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Dominant group/Letter of intent

"Some NSF program solicitations require or request submission of a letter of intent (LOI) in advance of submission of a full proposal." [Bold added].

Notations
Notation: let the symbol NSF stand for the United States of America National Science Foundation.

Notation: let the symbol LOI stand for a Letter of Intent.

Dominant groups
Dominant group is an original research proposal here at Wikiversity that seeks the answers to many questions focused on the term dominant group and its synonyms. The term dominant group has found application in the sciences and the humanities. It also appears in reference to technology.

Two initial questions are
 * 1) "What is dominant group?" and
 * 2) "What is a dominant group?

Examples from primary sources are to be used to prove or disprove each hypothesis. These can be collected per subject or in general.

 * 1) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.
 * 2) Artifact hypothesis: dominant group may be an artifact of human endeavor or may have preceded humanity.
 * 3) Association hypothesis: dominant group is associated in some way with the original research.
 * 4) Bad group hypothesis: dominant group is the group that engages in discrimination, abuse, punishment, and additional criminal activity against other groups. It often has an unfair advantage and uses it to express monopolistic practices.
 * 5) Control group hypothesis: there is a control group that can be used to study dominant group.
 * 6) Entity hypothesis: dominant group is an entity within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 7) Evolution hypothesis: dominant group is a product of evolutionary processes, such groups are the evolutionary process, produce evolutionary processes, or are independent of evolutionary processes.
 * 8) Identifier hypothesis: dominant group is an identifier used by primary source authors of original research to identify an observation in the process of analysis.
 * 9) Importance hypothesis: dominant group signifies original research results that usually need to be explained by theory and interpretation of experiments.
 * 10) Indicator hypothesis: dominant group may be an indicator of something as yet not understood by the primary author of original research.
 * 11) Influence hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article containing original research to indicate influence or an influential phenomenon.
 * 12) Interest hypothesis: dominant group is a theoretical entity used by scholarly authors of primary sources for phenomena of interest.
 * 13) Metadefinition hypothesis: all uses of dominant group by all primary source authors of original research are included in the metadefinition for dominant group.
 * 14) Null hypothesis: there is no significant or special meaning of dominant group in any sentence or figure caption in any refereed journal article.
 * 15) Object hypothesis: dominant group is an object within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 16) Obvious hypothesis: the only meaning of dominant group is the one found in Mosby's Medical Dictionary.
 * 17) Original research hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article by the author to indicate that the article contains original research.
 * 18) Primordial hypothesis: dominant group is a primordial concept inherent to humans such that every language or other form of communication no matter how old or whether extinct, on the verge of extinction, or not, has at least a synonym for dominant group.
 * 19) Purpose hypothesis: dominant group is written into articles by authors for a purpose.
 * 20) Regional hypothesis: dominant group, when it occurs, is only a manifestation of the limitations within a region. Variation of those limitations may result in the loss of a dominant group with the eventual appearance of a new one or none at all.
 * 21) Source hypothesis: dominant group is a source within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 22) Term hypothesis: dominant group is a significant term that may require a 'rigorous definition' or application and verification of an empirical definition.

Letters of intent
"A letter of intent ... is a document outlining an agreement between two or more parties before the agreement is finalized. ... Such agreements may be Asset Purchase Agreements, Share Purchase Agreements, Joint-Venture Agreements and overall all Agreements which aim at closing a financially large deal."

"LOIs resemble written contracts, but are usually not binding on the parties in their entirety. Many LOIs, however, contain provisions that are binding, such as non-disclosure agreements, a covenant to negotiate in good faith, or a "stand-still" or "no-shop" provision promising exclusive rights to negotiate. A LOI may sometimes be interpreted by a court of law as binding the parties to it, if it too-closely resembles a formal contract."

"[A]n LOI is typically written in letter form and focuses on the parties' intentions".

"[A]n LOI outlines the intent of one party toward another with regard to an agreement, and may only be signed by the party expressing that intent".

Notices of intent
With respect to submitting proposals to NASA, a "Notice of Intent (NOI) [to Propose] is not required, merely desirable. Appendix A, Earth Science, and Appendix D, Astrophysics, use NOIs, although some programs in those Appendices don't ask for NOIs. A NOI may be submitted by an individual, it doesn't require that the organization approve or submit in NSPIRES. See for comparison FAQ #5 on the two-step proposal submission process in which the NOI is replaced by a required "Step-1" proposal that must be submitted by the institution."

"The information provided in the NOI is of considerable value to both the Proposer and NASA because it is used to help expedite the proposal-review activities. Material in an NOI is confidential and will be used for NASA planning purposes only. NOIs must be submitted via NSPIRES even when the intent is to submit the proposal via Grants.gov. Grants.gov does not support NOI submittal. Offerors must be registered with NSPIRES to create and submit an NOI. An NOI is submitted by logging into NSPIRES at http://nspires.nasaprs.com and then clicking on the “Proposals” link. Space is provided for the applicant to provide, at a minimum, the following information, although additional special requests may also be indicated:"
 * A Short Title of the anticipated proposal (50 characters or less);
 * A Full Title of the anticipated proposal (which should not exceed 254 characters and is of a nature that is understandable by a scientifically trained person);
 * A brief description of the primary research area(s) and objective(s) of the anticipated investigation (Note: the information in this item does not constrain in any way the Proposal Summary that must be submitted with the final proposal); and
 * The names of any Co-Investigators and/or Collaborators as may be known by the time the NOI is submitted. In order to enter such names, such team members must have previously accessed and registered in NSPIRES themselves; a PI cannot do this for them.

"After completing the indicated fields, the NOI is then submitted electronically. A copy may be printed for reference."

"Although it is most helpful to NASA if the NOI is submitted by the specified due date, a late NOI is still of value since the receipt of even a few unanticipated proposals can significantly delay and/or complicate the review process. A late NOI that contains (i) the name and identifier for the NRA of interest, (ii) the name and address of the applicant, and (iii) the key information listed above for an NOI may be submitted by email directly to the program officer identified in the NRA."

"For some ROSES calls the NOI is replaced by a Step-1 proposal. A Step-1 proposal is a prerequisite to submit a full (Step-2) proposal, i.e., you must have submitted a Step-1 proposal or you cannot submit a full proposal later. Whereas a NOI may be submitted by a proposer alone, a Step-1 proposal must be submitted by an institution i.e., by the "AOR" for NSPIRES. Proposals to the Heliophysics and Planetary Science Divisions (Appendix A and C) use the 2-Step submission process. In some cases the Step-1 proposal will be just a few lines, but in other cases it must be a few pages long and will be evaluated. For more information about the 2-Step process see Section IV.(vii) on page 17 of the ROSES-2014 Summary of Solicitation.""

Justifications
"The predominant reason for its use is to help NSF program staff to gauge the size and range of the competition, enabling earlier selection and better management of reviewers and panelists. In addition, the information contained in a LOI is used to help avoid potential conflicts of interest in the review process."

"In the solicitation of government grants, a letter of intent is highly encouraged but it is not required or binding, and does not enter into the review of a subsequent application. The information that it contains allows agency staff to estimate the potential workload and plan the review. "

Purposes
"The most common purposes of an LOI are:
 * To clarify the key points of a complex transaction for the convenience of the parties
 * To declare officially that the parties are currently negotiating, as in a merger or joint venture proposal
 * To provide safeguards in case a deal collapses during negotiation.
 * To verify certain issues regarding payments done for someone else".

