རལབས་ཀྱིས་ བཀོད་པ། དྲན་པ་དང་བློ་བྲོས་དང་། རྟོགས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་ངེས་པར་འབྱུང་བ། ཞི་ p.4 -- Homage to all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas! Thus have I heard at one time: The Bhagavan was dwelling in an immeasurable palace arrayed with the supreme brilliance of the seven precious substances, emanating great rays of light that suffused innumerable universes. Well-apportioned into distinctive sections, it was limitless in reach; an unimpeded mandala; a sphere of activity completely transcending the three worldly realms; arisen from teh root of supreme virtue that transcends the world. It was characterized by perfect knowledge, the knowledge of one who has mastery. Abode of the Tathagata, attended by a community of innumerable Bodhisattvas, it was alive with unlimited numbers of devas, nagas, yaksas, gandharvas, asuras, garudas, kimnaras, mahoragas, humans, and non-humans. Steadfast due to great bliss and joy in the tase of the Dharma; enduring in order to bring about the welfare of all sentient beings; free from the harm of the defilements of the afflictions; completely free form all demons; surpassing all pattterns; arranged through the blessing of the Tathagata; emancipated througnh great mindfulness, intelligence, and realization; support of the great state of peace and penetrataing awareness; entered through the great doors of liberation--emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness--this pattern was adorned with p.5 - གནས་དང་ལྷག་མཐོང་ཆེན་པོ་བཞོན་པ་ཡིན་པ། རྣམ་པར་ཐར་པའི་སྒོ་ཆེན་པོ་སྟོང་པ་ཉིན་ དང་མཚན་མ་མེད་པ་དང་། སྨོན་པ་མེད་པ་ནས་འཟུག་པ། རིན་པོ་ཆེ་འི་བངྨའི་རྒྱལ་པོ་ ཆེན་པོ་ཡིན་ཏན་གྱི་ཚོགས་མཐའ་ཡས་པས་བརྒྱན་པའི་བཀོད་པ་ལ་རྟེན་པ་ན་བཞུགས་ཏེ། བཅོམ་ལྡན་འདས་ལེགས་པར་ཐུགས་སུ་ཆུད་པའི་བློ་དང་ལྡན་པ། ཀུན་ཏུ་སྤྱོད་པ། གཉིས་མི་མངའ་བ། མཚན་ཉིད་མེད་པའི་ཆོས་ལ་མཆོག་ཏུ་གཞོལ་བར་མཛད་པ། སྔས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་གནས་པས་གནས་པ། སངས་རྒྱས་ཐམས་ཅད་དང་མཉམ་པ་ཉིད་པརྙེས་ པ༑སྒྲིབ་ལ་མེད་པའི་རྟོགས་པ་ཐུགས་སུ་ཆུད་པ། ཕྱིར་མི་ཟློག་པའི་ཆོས་དང་ལྡན་པ། སྤྱོད་ཡུལ་གྱིས་མི་འཕྲོགས་པ། བསམ་གྱིས་མི་ཁྱབ་པ་རྣམ་པར་འཇོག་པ། དུས་ གསུམ་ལ་མཉམ་པ་ཉིད་ཚར་ཕྱིན་པ། འཇིག་རྟེན་གྱི་ཁམས་ཐམས་ཅད་དུ་ཞུགས་པའི་སྐུ་ ལྔ་དང་ལྡན་མ། ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ལ་ཐེ་ཚོམ་མེད་པའི་མཁྱེན་པ་མངའ་བ། སྤྱོད་པ་ཐམས་ ཅད་དང་ལྡན་པའི་བློ་མངའ་བ། ཆོས་ཤེས་པ་ལ་ནེམ་ནུར་མི་མངའ་བ། རྣམ་པར་མ་ བརྣགས་པའི་སྐུ་མངའ་བ། བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱིས་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཡང་དག་ པར་བླངས་པ། སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་གནས་པ་གཉིས་སུ་མེད་པ། དམ་པའི་ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་བྱོན་པ། དེ་བཞིན་གཤེགས་པ་མ་འདྲེས་པའི་རྣམ་པར་ཐར་མར་མཛད་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་མཐར་ཕྱི་པ། མཐའ་དང་དབུས་མེད་པའི་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱིས་མཉམ་པ་ཉིད་ཐུགས་སུ་ཆུད་པ། ཆོས་ཀྱི་ དབྱིངས་ཀྱིས་ཀླས་པ། ནམ་མཁའིཁམས་ཀྱི་མཐས་གཏུགས་པ་དེ། ཉན་ཐོས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ འདུན་ཚད་མེད་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། ཅང་ཤེས་པ། སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྲས། སེམས་ཤིན་ page 6 - boundless masses of excellent qualities, and with great kingly jeweled lotuses. The Bhagavan was endowed with a mind of good understanding and did not possess the two [negative] behaviors. Perfectly absorbed in teh teaching of signlessness, abiding in the way that a Buddha abides, having attained sameness with all Buddhas, having full realization without obscuration, he was endowed with irreversible qualities. Not captivated by objects of captivity, positing [doctrines] inconceivably, thoroughly penetrating the sameness of the three times, the [Bhagavan] was endowed with the five [types of] embodiments that abide in every worldly realm. Having attained the knowledge that has no doubts regarding all phenomena, having attained intelligence possessing all capabilities, he was unperplexed with respect to knowledge of the Dharma. Endowed with an unimaginable embodiment, ahving fully given rise to teh wisdom of the Bodhisattvas, endowed with the non-dual abiding of a Buddha and the supreme perfections, he had reached the limit of he uniquely liberating and exalted wisdom of a Tathagata. He had realized full equality with the state of a Buddha without ends or middle, wholly permeated by the Dharmadhatu, extending to the limit of the realm of space. He was also accompanied by a measureless assemply of S'raavakas, all very knowledgeable sons of the Buddha, with liberated minds, very liberated wisdom, and completely page 7

ཏུ་རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་པ། ཤེས་རབ་ཤིན་ཏུ་རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་པ། ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་ཤིན་ཏུ་རྣམ་པར་ དག་པ། ཆོས་འདོད་པ་རྣམས་དང་བདེ་བར་ཕྲད་པ། མང་དུ་ཐོས་པ། ཐོས་པ་འཛིན་ པ༑ ཐོས་པ་པསྩགས་པ། ལེགས་པར་བསམ་པ་སེམས་པ། ལེགས་པར་སྨྲ་བ་རྗོད་ པ༑ ལེགས་པར་བྱ་བའི་ལས་བྱེད་པ། ཤེས་རབ་མྱུར་བ། ཤེས་རབ་མགྱོགས་པ། ཤེས་རབ་རྣོ་བ། ངེས་པར་འབྱིང་བའི་ཤེས་རབ་ཅན། ངེས་པར་རྟོགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ་ ཅན༑་ ཤེས་རབ་དཧེ་བ། ཤེས་རབ་ཡངས་པ། ཤེས་རབ་ཟབ་པ། ཤེས་རབ་མཉམ་ མ་མེད་པ། ཤེས་རབ་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་དང་ལྡན་པ། རིག་པ་གསུམ་དང་ལྡན་པ། ཚེ་འདི་ལ་ བདེ་བར་གནས་པའི་མཆོག་ཐོག་པ། ཡོངས་སུ་སྦྱོང་བ་ཆེན་པོ། སྤྱོད་ལམ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི་བ་ ཕུན་སུམ་ཚོགས་པ། བཟོད་པ་དང་དེས་པ་ཆེན་པོ་དང་ལྡན་པ། དེ་བཞིན་གཤེས་ པའི་བཀའ་ལ་ཤི

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Talk:Geometry proofs

I HATE PROOFSSS!!!!

Problems with the Properties of Equalities
Our teacher stated that the Subtraction Property of Equality and the Division Property of Equality is the same with the APE and the MPE, respectively.

title: Talk:Geometry proofs


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User:B9 hummingbird hovering/Blog/Learning Tibetan Weblog/sahaja

सहज (sahaja)


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User:Stambouliote

hu:User:Stambouliote nl:User:Stambouliote tr:User:Stambouliote uk:User:Stambouliote zh:User:Stambouliote

title: User:Stambouliote


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User:Ssspinner/Comparative Law and Justice

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Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Hover here


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Comparative law and justice/El Salvador

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

192.133.12.108 19:34, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Basic Information

 * Name: Republic of El Salvador
 * Capital: San Salvador
 * Native Name: Cōzcatlān (which means Savior)
 * Location: The republic of El Salvador is one of seven countries in Central America, and perhaps it is the smallest one. Its borders are Honduras and Guatemala.
 * Population: 7.2 million people.
 * Main Religion: Catholic and Christian.
 * Political Division: El Salvador has been divided into fourteen departments.
 * Language: Spanish
 * Weather: Warm in the coastal areas and temperatures in the elevated plains.
 * Currency: US Dollar since 2001.

Brief History

The origins of El Salvador start before Central America was colonized by Spain. There was a tribe of Indians called Pipils “The Pipil were a subgroup of a nomadic people known as the Nahua, who had migrated into Central America about 3000 B.C. The Nahua eventually fell under the sway of the Maya Empire, which dominated the Mesoamerican region until its decline in the ninth century A.D.” In the earliest 1500s the Spanish arrived to America. Once they were in Central America they realized that the land was rich in gold and other minerals. As a result, the Spanish began to exterminate Indians, soon Indian’s culture became to an end, and a new culture arose especially in El Salvador. This race was called “Mestizos” because they were half blood Indians and Spanish. These children were the results of rapes that were mostly performed by the Spanish. Once the Meztizos got stronger as a society, they started to think about their independence from Spain. After some serious attempts made by Jose Matias Delgado along with other people to free themselves in 1821. El Salvador, as well as other countries of Central America, declared themselves as dependent countries.

