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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Psychological resilience

Overview
Consider these questions:
 * 1) Do you tend to ruminate over a list of things to do in a day?
 * 2) Do you find yourself overwhelmed when in stressful situations?
 * 3) Do you worry over situations that do not involve you?
 * 4) Do you find it difficult to engage in social situations?

If you answered yes to any of these, then continue reading because this chapter can help to build your psychological resilience to stressful situations.

Origins of psychological resilience
"I've grown stronger, faster, harder, wiser Dead Letter Circus"

The term 'psychological resilience' is difficult to define. It is operationalised in many ways, usually specific to the situation it is used in (Wingo, et al., 2010). Past literature has defined psychological resilience as the ability to "bounce back" from a negative physical or emotional experience, and adapt to changes associated with stressful events or experiences (Merritt, 2007).
 * Definition

The central component of psychological resilience, is the exposure to an adverse event, followed by the evidence of good psychological adjustment (Wingo, et al., 2010). Psychological resilience is an 'umbrella' term, as it covers a large range of traits that an individual can have to develop resilience (e.g., problem solving skills, self confidence, self discipline, self efficacy, and self esteem; Windle et al., 2008).

The concept of psychological resilience was originally developed through observations of individuals exposed to risks and stressors, and how they coped and adjusted positively to these adverse situations (Windle, et al., 2008). Throughout research this term has been viewed as a hypothetical construct, as it is such an ambiguous term (Windle, et al., 2008).
 * Ambiguity of the definition

When defining psychological resilience in the 21st century, a key aspect to consider in particular within Australian culture is the indigenous Aboriginal perspective of psychological resilience. Aboriginal mental health has been constantly revisited, with definitions of psychological resilience not taking into account the broad impact of colonialism (Merritt, 2007). Shifting away from examining the term in a Western perspective to an Aboriginal perspective is difficult, particularly when psychological resilience is a difficult term to define (Merritt, 2007). Research into psychological resilience has found that research from different countries yield differing results, regardless of whether it is a Western or Eastern society (Stanley, 2011). Study of the term from the uniqueness of cultural context may help more clearly define this ambiguous term (Merritt, 2007). However, no matter the research psychological resilience cannot be definitively defined (Stanley, 2011).

Trauma and disaster
The occurrence and types of trauma come in various ranges and scenarios, from childhood abuse to soldiers returning from war zones to physical or sexual assault (Bonanno, Galea, Bucciarelli, & Vlahov, 2006). Exposure to trauma is a strong risk factor for mental disorder such as depression or posttraumatic stress disorder, also influencing the duration and possible comorbity (Wingo, Fani, Bradley, & Ressler, 2010). Psychological resilience is a key concept that can influence an individual’s ability to cope during and after traumatic situations (Wingo, et al., 2010).

Psychological resilience is defined within trauma as having a single traumatic event and no or very mild depressive or posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (Wingo, et al., 2010). A recent study in 2010 indicated that for recovery from a traumatic experience, one of the abilities within those who were resilient was emotional learning through nonverbal memory (Wingo et al., 2010).

Another recent study concerning post-deployment of soldiers found a negative relationship between the soldier’s psychological resilience and the social support they received on their return from deployment (Pietrzak, Johnson, Goldstein, Malley, & Southwick, 2009). This suggests that individualised social support around those who have experienced a traumatic event can bolster psychological resilience in those individuals (Pietrzak, et al., 2009).

We all experience at least one potentially harmful trauma or disaster in our lifetime. The majority of individuals deal with distress and confusion without it evolving into a psychological disorder (Bonanno, et al., 2006).

Globally speaking, in the 21st century, one of the greatest threats to psychological resilience has been the age of terrorism (Barnett, 2004). The disasters caused by terrorism have led to greater fear within the general public. Fear is the struggle we have during traumatic or disastrous events, to preserve our reasoning and resilience while under stress (Barnett, 2004). For example, in the USA, Congress introduced the National Resilience Development Act in 2003, to provide national resilience after the events of September 11th 2001 (Barrett, 2004). Greater government body recognition is required during trauma or disaster relief to provide more equip services with a better understanding of how to educate and help those suffering from an adverse event.

Socio economic status (SES) and sex difference
The sociodemographics of those who experience adverse situations is a key factor in their ability to develop psychological resilience, and also that, how one sociodemographic group copes, cannot be generalised to another (Wingo, et al., 2010). This reinforces the ambiguity of psychological resilience, and how cultural context can be a significant factor in its operational definition (Merritt, 2010).

Some studies of psychological resilience in children have found that growing up in poor socio-economic status and negative family environments, do not always develop maladaptive behaviours or mental illness (Windle, 2008). These findings indicate the uniqueness psychological resilience is to each individual, and how some individuals are able to adapt more effectively than others.

A recent study concerning the heritability of resilience found a difference between the genders in the genetic expression of resilience (Boardman, Blalock, & Button, 2008). This finding emphasises the reoccurring theme that our experiences and the environments we are exposed to, have an impact on our development of psychological resilience. For example, men are encouraged more than women to master the environments they are in, to socialise independently in greater varieties, are more self accepting of themselves and have greater opportunities to express their resilience. With these psychological resources men can be better equipped at 'buffering' stressors, and maintaining a positive well-being. However for woman, they are socialised generally to be more relationship-orientated, where if a part of their social support group breaks down, it can cause a domino effect on the individual. Women tend also to be less self accepting, nor given the chance to show mastery in their environments unlike their male counterparts. Genes can only influence a phenotype, therefore, if not given the opportunity to express themselves, they will not emerge (Boardman et al., 2008).

Child/youth psychological resilience
There has been extensive research on childhood psychological resilience, however what there is less focus on is the youth adolescent demographic. Many homeless in Australia are young youth and at such an age can be vulnerable to adverse environments and experiences (Ronalds & Allen-Craig, 2008). During a person's childhood, it is the relationship between the parents and the child, which fosters the child’s exposure to sociability, emotional and personal competence, and development of skills to cope with adverse situations (Ronalds & Allen-Craig, 2008). It is when this relationship breaks down that children and youth become vulnerable, and other factors such as low socio-economic status, or ethnic minorities, come into play leading to maladaptive resilience and in short possible negative life outcomes (e.g. mental illness, substance abuse, suicide, homelessness etc.)(Ronalds & Allen-Craig, 2008).

A recent study surveyed the parents of their perception of their fifth grade child’s psychological resilience (Kärkkäinen, Räty, & Kasanen, 2009). The findings indicated that the parent's perception of their child’s psychological resilience was determined by their child’s success in academic, recreational activities and their own success. A parent’s perception of how resilient their child is can influence how they treat their child in that regard (e.g., 'bubble wrap' or 'tough love'), and how that, in turn, influences a child’s development of psychological resilience (Kärkkäinen, et al., 2009). A further important factor to consider is that youth/adolescence is a trying time for most individuals, with competition of university places, fewer employment opportunities, greater family discord and uncertain financial times, significantly test their coping abilities to survive (Harvey, & Delfabbro, 2004).

The operationalisation of psychological resilience has always been fuzzy. The main reason for this fuzziness in the term is that the research indicates it is that not everyone who experiences or suffers adverse circumstances within childhood or youth, come out with long-term psychological dysfunction (Harvey, et al., 2004). Therefore, more recent research has taken a focus to the prevention and identification of contributors to potential psychological dysfunction (Harvey, et al., 2004).

Adult psychological resilience
There has been little known as to the ability of the Western adult demographic to maintain psychological resilience after potentially traumatic events (Bonanno, et al., 2006). There are two distinct categories that adult psychological resilience falls into following a traumatic or disastrous event:
 * 1) completely resilient individuals and
 * 2) those who gradually recover (Bonanno, et al., 2006).

However, an adult’s prevalence concerning psychological resilience has been skeptic (Bonanno, et al., 2006). The spectrum of adulthood also includes the demographic of older age (50+), as psychological resilience plays a part in many of our psychological resources such as self esteem, personal competence, perception of control etcetera (Windle, Markland, & Woods, 2008). Psychological resilience can become even more important in the later years of life, as we adjust to psychosocial changes that take place in coping with aging, and the inevitable prospect of death (Windle et al., 2008).