Contents
"A LOI normally contains the PI's and co-PI's names, a proposed title, a list of possible participating organizations (if applicable), and a synopsis that describes the work in sufficient detail to permit an appropriate selection of reviewers."

Submissions
LOIs "are submitted electronically via the NSF FastLane System."

Details
"A LOI is not binding. ... A LOI is not externally evaluated or used to decide on funding."

The Research Council of Norway
"Quality assessment [f]or future coordinated projects we suggest that scientists first submit short pre-proposals (letter of intent), which are evaluated for their scientific relevance by an executive committee."

Hypotheses

 * 1) Considering the possible contracting nature of a letter of intent, it is best to precede such a letter with some form of a letter of interest which bears no contracting nature.

title: Dominant group/Letter of intent


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Recent trends in dental caries in U.S. children and the effect of water fluoridation

(Review Paper) Cited in

25% drop in cavities
When taking fluoride drops use by children both in fluoride treated and non-treated areas, there was a 25% drop in cavities in fluoride treated areas.

Methods
Over 39,000 children's teeth were examined between the ages of 5 to 17. Sampling was done fairly by testing children from different regions of the US, cities and rural areas, public and private schools.

The children's parents were asked whether or not fluoride drops were administered. Public records were checked to see if fluoride was added to the public drinking water. .

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Community Effectiveness of Public Water Fluoridation in Reducing Children's Dental Disease

(Review Paper) Cited in

Flouridated water is better for your teeth.
Flouride has been shown to prevent bacteria, plaque and improves the re-mineralization of the tooth.

Methods
128 children between 5 and 15 years old had their teeth examined. The results were compared to whether or not they drank fluoridated water, how far out of town they lived, and their socioeconomic status.

Results
Studies showed that children of all ages, living in a community with less than 0.3 parts of fluoride in the drinking water had more cavities then those of the same age range living in areas with a higher level of fluoride concentrations in their drinking water (more than 0.7 ppms)


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Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Water Fluoridation

(Review Paper) Cited in

Points Made
When fluoride is added to drinking water, there is a reduction in the chance of the population getting cavities by 5-64%.

Methods
1380 children participated in a questionnaire, they also had their clinical data recorded over an 11-month period.

Results
59 publications were used to come to the conclusion that water fluoridation is effective at reducing caries in children and adults. Water fluoridation reduces caries in all types of social classes as well.


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Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Water fluoridation in the Blue Mountains reduces risk of tooth decay

(Review Paper) Cited in

Points Made
By drinking fluoridated water, you add fluoride into the enamel of your teeth. When fluoride is present in your teeth, it strengthens the teeth by making them more resistant to being dissolved by acid.

Methods
Children aged 5-11, all of whom attended the same schools, were sampled in 2003. All though the children aged 8-12 had more varied results, overall, there were 20-40% less caries found. Results for adolescents showed approximately 15-35% fewer caries.

Results
According to the 2003 study, 95% of 1963 children between the ages of 5-13 were reported to use fluoride toothpaste. Children aged 5-11, all of whom attended the same schools, were sampled in 2003. All though the children aged 8-12 had more varied results, overall, there were 20-40% less caries found. Results for adolescents showed approximately 15-35% fewer caries.


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Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of The effect of water fluoridation and social inequalities on dental caries in 5-year-old children

(Review Paper) Cited in

Points Made
Water fluoridation reduces tooth decay in poorer communties and the use of water fluoridation would dramatically effect the quality of dental health in such neighborhoods. This study will show that poorer children benifit the most from water fluoridation

There is no credible evidence that water fluoridation is associated with any adverse health effects- McDonagh MS, Whiting PF, Wilson PM, Sutton AJ, Chestnut I, Cooper Jet al.Systematic review of water fluoridation. Br Med J2000;321: 855–9.

Studies done in the UK, Autralia and New Zealand have shown that water fluoridation lowers the number of dental caries and improves the oral health of all those living in fluoridated areas. Because water fluoridation is available to all regardless of income and social standing, it will reduce the inequality gap of dental issues amounst children in particular because they do not engage in such behaviours as smoking, drinking alcohol and caffeine.

Methods
The study examined previously obtained data from seven fluoridated and seven non-fluoridated districts in England. Other fluoridated districts were excluded for not meeting a 90% percent flouridation rate. The study focused on three major areas: 1) dental records from dentists visits outlining tooth decay, missing teeth etc. 2) the area that the children lived in 3) if the fluoride in the water has at it's optimal level of 90%

Results
This study shows that tooth decay rises in poorer neighborhoods with a low level of fluoridation than areas where there is more material wealth


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Community water fluoridation and caries prevention a critical review

(Review Paper) Cited in

We Already Have Fewer Cavities
The use of toothpaste already exposes the teeth to appropriate amounts fluoride, without the inclusion of fluoride in water, although this can be effected simply by human routines and habits. Several studies conducted in fluoridated and non-fluoridated communities suggested that this method of delivering fluoride may be unnecessary for caries prevention, particularly in the industrialized countries where the caries level has became low.

Methods
Laboratory investigations show that saliva and plaque fluids with low levels of fluoride (0.03ppm or higher) reduces the rates of demineralization and caries in teeth. .

Results
Laboratory tests prove that in more established populations water fluoridation is not significant due to more frequent topical fluoridation, whereas in less established populations CWF is more effective in preventing caries due to less accessibility to topical fluoridation. .


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Adding fluoride to water supplies

(Review Paper) Cited in

Water Fluoridation is regarded by many as 'Mass Medication
This process highly controversial – the general population is being medicated without consent. For example, those without dental caries are receiving unneeded fluoride.

Adding fluoride to the water supply does not take into consideration the individual's circumstances such as age, gender,and medical history; and is therefore unethical. Fluoridation is medicating people with an uncontrolled dose and can be hazardous to those who do not require it. For example, infants whose formula was made with fluoridated water are receiving a fluoride dose that is 100 times that of an infant who is breastfed. This mass medication of infants is extremely unethical.

Results
There are 4 main points that this paper emphasizes as the the danger of water fluoridation

1. Water Fluoridation is unethical - Fluoride in the water can be classified as a mass medication that can't be controlled by the people consuming it.

2. Water fluoridation is unsafe - There are many diseases/illnesses that can be contracted through the over exposure to fluoridation in water. Various scientific journals as specified in the article claim that some of these ailments include could include bone disease and skeletal-fluorosis.

3. Water Fluoridation is ineffective - There is false information according to this article, that suggests in the 1970's and 1960's fluoridation has actually decreased tooth decay in Western countries.

4. Fluoride is actually endorsed by corporations for the public to believe in - Food industries have promoted fluoride as the key negation to tooth decay.


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Arsenic and Fluoride Exposure in Drinking Water: Children's IQ and Growth in Shanyin County, Shanxi Province, China

(Review Paper) Cited in

A Decrease in IQ Levels
The children with high concentrations of fluoride and arsenic had their IQ levels decreased by 5 to 10 points when compared to those with low concentrations of fluoride and arsenic. .

Methods
A study of 720 children was done with different amounts of arsenic and fluoride in the water. The controlled variable had small traces of fluoride which was in the drinking water and small amounts of arsenic, and the manipulated variable had small amounts of arsenic and large amounts of fluoride.

A table showed that people with high levels of fluoride had an IQ approximately 5 points lower then the control group because of developmental problems.