Economic Development, Heath and Education

 * 1) El Salvador is one of the most economic developed countries in Central America; however, it is still consider a third world country.  The history of this country's economic development starts in 1950’s when plans made by the government stimulated the economy. As a result of this, rods, power facilities, credit facilities and other agencies and organizations were created to advance the economy.  In a sense, this worked but not as it was planned. Furthermore, in 1973, another plan was announced. This plan was named CONAPLAN which was going to last five years. This plan had as its purpose to improve income distribution, employment, health nutrition, education and housing.  During the last 60 years a lot of plans had been adopted but they have not work as well as they thought for a few reasons. One of the reasons is the fact that this country is  populated which has a negative impact on jobs opportunities; according to resent statistics, there are 7.2 million people living in a territory of    21,000 km2. Moreover, other issues that have affected this country’s economy in the last few decades are some serious catastrophes such as the civil war that lasted twelve years, the hurricane Mitch, and the last two earthquakes. All these had a huge negative impact in this small country.   In El Salvador, “At least 4 out of every 10 persons live in conditions of poverty, and about half of all children and adolescents are poor.” In 2000 El Salvador gave up its currency coin, now this territory uses the US Dollar in an effort to enhance economic growth. However, due to the issues that the country has faced it has a debt of around $4.5 billion   which slows down its economy's development.
 * 2) On the other hand, health care in El Salvador has a good quality. “El Salvador has several private and public hospitals that are well equipped with modern technology and well-trained staffs. In addition, health centers are located throughout the country.” According to recent studies “there are about six physicians per 10,000 people). Many Salvadoran physicians were trained abroad in Canada, Europe and/or the United States, so most doctors should be well-informed and aware of the latest treatments. For complicated illness or procedures” Most of the hospitals take credit cards and offer and outstanding service, and the prices are very low compare with other hospital in other countries. However, even though prices are very low most of the population struggle in order to pay the use of these facilities or to receive assistance on behalf of the government.
 * 3) Education in this country is available to people through the public educational system and the private system. If one chooses private system the parents has to pay to sign in their children. The educational system in this country is divided into seven levels. The first level is one or two years of kindergarten which are not mandatory. The next  three levels are  9 years which are broken into three levels. Level 1) GRATES 1st to 3rd,  level 2) GREATES 4th to 6th  , and level 3) GRATES 7th to 9th this is what we commonly know in the United States as elementary and middle school. After completing the 9th grade the next step is two years for a General bachelor degree or three years Technical bachelor degree. In the United States this is known as high school. After obtaining either the General or the Technical degree, students choose whether or not to continue with their education.  If they choose to do so, they may look for University of El Salvador which is a public university or look for private ones. According to some statistics, “in 2002, the literacy rate was 77% for females and 82% for males.”

Governance

 * Type: Republic.
 * Constitution: December 20, 1983.
 * Independence: September 15, 1821.
 * Branches:
 * 1) Executive--president and vice president(Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sanchez).
 * 2) Legislative--84-member Legislative Assembly.
 * 3) Judicial--independent (Supreme Court).
 * Administrative subdivisions: 14 departments.
 * Political parties (represented in the legislature): Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), National Conciliation Party (PCN), Christian Democratic Party (PDC), and Democratic Change (CD).
 * Suffrage: Universal at 18.],

Elections
The process that El Salvador uses in its presidential elections are very similar to the United States. In this process, parties attack each other, the media is constantly covering campaigns or issues related to politics. In El Salvador in order to vote, people must be 18 years old or older and be a citizen either born or raised. The organization that is in charge of organizing and controlling the votes is the Central Electoral Council. “In order to cast their votes, all citizens are required to obtain from the Central Electoral Council an electoral identification card (carnet electoral) certifying their inscription in the national Electoral Register. The carnet electoral is presented at the individual's polling place and is the only form of identification accepted for this purpose. The card must bear the voter's photograph, signature (if literate), and right thumbprint. The carnet electoral is valid for five years from the date of issue.” Usually the Central Electoral Council coordinates with local municipal boards of election to determine the polling places which usually opens at 7:00am to 5:00pm on the specified day.

Judicial Review
When the legistative branch has passed laws that the Supreme Court considers to be unconstitutional it has the right to review it and overturn it.

Courts and Criminal Law
The judicial branch of El salvador is composed by 15 judges elected by the Legislative Assembly. These judges are assigned to four chambers, constitutional, civil, penal, and administrative conflict. The role of judges in El Salvador depends on the level of authority they have to hear the cases. There are judges that decide cases involving misdemeanor and minor civil suits. These ones are usually called Justices of Peace. Then, there are two courts of appeals in which two judges are placed in each chamber. Finally, there is the Supreme Court. So, in the first court the judges' role is to hear both parties and to rule out any favor. On the other hand, in courts of appeals they hear fellonies and other serious crimes. When felony cases are held, juries are the ones who dicide the fate of the person in trial. The court system of El Salvador is adversarial trial, and there is the presumtion in which the accused is innocent until proven guilty.

Punishment, imprisonment rates and procedure
Punishment in this country is very similar to most countries around the world, even though El Salvador is a violent country there is no death penalty for those who commit serious crimes. They might get a life sentence without the possibilities of parole. Also, for those who commit misdemeanors, they have the opportunity to avoid going to jail by paying a fine. Prison Convicted Men 9.020 Women 403 Total 9.423. Awaiting Sentencing Men 3.216 Women 2.17 Total The prisons in El Salvador are very dangerous and they are usually overcrowed which has an impact on the health and life of the prisoners. In order for people to be put in prison they had to have committed any offence. "Upon receiving a report, complaint or information from the police, the Prosecutor General presents a request for intervention to a peace court judge. A preliminary hearing is held during which said judge rules on whether the defendant will be taken into custody or not and whether the case merits continued investigation. This phase is called the opening hearing.

The procedural process has three main stages: preliminary or investigative; intermediate or analytical; and the adversarial or trial stage.

Once the prosecutor presents the charges (or other requests provided for by law) to the investigating judge (juez de investigación), the preliminary hearing is held for motions and discovery. The judge may authorize the use of alternatives to trial or allow or disallow evidence and order a trial. Once all parties have been notified, the court clerk submits all documents, places any seized objects at the disposition of the trial court and ensures the appearance of the accused.

Within forty-eight hours of receiving the respective notifications, the President of the trial court will set the date and time for the oral, public trial hearing, which must take place between ten days and one month after this date, and requires the continued presence of the judges and parties. Once the arguments have come to a close, the judges deliberate in a chamber assisted only by the court clerk. They may not defer or suspend this stage.

Some trials are conducted with a jury, which is formed of five jurors selected from the Electoral Registry. Jury selection takes place on the same day as the commencement of the public trial, which is presided over by a trial judge under ordinary criminal procedure. Each juror must declare the defendant guilty or not guilty verbally in the deliberation chamber. If a verdict of not guilty is reached, the judge will immediately acquit the defendant; if the verdict is guilty, the judge grants the parties the opportunity to present arguments on the sentence. Sentencing takes place no more than five days after the trial ends. In May 2006 there were 12,856 inmates held in El Salvador’s prisons, a 12.3% increase over 2003 and a 5.2% increase over 2004.Also that month, 73% of inmates had been sentenced and 27% were awaiting sentencing.The prison overcrowding rate is 57.3%. The worst case is that of Mariona Prison, which has a surplus of 1,811 inmates.3.433"

Legal Personnel
In El Salvador for a person to become a lawyer he/she has to have a general bachelor’s degree, and then he has to complete seven years in a law school. Police officers are required to have a general bachelors degree and to cope with a physical, psychological and training test. In order to become a judge one must have at least ten years of experience working in a legal field such as a lawyer. Moreover, candidates must be at least 35 years old. Finally, when he/she has met all the requirements the legislative assembly is the branch the select them. In order for a candidate to become a President he/she has to have a decent level of education, be at list 35 years old, and be born in El Salvador.

Law Enforcement
“The PNC (National Civil Police) was created by the 1992 peace agreement signed by the ARENA government of Alfredo Cristiani (1989-1994) and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) insurgent group, which is now the country’s main opposition party.”… Since then, the PNC has been working against gangs and organized crimes in order to maintain a safe country. However; due to its low sources of money it faces a lot of issues when it comes to fighting crime within its borders. The salary of a police officer in El Salvador is around $450 per month. With this amount of money they have to support their families; as a result, accepting bribes is a tentative option to them. There are 18,000 officers in a country that has around 7.2 million people so there is an inbalance that stops officers to stand against crimes.