The general notion from research is that if an individual is resilient during adulthood they will be psychological resilience within old age (Windle, et al., 2008; Wingo, et al., 2010). However, this is not always true, as the development of psychological resilience can be a challenge, and does not always come easy to some individuals (Wingo, et al., 2010).

Although many studies have tried to identify the factors that develop psychological resilience, these resources (self esteem, personal competence, perception of control etc.), are to a degree at the mercy of our own personal life experiences, to the extent that they develop adaptability and efficient coping mechanisms (Windle, et al., 2008).

A recent longitudinal study attempted to construct a 'resilience model' following several elementary students in 1998 for the following 10 years (Stanley, P., 2011). The results found numerous influences on the development of psychological resilience, which have also been found in other past studies (Windle, et al., 2008; Wingo, et al., 2010; Stanley, 2011). Positive influences such as personal competence, the ability to adjust, and interpersonal competence were key for adaptive psychological resilience (Stanley, 2011). Moreover, the way that our interconnected systems of support function, and our ability to initiate and maintain relationships with other people that are mutually sustaining and self regulating, is a crucial factor in defining how psychological resilience is developed (Stanley, 2011). This finding boils down to the fact that our life experiences from childhood into adulthood, the choices we make, and their implications impact on how resilient we become (Stanley, 2011).

How these factors can be extrapolated into daily life
Numerous research done over the years has indicated that positive emotions are associated with health (physical and psychological), employment, family and socio-economic status, as positive psychology boosts psychological resilience (Kobau et al. 2011). Positive psychology focuses on 'what is right with people', enhancing their positive attributes to help them cope as an individual in the social community (Kobau et al., 2011).

Psychological resilience is based in both Western and Eastern philosophy, where positive emotions, positive traits, positive relationships and experiences, that foster these outcomes have been a pursuit for all individuals, for psychological resilience, for those moments where adverse events occur from out of nowhere (Kobau, et al., 2011). Nurturing positive mental health is a source of everyday living, regardless of diverse sociodemographics (Kobau, et al., 2011). Positive affect and negative affect are two polar opposites (Wichers, Jacobs, Derom, Thiery, & Van Os, 2007). Positive emotions (positive affect) broaden an individual’s attention, drawing it away from negative stressors within the environment, leading to greater focus on the positive (Wichers, et al., 2007).

A 2007 study of female adult twins, comprising of a sample of both monozygotic and dizygotic twins, found that an individual’s positive or negative affect to a situation can influence their susceptibility to coping with life stressors (Wichers, et al., 2007). In other words, when you cannot find your car keys and are running late in the morning, when you had a horrible day at work or feel bogged down in all your academic work, pull out a piece of paper and write a list. For example, a list of what is positive waiting for you when you get home? Or what occasion is near that you have been counting down to? The idea is to challenge the negative affect and nurture the positive affect. It could be as little as snuggling up in bed with a book or playing your favourite bands music in your car. Having hope is an essential factor for the persistence and strength of psychological resilience, the mere hope towards something better has been found to strengthen psychological resilience(Wichers, et al., 2007; Lloyd, & Hastings, 2009). However, challenging your thoughts is not always an easy or effective method for some individuals.

Another past study of monozygotic twins looked at the effect physical exercise had on improving the coping mechanisms for stressful events (Johnson, & Krueger, 2006). Exercise has long been associated with positive psychological benefits. This 2006 study showed that vigorous physical exercise by one of the monozygotic twins increased that twin’s optimism; they developed a greater perception of control, positive mood change and positive changes in their interpersonal aspects of their personality (Johnson, et al., 2006). Exercising, can be as little as going for a walk around the block. It allows your mind a chance to rest, allows your body a chance to vent, and gives you as a person air to breathe, and let out any pent up stress. It is a beneficial and positive out let.

As shown there is extensive support for positive emotions being good for your physical and psychological health, as certain positive emotion traits can develop due to exposure to positive events, leading to greater psychological resilience to adverse events and positive emotional granularity (the tendency to represent experiences of positive emotions with precision and specificity) (Tugade, Fredrickson, & Barrett, 2004).

Laughter and humour have also been associated with increased positive emotions in those with chronic diseases, leading to longevity and better recovery (Tugade, et al., 2004). Finding the humour in a situation and recognising those things that make you smile within everyday life can benefit your well-being. Up to the present day, research has continued to research psychological resilience, attempting to develop a theoretical model that can be applied to various individuals instead of just a small cohort (De Terte, Becker, & Stephens, 2009).

A recent study identified the core factors that appear to be associated in the development and strength of an individual’s psychological resilience (De Terte, et al., 2009). This five part model found a relationship between an individual’s cognitions, emotions, behaviours and physical activities within the environment (De Terte, et al., 2009). Within the environment, the factors that can influence this variables affect were found to be family support, community support and societal support (De Terte, et al., 2009).

BattleSMART
One of the fundamentals of being employed in the Australian Defence Force (ADF) is the ability to handle highly dangerous, negative and extreme situations either within a war zone or disaster relief situations. The first world war is one the earliest events where the challenge of psychological resilience and mental health were first put to the test, with the results leading to the recognition of psychological injury as well as physical injury on the battlefield (Murphy, Hodson, & Gallas, 2010). Defence Psychology support concerns not only domestic personnel but deployed personnel. Constant support pre-, during and particularly post-deployment leads to helping identify if an individual needs professional psychological assistance in validating the deployment experience, and gain satisfaction from their role (Murphy, et al., 2010).

In 2002, the Defence Directorate of Mental Health was established to focus on improving resilience training programs, to enhance the coping capabilities of ADF personnel (Cohn, Hodson, & Crane, 2010). Coping is a key ability for an individual to be able to deal with negative external demands, yet no single coping strategy can be used across various stressful situations. Research within the ADF indicates that it is those individuals with a broad range of coping strategies, will display greater psychological resilience before and after the onset of an adverse event (Cohn, et al., 2010).

ADF training has recently begun a resilience training program called BattleSMART (Self Management and Resilience Training), it is a cognitive-behavioural based training where personnel are taught to minimise their arousal to situations, and be able to identify their maladaptive responses and adjust them (Cohn, et al., 2010). The ADF also trains recruits in problem focused strategies, which have led to reports of feeling less emotional distress during negative situations (Cohn, et al., 2010). The reduction of arousal has been positively correlated with less likelihood of posttraumatic stress disorder, and identify whether their initial response to a situation is the best response (Cohn, et al., 2010).

The individuals are taught to 'test' their initial responses to these four areas, and to adjust those responses that are maladaptive. This is the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy - to find evidence that contradicts an initial belief of behaviour.
 * BattleSMART: An overview
 * 1) An introduction to the concept of psychological resilience
 * 2) Examination of an individual’s 'flight or fight' responses and physiological symptoms of stress
 * 3) Arousal reduction skills are taught
 * 4) Introduction to coping strategies and their implementation in stressful situations. These coping strategies are taught in four stages:
 * 5) adaptive physiological response
 * 6) adaptive way of thinking about the stressful situation
 * 7) adaptive behaviour
 * 8) emotion management.

Wilderness therapy
A study by Ronalds and Allen-Craig (2008) investigate an alternative education therapy called wilderness therapy. It is a health practice that has only recently emerged, designed to help youth/adolescents over come emotional adjustment, addiction and mental health problems. This study showed significant increases in participants overall life effectiveness from baseline analysis.

Wilderness therapy usually involves the participants interacting with an unfamiliar environment, living with peers, individual and also group therapy sessions, education classes and the application of survival skills such as making fire, constructing a shelter or hiking. It helps to improve an individual’s perception of themselves, increase and improve their social skills, and reduce maladaptive relapses (e.g. addiction, crime, violence etc){{fact{{. The renewed confidence of coping in an unfamiliar environment, leads to increased positive levels of psychological resilience when returning to those environments that have been a challenge to the participants in the past.

Summary
Developing, maintaining and understanding psychological resilience up until the present is not an easy task. The concepts in this chapter only scratch the surface of the research into psychological resilience factors and methods of improving it. How we employ psychological resilience and choose to cope has its implications. Improve your psychological resilience is a trial and error process. It is a process of trying all the methods out there until you find the one that works for you. We are all individual and psychological resilience has a unique definition for each individual.