Another test was done on rats and was determined that fluoride is neurotic to rats, which prevented the proper development of the brains functions. The scientist discovered this threw the study of the rats synapses. It was compared to new born babies who's mothers were exposed to fluoride. The results showed that the babies had developmental issues with their nervous system and the muscles tension in the brain, similar to those of the rats. This establishing a connection between a children's IQ and the exposure to fluoride.

Results
The results did not show a significant decrease in IQ, however the control group was taller, weighed more, and had a larger lung capacity than the manipulated variable.

The results showed a decrease in IQ scores for the control group.


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of The Association Between Community Water Fluoridation and Adult Tooth Loss

(Review Paper) Cited in

Overtime exposure to fluoride has shown to increase chances of adult tooth loss
Across the United States since the 1960's, surveys were conducted country and state wide based on fluoride in the water systems. It has been determined that exposure to fluoride has increased adult tooth loss.

Methods
In 1990 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) were provided with information from each state, of the active water systems. This informaion included the date the fluoridation period was started and if the water naturally had flouride or if it the chemical was manually added.This information was recorded along with the number of indidviduals that were being exposed to this water.

Results
It was discovered that nearly 60% of the individuals that responded to the community water fluoridation(CWF)had no tooth loss whereas fewer than 2% of the individuals that responded to the CWF lost all their teeth. This was mainly due to the fact that the average levels of CWF when the test was taken and 20years back from when the test was taken were higher for those with higher tooth loss but levels of CWF at birth were lower


text:
Controversies in Science/Water fluoridation/A Critique of Physiology and toxicity of fluoride

(Review Paper) Cited in

Harmful to development of children's teeth
In the right concentrations Fluoride strengthens teeth and bones.

Methods
In various locations of India, children's are given fluoride supplements via drops or chewable tablets, causing dental fluorosis.

Results
A study has shown that high concentrations of fluoride in a child's diet will lead to growth and developmental problems. The fluorides prevents the absorption of calcium into bones and teeth.


text: File:SystemC.06.A.DataTypes.20120602.pdf


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Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/DHA

"DHA offers pointers to new potential forms of neuroprotection."

Background
DHA or Docoaheaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that is a primary structural component of the human brain, sperm, testicles and retina.

Research
2003

Wang et al tested the effects of DHA on rats. They found:-

"DHA at 5-50 microg/ml successfully protected neurons against the cytotoxicity, markedly increased the cell viability, inhibited both nitric oxide (NO) production and calcium influx, and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and glutathione reductase (GR)."

2006

Samadi et al tested the effect of the application of DHA to monkeys treated with MPTP to induce levadopa-induced dyskinesia (LID). Their findings were that :-

"These results suggest that DHA can reduce the severity or delay the development of LIDs in a nonhuman primate model of Parkinson's disease."

2008

Cansey et al worked with rats rendered Parkinsonian by the administration of 6-OHDA. They were then treated with uridine-5’-monophosphate (UMP) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

"Rats receiving UMP, DHA, both, or neither, daily, and intrastriatal 6-OHDA 3 days after treatment onset, were tested for d-amphetamine-induced rotational behavior and dopaminergic markers after 24 and 28 days, respectively. UMP/DHA treatment reduced ipsilateral rotations by 57% and significantly elevated striatal dopamine, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) activity, TH protein and Synapsin-1 on the lesioned side. Hence, giving uridine and DHA may partially restore dopaminergic neurotransmission in this model of Parkinson’s Disease."

Bousquet et al tested the hypothesis that omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may exert neuroprotective action in Parkinson's disease, by putting mice on a high PUFA diet and then inducing Parkunsonism with MPTP.

The result was a mix of good and bad news but there was sufficient of the former to warrant the conclusion:-

"Taken together, these data suggest that a high n-3 PUFA dietary intake exerts neuroprotective actions in an animal model of Parkinsonism."

2011

Ozsoy et al tested the effect of DHA application on MPTP treated mice. They found that:-

 * Docosahexaenoic acid significantly diminished the amount of cell death in the MPTP+DHA group as compared to the MPTP group.

 * TBARS levels in the brain were significantly increased following MPTP treatment.

 * Glutathione_peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) activities of brain were unaltered in all groups.

 * The activity of brain superoxide dismutase (SOD) was decreased in the MPTP-treated group compared to the control group,
 * but DHA treatment did not have an effect on SOD activity in the MPTP+DHA group.


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/Exendin-4 (EX-4)

"This product (Exenatide) has the merit of being already approved for human use in the treatment of diabetes."

Background
Exendin-4 (Ex-4), an agonist of a hormone known as Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1), is the first of this new class of antihyperglycemia drugs approved to treat Type 2 diabetes. Because of rare, but potentially dangerous side effects – principally pancreatitis - its use is constrained in the UK, through advice from NICE, to patients where 1st and 2nd -line treatments fail to achieve control of blood glucose and either the patient has a high body mass index or insulin treatment is not appropriate. In the US the FDA has issued similar cautionary information.

Research
GLP-1 agonists such as Exendin-4 have been known to have specific effects on neuron growth and function for more than 10 years. A body of in vitro studies and trials in rodents has subsequently established the possibility of various beneficial neurological effects, leading to the first pilot clinical trial in Parkinson's disease patients which began in 2010, with results published in 2013.

Significant papers include:

2002

Perry et al demonstrated promotion of neurite growth and neuron differentiation by Exendin-4

2008

Harkavyi et al showed that EX-4 reversed the loss of extracellular DA in the striata of toxin lesioned freely moving rats.

"This suggests that pharmacological manipulation of the GLP-1 receptor system could have substantial therapeutic utility in PD. Critically, in contrast to other peptide agents that have been demonstrated to possess neuroprotective properties in pre-clinical models of PD, EX-4 is in current clinical use in the management of type-II diabetes and freely crosses the blood brain barrier; hence, assessment of the clinical efficacy of EX-4 in patients with PD could be pursued without delay."

2009

Li et al found that Ex-4 treatment protected dopaminergic neurons against degeneration, preserved dopamine levels, and improved motor function in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of Parkinson's disease (PD).

"Our findings demonstrate that Ex-4 can protect neurons against metabolic and oxidative insults, and they provide preclinical support for the therapeutic potential for Ex-4 in the treatment of stroke and PD."

2013

Aviles-Olmos et al carried out a clinical trial with a cohort of 45 PD patients to assess the effect of a year’s injections of Exanatide upon their PD symptoms. This was designed as a pilot study, only single-blinded, as a cost-effective means of gathering preliminary data to determine whether a full double-blind trial might be justified. Comparison of scores in Part 3 (the clinical assessment part) of the standard UPDRS assessment protocol between experimental and control groups was significant at the 5% level, though not at the 1% level.

"Exenatide-treated patients had a mean improvement at 12 months on the MDS-UPDRS of 2.7 points, compared with mean decline of 2.2 points in control patients (P = 0.037)."

The drug's mechanism of action in Parkinson's disease remains uncertain, but there is considerable evidence that it relates to the creation, operation and maintenance of mitochondria in some way. It may work by any or all of the following mechanisms:

 * promoting neurogenesis ,
 * influencing mitochondrial development ,
 * increasing mitochondrial survival

"We show here that exendin-4 significantly counter-regulates the reduced abundance of electron transport chain proteins, leading to a reduction of oxidative stress and most likely contributing to the anti-apoptotic action of this drug."