The Military in El Salvador is run by the government "The constitutional role of the Salvadoran armed forces is spelled out in Title Six, Chapter Eight of the Constitution. The military is charged with maintaining a representative democratic form of government, enforcing the no-reelection provision for the country's president, guaranteeing freedom of suffrage, and respecting human rights. The armed forces as an institution is defined as "essentially apolitical" and obedient to established civilian authority" In order to be part of the military, an individual must be 18 years old however if it is voluntary they can be apart at 16 years of age for males and females. El Salvador has three military branches which are; Salvadoran Army (ES), Salvadoran Navy (FNES), Salvadoran Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Salvadorena, FAS) "By law, Salvadoran Army officers had to attend their own service schools, including the Command and General Staff School (Escuela de Mando y Estado Mayor General). This war college provided courses in advanced military science for officers of the rank of lieutenant colonel and above and aspiring staff officers. Regular NCOs were trained at the Noncommissioned Officers School and at the Arms and Services School (Escuela de Armas y Servicios--EAS). The EAS provided specialist training for both officers and other ranks, as well as an advanced six-month course for field-grade officers. Basic and advanced officer training were offered at the Armed Forces Military Training Center (Centro de Entrenamiento Militar de las Fuerzas Armadas--CEMFA), which was established in La Union in 1984. The military also had a human rights training program for officers and enlisted personnel."

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Crime in the republic of El Salvador is common for many reasons. First of all, this nation is the home of the most fearful and violent gangs such as MS-13 (Mara Salvatrucha) and 18 (Mara Eighteen)These gangs terrorized the states of El Salvador especially in those populated areas such as markets and bus stops. According to recent statistics there are approximately 6,000 to 10,000 MS-13 members nationwide. There is also a large rivalry with the 18th street gang which is dangerous and violent as well. Both gangs propagate drug trafficking, robbery, extortion, prostitution, rum running, murder, and even contract killing, which make the streets of El Salvador very unsafe. There is also a high level of organized crime in the country. Leaders of these syndicates are usually members of the wealthy class and largely immune to police prosecution.

Prosecution statistics in El Salvador: Illicit drugs-transshipment point for cocaine; small amounts of marijuana produced for local consumption; significant use of cocaine
 * Acquitted 1,456  [15th of 30],
 * Adults prosecuted 68,031  [13th of 28]
 * Assaults 4,542  [32nd of 49]
 * Burglaries 496  [34th of 38]
 * Car thefts 3,069  [27th of 46]
 * Convicted 2,314  [32nd of 34]
 * Corruption > % of managers surveyed ranking this as a major business constraint 35.05 %    [14th of 39],
 * Courts > % of managers surveyed lacking confidence in courts to uphold property rights 46.55 %    [7th of 39],
 * Courts > % of managers surveyed ranking this as a major business constraint 16.34 %    [11th of 39],
 * Embezzlements 202  [25th of 36],
 * Females prosecuted 9,496  [15th of 26],
 * Frauds 912  [36th of 48],
 * Jails 21  [36th of 80],
 * Judges and Magistrates 619  [24th of 35],
 * Kidnappings 19 kidnappings  [24th of 39],
 * Manslaughters 48  [21st of 42],
 * Murders 2,024  [6th of 49],
 * Murders committed by youths 1,147  [10th of 73],
 * Murders committed by youths per capita 50.2  [2nd of 57],
 * Murders with firearms 1,441  [5th of 36],
 * Police 16,149  [29th of 47],
 * Prisoners 11,055 prisoners  [29th of 168],
 * Prisoners > Female 4.8%  [49th of 134],
 * Prisoners > Per capita 158 per 100,000 people  [56th of 164],
 * Prisoners > Pre-trial detainees 49.7%  [35th of 143],
 * Prisoners > Share of prison capacity filled 167.5%  [23rd of 128],
 * Rapes 842  [21st of 50],
 * Robberies 5,327  [21st of 47],
 * Software piracy rate  81% [25th of 107],
 * Total crimes 44,762  [36th of 50],

Rights
"Although the government generally respected the rights of its citizens, protection of human rights was undermined by widespread violent crime, including the following: gang-related violence, high levels of impunity from prosecution, and judicial corruption. Other significant human rights problems included harsh, violent, and overcrowded prison conditions; lengthy pretrial detention; violence and discrimination against women; abuses against children, child labor, and forced child prostitution; trafficking in persons; violence and discrimination against sexual minorities; and inadequate enforcement of labor laws."

Family Law
El Salvador is concern about Family Law. The family in this country is constituted only by a marriage between a man and a woman. Furthermore, those marriages that cannot have children have the opportunity to adopt. There has been significant statistics that 15 % of women from 1agewere married, divorced or widowed.5 to 19  of age were married, divorce or widowed. Moreover, children who are born from parents who were not marry still have the opportunity to have the last names of the parents. Parents have the same authority, benefits and rights equally. In other words they both can work, and cope with the duties that families have. Divorce in El Salvador can be achieved through willfully grounds or any other issue such as adultery. If one on the partners decides not to continue with the marriage a judge is obligated to grant a divorce. Children in this country have protection. There are some articles in the constitution that protect them; for example, “Family Code, Art. 350.

In the interpretation and implementation of these provisions, the best interests of the child shall prevail. By the best interests of the child is meant everything that promotes the child's physical, psychological, moral and social development with a view to ensuring the full and harmonious development of his or her personality. Based on his or her best interests, the child shall have priority in receiving protection and help in all circumstances.

Family Code, Art. 351, Paragraph 9.

All minors have the right to: To be heard by his or her parents, guardians or other persons in a position of responsibility, and to express his or her views freely on all matters affecting him or her; the views thus expressed shall be taken into account in family decisions and in administrative and judicial proceedings.”  which specified the rights and to what children are entitled to.

Inheritance rights rights are equally protected and granted for men as well as women. Moreover, parents or any member of the family can willfully decide to  inheres who he wants to administer any land, money or any other valuable procession.

Human Rights & social enequality
The constitution of this country guaranties  people’s rights such as speech, the press, assembly and other rights that protect the citizens from the government such as privacy and torture, which is a very important issue due to the fact that there has been significant statistics and cases in which the police has used excessive force. Furthermore, even though the constitution gives equal rights to all citizens, there is a sense that men are usually more beneficiated than women. Moreover, Discrimination plays a role between social classes. This comes notable when there is a legal battle between socio-economic classes. The law usually benefits that one that has more recourses than those who cannot even afford a private lawyer. Those who apply the law say that the law is applied equally and that it does not discriminate anyone on the basis of gender, educational level, and so on; however, the reality is that the ones that are poorest end up in jails. For example, people who rob a bank and get caught will be put on jail. On the other hand, if a milliner robs the same amount of money through other means they might only do some time or pay a fine due to the fact that the crime committed was a white collar crime. In fact, in reality, even though there is a constitution and the government plays fair, there still is a presence of discrimination which according to me is there but it is really low compare to other countries.

title: Comparative law and justice/El Salvador


text:
Organ donation

Resources

 * /Benefits/
 * Organ Transplantation Lecture
 * Organ Transplantation Outline
 * Kidney Donation Case - Discussion of a hypothetical kidney donation system by the Hastings Center, a very well-respected medical ethics think tank.
 * The Dead Donor Rule and what it means for organ donations

Organizations

 * /Donate Life/

title: Organ donation


text:
Northern Arizona University/Environmental Ethics/Online Texts

 * www.rwe.org/


text:
Northern Arizona University/Environmental Ethics/Adaptation to Climate Change Class Bibliography

Eric Nolan~References
Alvord, C., Long, P., Pulwarty, R., & Udell, B. (2008). Climate and Tourism on the Colorado Plateau. [Editorial]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, May 2008, 1-4. Retrieved December 2, 2010 from Cline Library database.

Ellis, A. W., Goodrich, G. B., & Garfin, G. M. (2009). A hydroclimatic index for examining patterns of drought in the Colorado River Basin. [Editorial]. International Journal of Climatology, DOI: 10.1002/joc.1882, 1-3. Retrieved December 2, 2010 from Cline Library database.

Eric Smith~Works Cited
Abella, Scott R. "Tree Thinning and Prescribed Burning Effects on Ground Flora in Arizona Ponderosa Pine Forests: A Review." Journal of the Arizona-Nevada 	Academy of Science 36.2 (2004): pp. 68-76. Print.

Berkes, Fikret, Johan Colding, and Carl Folke. "Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management." Ecological Applications 10.5 (2000): pp. 1251-1262. Print.

Fule, Peter Z., W. Wallace Covington, and Margaret M. Moore. "Determining Reference Conditions for Ecosystem Management of Southwestern Ponderosa Pine Forests." Ecological Applications 7.3 (1997): pp. 895-908. Print.

Hulme, Philip E. "Adapting to Climate Change: Is there Scope for Ecological Management in the Face of a Global Threat?" Journal of Applied Ecology 42.5 (2005): pp. 784-794. Print.

Kirkpatrick, Chris, Courtney J. Conway, and Patricia B. Jones. "Distribution and Relative Abundance of Forest Birds in Relation to Burn Severity in Southeastern Arizona." The Journal of Wildlife Management 70.4 (2006): pp. 1005-1012. Print.

Martin, Steven L., Tad C. Theimer, and Peter Z. Fulé. "Ponderosa Pine Restoration and 	Turkey Roost Site use in Northern Arizona." Wildlife Society Bulletin 33.3 (2005): pp. 859-864. Print.

Angela Abbott~References
Grahame, D. & Sisk, T. ed. (2002). Canyons, cultures and environmental change: 	An introduction to the land-use history of the Colorado Plateau. .

Grand Canyon Trust. (2009). Solutions for life on the Colorado Plateau. http://www.grandcanyontrust.org/plateau/air_issues_pollution.php

Science Daily. (2001). USGS study shows Colorado plateau coal plentiful. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/02/010226072523.htm

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (2009). Southwest weathers closure of mohave generation station. http://www.eia.doe.gov/electricity/analyses/nevada/nevada.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008). The plain English guide to the clean air act. http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/peg/permits.html.