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Dominant group/Psychology

In psychology like its other uses, dominant group can refer to a majority of a population or group. As groups are a focus for psychology, the impact of the apparent cultural, scientific or technical term may be maximum.

Many of the branches of psychology need to be individually sampled for usage of dominant group and its synonyms.

Dominant group may be a psychological entity. It may be even more general such as a psychological existence, being, or actuality.

The psychology behind the use of the term may be important.

In theory, a dominant group in psychology may have at least four meanings: (1) a psychology-based entity, (2) source, (3) object, or (4) a group in some way associated with psychology.

Psychology
Def. "[t]he scientific study of human and animal behaviour" is called ethology.

Dominant group
Examples from primary sources are to be used to prove or disprove each hypothesis. These can be collected per subject or in general.

 * 1) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.
 * 2) Artifact hypothesis: dominant group may be an artifact of human endeavor or may have preceded humanity.
 * 3) Association hypothesis: dominant group is associated in some way with the original research.
 * 4) Bad group hypothesis: dominant group is the group that engages in discrimination, abuse, punishment, and additional criminal activity against other groups. It often has an unfair advantage and uses it to express monopolistic practices.
 * 5) Control group hypothesis: there is a control group that can be used to study dominant group.
 * 6) Entity hypothesis: dominant group is an entity within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 7) Evolution hypothesis: dominant group is a product of evolutionary processes, such groups are the evolutionary process, produce evolutionary processes, or are independent of evolutionary processes.
 * 8) Identifier hypothesis: dominant group is an identifier used by primary source authors of original research to identify an observation in the process of analysis.
 * 9) Importance hypothesis: dominant group signifies original research results that usually need to be explained by theory and interpretation of experiments.
 * 10) Indicator hypothesis: dominant group may be an indicator of something as yet not understood by the primary author of original research.
 * 11) Influence hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article containing original research to indicate influence or an influential phenomenon.
 * 12) Interest hypothesis: dominant group is a theoretical entity used by scholarly authors of primary sources for phenomena of interest.
 * 13) Metadefinition hypothesis: all uses of dominant group by all primary source authors of original research are included in the metadefinition for dominant group.
 * 14) Null hypothesis: there is no significant or special meaning of dominant group in any sentence or figure caption in any refereed journal article.
 * 15) Object hypothesis: dominant group is an object within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 16) Obvious hypothesis: the only meaning of dominant group is the one found in Mosby's Medical Dictionary.
 * 17) Original research hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article by the author to indicate that the article contains original research.
 * 18) Primordial hypothesis: dominant group is a primordial concept inherent to humans such that every language or other form of communication no matter how old or whether extinct, on the verge of extinction, or not, has at least a synonym for dominant group.
 * 19) Purpose hypothesis: dominant group is written into articles by authors for a purpose.
 * 20) Regional hypothesis: dominant group, when it occurs, is only a manifestation of the limitations within a region. Variation of those limitations may result in the loss of a dominant group with the eventual appearance of a new one or none at all.
 * 21) Source hypothesis: dominant group is a source within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 22) Term hypothesis: dominant group is a significant term that may require a 'rigorous definition' or application and verification of an empirical definition.

Theoretical psychology
Def. "[t]he study of the human mind", "human behavior", or "animal behavior" is called psychology.

Small group theory
In psychology a dominant group may be only associated with psychology or be the subject of psychology. Proof of concept may be either one or both. Dominant group may only be an artifact.

"[S]mall group theory [has] at least six important conceptualizations [of the "small group" with] marked differences in their orientation and content".

Dominance basis
In animal behavior, human behavior, and anthropology, the level of social status relative to other individuals can be a basis for dominance. The level of social status may be determined by deference.

Classes of meaning
A dominant group in psychology may have at least four meanings: (1) a psychology-based entity, (2) source, (3) object, or (4) in some way associated with psychology.

The term may serve as an indicator or identifier. In Kirby's An Introduction to Entomology from 1826, a dominant group of species is determined by a regional distribution. Later, this regional distribution became relative and the term entered the field of evolution. Perhaps it is an evolutionary process.

As the field of dominant group is unknown, psychology is as likely as any other. Psychologists study animal groupings, especially human groups.

Dominant group may be only an artifact from dominance expressed in human history.

Any dominant group may be only an accident, or a deliberate outcome of human design.

Entities
"However, some answers to these questions may emerge from a consideration of the dominant group, that is, the five institutions whose scholars published the most articles in the two periodicals."

"For instance, resources made available by a dominant group, such as the National Science Foundation, can be viewed both as “powers over” possible research agendas of others, and also as “powers with” others in assisting researchers pursuing certain kinds of projects."

Objects
"Although clearly the major changes are found in the culture of the subordinate group, the dominant group also experiences a degree of change as well."

“The dominant group was differentiated by a higher socio-economic status, greater independence, stronger identification with the father than the mother, less association with adults and with girls, and more with older children.”

“The single exception is the case of Baptist parentage. But this again checks the previously observed item of distribution in the United States where we found the South was far behind in its quota. Baptists are probably the dominant group in this region.”

“It is easy, furthermore, to predict quite accurately within the dominant group on the basis of mental ability, roughly, at least, that a member of this group will excel submissive persons in academic endeavors.”

"[O]nly dominant group members who derive a sense of belonging and social value from their membership in the dominant ingroup should be motivated by group-based identity concerns to show signs of defensiveness in response to external explanations."

"By virtue of being 'outnumbered' in society, minority group members typically have more familiarity with dominant group members than vice versa."

"Members of dominant groups assume that their perceptions are the pertinent perceptions, that their problems are the problems that need to be addressed, and that in discourse they should be the speaker rather than the listener."

“This shift is mainly at the expense of the mixed form-dominant group, since the percentage of color-dominant reactions, as well as their type distribution, remains almost the same.”

"I. M. Lewis has argued that spirit possession frequently provides a means for oppressed or deprived groups such as women to exert pressure upon or attack the dominant group (Lewis 1986: 23-50).4 Once a claim of this kind has been made, either on the basis of ethnographic descriptions or theoretical expectations, further ethnographic material cannot be introduced in a neutral way."

Abnormal psychology
"Unlike members of other oppressed groups (eg, African Americans, immigrants), most LGBs have siblings who are members of the dominant group (heterosexuals)."

Applied psychology
"Third, item bias may play a role when cultural groups have developed their own small variations on the language of the dominant group (“ethnolects”)."

"According to Kanter's (1977a, 1977b) structural theory, skewed gender ratios at upper organizational levels affect interactions between the dominant group (men) and the token group (women)."

"For example, if Anglos are the dominant group in an organisation, Hispanics may experience poor performance evaluations, assignment to low-level, dead-end jobs, and low levels of mentoring and social support."

Mental health
"When people self-injure they may be seeking to integrate with the dominant group while at the same time separate from it, and indeed that this tension is not oppositional, but understandable for many people struggling to find their identity."

Neurology
“[D]iminution or removal of a dominant group of functions leads to an excessive outburst of energy”

Pharmacy
"That is, in the first case there are dominant group-group interactions and in the second case dominant group-solvent interactions."

Social psychology
From a social-psychological point-of-view "[A] group is dominant if it possesses a disproportionate share of societal resources, privileges, and power."

"Based on the ethnic preference and trait attribution techniques, a remarkably consistent set of findings emerged, especially in relation to dominant group children."

Hypotheses

 * 1) A dominant group is likely to use the tools of psychology to handle or control others.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dominant group/Psychology


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Dominant group/Physics

The exploration of physics with respect to the use of the two-word term dominant group is the purpose of this subtopic/subpage.

Many of the various areas of physics, especially the major ones, have refereed journal articles within which there is an author chosen need to describe observations using a dominant group differentiation.

Physics
Def. the nature and properties of "matter and energy and their interactions" is called physics.

Def. "the study of properties and interactions of [space, time,] matter and energy" is called physics.

Many of the early laws begin to make sense and increase understanding of the phenomena observed when coupled to experimental and theoretical studies performed in a laboratory here on Earth under controlled conditions.

Dominant group
Is dominant group a universal in human nature? Or, is dominant group used outside humanities, in fields like physics, because there are a few humans who believe dominant group and the concept behind it is a universal?