,, and
 * increasing the efficiency of electron transport in the energy production system through stimulation of a genetic regulator, PGC-1α,.


text: File:Blumenhaus.JPG

title: File:Blumenhaus.JPG


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Sets relations and function-maths

SETS : A Set is a collection of well-defined objects. When we say well-defined, we mean that there is a clear rule saying which objects are in the set. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A,B,C etc. The members of a set are called its elements. The Elements of a set are usually denoted by small letters a,b,c, etc.

Finite and Infinite Sets
There was a mathematician called Georg Cantor who created a new branch of mathematics called set theory in the late 19th century. Set theory involves collections of numbers or objects. Here's a set:

 * {1,2,3,4,5}

This set consists of five elements, namely the first five natural numbers. Now consider the set:

 * {6,7,8,9,10}

Are these sets of the same size? Yes, they are. This is because they both have five elements. As we will see later, this method of comparing sizes does not work for all sets. An alternate method for comparing set sizes is to match elements of sets in a one-one fashion.

Think of a small child who wants to compare the number of marbles she has with her brother's collection. Let's say she doesn't know how to count beyond ten. She can still compare the sizes of their collections of marbles by lining up their marbles in two parallel lines. The line on the left contains her marbles while the one on the right contains her brother's. If each marble on the left is aligned with exactly one marble on the right, then they both have the same number of marbles.

We can use the same idea to compare infinite sets. If we can find a way to pair up one member of set A with one member of set B, and if there are no members of A without a partner in B and vice versa then we can say that set A and set B have the same number of members. Formally, two sets and are of the same size if there is a function such that for every in, we have in and moreover, for every in, there exists an in such that.

Example
Consider our previous example. We want to know if the sets

 * {1,2,3,4,5} and {6,7,8,9,10}

have the same size. We can create the following matching.

 * 1 6
 * 2 7
 * 3 8
 * 4 9
 * 5 10

Example
Let Set N be all counting numbers. N is called the set of natural numbers. 1,2,3,4,5,6,... and so on. Let Set B be the negative numbers -1,-2,-3, ... and so on. Can the members of N and B be paired up? The formal way of saying this is "Can A and B be put into a one to one correspondence"?

Obviously the answer is yes. 1 in set N corresponds with -1 in B. Likewise:

 * N B
 * 1  -1
 * 2  -2
 * 3  -3

and so on. Here, the one-one function that maps from A to B is.

So useful is the set of counting numbers that any set that can be put into a one to one correspondence with it is said to be countably infinite.

Example
The set of integers is the set containing all elements from the set N, the set B and the element 0. That is

 * {... -3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

The set of integers is usually denoted by Z. Note that N the set of natural numbers is a subset of Z. All members of N are in Z, but not all members of Z are in N.

Is the set of integers countably infinite? In other words, can the set of integers be put in one-one correspondence with the set of all natural numbers?

Since the set N is contained in the set Z, we may be tempted to declare that these two sets are not of the same size. However, we can match them:

 * Z N
 * 0  1
 * -1  2
 * 1  3
 * -2  4

and so on. We can write this one-one correspondence as a function

 * f(x)={(x-1)/2, when x is odd
 * {-x/2, when x is even

We can verify that this function generates all the integers in Z from the natural numbers in N. Strange indeed! A subset of Z (namely the natural numbers) has the same size as Z itself! Infinite sets are not like ordinary finite sets. In fact this is sometimes used as a definition of an infinite set. An infinite set is any set which can be put into a one to one correspondence with at least one of its subsets. Rather than saying "The number of members" of a set, people sometimes use the word cardinality or cardinal value. Z and N are said to have the same cardinality.

Exercises

 * 1) Is the number of even numbers the same as the natural numbers?
 * 2) What about the number of square numbers?
 * 3) Is the cardinality of positive even numbers less than 100 equal to the cardinality of natural numbers less than 100? Which set is bigger? How do you know?
 * 4) In what ways do finite sets differ from infinite ones?

title: Sets relations and function-maths


text:
Category:User mzn

Users in this category indicate they have knowledge of language Mazanderani.

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Category:User mzn-2

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 2 for language Mazanderani.

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User:Javadyou

My user page in fa.wiki

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User:Benrem

Student in engineering at the University of Liège, Belgium.

See my main wikipedia user page in french: Benrem.

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Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Private Value Auctions

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text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/The Wallet Game


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Ultimatum Bargaining


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Public Goods


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Insurance


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Currency Attack


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Bertrand Competition


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Pit Market


text: Talk:Economic Classroom Experiments/Network Externalities


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User:Defender1~enwikiversity

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User talk:Clanger

e-Commerce: A Student's Perspective

Overview
There is no question that the Internet has changed the way people live, do business and interact with one another. E-commerce has become an integral part of the way businesses use the Internet to do business. Improvements to security and ease of making purchases has made e-commerce very popular not only with businesses but with consumers as well.

When the Internet and e-commerce was first introduced in the business world, it was possible for small businesses to ignore the necessity of incorporating them into their business models. It is clear now that neither is going away, so even small businesses need to address e-commerce if they want to compete in today’s market.

The following information has been gathered to help students gather relevant and up-to-date information regarding e-commerce and how it affects the business world.

E-Commerce History
The history of e-commerce is relatively short. E-commerce as we know it started between 1994 and 1995 when the first third-party services for processing credit card transactions began. A company called Verisign also began developing a way to verify identities of businesses online through digital IDs. (Roos, 2012)

It was also around this time that Jeff Bezos, founder of Amazon.com, sold his first book online. Amazon.com became the standard for all of the following e-commerce websites, and today it is arguably the most successful e-commerce site, depending on your definition of success. The key to Amazon’s success is that it was able to diversify its offerings to stay current and compete with other e-commerce businesses. (Roos, 2012)

Around the same time, eBay was also changing the way business was done on the Internet. Pierre Omidyar, the creator of eBay, made it possible for just about anyone to sell products online, including small business owners or anyone looking to get rid of extra junk around their house. (Roos, 2012)

Today almost every business has a presence on the Internet. The smart ones work in collaboration with other larger online companies such as Amazon or eBay. It extends their reach without much cost to them. It is hard to say just how far e-commerce will go or how it will evolve to meet the ever-changing needs of today’s consumers, but one thing is certain. The Internet and e-commerce aren’t going away, and for any business to compete in today’s global market it needs to incorporate both into its business model and infrastructure.

What is a business model?
Many people think of a business model as a map of how the business will be run. This is not the case. “A business model is a set of planned activities designed to result in a profit in a marketplace.” (Kenneth C. Laudon, 2010) In today’s market we can go one step farther and say that an e-commerce business model is the same but focuses on the uniqueness of the internet.

When a business manager, a banker, or an investor asks about a company’s business model, the question they are really asking is, “How do you plan to make money?” (Defining Your Business Model, 2012). To answer this question you will have to answer questions like: Who's your target audience? How will you generate revenue? What's your cost structure? What's your profit margin? These are just of few of the questions but it is a start.

How important is a business model to a successful business? Without a business model a business will fail. When e-commerce started bumming in the 90’s the business models were overlooked. However, when the dot-com businesses began to fail the smart businesspeople learned about and created a successful business model (Defining Your Business Model, 2012).