Emily Engan~Works Cited
Schwinning, S., J. Belnap, D. R. Bowling, and J. R. Ehleringer. 2008. Sensitivity of the Colorado Plateau to change: climate, ecosystems, and society. Ecology and Society 13(2): 28.

Bradford, David. Floyd Reed, Robbie Baird LeValley, Calvin Campbell and Steve Kossler. 2002. Livestock Grazing on National Forests-Why Continue to do it? Rangelands 24(2).

Nabhan, Gary Paul. 2003. Arizona’s Food Security, Safety and Sustainability. Center for Sustainable Environments.

Evolutionary Responses to Climate Change (Spencer S.)

Until now, Quaternary paleoecologists have regarded evolution as a slow process relative to climate change, predicting that the primary biotic response to changing climate is not adaptation, but instead (1) persistence in situ if changing climate remains within the species tolerance limit, (2) range shifts (migration) to regions where climate is currently within the species' tolerance limits, or (3) extinction. We argue here that all three of these outcomes involve evolutionary processes. Genetic differentiation within species is ubiquitous, commonly via adaptation of populations to differing environmental conditions...Collaboration between paleoecologists and evolutionary biologists can refine interpretations of paleo-records, and improve predictions of biotic response to anticipated climate change.

Drought Responses of Conifers in Ecotone Forests of Northern Arizona (Spencer S.)

We sought to understand differences in tree response to meteorological drought among species and soil types at two ecotone forests in northern Arizona, the pinyon-juniper woodland/ponderosa pine ecotone, and the higher elevation, wetter, ponderosa pine/mixed conifer ecotone...Our findings of different responses to drought among co-occuring tree species and between low and high elevation populations are interpreted in the context of drought impacts on montane coniferous forests of the southwestern USA.

Morgan J. M. (2005). Rising Atmospheric CO2 and Global Climate Change: Responses and management implications for grazing lands. In Reynolds S.G. and Frame J. (Eds.) Grasslands: Developments Opportunities and Perspectives (230-260) New Hampshire: Science Publishers

Rising atmospheric CO2 and global climate change: responses and management implications for grazing lands     *Travis M*

Abstract:

Concentrations of the greenhouse gases CO2, CH4 and N2O are increasing in the atmosphere, and evidence suggests that this is already causing significant changes in the Earth’s climate. Results from numerous investigations indicate that increased atmospheric CO2 often leads to increased plant production, greater water use efficiency and higher soil water content, but may also result in reduced forage quality, with consequent lowered digestibility, particularly in nutrient-limited systems. Predicted future increases in temperature will have varied effects on plants and animals through alterations in growing season length, metabolism, energy dynamics and system water relations. The potential for increased plant productivity due to CO2 fertilization as temperatures increase will often be greater in present-day mesic, temperate and cold ecosystems, but may be offset to the extent temperatures increase and conditions become more desiccating in world regions that are predicted to become more drought prone. Rainfall is predicted to increase in some areas, but may not result in more production in cases where increased storm intensity will lead to more runoff and erosion. These basic responses will be modulated by changes in plant and animal species composition that result from competitive species interactions in native ecosystem responses to global climate change, or are the consequence of management strategies to select better adapted plant and animal species or genotypes. Management options for adapting to global climate change are discussed for intensively managed improved pastures as well as for native rangelands.

A Synthesis of Recent Global Change Research on Pasture and rangeland production: Reduced uncertainties and their management implications. B.D Campbell D.M. Stafford Smith Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 82 (2000) 39-55.

Abstract

There is significant uncertainty about the effects of global change on the vegetation and animal productivity of pasture and rangeland ecosystems. This paper presents a synthesis of progress made between 1994 and 1999 in the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE) Pastures and Rangelands Core Research Project 1 (CRP1) network, a world-wide network of 83 full-time equivalent researchers established in different pasture and rangelands systems to reduce these uncertainties. The network focuses on key processes controlling forage and animal production at a paddock/landscape scale, in order to improve the ability to model animal production. To date, the network has resulted in a considerable reduction in the uncertainties about the effects of elevated CO2 on growth, and to a lesser extent composition and forage quality, of intensive pastures in cool, wet climatic zones. However, knowledge of other grazed ecosystems and processes is more limited. The greatest confidence is in predicting implications for vegetation production, with lesser confidence in implications for vegetation composition, animal production and adaptation options. Overall, the stimulatory effect of double ambient CO2 on grassland production averages about C17% in ecosystem-based experiments. This is less than previous estimates. Individual system responses to elevated CO2 can vary widely and are predicted to be higher in moisture-limited and warm-season grassland systems. Species composition change is likely to be an important mechanism altering grassland production and its value for grazing livestock, especially in drier rangelands with woody shrub invasion. On average, the legume content of productive grass–legume swards is increased by C10% due to CO2 enrichment. Leaf nitrogen reductions due to elevated CO2 are often observed but are generally modest compared with effects of other management factors. New data collection efforts should be focused in areas of the world which are most sensitive to food security issues and most subject to global change, in particular humid semi-arid margins and subtropical grasslands. There remains no good basis for extrapolating findings between different pasture and rangeland systems. This synthesis indicates that greater focus is required on the linkages between the biophysical, social and economic factors that will influence future changes in pasture and rangeland ecosystems and their implications for food Security ---

Bibliography – Kristin Mitchell -- Volume 42, Number 3, June 2009 E-ISSN: 1530-9282 Print ISSN: 0024-094X Entomogenic Climate Change: Insect Bioacoustics and Future Forest Ecology David D. Dunn and James P. Crutchfield

Abstract Rapidly expanding insect populations, deforestation and global climate change threaten to destabilize key planetary carbon pools, especially the Earth's forests, which link the micro-ecology of insect infestation to climate. To the extent mean temperature increases, insect populations accelerate deforestation. This alters climate via the loss of active carbon sequestration by live trees and increased carbon release from decomposing dead trees. A self-sustaining positive feedback loop can then emerge. Extensive field recordings demonstrate that bioacoustic communication plays a role in infestation dynamics and is likely to be a critical link in the feedback loop. These results open the way to novel detection and monitoring strategies and nontoxic control interventions. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/leon.2009.42.3.239 -

Possible Implications of Increased Carbon Dioxide Levels and Climate Change for Desert Ecosystems E. Lioubimtseva1 and J. M. Adams2 (1) 	Geography and Planning Department, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan 49401, USA (2) 	Earth and Environmental Sciences Department, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut 06459, USA Published online: 23 January 2004 Abstract Despite the considerable progress achieved during recent years in quantifying and modeling climatic and ecological processes caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, there are still major uncertainties regarding the potential effects of increasing concentrations of either CO2 (carbon dioxide) or future climate change in arid ecosystems. General Circulation Models predict varying patterns of moister or drier conditions in deserts for the next century, but the results of climatic and ecosystem modeling in relation to deserts in a future greenhouse effect  climate are complex and contradictory. Nevertheless, if deserts do respond more dramatically to global temperature change, as they did during the Holocene and, especially the last interglacial era (130,000 years ago), they might act as globally significant sinks of carbon into soils and vegetation. Some growth chamber experiments have indicated that increased CO2 will significantly affect desert shrubs, whereas other chamber and field experiments suggest that rising levels of atmospheric CO2 may not dramatically affect desert ecosystems, although certain individual species may be strongly favored. It is difficult to make a firm statement whether there are any valid analogs between the climate changes of the past and future climate change induced by greenhouse gases. http://www.springerlink.com/content/v11449g8ek3byvyl/ ---

Climatic and Human Influences on Fire Regimes of the Southern San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA •	Author(s): Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, William H. Romme, M. Lisa Floyd and David D. Hanna •	Source: Ecology, Vol. 85, No. 6 (Jun., 2004), pp. 1708-1724 •	Published by: Ecological Society of America •	Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3450595 Abstract Fire severity, frequency, and extent are expected to change dramatically in coming decades in response to changing climatic conditions, superimposed on the adverse cumulative effects of various human-related disturbances on ecosystems during the past 100 years or more. To better gauge these expected changes, knowledge of climatic and human influences on past fire regimes is essential. We characterized the temporal and spatial properties of fire regimes in ponderosa pine forests of the southern San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado by collecting 175 fire-scarred tree samples from nine sites across a wide range of topographic settings. All tree rings and fire scars were dated using standard dendrochronological techniques. Fire-free intervals were statistically modeled using the Weibull distribution to provide quantitative measures that characterized the historical range of variation in pre-EuroAmerican fire regimes. Fires during our reference period were more frequent in the low elevation ponderosa pine forests (6-10 yr) than in the high elevation, mixed conifer forests (18-28 yr). Fires at lower elevations were predominantly low-severity, isolated fires. Fires during some years (e.g., 1748) were spatially extensive throughout the entire mountain range. Intervals that delimited significantly long fire-free periods ranged from 10-19 yr (low elevation) to 27-50 yr (high elevation). Fire histories were similar between the eastern and western portions of the mountain range, although we found significant evidence of topographic isolation on fire regimes at one site. Pre-1880 fires primarily occurred in the dormant season, and we found no temporal changes in past fire seasonality. We found no compelling evidence that Native Americans influenced fire regimes in our study sites. We found a hiatus in fire occurrence between 1750 and 1770 that we believe was likely related to weakened El Niño-Southern Oscillation activity, an extended series of cool-phase Pacific Decadal Oscillation events, and weakened monsoonal moisture, all possibly entrained in an invasive air mass typical of locations that are more northerly. In addition, pre-1880 fires occurred during years of severe drought, conditioned by above average moisture conditions in preceding years. The 20th century is characterized by a near complete absence of fires (fire-free interval of >100 yr), suggesting future wildfires may be more widespread and ecologically severe compared to pre-1880 fires. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/02-0425 ---