"Humanism is a group of philosophies and ethical perspectives which emphasize the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers individual thought and evidence (rationalism, empiricism), over established doctrine or faith (fideism)."

Examples from primary sources are to be used to prove or disprove each hypothesis. These can be collected per subject or in general.

 * 1) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.
 * 2) Artifact hypothesis: dominant group may be an artifact of human endeavor or may have preceded humanity.
 * 3) Association hypothesis: dominant group is associated in some way with the original research.
 * 4) Bad group hypothesis: dominant group is the group that engages in discrimination, abuse, punishment, and additional criminal activity against other groups. It often has an unfair advantage and uses it to express monopolistic practices.
 * 5) Control group hypothesis: there is a control group that can be used to study dominant group.
 * 6) Entity hypothesis: dominant group is an entity within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 7) Evolution hypothesis: dominant group is a product of evolutionary processes, such groups are the evolutionary process, produce evolutionary processes, or are independent of evolutionary processes.
 * 8) Identifier hypothesis: dominant group is an identifier used by primary source authors of original research to identify an observation in the process of analysis.
 * 9) Importance hypothesis: dominant group signifies original research results that usually need to be explained by theory and interpretation of experiments.
 * 10) Indicator hypothesis: dominant group may be an indicator of something as yet not understood by the primary author of original research.
 * 11) Influence hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article containing original research to indicate influence or an influential phenomenon.
 * 12) Interest hypothesis: dominant group is a theoretical entity used by scholarly authors of primary sources for phenomena of interest.
 * 13) Metadefinition hypothesis: all uses of dominant group by all primary source authors of original research are included in the metadefinition for dominant group.
 * 14) Null hypothesis: there is no significant or special meaning of dominant group in any sentence or figure caption in any refereed journal article.
 * 15) Object hypothesis: dominant group is an object within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 16) Obvious hypothesis: the only meaning of dominant group is the one found in Mosby's Medical Dictionary.
 * 17) Original research hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article by the author to indicate that the article contains original research.
 * 18) Primordial hypothesis: dominant group is a primordial concept inherent to humans such that every language or other form of communication no matter how old or whether extinct, on the verge of extinction, or not, has at least a synonym for dominant group.
 * 19) Purpose hypothesis: dominant group is written into articles by authors for a purpose.
 * 20) Regional hypothesis: dominant group, when it occurs, is only a manifestation of the limitations within a region. Variation of those limitations may result in the loss of a dominant group with the eventual appearance of a new one or none at all.
 * 21) Source hypothesis: dominant group is a source within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 22) Term hypothesis: dominant group is a significant term that may require a 'rigorous definition' or application and verification of an empirical definition.

Causal analysis
Perhaps the fundamental question is "Why are physicists using the term, dominant group, that apparently has its origin in entomology or culture?"

The term "dominant group" appears to be used in physics as in astronomy to identify entities of importance. The genera differentia for possible definitions of "dominant group" fall into the following set of orderable pairs:

'Orderable' means that any synonym from within the first category can be ordered with any synonym from the second category to form an alternate term for "dominant group"; for example, "superior class", "influential sect", "master assembly", "most important group", and "dominant painting". "Dominant" falls into category 171. "Group" is in category 61. Further, any word which has its most or much more common usage within these categories may also form an alternate term, such as "ruling group", where "ruling" has its most common usage in category 739, or "dominant party", where "party" is in category 74. "Taxon" or "taxa" are like "species" in category 61. "Society" is in category 786 so there is a "dominant society".

"A related, but separate, definition relies on a linguistic identity that differs from that of the dominant society [5]."

Subdivision popularity
As a natural science, physics may be subdivided.

Popularity of "dominant group" and relative synonyms in each subdivision may be helpful.

The extremely low percentages suggests that usage of "dominant group" may be author preference.

Like any other subject, physics has its entities such as
 * 1) physicists,
 * 2) physics journals,
 * 3) physics departments at universities,
 * 4) physics laboratories, and others, some of which are natural including sources and objects.

Accelerator physics
"In a European dominant group in the USA, having a help with Asian spirit was invaluable." "A plasma-based accelerator is a promising candidate for a next generation accelerator."

Acoustical physics
"Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound."

"Indeed, among the dominant group of signals, ie, whistles (W), we did not detect any signals of this type."

"This ridge can be used to trace out the dominant group velocity packet as a function of frequency for this site."

"The number of modes having a reverberation time in a specified time interval is expressed as a function of the total allowed degrees of freedom and it is shown that even when the number of degrees of freedom of the model is large there is, in general, no one dominant group."

Agrophysics
"Agrophysics is closely related to biophysics, but is restricted to the biology of the plants, animals, soil and an atmosphere involved in agricultural activities and biodiversity. It is different from biophysics in having the necessity of taking into account the specific features of biotope and biocoenosis, which involves the knowledge of nutritional science and agroecology, agricultural technology, biotechnology, genetics etc."

"In the small basin (station 1) a mass development of the chrysophyte Dinobryon divergens was observed, so the dominant group in both abundance and biomass was Chrysophyceae. On the two deeper sampling stations the dominant groups changed from Cryptophyceae (mainly Rhodomonas lacustris) to Chlorophyceae and Dinophyceae [...]."

"According to Kim et al. [1997], fungi constitute a dominant group among microorganisms decomposing humus substances in terms of the number of species."

Applied physics
"Applied physics is a general term for physics which is intended for a particular technological or practical use. It is usually considered as a bridge or a connection between "pure" physics and engineering. "

"This implies that, in the former range, the disturbance will consist of a single dominant group whose frequency increases as tito increases; in the second range of ... two dominant groups, differing in frequency and wavelength, will arrive simultaneously at the point considered."

"A deconvoluted inhomogeneous linewidth broadening of 14.9 meV from the dominant group of QDs in the crystal is obtained."

"[T]he current across the dominant group of shunts and the two point-like shunts is 150mA."

Astrophysics
"Astrophysics at its simplest is the application of laboratory physics, i.e., physics demonstrated in a laboratory and described with logical laws, to natural astronomical entities. This is done to understand these astronomical entities, their origin, history, and current constitution."

Notation: let the symbol AR stand for active region.

Notation: let the symbol SDR stand for surface differential rotation.

Notation: let the symbol ΔP stand for a change in rotational period.

"[A] star lacking one dominant AR, or with several ARs spaced in longitude, might not show a clear rotational signal."

SDR "will most easily be detected among stars that have relatively stable modulation over several rotations within a season from a dominant group of ARs that experience a noticeable change in mean AR latitude (corresponding to a change in mean rotational period) between consecutive observing seasons."

"On very active stars with large filling factors, ΔP may be minimized because the periods determined might only result from a limited latitude band where enough "gaps" in the plage exist to permit detection of rotation modulation." ΔP equals the maximum observed rotational period (Pmax) minus the minimum (Pmin).

Notation: let the symbol Z stand for atomic number.

 * let the symbol PeV stand for 1015 electron volts.

"The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 − 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle flux consists of these elements."

Notation: let the symbol keV stand for 103 electron volts.

Compact groups of galaxies are tight associations of galaxies. Their compactness suggests extremely short crossing times and a very rapid evolution. Computer simulations suggest that a compact "group coalesces into a giant dominant galaxy in a small number of crossing times." "Alternately, compact groups may be transient unbound cores of loose groups". A third alternative is that they are mostly chance alignments within larger loose groups of galaxies.

"In a physically dense group one would expect that the majority of the galaxies would exhibit visible signs of interaction."

"At the same time, the dominant group members are as likely to be spirals as ellipticals, hence suggesting that systematic merging has not (yet) occurred".

The microdensitometer tracings from a low-inductance vacuum spark are compared with spectra from the OSO 3 satellite.

"The preflare spectrum and the 14 kV spectrum both have Fe XVIII as the dominant group of lines"

Atmospheric physics
"Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere."

"There is a dominant group of periodicities around 4±7 years, which may be associated with the ENSO phenomena."

Atomic physics
Def. the "branch of physics that studies the internal structure of atomic nuclei" is called atomic physics.

"Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change."