What are the key elements of a business model?
According to our text book there are eight key elements of the business model. They are:

 * Value proposition – Why should the customer buy from you?
 * Revenue model – How will you earn money?
 * Market opportunity – What marketspace do you intend to serve, and what is its size?
 * Competitive environment – Who else occupies your intended marketspace?
 * Competitive advantage – What special advantages does your firm bring to the marketspace?
 * Market strategy – How do you plan to promote your products, or service to attract your target audience?
 * Organizational development – What types of organizational structures within the firm are necessary to carry out the business plain?
 * Management team – What kinds of experiences and background are important for the company’s leaders to have? (Kenneth C. Laudon, 2010)

What are the different business models?
Probably the biggest decision you will have to make is what kind of business you are going to run. The choice that you make will determine the business model that you will need to follow. The business models consist of: Business to Business (B2B), Business to Customer (B2C), Customer to Customer (C2C), Peer to Peer (P2P), and Mobile Commerce (M-commerce). The models are self-explanatory as to who the customer audience is. One thing with e-commerce is that an internet business may actually have more than one business model.

Infrastructure
Dictionary.com defines infrastructure as: “the basic, underlying framework or features of a system or organization” (Dictionary/Infrastructure, 2012). Of course this is a more traditional definition of the word. While it is still a true definition, we have to understand that its meaning has evolved over time with the introduction of e-commerce.

In the information technology and on the Internet, infrastructure would better be defined as: “the physical hardware used to interconnect computers and users. Infrastructure includes the transmission media, including telephone lines, cable television lines, and satellites and antennas, and also the routers, aggregators, repeaters, and other devices that control transmission paths. Infrastructure also includes the software used to send, receive, and manage the signals that are transmitted” (Search Data Center/Infrastructure, 2012). It is important to be aware of how data transmissions are carried through the infrastructure. By keeping this in mind while designing your e-commerce site, you can avoid some of the pitfalls that others have encountered. You want to make sure that the site you develop will not take long time to be transmitted so the customer will not leave.

Security and Payment Systems
The Internet has become a very important resource in today’s society it is used for everything from chatting with friends to taking care of your finances and keeping track of your bank account. With all these things happening on the web there are bound to be concerns about the security of information sent and received online and how payments online are taken care of. This section will cover the use of Security and Payment Systems. (Laudon & Traver, 2010)

In addition to the legal uses of the Internet, crime has also risen on the web. There are people who sell secret information online, perform auction fraud, credit/debit card fraud and identity theft. There are hackers and crackers (hackers with criminal intent), spyware, adware, viruses and many other things that can cause problems to computers that are connected to the Internet. E-mail messages can be altered, and a good hacker can get your info for your instant messengers too. All these things would seem to make the Internet an unsafe place to do business or even just browse, but there are security measures have been put into place to keep things like these from happening. (Laudon & Traver, 2010)

With the new technology that has come out since the beginning of the Internet it has become safer than ever, although it can still be risky if you’re not over careful. Sometimes the security can cause the sites you use to run slower than others but it is for your protection. Some of the security systems used is encryption and firewalls. Encryption is used many different ways there are private and public keys. They way encryption works, whether you use a private or public key, is you send the message to the key it changes it to a mathematical code then sends it over the Internet, if it is intercepted someone who doesn’t have an key to unencrypt the massage it takes a long time to get what they want if they get it at all. Once the message gets to the correct recipient then they have the key to unencrypt it and read what is there. Many of us use encryption but don’t know it because the programs we use to communicate have the key already in it. These kinds of precautions make the Internet safer to use than it was in its beginning stages. (Laudon & Traver, 2010)

As for making payments over the Internet there are different ways to go about it. You can use direct withdraw from your bank account, a credit/debit card or an online account like PayPal. This can seem risky but with the afore-mentioned security measures this is not a bad way to take care of business. There are ways to take care of payments other than straight from the bank or with cash as has been previously mentioned. If you are paying online you can use the PayByCheck option where you use an electronic check to make a payment, or you can set up a PayPal account that you can add money to or just connect it to your credit/debit card which will take it from your account a few days later. Other people pay their monthly bills online using Electronic Billing Presentment and Payment (EBPP). There are two models for this option the main one is Biller-direct which, as you can guess, is where the money goes from your account directly to the company the bill is from. The other is a Consolidator which means all your bills get put together you send the payment to one place and they send it to the correct places. (Laudon & Traver, 2010)

Marketing Communication
Communication is extremely important to all aspects of life. It used to be so hard to get in touch with one another; mail could take days or even months to reach its destination. Today we have cell phones that can do everything from text messaging to checking our email, making communication very easy. Just like in everyday life, communication is vital to any organization. To ensure effective communication there is a department in charge of it called Marketing Communication, or corporate communication, depending on the company (Snow, 2012).

Marketing Communication takes care of information shown to the public. The communication can cover several areas, new product introduction, enhanced community involvement or marketing an existing product. To quote an article it is “a science and an art,” a science to know who to communicate each item to and an art to know how to do so in a way that will capture their attention (Snow, 2012). Marketing Communication takes information discovered on the internet, based on user behavior, and customizes its approach to appeal to each particular user. If a company does not communicate its products correctly and to the proper audience it could cause the company to shrink or even collapse.

What is Marketing Concept?
Marketing concept is the philosophy that urges organizations to focus on their customers’ needs, by analyzing their needs and making such decisions that satisfy those needs in a better way than competitors (What is Marketing? and Basic Marketing Concepts, 2012).

Past Marketing Concepts
In the Industrial revolution in the 1920’s they used the production concept to marketing. Here the firms produce, whatever their product was, at low cost and let demand create itself because most of what they produced was the basic necessities and the demand was still great.

Then in the early 30’s the sales concept begin to take the lead. Here the pattern switched. The demand was not so great anymore for the products being produced. The focus here was to simply sell more than the competition. No-one really cared or thought about customer satisfaction.

After World War II, companies began to satisfy the marketing concept. The market contained a variety of products now and income was low. Consumers begin to really search for what they needed at the best price they could find. This change in the economy forced the change in the company’s focus (What is Marketing? and Basic Marketing Concepts, 2012). Marketing research is a key element in the marketing mix today. Without carefully conducted research into what the consumer is looking for the best way to provide it the marketing concept itself is worthless. When this is done properly it leads to customer satisfaction which is the ultimate goal.

Top 10 Marketing Concepts for Small Businesses
Nate Stockard published an article in EzineArticles.com concerning the top 10 marketing concepts that people looking to go into small business should consider before doing so. Below is the list of these concepts and a brief description of each as seen by Mr. Stockard.
 * 1) Consistency: Consistency helps lower the cost of marketing and increase the effectiveness of branding.
 * 2) Planning: Putting time into planning your marketing strategy, budget, and other concepts presented here helps to ensure success.
 * 3) Strategy: Strategy is the foundation for the rest of your marketing activities it identifies who you will target, how you will target them, and how will you keep them as a customer.
 * 4) Target Market: A well-defined target market will make every other marketing concept so much easier to implement successfully.
 * 5) Budget: The most important part of this marketing concept is to actually establish a marketing budget. From there, you can worry about how to distribute your available funds.
 * 6) Marketing Mix: The marketing mix is usually defined as product, pricing, place, and promotion.
 * 7) Website: Customers, be it businesses or consumers, will search the web over 60% of the time before making any purchasing decisions so you must at least develop a small web presence of some kind and keep it updated.
 * 8) Branding: Branding consists of the pictures, logo, design scheme, layout, make up, and image of your products and even your company.
 * 9) Promotion and Advertising: Proper promotion and advertising will result in effective brand recognition, and, ultimately, increased sales.
 * 10) Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Maintaining proper customer relationship management is essential to creating loyal and consistent customers.