Niklas S. Christensen1, Andrew W. Wood1, Nathalie Voisin1, Dennis P. Lettenmaier1  and Richard N. Palmer1 (1) 	Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, 164 Wilcox Hall, P.O. Box 352700, Seattle, WA, 98195-2700, U.S.A Abstract The potential effects of climate change on the hydrology and water resources of the Colorado River basin are assessed by comparing simulated hydrologic and water resources scenarios derived from downscaled climate simulations of the U.S. Department of Energy/National Center for Atmospheric Research Parallel Climate Model (PCM) to scenarios driven by observed historical (1950–1999) climate. PCM climate scenarios include an ensemble of three 105-year future climate simulations based on projected `business-as-usual'(BAU) greenhouse gas emissions and a control climate simulation based on static 1995 greenhouse gas concentrations. Downscaled transient temperature and precipitation sequences were extracted from PCM simulations, and were used to drive the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) macroscale hydrology model to produce corresponding streamflow sequences. Results for the BAU scenarios were summarized into Periods 1, 2, and 3 (2010–2039,2040–2069, 2070–2098). Average annual temperature changes for the Colorado Riverbasin were 0.5 °C warmer for control climate, and 1.0, 1.7, and 2.4 °C warmer for Periods 1–3, respectively, relative to the historicalclimate. Basin-average annual precipitation for the control climate was slightly(1%) less than for observed historical climate, and 3, 6, and 3%less for future Periods 1–3, respectively. Annual runoff in the controlrun was about 10% lower than for simulated historical conditions, and 14, 18, and 17% less for Periods 1–3, respectively. Analysis of watermanagement operations using a water management model driven by simulated streamflows showed that streamflows associated with control and future BAU climates would significantly degrade the performance of the water resourcessystem relative to historical conditions, with average total basin storage reduced by 7% for the control climate and 36, 32 and 40% for Periods 1–3, respectively. Releases from Glen Canyon Dam to the LowerBasin (mandated by the Colorado River Compact) were met in 80% of years for the control climate simulation (versus 92% in the historical climate simulation), and only in 59–75% of years for the future climate runs. Annual hydropower output was also significantly reduced for the control and future climate simulations. The high sensitivity of reservoir system performance for future climate is a reflection of the fragile equilibrium that now exists in operation of the system, with system demands only slightly less than long-term mean annual inflow. --

Drought-induced shift of a forest–woodland ecotone: Rapid landscape response to climate variation 1.	Craig D. Allen*,† and 2.	David D. Breshears‡ Abstract In coming decades, global climate changes are expected to produce large shifts in vegetation distributions at unprecedented rates. These shifts are expected to be most rapid and extreme at ecotones, the boundaries between ecosystems, particularly those in semiarid landscapes. However, current models do not adequately provide for such rapid effects—particularly those caused by mortality—largely because of the lack of data from field studies. Here we report the most rapid landscape-scale shift of a woody ecotone ever documented: in northern New Mexico in the 1950s, the ecotone between semiarid ponderosa pine forest and piñon–juniper woodland shifted extensively (2 km or more) and rapidly (<5 years) through mortality of ponderosa pines in response to a severe drought. This shift has persisted for 40 years. Forest patches within the shift zone became much more fragmented, and soil erosion greatly accelerated. The rapidity and the complex dynamics of the persistent shift point to the need to represent more accurately these dynamics, especially the mortality factor, in assessments of the effects of climate change. http://www.pnas.org/content/95/25/14839.full ---

Modelling bark beetle disturbances in a large scale forest scenario model to assess climate change impacts and evaluate adaptive management strategies Rupert Seidl1, 2, Mart-Jan Schelhaas3, Marcus Lindner1 and Manfred J. Lexer2 Received: 27 May 2008 Accepted: 11 September 2008  Published online: 2 October 2008 Abstract To study potential consequences of climate-induced changes in the biotic disturbance regime at regional to national scale we integrated a model of Ips typographus (L. Scol. Col.) damages into the large-scale forest scenario model EFISCEN. A two-stage multivariate statistical meta-model was used to upscale stand level damages by bark beetles as simulated in the hybrid forest patch model PICUS v1.41. Comparing EFISCEN simulations including the new bark beetle disturbance module against a 15-year damage time series for Austria showed good agreement at province level (R² between 0.496 and 0.802). A scenario analysis of climate change impacts on bark beetle-induced damages in Austria’s Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] forests resulted in a strong increase in damages (from 1.33 Mm³ a−1, period 1990–2004, to 4.46 Mm³ a−1, period 2095–2099). Studying two adaptive management strategies (species change) revealed a considerable time-lag between the start of adaptation measures and a decrease in simulated damages by bark beetles. http://www.springerlink.com/content/m34g774707721385/ ---

Risk and damage of southern pine beetle outbreaks under global climate change

Jianbang Gan , Department of Forest Science, 2135 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2135, USA

Received 28 July 2003; Revised 19 October 2003; accepted 6 November 2003. Available online 19 December 2003.

Abstract This study, using the panel data modeling approach, investigates the relationships between climatic variables and southern pine beetle (SPB) (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann) infestations and assesses the impact of global climate change on SPB infestation risk and damage. The panel data model alleviates possible collinearity among climatic variables, accounts for the effect of omitted or unobserved variables, and incorporates natural and human adaptation, thus representing a more robust approach to analyzing climate change impacts. SPB outbreaks in Louisiana and Texas appeared to move together; infestations in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee were highly correlated; and Virginia demonstrated its unique temporal pattern of SPB outbreaks. Salvage harvest was found to be helpful in lessening future infestation risk. Warmer winters and springs would positively contribute to SPB outbreaks with spring temperature showing a more severe and persistent impact than winter temperature; increases in fall temperature would ease SPB outbreaks; and summer temperature would have a mixed impact on SPB infestations. Compared to temperature, precipitation would have a much smaller impact on SPB infestations. While increases in the previous winter, spring, and fall precipitation would enhance SPB outbreak risk in the current year, a wetter summer would reduce infestations 3 years later. Global climate change induced by doubling atmospheric CO2 concentration would intensify SPB infestation risk by 2.5–5 times. If the changes in the area and productivity of southern pine forests due to climate change are accounted for, SPB would cause even more severe damage, 4–7.5 times higher than the current value of trees killed annually. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6X-4B8BC42-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=ed1dd3e57402b6ebb3047d2145da5b80

Global climate change: the effects on birds in Arizona and the southwest (Jack F)

Just as the canary in the mind shaft warns against change in environmental conditions, birds show early signs in responding to global climate change. Migrating birds are changing habits to compensate for higher global temperatures, by moving north every year. Still many birds are arriving at their summer home and missing the hatching of bugs and blooming of many plants. This slight off set could have drastic effects on the greater ecosystem. Here in the south west where temperature is expected to rise with decreased precipitation, local bird species and migrating bird species could be drastically affected in their life style.

Audubon. (2009). Birds and Climate Change: Ecological Disruption in Motion. National 	Audubon Society. Accessed on 11/12/09. http://www.audubon.org/news 	/pressroom/bacc/pdfs/Birds%20and%20Climate%20Report.pdf

Fontaine, J., Decker, K., Skagen, S., & van Riper III, C. (2009). Spatial and temporal 	variation in climate change: a bird’s eye view. Climatic Change, 97(1/2), 305-	311. doi:10.1007/s10584-009-9644-9.

Bowen, J. Valiela, I. (2003). Shifts in Winter Distributions in Birds: Effects of Global		 Warming and Local Habitat Changes. A Journal of the Human Environment. Vol		 32, Issue 7, pp 476-480. (November 2003) accessed on 11/12/09. http://ambio.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-	document&doi=10.1639%2F00447447%282003%29032%5B0476%3ASIWDIB	%5D2.0.CO%3B2

Bolger, D. Bostock, D. Patten, M. (2005). Avian Reproductive Failure in Response to an 	Extreme Climatic Event. Oecologia, Vol. 142, No.3, 398-406. accessed on 	November 10, 2009. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20062177

Crick, H. (2004). The Impact of climate Change on Birds. British Trust for Ornithology. Thetford, Norfolk IP24 2PU, UK. Accessed on November 9, 2009. http://www.ibiologia.unam.mx/directorio/r/d_renton/pdf/5.pdf

Steve Arcas:

1. Survival, Condition, Habitat Use, and Predation on Stocked Bonytails (Gila elegans) in the Green River, Colorado and Utah Kevin R. Bestgen, Koreen A. Zelasko, Robert I. Compton, Tom E. Chart The Southwestern Naturalist 2008 53 (4), 488-494 URL: http://libproxy.nau.edu:2226/doi/abs/10.1894/GG-29.1

Abstract: The endangered bonytail Gila elegans, a large-bodied, main-stem cyprinid endemic to the Colorado River Basin of the American Southwest, was once widespread and abundant in warm-water-stream reaches. Negative effects of altered flow and temperature regimes downstream of dams, other habitat changes, and establishment of nonnative fishes have reduced populations of native fish throughout the basin, and wild bonytails may be extirpated. Hatchery reared bonytails are stocked in formerly occupied habitat to rebuild depleted populations, but their ecology is poorly understood. In 2002–2007, sampling in the middle Green River from upstream and downstream of stocking locations in Dinosaur National Monument documented survival of bonytails for ≤4 months, but apparently none survived longer. Many fish at large ≤4 months had Lernea or fungal infections, weighed an average of 20% less than fish when released, and had relatively low rates of growth. Post-stocking rates of dispersal downstream (ca. 1 river km/day) were considerable, and potentially, biologically significant. Bonytails occupied pools, eddies, runs, backwaters, and riffles, and co-occurred in eddies with the roundtail chub Gila robusta and humpback chub Gila cypha in Whirlpool Canyon. We also documented two instances of predation by smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu on bonytails ≤225 mm in total length. Reduced predation by large-bodied, nonnative, piscivores and increased resistance to disease and other stressors that reduce body condition may increase survival of stocked bonytails in this portion of the Green River. Alternative stocking strategies, including use of alluvial and floodplain areas, and effects of size on survival, are being evaluated.

2. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 2008; 28: 1941-1953 doi: 10.1577/M07-199.1 http://afsjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1577/M07-199.1

Abstract: Because of its relatively natural hydrograph, the Yampa River, Colorado, is considered the crown jewel of native fish habitat in the upper basin of the Colorado River and has supported a relatively intact native fish assemblage. Nonnative fishes are thought to pose the greatest threat to native fishes in this system. Removal programs for nonnative northern pike Esox lucius and channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus have highlighted managers' perception of the threat posed by each species. Recent expansion of nonnative smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu in the Yampa River attracted an avid angling clientele but also coincided with a precipitous decline in native fishes, necessitating a rigorous assessment of the relative impact of all three nonnative predators on the native fishes. We used abundance, growth, and diet estimates for each predator species to quantify consumptive demand using bioenergetics models. Despite a low abundance of small-bodied fishes and thus a low number of fish in the smallmouth bass diet, total fish consumption by smallmouth bass (mean = 15.2 kg•km−1•year−1; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 13.3–17.1 kg•km−1•year−1) was similar to that estimated for northern pike (mean = 13.7 kg•km−1•year−1, 95% CI = 11.4–16.0 kg•km−1•year−1) and was about 65 times higher than the estimate for channel catfish (mean = 0.22 kg•km−1•year−1; 95% CI = 0.05–0.40 kg•km−1•year−1). Diet data from the upper Colorado River, where small-bodied fish were plentiful, suggested that piscivory by smallmouth bass in the Yampa River could be 10 times the piscivory by northern pike and channel catfish, or about 168.5 kg•km−1•year−1 (95% CI = 147.0–189.9 kg•km−1•year−1), if prey fish were more available. This level of piscivory suggested that smallmouth bass presented the greatest predatory threat to native fishes of the Yampa River. As environmental conditions change, use of field monitoring together with bioenergetics modeling will be an effective framework to assist managers in adapting their nonnative fish control efforts to maximize the likelihood of native fish recovery.

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Gavin Boughner sources

Bashkin, M., Stohlgren, T. J., Otsuki, Y., Lee, M., Evangelista, P., & Belnap, J. (2003). Soil characteristics and plant exotic species invasions in the grand Staircase—Escalante national monument, utah, USA. Applied Soil Ecology, 22(1), 67.

Bowker, M. A. (2007). Biological soil crust rehabilitation in theory and practice: An underexploited opportunity. Restoration Ecology, 15(1), 13-23.

Brostoff, W. N., Rasoul Sharifi, M., & Rundel, P. W. (2005). Photosynthesis of cryptobiotic soil crusts in a seasonally inundated system of pans and dunes in the western mojave desert, CA: Field studies. Flora, 200(6), 592-600. --- DeJa Walker

1.  Abstract: We investigated the effects of winter and summer drought on a shrub/grass community of the Colorado Plateau in western North America, a winter-cold, summer-hot desert that receives both winter and summer precipitation. Summer, winter and yearlong drought treatments were imposed for 2 consecutive years using rainout shelters. We chose three perennial species for this study, representing different rooting patterns and responsiveness to precipitation pulses: Oryzopsis hymenoides, a perennial bunch grass with shallow roots; Gutierrezia sarothrae, a subshrub with dimorphic roots; and Ceratoides lanata, a predominantly deep-rooted woody shrub. Growth for all three species was far more sensitive to winter than to summer drought. The primary reason was that plants did not grow in summer and also did not appear to use summer-assimilated carbon to support growth in the following spring. We hypothesize that the relative scarcity and uncertainty of summer rain on the Colorado Plateau prevents most species from evolving adaptations that would improve their use of summer rain. Together with the results of the companion paper, which focused on plant water relations, we conclude that variation in fall to spring precipitation would have strong effects on primary productivity, and could cause reversible fluctuations in community composition, while increased variation in summer precipitation, through causing high rates of mortality among shallow-rooted species in dry years, has the potential to cause lasting and perhaps irreversible community change, especially if coinciding with the invasion of western landscapes by cheatgrass, tumble weed and other grazing tolerant exotics. [Copyright 2005 Elsevier]

Work Cited:

Schwinning, S., B.I. Starr, and J.R. Ehleringer "Summer and winter drought in a cold desert ecosystem (Colorado Plateau) part II: effects on plant carbon assimilation and growth." Journal of Arid Environments 61.1 (2005): 61-78. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 28 Nov. 2009.

2.  Abstract: The Colorado Plateau is located in the interior, dry end of two moisture trajectories coming from opposite directions, which have made this region a target for unusual climate fluctuations. A multidecadal drought event some 850 years ago may have eliminated maize cultivation by the first human settlers of the Colorado Plateau, the Fremont and Anasazi people, and contributed to the abandonment of their settlements. Even today, ranching and farming are vulnerable to drought and struggle to persist. The recent use of the Colorado Plateau primarily as rangeland has made this region less tolerant to drought due to unprecedented levels of surface disturbances that destroy biological crusts, reduce soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, and increase rates of soil erosion. The most recent drought of 2002 demonstrated the vulnerability of the Colorado Plateau in its currently depleted state and the associated costs to the local economies. New climate predictions for the southwestern United States include the possibility of a long-term shift to warmer, more arid conditions, punctuated by megadroughts not seen since medieval times. It remains to be seen whether the present-day extractive industries, aided by external subsidies, can persist in a climate regime that apparently exceeded the adaptive capacities of the Colorado Plateau's prehistoric agriculturalists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work Cited:

Schwinning, Susan, et al. "Sensitivity of the Colorado Plateau to Change: Climate, Ecosystems, and Society." Ecology & Society 13.2 (2008): 1-20. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 28 Nov. 2009. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(Kevin O.)

Abstract

We contrasted the seasonal use of simulated large rain events (24 mm) by three native species of the arid Colorado Plateau: the perennial grass Hilaria jamesii and two shrubs Artemesia filifolia and Coleogyne ramosissima. Deuterium-enriched water was used to distinguish shallow "pulse" water from water in deeper soil layers that were unaffected by the water input. We also measured the leaf gas exchange rates of watered and unwatered control plants for 5 days after the rain event. H. jamesii had twice the pulse water proportion in its xylem than the two shrubs in spring (approx. 70% vs 35%). In summer, the pulse water proportions of all species were around 70%. The increase in the relative pulse water uptake of the two shrubs was caused primarily by a reduction in the rate of water uptake from deeper sources, consistent with the decrease in the availability of stored winter water. Rain increased the rates of gas exchange in C. ramosissima in both seasons, in H. jamesii only in summer and had no significant effect on A. filifolia. In H. jamesii, summer rain also increased water use efficiency. This suggests three principle mechanisms for rainwater use: (1) immediate increase in gas exchange via stomatal opening (C. ramisissima), (2) immediate increase in water use efficiency through restoration of the photosynthetic apparatus (H. jamesii) and (3) conservation of deeper soil water, potentially extending photosynthetic activity into later drought periods (A. filifolia). On a ground-area basis, A. filifolia was by far the largest consumer of spring and summer rain, due to its greater ground cover, while rain use by H. jamesii was negligible. We hypothesize that a population's fraction of the total community Leaf Area Index, more than species identity, determines which species takes up most of the spring and summer precipitation and we discuss this idea in the context of Walter and Stadelmann's (1974, In: Brown JW Jr (ed) Desert biology. Academic Press, New York, pp 213-310) water partitioning hypothesis.