"To cope with all reasonable ranges of dynamic thermal plasma in low- to medium-density plasma excluding short-period observations of the most highly impulsive events, the group of dominant populations is expanded to include low lying metastable states of ions and the collisional-radiative coefficients are renamed the generalized collisional-radiative coefficients."

Biophysics
Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of, and theories from physics to study biological systems.

"Finally, microflagellates were the dominant group in slope and basin regions of the model, where the different size classes of autotrophic flagellates constituted ~74% of the carbon biomass in August 1994 [Booth and Horner, 1997]."

"In many sediments, the bacteria probably account for 90–99% of the biomass, thus making the prokaryotes by far the dominant group in terms of metabolic potential."

"Statements regarding initial protofibril network are: (i) A dominant group of Aproto fibrils appears first."

Chemical physics
Def. "the science that studies chemical processes and phenomena from the point of view of physics" is called chemical physics.

"Chemical physics is a subdiscipline of chemistry and physics that investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. While at the interface of physics and chemistry, chemical physics is distinct from physical chemistry in that it focuses more on the characteristic elements and theories of physics. Meanwhile, physical chemistry studies the physical nature of chemistry."

"In condensed matter physics, the Keldysh formalism is a general framework for describing the quantum mechanical evolution of  a system in a non-equilibrium state, e.g. in the presence of time varying fields (an electrical field, a magnetic field, both, etc.). The main mathematical object in the Keldysh formalism is the non-equilibrium Green's function."

In physics, a wave packet (or wave train) is a short "burst" or "envelope" of wave action that travels as a unit. A wave packet can be analyzed into, or can be synthesized from, an infinite set of component sinusoidal waves of different wavenumbers, with phases and amplitudes such that they interfere constructively only over a small region of space, and destructively elsewhere.

Depending on the evolution equation, the wave packet's envelope may remain constant (no dispersion, see figure) or it may change (dispersion) while propagating. Quantum mechanics ascribes a special significance to the wave packet: it is interpreted to be a "probability wave" describing the probability that a particle or particles in a particular state will be measured to have a given position and momentum. It is in this way similar to the wave function.

With respect to dominance, "[t]he components with maximum velocity become increasingly dominant in the determination of the front of the wave packet."

"[T]he dominant group velocity manifests as a linear dependence of the wave packet maxima with time."

Classical mechanics
Def. "all of the physical laws of nature that account for the behaviour of the normal world, but break down when dealing with the very small ... or the very fast or very heavy" is called classical mechanics.

"During the Restoration, each time two theories presented radical differences in their structures the dominant group of physicists misinterpreted the theoretical differences as mere innovations to be derived from the old Newtonian RPM."

Clinical physics
Def. the physical observation prior to medical treatment of actual outpatients in a place or hospital department is called clinical physics.

Def. a small medical thermometer with a short, finely calibrated range, for taking a person's temperature is called a clinical thermometer.

"The difference with the area upon stimulation of the non-dominant eye was statistically significant in the right eye dominant group."

"[T]he dominant eye actually activates a larger area of the primary visual cortex than the non-dominant eye."

Condensed matter physics
Def. the "field of physics dealing with the physical properties of solid or liquid matter" is called condensed matter physics.

"Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. "

"Thus, it does not appear to be the dominant group in the glass network."

Electricity
Def. a "branch of science dealing with electrical phenomena" is called electricity.

Electromagnetism
Def. "a field of study ... that combines the aspects of electricity and magnetism" is called electromagnetism.

Experimental physics
"[E]xperimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the observation of physical phenomena in order to gather data about the universe."

Geophysics
Def. "[a] branch of earth science dealing with the physical processes and phenomena occurring in the earth and in its vicinity" is called geophysics.

"The dominant group frequency, Ip, which is the frequency of the peak energy over the time length tg."

"The dominant group wave height, hp, which can be obtained from the time series as the maximum trough-to-crest wave height over the time length tg."

Gravity
Def. a field of study that combines the "[r]esultant force on Earth's surface, of the attraction by the Earth's masses, and the centrifugal pseudo-force caused by the Earth's rotation [with] [g]ravitation, [a] universal force exercised by two bodies onto each other" is called gravity.

"These values yield a dominant group velocity consistent with the Eady lee wave extension along the y axis in Fig. 5f: Cg ≈ (6 ; −20) ms−1."

High energy physics
Def. physics that consists of theory, experiment, accelerators and detection-device technology to study high-energy interactions, usually at relativistic speeds, is called high-energy physics.

"The problems encountered in measuring quadrupole moments of sd shell nuclei are the low excitation cross sections and the difficulty of separating the inelastically scattered particles from the dominant group of elastically scattered projectiles."

Hydrology
"Waters of “local” rainfall and imported, “Colorado” River aqueduct origins are easily distinguished from dominant, “native” Santa Ana river compositions by use of hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope analysis."

"The Santa Ana river isotopic signature will also be shown to be nearly identical to that observed for the dominant group of Orange County groundwater wells sampled in this study".

Materials physics
"Also, the characteristic emission bands originating from the transition 5 D 4 → 7 F J (J = 6, 5, 4, 3), with the transition 5 D 4 → 7 F 5 green emission as the dominant group are observed in the emission spectra of the pure Tb(III) complex (Tb-L) and the hybrid materials as shown".

Metal physics
"There is in reality a distribution of magnetic cluster sizes although the smallest magnetic clusters will constitute the dominant group."

Nuclear physics
Notation: let the symbol ERDA stand for elastic recoil detection analysis.

"The dominant group in the lower half results from the first oxygen-bearing layer in the Si02(0.5 pm)/Al(0.5 pm)/Si02(0.5 pm)/Al(2.0 pm) target stack."

Particle physics
Def. "[a] branch of physics that studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between them" is called particle physics.

"Interpretation of the results has customarily proceeded by assuming the WIMP interacts with only the dominant group of nucleons."

Physicists
"It seemed clear to me that academic physicists represented a 'dominant group'. Their values and interests shaped the traditional curriculum for school physics, and they had the power to control its content."

"Perhaps thirty years is not long enough for examiners to adapt their methods to the circumstance that professional physicists and not school teachers are now the dominant group in their classes."

"Professors of the MV Lomonosov Moscow State University make up the dominant group of authors."

Plasma physics
"The dominant group of particles is especially vulnerable to local disturbances in the plasma created by a wave, by turbulence, or simply by particle collisions, which can disturb their phases or even untrap them."

"The most dominant group of the Fourier modes with exists around the Mercier-unstable region, and other two groups with and extend from the Mercier-unstable region into the Mercier-stable region."

Radiation physics
"In physics, X-waves are localized solutions of the wave equation that travel at a constant velocity in a given direction. X-waves can be sound, electromagnetic, or gravitational waves. They are built as a non-monochromatic superposition of Bessel beams. X-waves carry infinite energy. Electromagnetic X-waves travel faster than the speed of light. Finite-energy realizations have been observed in various frameworks. In optics, X-waves solution have been reported within a quantum mechanical formulation. "

"In physics, a nonlinear X-wave (NLX) is a multi-dimensional wave that can travel without distortion. At variance with X-waves, a nonlinear X-wave does exist in the presence of nonlinearity, and in many cases it self-generates from a Gaussian (in any direction) wave packet."

"Nonlinear X waves are indeed stationary localized wave packets WP's which have shown to play a key role in the [spatiotemporal] ST dynamics in focusing media with normal group-velocity dispersion GVD or dominant group-velocity mismatch (GVM)".

Seismology
"The four dominant group of peaks coincide precisely with the frequencies of the diurnal, semidiurnal, 8 h and 6 h components of the gravitational tides."

"The last principal arrival considered is the Rayleigh surface wave, R, which has a dominant group velocity of about 2.75 km/sec."

Solid state physics
"Detailed examination of the calculations shows that although charged quartets can be neglected (xql < xqo) it is not possible for the neutral quartets to pick out a small dominant group of geometries."

"The dominant group is (SiGe)SiH, at T, = 190 "C and is replaced by (Ge,)SiH, at T, = 250 "C."

Magnetoelectronics
"Spintronics (a neologism meaning "spin transport electronics" ), also known as magnetoelectronics, is an emerging technology that exploits both the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid-state devices."

"This group, the dominant group, is characterized by the lowest damping and the highest coupling to the pump field".