Links

 * http://www.ecommercetimes.com/?welcome
 * http://www.nethistory.info/
 * http://money.howstuffworks.com/ecommerce.htm
 * http://money.howstuffworks.com/online-biz-do-it.htm
 * http://money.howstuffworks.com/identity-theft.htm
 * http://money.howstuffworks.com/personal-finance/online-banking/electronic-payment.htm

title: User talk:Clanger


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Portal:Quantum biology

This topic page is for organizing the development of Quantum biology content on Wikiversity. Quantum biology is the application and formulation of quantum theories to biological processes, such as: photosynthesis, nerve excitation and conduction, quantum aspects of muscle contraction, solitons in biopoloymer crystals such as A-DNA, protein-protein interactions, and so on.

If you either have peer-reviewed publications or are knowledgeable in any area Quantum biology, please feel free to improve the contents of this new Wikipedia topic page; your contributions would be greatly appreciated.

Resources

 * Search for Quantum mechanics at Wikiversity
 * Quantum Biology. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Theoretical and Computational Biophysics Group.
 * Quantum mechanics
 * Quantum mechanics/Study guide

Quantum Libraries:

 * Daniel Lidar's Quantum Computing/Information/Communication/Cryptography Books List
 * The IQI Library at Caltech.

Quantum Information

 * Bouwmeester, The Physics of Quantum Information
 * Nielsen, Quantum Information and Quantum Computation|Nielsen and Chuang, Quantum Information and Quantum Computation]]
 * Preskill, Quantum Information Lecture Notes
 * Rieffel & Polak, Quantum Computing: A Gentle Introduction

Quantum Measurement

 * Breuer, The Theory of Open Quantum Systems
 * Gardiner and Zoller, Quantum Noise
 * Braginsky, Quantum Measurement

Quantum Optics

 * Allen, Optical Resonance and Two-Level Atoms
 * Howard Carmichael, Statistical Methods in Quantum Optics I: Master Equations and Fokker-Planck Equations, 1999].
 * Cohen-Tannoudji, Atom-Photon Interactions
 * Rodney Loudon, The Quantum Theory of Light, 2000.
 * Leonard Mandel and Emil Wolf Optical Coherence and Quantum Optics, 1995.
 * Marlan Scully]] and M. Suhail Zubairy, Quantum Optics, 1997.
 * Walls, Quantum Optics
 * Amnon Yariv, Quantum Electronics, 1989.

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Quantum biophysics

Quantum biophysics is a multidisciplinary area of Molecular biophysics and Quantum biology concerned with quantum treatments and theories of biomolecules and biophysical systems in general at the the quantum level. It is considered as a subject where biological systems are understood through the application of physical principles and theories.

title: Quantum biophysics


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User talk:Bci21

This is a Discussion page for direct user comments only
Please place specific comments and critique only on the discussion pages of specific published articles.

No problem about the page rename - if you ever start a page with a title that has a typo, or that you simply want to rename, you can always use the "move" button beside the edit button (you need to have been logged in for a few days - I think it's four - in order to use this feature). Choose the name you want to move the page name and execute the move - it's dead simple - and don't worry, as with everything, it can be undone/redone. The only thing to bear in mind is that this will leave a "redirect" page in the old pagename - which can be good if many pages link to the old page - but if no pages link there, it can be simply deleted. You can always request a page deletion by messaging me - by email or on my talk page - or adding the page to http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion

The following messages should be deleted:

 * an anonymous posted message

page move

 * To see what is in your userspace click here

Here are two wikitext scripts that you can use to keep track of subpages in your userspace.

creates a page called My subpages

creates a list of all subpages in your userspace.

Keep in mind that these two scripts here on this talk page, and on your user page User:. They won't work on most Wikiversity pages.--Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 05:04, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bci21


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Portal:Molecular Biology

Portal:Molecular Biology

Molecular Biology: Topics
 * Molecular Biology Portal
 * Wikibooks
 * Genetics Department (fr)
 * Cell Biology
 * Molecular and Cellular Biology
 * Genetics
 * Biochemistry
 * Biophysics
 * Immunology
 * Molecular Biology Department

Molecular Structures

 * Category:Biochenistry

Look also

 * tRNA
 * category:mRNA

Photosynthesis

 * Photosynthesis Gallery

af:Kategorie:Biochemie an:Categoría:Bioquimica bg:Категория:Биохимия bs:Kategorija:Biohemija ca:Categoria:Bioquímica cy:Categori:Biocemeg da:Kategori:Biokemi eo:Kategorio:Biokemio et:Kategooria:Biokeemia eu:Kategoria:Biokimika fa:رده:زیست‌شیمی gl:Categoría:Bioquímica he:קטגוריה:ביוכימיה hi:श्रेणी:जैवरसायनिकी hr:Kategorija:Biokemija hu:Kategória:Biokémia hy:Կատեգորիա:Կենսաքիմիա id:Kategori:Biokimia io:Kategorio:Biokemio is:Flokkur:Lífefnafræði ka:კატეგორია:ბიოქიმია ko:분류:생화학 la:Categoria:Biochemia lb:Kategorie:Biochimie lt:Kategorija:Biochemija lv:Kategorija:Bioķīmija mk:Категорија:Биохемија ml:വര്‍ഗ്ഗം:ജൈവരസതന്ത്രം mn:Ангилал:Биохими nl:Categorie:Biochemie nn:Kategori:Biokjemi no:Kategori:Biokjemi pam:Category:Biochemistry pl:Kategoria:Biochemia ro:Categorie:Biochimie simple:Category:Biochemistry sk:Kategória:Biochémia sr:Категорија:Биохемија th:หมวดหมู่:ชีวเคมี tr:Kategori:Biyokimya uk:Категорія:Біохімія ur:زمرہ:حیاتی کیمیاء vi:Thể loại:Hóa sinh wa:Categoreye:Biyotchimeye yi:קאַטעגאָריע:ביאכעמיע zh:Category:生物化学 zh-min-nan:Category:Seng-hòa-ha̍k

ar:تصنيف:كيمياء حيوية cs:Kategorie:Biochemie de:Kategorie:Biochemie el:Κατηγορία:Βιοχημεία es:Categoría:Bioquímica fi:Luokka:Biokemia fr:Catégorie:Biochimie it:Categoria:Biochimica ja:カテゴリ:生化学 pt:Categoria:Bioquímica ru:Категория:Биохимия sl:Kategorija:Biokemija sv:Kategori:Biokemi

title: Portal:Molecular Biology


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Category:Mathematical biophysics

Category:Mathematical biophysics

title: Category:Mathematical biophysics


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Talk:Mathematical biophysics

'''Vous voulez demander de l'aide sur une leçon ? Posez votre question dans sa page de discussion. Aidez Wikiversité et les autres projets à grandir en adhérant aux associations Wikimedia.'''

title: Talk:Mathematical biophysics


text:
PlanetPhysics

View all page titles -

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Search by first letter of pagename: • All  • 1  • 2  • A  • B  • C  • D  • E  • F  • G  • H  • I  • J  • K  • L  • M  • N  • O  • P  • Q  • R  • S  • T  • U  • V  • W  • X  • Y  • Z

About
PlanetPhysics was a free, collaborative, online physics, mathematical physics, computational physics and physical mathematics project, including original articles, lectures, books and encyclopedia entries. It was hosted at https://planetphysics.org.
 * See also PlanetPhysics

The original website is no longer available, but an archive from late 2011 has been restored here to continue the effort. It should be noted that the Talk pages contain the original restored PlanetPhysics content in TeX format. The TeX content was converted to Wikitext using a Latex2wiki.py script. Any discrepancies in content should refer to the original TeX for verification and authorship.

title: PlanetPhysics


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Talk:Biophysics

The syntax of this topic is somewhat confusing and does not correspond to published research in the field of Biophysics. It will require some substantial re-writing and updating.Bci21 (talk) 04:12, 3 June 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Biophysics


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Protein Crystallography project

This is a Protein Crystallography Project concerned with the Determination of Protein Structures in Crystals and in Solutions with electrolytes by X-ray Diffraction, neutron diffraction, light scattering, Vibrational Circular Dichroism (VCD) and 2D-NMR.