Deuterium enriched irrigation indicates different forms of rain use in shrub/grass species of the Colorado Plateau Journal	Oecologia Publisher	Springer Berlin / Heidelberg ISSN	0029-8549 (Print) 1432-1939 (Online) Issue	Volume 130, Number 3 / February, 2002 DOI	10.1007/s00442-001-0817-0 Pages	345-355 Subject Collection	Biomedical and Life Sciences SpringerLink Date	Thursday, February 19, 2004

Abstract South-eastern Utah forms a northern border for the region currently influenced by the Arizona monosoonal system, which feeds moisture and summer precipitation into western North America. One major consequence predicted by global climate change scenarios is an intensification of monosoonal (summer) precipitation in the aridland areas of the western United States. We examined the capacity of dominant perennial shrubs in a Colorado Plateau cold desert ecosystem of southern Utah, United States, to use summer moisture inputs. We simulated increases of 25 and 50 mm summer rain events on Atriplex canescens, Artemisia filifolia, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Coleogyne ramosissima, and Vanclevea stylosa, in July and September with an isotopically enriched water (enriched in deuterium but not 18O). The uptake of this artificial water source was estimated by analyzing hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios of stem water. The predawn and midday xylem water potentials and foliar carbon isotope discrimination were measured to estimate changes in water status and water-use efficiency. At. canescens and Ch. nauseosus showed little if any uptake of summer rains in either July or September. The predawn and midday xylem water potentials for control and treatment plants of these two species were not significantly different from each other. For A. filifolia and V. stylosa, up to 50% of xylem water was from the simulated summer rain, but the predawn and midday xylem water potentials were not significantly affected by the additional summer moisture input. In contrast, C. ramosissima showed significant uptake of the simulated summer rain (>50% of xylem water was from the artificial summer rain) and an increase in both predawn and midday water potentials. The percent uptake of simulated summer rain was greater when those rains were applied in September than in July, implying that high soil temperature in midsummer may in some way inhibit water uptake. Foliar carbon isotope discrimination increased significantly in the three shrubs taking up simulated summer rain, but pre-treatment differences in the absolute discrimination values were maintained among species. The ecological implications of our results are discussed in terms of the dynamics of this desert community in response to changes in the frequency and dependability of summer rains that might be associated with a northward shift in the Arizona monsoon boundary.

Monosoonal precipitation responses of shrubs in a cold desert community on the Colorado Plateau Guanghui Lin1, 2, Susan L. Phillips2 and James R. Ehleringer2 Journal	Oecologia Publisher	Springer Berlin / Heidelberg ISSN	0029-8549 (Print) 1432-1939 (Online) Issue	Volume 106, Number 1 / April, 1996 Category	Ecophysiology DOI	10.1007/BF00334402 Pages	8-17 Subject Collection	Biomedical and Life Sciences SpringerLink Date	Thursday, December 09, 2004

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Rosie Reffkin

http://arizona.sierraclub.org/conservation/grandcanyon/climatechangeGCR.asp Scientists say the Western U.S. will experience the effects of climate change sooner and more intensely than most other regions of the country. The region’s national parks are among the places where the changes in the natural environment will be most evident. As a result, climate change is the single greatest threat to face western national parks, including the Grand Canyon.

http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/impacts/geology/sand/ The biggest impacts of active sand dunes in the region would be on the Navajo and Hopi people, whose reservation land is either on, or downwind of, the largest areas of sand dunes. Many Navajo and Hopi homes are on or near sand dunes; reactivation of dunes would obviously have a negative effect on living conditions. Sheep and cattle are important to the economy of the Navajo and Hopi, and much of the vegetation required for grazing is dune vegetation. In addition, dry farming is practiced in much of the area, some of it on sand dunes. Thus, reactivation of sand dunes in the area would have serious impacts on living conditions, grazing, and farming.

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Tucker Herbert Stevens, L.E., & Nabhan, G.P. (2002). Hydrological Diversity: Water’s Role in Shaping Natural and Cultural Diversity on the Colorado Plateau. In S. Trimble (Ed.), Safeguarding the Uniqueness of the Colorado Plateau (pp. 33-39). Center for Sustainable Environments

Abstract:

The scarcity of water on the Colorado Plateau can be attributed to a number of different factors. Because it is essentially an arid and semi-arid plateau, water is the most important natural resource. As climate change continues to have an impact of the Colorado Plateau, new strategies must be considered for conserving water. In the past, farmers on the plateau planted cottonwoods and willows at the edge of their fields to reduce moisture stress. Drier, hotter years on the plateau as a result of global warming will lead to an increasing number of wildfires. If warming trends continue, reservoirs all across the plateau will experience more rapid evaporation, as is the case with Lake Powell. Invasive plant species like tamarisk and Russian olive have decimated springs all across the plateau. The Hopi believe that the disappearance of springs is a warning of future environmental problems. This belief seems plausible considering the growing evidence of climate change taking place on the Colorado Plateau.

Schwinning, S., Starr, B.I., & Ehleringer, J.R. (2004). Summer and Winter Drought in a Cold Desert Ecosystem (Colorado Plateau) Part 1: Effects on Soil Water and Plant Water Uptake. Journal of Arid Environments, 60, 547-566.

Abstract:

We investigated the effects of winter and summer drought on plants of the Colorado Plateau in western North America. This winter-cold, summer-hot desert region receives both winter and summer precipitation. Droughts were imposed for two consecutive years using rainout shelters. Here, we examine drought effects on the hydrologic interactions between plants and soil. We chose three perennial species for this study, representing different rooting patterns and responsiveness to precipitation pulses: Oryzopsis hymenoides, a perennial bunch grass with shallow roots; Gutierrezia sarothrae, a subshrub with dimorphic roots; and Ceratoides lanata, a predominantly deep-rooted woody shrub. Drought effects on plant water status were qualitatively similar among species, despite morphological differences. Summer drought affected the water status of all species more negatively than winter drought. Isotopic analysis of stem water revealed that all three species took up deeper soil water under drought conditions and shallow soil water after a large rainfall event in summer. Thus all three species appeared to use the same water sources most of the time. However, after a particularly dry summer, only the deepest-rooted species continued to take up soil water, while the more shallow-rooted species were either dead or dormant. Our study suggests therefore that increased occurrence of summer drought could favor the most deep-rooted species in ecosystem. [Abstract from authors]

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Jenika Van Dyke

Dynamics of Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) populations along the San Pedro River, Arizona Abstract Woodlands of the exotic saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) have replaced forests of native Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and willow (Salixspp.) along many rivers of the American South-west. In the middle basin of the San Pedro River, saltcedar dominates only at the drier sites where the surface and ground-water conditions no longer support cottonwood–willow forests. At sites with perennial (or near-perennial) stream flow, saltcedar is co-dominant with Fremont cottonwood. However, saltcedar has been declining in importance at these sites, perhaps due to recent occurrence of conditions that favour cottonwood establishment (frequent winter flooding, high rates of stream flow during spring, exclusion of livestock). This shift provides evidence of capacity for self-repair in degraded Sonoran riparian ecosystems. In the upper basin, in contrast, saltcedar has increased in relative abundance at sites that show evidence of ground-water decline, signaling a need for vigilance in river management. Saltcedar is generally sparse in the upper basin, probably due to the combination of cool temperatures and persistence of perennial or near-perennial stream flows in most areas. Throughout the San Pedro River, saltcedar and cottonwood both have been influenced by changing flood patterns. Expansion of Fremont cottonwood populations and initial colonization by saltcedar both correlate with post-1960 increases in fall and winter flood frequency and decreases in summer flood size. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WH9-45J55XG-T&_user=109269&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1090197180&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000059546&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=109269&md5=e6386d13fa074e33400238658263d02d

Here's another interesting site about Tamarisk: Some examples of information? "Saltcedar’s success in riparian environments in the Southwest appears to be a function of its phenomenal reproductive output and its greater drought and flood tolerance, as compared to Salix exigua"

http://cpluhna.nau.edu/Biota/tamarisk.htm

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(Cynthia Pardo) Journal Article 1: AN ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU http://libproxy.nau.edu:2075/content/tp73324138142270/

Abstract. Desertification of shrub and grassland into pinyon-juniper woodland is occurring over much of the Colorado Plateau in the southwestern United States. As trees invade, they out-compete shrubs and grasses, increasing erosion rates and reducing infiltration of moisture into the soil. This has caused habitat problems for wildlife, and reduced forage for livestock. These impacts also affect the human communities that rely on ranching and tourism related to hunting. Past land use and management practices including heavy livestock grazing, fire suppression and introduction of exotic annual plants are believed to have led to current conditions. The Montrose office of the Bureau of Land Management has implemented an ecosystem-based program to reverse the desertification process on public land. The program is centered on detailed landscape objectives describing the desired vegetation mosaic on 360 000 ha of public land. The objectives outline proportions of plant seral stages and arrays of patch sizes for each planning unit. These objectives are based on priority management issues and the need to replicate a natural vegetation mosaic. Where the existing mosaic does not meet objectives, mechanical vegetation treatments and prescribed fire are used to create early and mid-seral patches on the ground. This restored vegetation pattern and type should be sustained over time through a natural fire regime and improved livestock management. Because many uncertainties exist, an adaptive management process is being used that allows mosaic objectives to be changed or processes modified where monitoring or scientific research indicate a need.

Clements A. 2005. An Ecosystem Approach to Combat Desertification on the Colorado Plateau. Environmental monitoring and assessment 99:.