Thermodynamics
"[I]n the first case there are dominant group-group interactions and in the second case dominant group-solvent interactions."

Hypotheses

 * 1) The most dominant group in physics are the married male PhD's who fund themselves.

title: Dominant group/Physics


text:
Dominant group/Geology

Dominant group appears to be used in geology as a scientific or technical term that has an apparent origin in 1826 (174 b2k). The term itself is an entity within each field. Like a geologist, also a geological entity, so is a dominant group.

In theory, dominant group in geology may have at least four meanings: (1) a dominant group of geology-based entities, (2) geology-based sources, (3) geology-based objects, or (4) a dominant group in some way associated with geology.

Paleontology is usually a subfield of geology but it may be closer to biology and related subjects. Dominant group/Paleontology contains examples of dominant groups in paleontology.

Several areas within geography and anthropology that overlap geology are examined for their usage of "dominant group": archaeology, glaciology, hydrology, oceanography, Sedimentology, and soil science.

Synonyms
Two different words having very close meanings are relative synonyms, while two different words having exactly the same meaning are absolute synonyms.

Distinguishing between absolute and relative synonyms "is an important distinction for a domain-specific terminology."

"[O]ne might exchange terms almost intuitively, as though one concept of a word is fundamentally the same as its relative "synonym.""

The relative synonyms of "dominant group" fall into the following set of orderable pairs:

'Orderable' means that any synonym from within the first category can be ordered with any synonym from the second category to form an alternate term for "dominant group"; for example, "superior class", "influential sect", "master assembly", "most important group", and "dominant painting". "Dominant" falls into category 171. "Group" is in category 61. Further, any word which has its most or much more common usage within these categories may also form an alternate term, such as "ruling group", where "ruling" has its most common usage in category 739, or "dominant party", where "party" is in category 74. "Taxon" or "taxa" are like "species" in category 61. "Society" is in category 786 so there is a dominant society as a relative synonym for a dominant group.

Dominant sizes
"The Grunehogna Craton (GC, East Antarctica) is interpreted as part of the Archaean Kaapvaal Craton of southern Africa prior to Gondwana breakup. The basement of the GC is exposed only within a small area comprising the dominantly leucocratic Annandagstoppane (ADT) S-type granite."

"The granite is relatively fine grained (1–2 mm dominant grain size) and isotropic without any signs of ductile or brittle deformation."

"The dominant group of zircons with a crystallization age of 3067 ± 8 Ma is interpreted to define the crystallization age of the ADT granite."

"[T]onalite–trondjemite–granodiorite (TTG) [is] in the source region of the zircon-producing magmas."

"The dominant group of TTG gneisses in the [Swaziland Block] SB, however, formed from plutons intruded into the Barberton greenstone belt (BGB) between ∼3·46 and 3·43 Ga (Poujol et al., 2003)."

In the above primary source, "dominant grain size" is used only once and dominant group is used twice by the authors. Additional uses of "dominant": dominant granite-twice, "most dominant component"-once, and "dominant mechanisms"-once.

"Group" is used fifty-two times: eight for stratigraphic units (eg. Ritscherflya Supergroup) and after the above the remaining refer to various age groups of zircons, the focus of the original research.

Below is an effort to evaluate each dominant group hypothesis for the above dominant group uses.

 * 1) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.

To test this hypothesis, assume that "dominant grain size" is an observation by the author, regarding the most frequent or largest average grain size, and it is an accident of the authors or the observations.

The synonym uses of dominant group, three out of seven uses of "dominant" suggest its not an accidental use by the authors but a word choice preference.

The natural processes could still be accidental.

Although grain size distributions sometimes approximate a bimodal or multimodal distribution, as in the figure on the right from another author, usually there is one significant peak in the frequency distribution, as suggested in the unprocessed distribution. But this is usually not the largest grain size. Dominance then is most likely related by the above author to the peak frequency of occurrence. The process that made a particular grain size the most frequent may be random (an accident) or a product of the grain production process (not an accident even though it may be best approximated by a random distribution). In the above primary source, the process is most likely magma cooling and grain crystallization from the melt following a fairly complex phase diagram.

For the second set of authors, "Mean grain size, however, reached a steady value irrespective of axial strain. This implies that a limited amount of strain is accommodated on each strand with further strain requiring new strands to form."

"Graph of incremental total volume (%) vs grain diameter (mm) [on the right] is from the laser particle size analysis on a log linear scale. The plot compares the grain-size distributions of gouge strands sampled from tests carried out at increasing amounts of axial strain (4.2, 6.5 and 11.2%). The grain-size distribution for undeformed Locharbriggs sandstone is plotted for comparison. The three gouge samples have very similar characteristic curves which exhibit both the same peak value, indicating significant grain-size reduction with respect to the undeformed sample, and a similar range of grain sizes."

The figure on the right clearly shows that the changes in the grain size distribution were caused by the axial strain, not an accident. The authors of the second primary source did not use the term dominant group.

Faults
Def. the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study through observation and experiment of the Earth's physical structure and substance, its history and origin, and the processes that act on it, especially by examination of its rocks, is called geology.

Def. the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study through observation and experiment of naturally occurring astronomical rocky objects, their physical structure and substance, history and origin, and the processes that act on them, especially by examination of their rocks, is called astrogeology.

Entities
"Those who do not share the values of the dominant group may have been separated out, voluntarily or otherwise."

"Because most of the lectures in the eighteenth century and even some in the beginning of the nineteenth were delivered in Latin, ex-seminarians and priests' sons had a decided advantage over other students and formed the dominant group in the first student bodies."

Objects
"The groundmass of the phonolitie lava flows is usually finer grained and some of these lavas contain a glassy mesostasis. The feldspars are the dominant group of minerals found in these rocks."

Archaeology
Archaeology "studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, ecofacts, human remains, and landscapes."

Here, some of the dominant groups consist of ceramics, pottery, and tools left behind as fossils. Others are some of the archaeologists.

Economic geology
"Crystals of the dominant group (80 vol %) are long prismatic (length/width ratios = 2.5:1–4:1), display obtuse pyramids, and show internal zoning in transmitted light."

"The dominant group of CO2-bearing fluid inclusions (types I and II) is considered the most precocious, and may represent primary FI."

"An attractive 5 x 3-cm Summitville, Colorado, specimen exhibiting a dominant group of thin covellite crystals on matrix."

"It is separated by an angular unconformity from the Middle ORS, which is the dominant group."

Geochemistry
"The South Platte pegmatite district is well known for its significant enrichment in the rare earth elements (REE)".

"The replacement phases of the district can be subdivided into two well-defined assemblages, with allanite representing the LREE-dominant group and samarskite representing the HREE-dominant group."

"The dominant Group D rocks are large trachyandesite lava domes."

"Overall, polyunsaturated fatty acids were the dominant group of fatty acids (Table 2), except at Station 6 where saturated fatty acids also dominated the fatty acid pool."

"Composite tetrafunctionalised biohopanoids were the dominant group of bacteriohopanepolyols in all other sediments, and are likely to be a major source of the geologically occurring extended hopanes."

Geochronology
"A date of 2809 ± 5 Ma was determined from 25 concordant analyses of 10 grains of the dominant group, and a 2945 ± 7 Ma date from 7 other grains."

"The relative probability plot (Fig. 10) shows a dominant group of 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ages at ~1560 Ma with minor scattered analyses around 1500 Ma and younger and one slightly older analysis at about 1630 Ma."

"Analyses from the dominant group and those that are consistent to within each of their analytical errors produced a weighted mean age of 550 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 1.3, n = 11; Fig. 8C)."

Geodesy
Def. "the geological science of the shape and size of the earth" or "the measurement and representation of Earth, its gravitational field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, Earth tides, and crustal motion) in three‐dimensional, time‐varying space" is called geodesy.

"This is expected since they are successive harmonics of the M2 dominant group."

"Consequently, the resulting age is an average on all sources, which is often close to the dominant group, when one age population is volumetrically dominant."

"The oldest and north at varying angles, so that the oldest sediments most dominant group (RG-1) contains faults that strike within the grabens have the steepest northward dip, with 75–110° and is the group that includes most of the faults"

Geodetics
Def. "the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, its gravitational field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, earth tides, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional, time-varying space" is called geodetics.