Lecture Notes on Paracrystal Theory and Quasi-crystals

 * The following figures and data have the following Source: An Introduction to Molecular Biology/Function and structure of Proteins

Amino Acid Structures and Properties
The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties. Important factors are charge, hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, size and functional groups.Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base, and a hydrophile if the side chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar.

Protein amino acids are combined into a single polypeptide chain in a condensation reaction. This reaction is catalysed by the ribosome in a process known as translation.

Polar and non polar amino acids and their single and three letter code

Additionally, there are two additional amino acids which are incorporated by overriding stop codons:

In addition to the specific amino acid codes, placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein can not conclusively determine the identity of a residue.

Amino Acid Structure Gallery
The 20 naturally occurring amino acids have different physical and chemical properties, including their electrostatic charge, pKa, hydrophobicity, size and specific functional groups. These properties play a major role in molding protein structure. The salient features of amino acids are described below in the table.

title: Protein Crystallography project


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Portal:Nanoscience

Welcome to the Department of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology!

Resources
Welcome to the Department of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology!

 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology  Related schools School news and current events
 * Looking for new contributors.
 * June 2nd 2012: New home page of the Department of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology:

Selected biography Richard Feynmann: "There is plenty of room at the bottom...!"
 * List of resources, projects, and courses offered

 Textbooks from Wikibooks

 Associated Wikimedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

title: Portal:Nanoscience


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Category:Nanostructure

Category:Nanostructure

title: Category:Nanostructure


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Category:Reviewers

Voluntary reviewers of articles materials for quality, syntax and content improvements.

title: Category:Reviewers


text: Category:Nanoscience

title: Category:Nanoscience


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Talk:Radiation astronomy/First X-ray source in Antlia

Popularity
Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/02
 * 759. 337 - First X-ray source in Antlia

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/01
 * 615. 466 - First X-ray source in Antlia


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Talk:Regions/Astronomy

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985
 * In First X-ray source in Andromeda on 2012-05-13 07:38:29, HTTP Redirect Loop: ->  ->  ->  ->
 * In Astronomical observatories on 2012-05-20 07:37:51, HTTP Redirect Loop: ->  ->  ->  ->
 * In Astronomical observatories on 2012-05-27 07:37:32, HTTP Redirect Loop: ->  ->  ->  ->
 * In Astronomical observatories on 2012-06-03 07:37:37, HTTP Redirect Loop: ->  ->  ->  ->

--Mu301Bot (talk) 07:41, 3 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Link is fine. Problem is with the bot!--Marshallsumter (talk) 10:18, 3 June 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Regions/Astronomy


text:
Talk:Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Popularity
Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/08
 * 1001. 193 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/07
 * 960. 207 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/06
 * ranking. 128 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/05
 * ranking. 88 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/04
 * ranking. 83 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/03
 * ranking. 139 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/02
 * ranking. 114 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/01
 * ranking. 138 Radiation astronomy/Yellows

title: Talk:Radiation astronomy/Yellows


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Neuroprotection/Glutathione (GSH)

"This is only a small sample of a considerable body of evidence pointing to the neuroprotective qualities of glutathione and its use as the basis of a novel form of PD therapy."

Background
Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant, preventing damage to important cellular components caused by |reactive oxygen species such as free radicals and peroxides. All human cells have the capability of synthesising GSH but the principal source has been shown to be the liver.

Research
1989

Pileblad et al tested the effect of GSH depletion on rats. Their finding was:-

"One may suggest an important role for GSH in catecholaminergic neurons: protecting against the oxidation of endogenous catechols."

1996

Seaton et al tested whether in animal models treatment with thioctic acid would reverse the symptoms induced by GSH deficiency. The project proved conclusively that this was not the case.

Wüllner et al studied whether GSH depletion could lead to cell death.

"Our data show that glutathione depletion can result in cell death if the nigrostriatal system is metabolically compromised."

2000

Schulz et al reviewed the evidence for a disturbance of glutathione homeostasis that may either lead to or result from oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disorders.

"An important role for glutathione was proposed for the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, because a decrease in total glutathione concentrations in the substantia nigra has been observed in preclinical stages, at a time at which other biochemical changes are not yet detectable."

Klivenyi et al Proved that GSH- deficient mice were more susceptible to the introduction of MPTP.

2010

Clark et al hypothesized that since levels of glutathione are lower in the substantia nigra early in Parkinson's disease this may contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Oxidative stress may in turn increase the accumulation of toxic forms of α-synuclein (SNCA).

They experimented to find out if supplementation with n-acetylcysteine (NAC), a source of cysteine – the limiting amino acid in glutathione synthesis, would protect against α-synuclein toxicity. In transgenic mice. Their conclusion:-

"Overall, these results indicate that oral NAC supplementation decreases SNCA levels in brain and partially protects against loss of dopaminergic terminals associated with overexpression of α-synuclein in this model."

2011

Garrido et al evaluated the possibilities of using glutathione to treat PD.

"Over-expression of either of the two subunits of glutamate-cysteine ligase induced aberrant glutathiolation of cellular proteins and significant degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Thus, while glutathione depletion was demonstrated to be a selective trigger for dopaminergic neuron degeneration, a glutathione replacement approach as a potential treatment option for Parkinson's patients must be considered with great care. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that survival of nigral dopaminergic neurons crucially depends on a tight regulation of their glutathione levels and that the depleted glutathione content detected in the brains of Parkinson's disease patients can be a causative insult for neuronal degeneration."

Related pages
See also: Deficiencies as PD cause/Glutathione


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User:Edudesigner

elementary school teacher interested in wiki, wikipedia.

studying about smart education of korea.

title: User:Edudesigner


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Category:User it-3

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 3 for language Italian.

title: Category:User it-3


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Category:User ru-3

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 3 for language Russian.

title: Category:User ru-3


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Category:User mo

Users in this category indicate they have knowledge of language Moldavian.

title: Category:User mo


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Category:User mo-4

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 4 for language Moldavian.

title: Category:User mo-4


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User:Bci21/Books

New Books created by Bci21

 * Pediapress my books at Wikiversity
 * My subpage for books
 * New PediaP my books

 * BiophysicsCSB 2012 Book vol.1

 * Manage your book

'''Title:	Biophysics and Complexity 2012 Subtitle:	Wikiversity Book3'''

Mathematical biophysics Relational biology Complex Systems Biology Biochemistry Quantum biochemistry Biophysics Quantum biophysics Photosynthesis Topic:Cell biology Cell Biology Overview of Cell Biology Mitosis Topic:Molecular biology Topic:Genetics RNA interference Bioinformatics Molecular evolution System Differential equations Automata theory Protein crystallography Actin and myosin Actin structure and dynamics Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Cells Muscle contraction Microtubule Dynamics and Organization Topic:Immunology Topic:Neurobiology

title: User:Bci21/Books


text:
User:Bci21/French Page

=French subpage for Bci21= &Département de Biophysique
 * Link to the French Wikiversite page for Bci21

Page pour Utilisateur:Bci21

 * Please do not type on this page--please use instead the Page des Discussions pour Bci21

Liens

 * Participation à Département:Biophysique -Département de Biophysique et Biophysics- International Department of Biophysics-- International Biophysics Courses in English (en), in French (en Français) (fr) and in Roumanian (ro).