Journal Article 2:

Wildland fire effects on forest structure over an altitudinal gradient, Grand Canyon National Park, USA. http://libproxy.nau.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23573655&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Absract 1. Restoration of wildland fire to forests is a challenge when historical fire regimes have been altered. We studied four fires that burned over approximately 7865 ha on an altitudinal gradient in Grand Canyon National Park, USA, in 2003. The fires met criteria for the current USA policy allowing the restoration of fire's ecological role in forest landscapes: Wildland Fire Use for Resource Benefits. 2. After the fires burned out, we remeasured 82 permanent pre-established monitoring plots burned by the fires plus 43 additional plots on unburned companion sites. 3. The maximum height of charring of tree boles and basal area mortality increased in mean value and variability with altitude. At a low-altitude Pinus–Quercus site, tree density declined significantly but basal area was unchanged. At a mid-altitude mixed-conifer site and a high-altitude Picea/Abies/Populus site, both density and basal area declined. 4. The thinning effect of fire was concentrated on smaller, shorter, fire-susceptible trees. Small-diameter trees (< 20 cm diameter) made up 79–95% of all tree mortality. Shade-tolerant conifers, particularly true firs and spruce, experienced disproportionate mortality (31–82% basal area decline), while fire-resistant ponderosa pine and Douglas fir tended to survive (2–8% basal area decline). Delayed mortality between the first and second years following the fires accounted for only 4•2% of trees dying at the low-altitude site but 15•6% and 11•2% at the mid- and high-altitude sites, respectively. Regeneration density was highly variable but forest floor and woody debris declined in burned areas. 5. Synthesis and applications. This study shows that, even after an unusually long fire-free period (1880–2003), at the mid- and high-altitude burned sites fire effects were consistent with restoration of historical patterns, moving the ecosystems closer to historical reference conditions. Fires simultaneously reduced the living, dead and ladder fuels that made the forest vulnerable to uncharacteristically severe fire. These effects make the forests more resistant to the expected increases in fire size and severity under future climate conditions. Even at longer-than-historical fire intervals, the wildland fire use policy can benefit Grand Canyon forests.

FULE P. Z., D. C. LAUGHLIN, and P. Z. FULE. 2007. Wildland fire effects on forest structure over an altitudinal gradient, Grand Canyon National Park, USA. Journal of Applied Ecology 44:136-146.

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Robert Brulles Colorado Plateu and Water

http://www.grandcanyontrust.org/plateau/air_issues_climate-change_environment.php

Studies suggest an increase in winter rainfall for the Colorado Plateau over the next century. Although this could elevate water supplies, any benefits could also be offset — partially or entirely — by increased evaporative loss in water delivery systems and rising demand from a growing population. Average snowpack in the Colorado River basin may decrease by 30 percent by the middle of the next century. Runoff will peak earlier (by more than a month earlier). In addition, heavy winter rains may cause flooding, accelerate soil erosion, and pose greater risks to property and life.

http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art28/

The Colorado Plateau is located in the interior, dry end of two moisture trajectories coming from opposite directions, which have made this region a target for unusual climate fluctuations. A multi-decadal drought event some 850 years ago may have eliminated maize cultivation by the first human settlers of the Colorado Plateau, the Fremont and Anasazi people, and contributed to the abandonment of their settlements. Even today, ranching and farming are vulnerable to drought and struggle to persist. The recent use of the Colorado Plateau primarily as rangeland has made this region less tolerant to drought due to unprecedented levels of surface disturbances that destroy biological crusts, reduce soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, and increase rates of soil erosion. The most recent drought of 2002 demonstrated the vulnerability of the Colorado Plateau in its currently depleted state and the associated costs to the local economies. New climate predictions for the southwestern United States include the possibility of a long-term shift to warmer, more arid conditions, punctuated by megadroughts not seen since medieval times. It remains to be seen whether the present-day extractive industries, aided by external subsidies, can persist in a climate regime that apparently exceeded the adaptive capacities of the Colorado Plateau’s prehistoric agriculturalists.

Schwinning, S., J. Belnap, D. R. Bowling, and J. R. Ehleringer. 2008. Sensitivity of the Colorado Plateau to change: climate, ecosystems, and society. Ecology and Society 13(2): 28. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art28/


text:
User talk:MMcGee~enwikiversity

 Hello MMcGee, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mu301Bot 08:18, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 08:18, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called MMcGee. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name MMcGee~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:14, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:MMcGee~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Emmerya

 Hello Emmerya, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mu301Bot 08:18, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 08:18, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Emmerya


text:
User:Saraq1991

user:saraq1991|Spanish

title: User:Saraq1991


text:
File talk:Simplified tree.png

I noticed what I think is a small spelling mistake: the picture has "Spirochaeles" where it should have "Spirochaetes". Hope this is helpful.
 * I've added your suggestion here on wiki commons: https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/wiki/File_talk:Simplified_tree.png -- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:56, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

title: File talk:Simplified tree.png


text:
User:Jscibelli/EE Introduction to Engineering Math

jscibelli/EE Introduction to Engineering Math


text:
Wikiversity:Mobile usability

This project page documents the usability of Wikiversity on mobile devices with the goal of learning how we can improve the mobile browsing experience. It is an attempt to develop a style guide to enhance the functionality of our website on all computing platforms.

A Wikiversity page that looks fine on a desktop computer might render poorly on a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. This is especially true if the page incorporates certain templates or uses "fancy" formatting such as our Portal: pages. The example at right show how our main page looks on a smartphone with a smaller screen. Please note that many smartphone browsers will redirect http://en.wikiversity.org to our mobile optimized site http://en.m.wikiversity.org.

Wikiversity usage by platform
The majority of our page viewing traffic is from desktop browsers. Mobile browser usage is steadily growing. Mobile app access is insignificant at this time. (as of Jan. 2018)

It is likely that most editing occurs using desktop browsers but it is important for our pages to be readable on mobile devices as they are becoming increasingly popular for viewing our content.

Best practices
Test the pages that you are working on to see how they look in a mobile view, report problems, and ask for help.

Test pages
Using a mobile device is the best method of testing the rendering of a page. The other tests might give inconsistent results.
 * Preview a page on your smartphone.
 * Preview a page using an iPhone 4 simulator. There might be subtle differences between various models of iPhone.
 * Preview a page using the Mobile view link at the bottom of every page using a desktop browswer. This will give a quick look to see if anything is broken. It is not a guarantee that a particular mobile device will render the page in a readable way.

Report problems

 * Report test results here. Please provide details of the brand and model phone that you are using and also the web browser, ie. iPhone SE with Safari.

Ask for help

 * Post a note at Colloquium if you see something that's not working right and ask for help.
 * Put wiki markup that might not work in Wikiversity talk:Mobile usability/Test page so that others can examine it.

title: Wikiversity:Mobile usability


text:
Talk:Featured content/16

I think this is an excellent example of what Wikiversity can offer.

I helped edit this while learning Swedish using it (added pronunciations taken from Wikipedia). It's really helping me learn the language. Wesmwatson 07:17, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

Needs pronunciation
This course would be great, if it had pronunciation...

title: Talk:Featured content/16


text:
Category talk:Biochemistry Exam Study Guide

I am new to wikiversity, and a biochemist, and I do not think that these "study guides" (the 2nd and 3rd pages seem to be more like answers to unknown questions, presumably from an unnamed class in 2007) are helpful nor in the spirit of wikiversity. Just displaying answers without the questions and not defining for what class or what book was used for the class seems to be unworthy of a page. Please correct me if I am wrong. Like I said I am new to this.


text:
User talk:JoshBrumfield

Hello Former Student!

I'm writing to you because you took a class from me in the past few years at the Art Institute. As of Spring, 2010, I'll not be teaching further classes at AIS for the foreseeable future. (We're parting ways on good terms!) Until now, you've been able to reach my Wikiversity educational resources from my website, but I've decided to delete that link. You can still reach all of those materials here.

If you're interested in what I'm up to in the future (which will include an album in 2010 and a novel in 2011) you can friend my facebook page or drop me an email at info@stevenarntson.info and you'll receive a periodic update about performances, classes, and publications.

If you know any current or former students of mine who might be interested in any of this, please forward this information if you have a moment.

I hope all is well for you. Best! Stevenarntson

 Hello JoshBrumfield, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
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 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

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 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mu301Bot 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Personal Essay
The best part of this is your story. I'd consider starting with the paragraph that begins "In 1995. . . " And develop the story more with details--what the hallucinations were like, how you broke the ankle &c. One of the most incredible parts of this too is when you maintain that the doctor himself was surprised to find out that Vicodin is addictive! Perhaps the pharma reps don't emphasize such facts when they advertise.

Once the story is developed, you can end with your analysis of the situation, and you'll have earned it through the story.

Best, Stevenarntson

title: User talk:JoshBrumfield


text:
User talk:Sameera~enwikiversity

 Hello Sameera, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mu301Bot 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sameera. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sameera~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sameera~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:StalinUpstaged

 Hello StalinUpstaged, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mu301Bot 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 08:18, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Astrophysics
I just noticed your edits to astrophysics. I do some work in this area, but mostly in observational astronomy. Drop me a note on my talk page if you would like to collaborate. --mikeu talk 18:02, 20 December 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:StalinUpstaged


text:
User:Niki Gango

Name: Niki Gango

I'll be updating [] with more info once I get a chance to write up an article.

title: User:Niki Gango


text:
User talk:Niki Gango

User:BORED
Thanks for that - apologies for posting under that username previously. --Niki Gango 10:20, 13 November 2009 (UTC)

I've deleted that user page for you. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:46, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Niki Gango


text:
User talk:Robotsbite

 Hello Robotsbite, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 11:47, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

title: User talk:Robotsbite


text:
Introduction to psychology/Psy102/Resources/MyPsychLab

The Gerrig et al. (2008) textbook used for this unit has accompanying online resources for each chapter, which are accessible via a code that comes with the book.

To access MyPsychLab, go to: http://pegasus2.pearsoned.com/


text: Category:Psychology 102/Resources

title: Category:Psychology 102/Resources