"Concerning equilibrium networks it turns out that as in GJ (2003), equilibrium networks have a dominant group architecture, ie a group of firms are linked to each other while other firms have no links at all."

"The dominant group of deposits is fine sands accounting for 41.3% of the population (44 samples)."

"Third, an interest in legal geography, regarding maps as means to legitimize ownership claims by the dominant group to indigenous lands, and as sources that may be used in present land ownership disputes. Here we focus mainly on the first approach."

Geomorphology
Def. the "study of landforms, their classification, origin, development, and history" is called geomorphology.

Def. each continuous surface of a landscape that is observable in its entirety and has consistence of form or regular change of form is called a landform.

Def. an assemblage of surfaces that are a portion of land, region, or territory, observable in its entirety is called a landscape.

"It was the dominant group on sediment-covered reefs below 75 m depth."

"Because they are isolated from influxes originating from overland transport of nutrients and sediments, they have little opportunity to influence the quality of ground water and surface water; hence, their interactions with the atmosphere through acid deposition and carbon dioxide exchanges become a dominant group of functions as described above."

"A tributary classification was defined by dominant group membership (including first and second order streams Milksick Branch, Auger Fork, Frozen Creek and Cobb Creek; Table 1)."

Geophysics
"The dominant group frequency, Ip, which is the frequency of the peak energy over the time length tg."

"The dominant group wave height, hp, which can be obtained from the time series as the maximum trough-to-crest wave height over the time length tg."

Glaciology
Def. the "study of ice and its effect on the landscape, especially the study of glaciers" is called glaciology.

"The algae was the dominant group, and all obtained sequences belonged to Chlamydomonadales."

"Bacteria of β-Proteobacteria were dominant group in Nam Co, accounting for 61% of the total amount."

"Phototrophs were found to be the dominant group in terms of productivity and biomass in previous analyses (Mueller et al., 2005) and we therefore focused on cyanobacteria, green algae, diatoms, and other protists."

Historical geology
"Historical geology is a study of life forms represented in the fossil record, as well as the chronology of geologic processes. Of the three main rock groups (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary), sedimentary rocks are clearly the dominant group in Florida geology."

"The beginning of the Cenozoic saw the establishment of mammals as the dominant group of large-bodied terrestrial vertebrates."

"Such preemption might take a long time, as the realized speciation rate of the dominant group would be lowered owing to the presence of the other groups in the adaptive space, and as in many groups average species durations are several million years."

Hydrology
Def. the "science of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on a planet's surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere" is called hydrology.

"Waters of “local” rainfall and imported, “Colorado” River aqueduct origins are easily distinguished from dominant, “native” Santa Ana river compositions by use of hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope analysis."

"The Santa Ana river isotopic signature will also be shown to be nearly identical to that observed for the dominant group of Orange County groundwater wells sampled in this study".

"Phenols form a dominant group of compounds deposited at the site but their abundance in the groundwater is reduced by an order of magnitude within 50 m of the lagoon."

Mineralogy
"We take the boundary between the lithium and calcium, and lithium and magnesium–iron–manganese amphiboles at Li: Ca and Li: (Mg + Fe + Mn) ratios of 0.50 (ie, we use the criterion of the dominant cation or, in the case of the magnesium–iron–manganese amphiboles, the dominant group of cations) in both SCHEME 1 and SCHEME 2."

"The main concem in the Ba-dominant group is substitution at the T site; for walthierite, such substitution was not detected (Li et al. 1992)."

"For the Al-dominant group (Fig. 5), goyazite and svanbergite have long been used to indicate the PO4 and PO4-SO4 minerals, respectively."

Oceanography
Oceanography, also called oceanology or marine science, studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries.

"Towards the middle of isotope stage 1, there is a pronounced decrease in transparent shells, while the opaque-white ones become the dominant group."

"The copepods were the dominant group at station E offshore."

"In March 1979, the dominant taxa were polychaete larvae and crustacean nauplii, while in May the dominant group was Nematoda."

Paleontology
The study of dominant group within paleontology combines biology and ecology with geology.

"Torrejonian 2 also marked the first appearance of the coyote-sized mesonychid (Cete) Dissacus, which was probably the dominant predator in the Torrejonian and Tiffanian."

Petrology
Petrology is a branch of geology that studies rocks, and the conditions in which rocks form. Lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks, while petrography deals with microscopic details. Petrology benefits from mineralogy, optical mineralogy, geochemistry, and geophysics. Three branches of petrology focus on the three major rock types: igneous petrology, metamorphic petrology, and sedimentary petrology.

With respect to igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology, the constituent phrase 'dominant group' refers to petrology-based objects.

Igneous petrology
With respect to the igneous petrology of the southern Paraná of southern Brazil, "[i]t was well known from surface mapping that LPT rocks were the dominant group in the southern Parana, but the borehole data indicate that LPT rocks underlie HPT, and that they in turn are overlain by IPT rocks." The basalts of the Parana continental flood basalt (CFB) province may be subdivided into two groups on the basis of their titanium (Ti) and phosphorus (P) contents: the high P and high Ti group (HPT) have TiO2 > 3 % and P2O5 > 0.4 % and the low P and low Ti group (LPT) have TiO2 < 2 % and P2O5 < 0.3 %. More recent work suggests there is a significant intermediate P and intermediate Ti group (IPT).

"The dominant magma type appears to have evolved from LPT to HPT to IPT with time, and the site of the magmatism may also have migrated northwards.". While the borehole and road cut evidence does not appear to effect the dominant LPT group in the south, it suggests that the IPT group may be dominant in the north, with the HPT group being dominant between these two.

"The granite is relatively fine grained (1–2 mm dominant grain size) and isotropic without any signs of ductile or brittle deformation."

Notation: let the symbol ADT stand for Annandagstoppane, and Ma stand for million years ago.

"The dominant group of zircons with a crystallization age of 3067 ± 8 Ma is interpreted to define the crystallization age of the ADT granite."

Notation: let the symbol TTG stand for tonalite–trondjemite–granodiorite.

Notation: let the symbol SB stand for Swaziland Block and Ga stand for billion years ago.

"The dominant group of TTG gneisses in the SB, however, formed from plutons intruded into the Barberton greenstone belt (BGB) between ∼3·46 and 3·43 Ga (Poujol et al., 2003)."

Metamorphic petrology
On the serpentinization processes in ultramafic rocks from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of the Kane Fracture Zone, latitude 23° N, at Site 670, "[o]range to pale-green serpentinized harzburgites with a well-defined spinel and orthopyroxene foliation are the volumetrically dominant group of samples (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1988)."

"[S]erpentinization in our sample set occurred at temperatures greater than 350°C." "In our set of serpentinized ultramafic rocks, the oxygen-isotope results also indicate that serpentinization occurred at high (between 0.3 and 1.25), but presumably variable, water:rock ratios, assuming that the serpentinizing fluid was seawater or 18O-enriched seawater."

Sedimentary petrology
In the Lower Cretaceous sediments of south-eastern Alexander Island are a "palaeogeographical distribution of conglomerate beds". From the petrology of the pebbles for seven conglomerate horizons, the pebbles can be divided into four compositional groups whose proportional representations are determined. With respect to the first compositional group of pebbles of volcanic material, "[i]ncluded in this dominant group are a wide range of volcanic rocks, both lavas and tuffs."

Further, three of the seven conglomerate horizons have a local majority of pebbles of volcanic material, while the other four have a majority of pebbles of plutonic material. The other two compositional groups are 'hypabyssal' and 'metasedimentary'.

Planetary geology
Planetary geology, astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. It includes determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets, planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters, fluvial and aeolian processes.

Quaternary
The "whole change elapsed just opposite the course of events that characterized the great glacial oscillations with sudden warming followed by slow cooling. Therefore, the two phenomena hardly have the same cause."

"Our data strengthen this hypothesis and show unequivocally that haplogroup C, an endemic and dominant group of North American mammoths, was basal to all remaining Asian mammoth populations (including that on Wrangel Island)."

"Within the present study, however, the Tanytarsini have not been subdivided. This is clearly a dominant group at certain times."

"Ahl al Oughlam lacks the diversity of murids found in East African sites of this age, but also fully lacks any arvicolid, the dominant group in Europe at that time."

"Where multiple grain single aliquot OSL measurements provide a range of dose values, the dating specialist may choose to accept a dominant group of aliquots and reject outliers."

Sedimentology
Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, mud (silt), and clay, and the processes that result in their deposition.

Sedimentary rocks cover most of the Earth's surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal relationships between rock layers or strata.

"Each factor is described according to the dominant group of variables."

"The conglomerates are divided markedly into a dominant group, which is light colored with little evidence of humic material, and a subordinate group in which the matrix is dark with humic matter."

"The relationship between the sandstone petrography and seismic stratigraphy is shown in Figure 9. Group 1 is the dominant group and consists of very fine- to medium-grained sandstones with relatively good sorting."

Geoseismology
"The dominant Love wave group is sometimes preceded by a small group of waves of similar type but of only ten or fifteen per cent of the amplitude of the dominant group."

"The four dominant group of peaks coincide precisely with the frequencies of the diurnal, semidiurnal, 8 h and 6 h components of the gravitational tides."

"The last principal arrival considered is the Rayleigh surface wave, R, which has a dominant group velocity of about 2.75 km/sec."

Soils
"The second and dominant group is yellow reddish granite soil which is coarse and highly dispersible."

"The sediments were dominantly consisted of silt and clay of percentage over 95%, and that the <30 μm particle group was the “dominant group”."

"Hydrophobic acids, which constitute the dominant group of dissolved organic compounds in the humic layer, are effectively retained as water percolates through E and B horizons of podzol profiles (East- house et al., 1992)."

Stratigraphy
"The numerically dominant group throughout zones A and B is the benthic Fragilaria".

"The dominant group consists of normal faults nearly parallel to the arc."

"Unfortunately, so far, Eocene beds have not been adequately studied biostratigraphycally, despite the fact that they have a very abundant microfauna with the predominant group of nummulitines in all levels."

"The trimaceritic coal facies: In this facies, vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite are all well represented. Vitrinite, however, is still the dominant group".

"The granitoid layers include a dominant group of equigranular, coarse- to medium-grained, massive to weakly foliated gneisses that range in composition from granite to granodiorite to quartz".

Structural geology
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories.

"The dominant group (type 1) consist of cloudy translucent cores that have in places been mantled by clear overgrowths with faceted terminations (Figure 8a, b)."

"The granitoid layers include a dominant group of equigranular, coarse- to medium-grained, massive to weakly foliated gneisses that range in composition from granite to granodiorite to quartz".

"The most dominant group (35%) in the population analysed has an age range of ~2680 to ~2740Ma."

Volcanology
"As the diagram (Fig.10) shows, the majority of the steepest slopes is dipping both to the northwest and to the southeast, belonging to the dominant group of ridges striking NE-SW".

"The dominant group consists of normal faults nearly parallel to the arc."

"The basalts most enriched in incompatible elements (Group 1) are spatially restricted to the central part of the axial volcano, whereas the least enriched basalts (Group 3, the dominant group of basalts) are distributed along the entire segment."

"The first and dominant group contains plagioclase, clinopyroxene, actinolite, chlorite, epidote as the essential minerals and calcite, opaques and quartz as accessories."

Hypotheses

 * 1) As the patrician class was/is interested in wealth, their dominant group still exists.
 * 2) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.
 * 3) Artifact hypothesis: dominant group may be an artifact of human endeavor or may have preceded humanity.
 * 4) Association hypothesis: dominant group is associated in some way with the original research.
 * 5) Bad group hypothesis: dominant group is the group that engages in discrimination, abuse, punishment, and additional criminal activity against other groups. It often has an unfair advantage and uses it to express monopolistic practices.
 * 6) Control group hypothesis: there is a control group that can be used to study dominant group.
 * 7) Entity hypothesis: dominant group is an entity within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 8) Evolution hypothesis: dominant group is a product of evolutionary processes, such groups are the evolutionary process, produce evolutionary processes, or are independent of evolutionary processes.
 * 9) Identifier hypothesis: dominant group is an identifier used by primary source authors of original research to identify an observation in the process of analysis.
 * 10) Importance hypothesis: dominant group signifies original research results that usually need to be explained by theory and interpretation of experiments.
 * 11) Indicator hypothesis: dominant group may be an indicator of something as yet not understood by the primary author of original research.
 * 12) Influence hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article containing original research to indicate influence or an influential phenomenon.
 * 13) Interest hypothesis: dominant group is a theoretical entity used by scholarly authors of primary sources for phenomena of interest.
 * 14) Metadefinition hypothesis: all uses of dominant group by all primary source authors of original research are included in the metadefinition for dominant group.
 * 15) Null hypothesis: there is no significant or special meaning of dominant group in any sentence or figure caption in any refereed journal article.
 * 16) Object hypothesis: dominant group is an object within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 17) Obvious hypothesis: the only meaning of dominant group is the one found in Mosby's Medical Dictionary.
 * 18) Original research hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article by the author to indicate that the article contains original research.
 * 19) Primordial hypothesis: dominant group is a primordial concept inherent to humans such that every language or other form of communication no matter how old or whether extinct, on the verge of extinction, or not, has at least a synonym for dominant group.
 * 20) Purpose hypothesis: dominant group is written into articles by authors for a purpose.
 * 21) Regional hypothesis: dominant group, when it occurs, is only a manifestation of the limitations within a region. Variation of those limitations may result in the loss of a dominant group with the eventual appearance of a new one or none at all.
 * 22) Source hypothesis: dominant group is a source within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 23) Term hypothesis: dominant group is a significant term that may require a 'rigorous definition' or application and verification of an empirical definition.

Examples from primary sources are to be used to prove or disprove each hypothesis. These can be collected per subject or in general.

title: Dominant group/Geology


text:
User:Marshallsumter/Dominant group (geography)

=Cultural geography= =Development geography= =Economic geography= =Human geography=

Also, from the Wikipedia article geography: "Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape the human society. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects." including the following description of branches.

Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

 * {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"

 * Qichwa conchucos 01.jpg || Pepsi in India.jpg || Christaller model 1.jpg || Star of life.svg
 * Cultural geography || Development geography || Economic geography || Health geography
 * British Empire 1897.jpg || UN General Assembly.jpg || Pyramide Comores.PNG || ReligionSymbol.svg
 * Historical & Time geog. || Political geog. & Geopolitics || Pop. geog. or Demography || Religion geography
 * US-hoosier-family.jpg || RERParisVision2025.png || Antiparos-tourists.jpg || New-York-Jan2005.jpg
 * Social geography || Transportation geography || Tourism geography || Urban geography
 * }
 * US-hoosier-family.jpg || RERParisVision2025.png || Antiparos-tourists.jpg || New-York-Jan2005.jpg
 * Social geography || Transportation geography || Tourism geography || Urban geography
 * }
 * Social geography || Transportation geography || Tourism geography || Urban geography
 * }

=Physical geography=

Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:

 * {| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15"

 * Línea de Wallace.jpg || Cyclone Catarina from the ISS on March 26 2004.JPG || 90 mile beach.jpg || Gavin Plant.JPG
 * Biogeography || Climatology & Meteorology || Coastal geography || Environmental management
 * Meridian convergence and spehrical excess.png || Delicate Arch LaSalle.jpg || Receding glacier-en.svg || Meander-en.svg
 * Geodesy || Geomorphology || Glaciology || Hydrology & Hydrography
 * Khajuraho-landscape.jpg || World11.jpg || Soil profile.jpg || Pangea animation 03.gif
 * Landscape ecology || Oceanography || Pedology || Palaeogeography
 * Milankovitch Variations sv.png
 * Quaternary science
 * }
 * Landscape ecology || Oceanography || Pedology || Palaeogeography
 * Milankovitch Variations sv.png
 * Quaternary science
 * }
 * Quaternary science
 * }
 * }

=Phylogeography=

=Transportation geography= “The river traffic is not concentrated; there is no one dominant group of docks, wharves, warehouses, etc.; on the contrary the traffic is widely dispersed along the shores.”

=See also=

=References=

=Further reading=

=External links=