 * Participation à Physique algébrique des quanta

My sandbox

ab:Участник:Bci21 af:Gebruiker:Bci21 als:Benutzer:Bci21 am:User:Bci21 an:Usuario:Bci21 ang:User:Bci21 arc:User:Bci21 ast:Usuariu:Bci21 av:Участник:Bci21 be:Удзельнік:Bci21 bg:Потребител:Bci21 bh:User:Bci21 bm:Utilisateur:Bci21 bo:User:Bci21 br:Implijer:Bci21 bs:Korisnik:Bci21 ca:Usuari:Bci21 cbk-zam:Usuario:Bci21 cdo:User:Bci21 ceb:User:Bci21 chr:User:Bci21 co:User:Bci21 cr:User:Bci21 csb:Brëkòwnik:Bci21 cy:Defnyddiwr:Bci21 da:Bruger:Bci21 diq:User:Bci21 dv:User:Bci21 ee:User:Bci21 frp:Utilisator:Bci21 ht:Itilizatè:Bci21 ia:Usator:Bci21 ie:User:Bci21] is:Notandi:Bci21 iu:User:JackPotte ro:Utilizator:Bci21 cs:Uživatel:Bci21 de:Benutzer:Bci21 el:Χρήστης:Bci21 en:User:Bci21 es:Usuario:Bci21 it:Utente:Bci21 ja:利用者:Bci21 pt:Utilizador:Bci21 ru:Участник:Bci21 sv:Användare:Bci21

title: User:Bci21/French Page


text:
User:Bci21/Romanian Page

Romanian subpage for Bci21
Pagină în limba română . Page Test = Testare de pagină pentru Proiectul Wikiversitate" în limba română (in the Romanian Language; (en Roumain)) Front Page

 * [[Image:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - The Tower of Babel (Vienna) - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|thumb|center|324px|Tower of Babel]]

Education in Moldavia - Educația în Moldova
Ar putea folosi din plin studenții și profesorii în Moldova o Wikiversitate Românească a Moldovei= Romanian Wikiversity of Moldavia --spre ciuda foștilor ocupanți sovietici.

``In Moldova, there are 16 state and 15 private institutions of higher education, with a total of 126,100 students, including 104,300 in the state institutions, and 21,700 in the private ones. The number of students per 10,000 inhabitants in Moldova has been constantly growing since the collapse of the Soviet Union, reaching 217 in 2000–2001, and 351 in 2005–2006.

The National Library of Moldova was founded in 1832. The Moldova State University and the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, the main scientific organizations of Moldova, were established in 1946."

Religion
``''For the 2004 census, Orthodox Christians, who make up 93.3% of Moldova's population, were not required to declare the particular of the two main churches they belong to. The Moldovan Orthodox Church, autonomous and subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Orthodox Church of Bessarabia, autonomous and subordinated to the Romanian Orthodox Church, both claim to be the national church of the country. 1.9% of the population is Protestant, 0.9% belongs to other religions, 1.0% is non-religious, 0.4% is atheist, and 2.2% did not answer the religion question at the census''."

 * [[image:Romania MASSR 1924.png|thumb|right|650px|Regions of the Kingdom of Romania during 1918-1944]]

Vezi și

 * Proposal for Wikiversity in the Romanian language, including the Moldavian dialect

.

en:User:Bci21 mo:Utilizator:Bci21

title: User:Bci21/Romanian Page


text: User:Bci21/New Projects

title: User:Bci21/New Projects


text:
Relational biology

Welcome also to the School of Biomathematics! COLLEGE OF SCIENCES S CHOOL OF P HYSICAL S CIENCES  · S CHOOL OF L IFE S CIENCES  · S CHOOL OF E NGINEERING AND  T ECHNOLOGY  ·  S CHOOL OF M ATHEMATICS Biology · Chemistry · Computer Science ·Economics · Mathematics· Physics and Astronomy ·

Relational Biology is a branch of Mathematical biophysics and Biomathematics focused on identifying and studying the abstract relations in an organism that make possible its physiological functions. It is therefore, also of the fundamental network connectivities and biotopology charactersitic of hierarchically organized, highly complex biological systems. It is therefore closely related to the fields of Systems biology and Complex Systems Biology, also known as Integrative Biology

New Relational Biology projects

 * Category Theory in Biology
 * Relational biology/Category of Relational Metabolic Graphs
 * Relational biology/Organismic Sets and Supercategories

Lessons

 * Lesson 1: Category of Metabolic-Replication Systems
 * Lesson 2: Sets and Functions
 * Lesson 2.5: /Equivalence of categories/
 * Lesson 3: Products and Coproducts of Sets
 * Lesson 4: Monoids
 * Lesson 5: Categories
 * Lesson 6: Products and Coproducts
 * Lesson 7: Products are Limits
 * Lesson 8: Equalizers
 * Lesson 9: Pullbacks
 * Lesson 10: Limits
 * Lesson 11: Exponentials
 * Ideas for a new lesson:
 * generalized elements?
 * Hom(C,-) functors?
 * Yoneda embedding?

Create your lesson

title: Relational biology


text:
Automaton

An automaton or sequential machine is a discrete and usually finite system that proceeds sequentially from an initial state to a final discrete state upon changing its inputs, and that also produces an output at each step determined by the input and the internal state of the automaton. An automaton thus defined has a state space which is a finite semigroup or monoid, and that can be decomposed into certain types of modules or parts in a canonical manner. Two functions or maps usually determine mathematically the functioning of the automaton : the transition function from one state to the next, and the ouput function that maps an input and a specific state to a specific output of the automaton. Examples of automata are abundant as machines, computers and robots. Their underlying operational logic is Boolean. Exceptions are fuzzy systems based on 'fuzzy logic'.

Automata are very useful automation tools.

title: Automaton


text:
System

 Systems are usually defined either in the context of thermodynamics or cybernetics. However, a more general system theory is being developed that includes categorical dynamics, quantum computers, fuzzy systems and economical or social systems.

 * 1) An information system is usually a database.
 * 2) A computer system is just a programmed automaton
 * 3) A philosophical system is a general framework for philosophical discussion, such as ontological, epistemological, metaphysical, etc.
 * 4) An economic system is usually defined by a corresponding ideology and is in theory controlled by different types of societies, such as : medieval, primitive, utopian,  modern, and so on.
 * 5) A quantum system is non-deterministic, whereas a classical system is deterministic--with a strict causality
 * 6) A dynamic system is usually represented by a 'system' of differential equations (ODE's) that admit integrable solutions
 * 7) A chaotic system is neither quantum nor classical, although like the classical system it is still deterministic
 * 8) An anticipatory system is characteristic of organisms and also of some societies
 * 9) A complex system--unlike a simple one-- cannot either be decomposed into its components without ceasing to function or cannot be completely simulated by computer models.

An interesting exception is the Environment as it has no strict boundaries, only a horizon, and therefore it cannot be represented as a system.

The term system may be used in many other contexts, e.g. Solar System and System of Government.

title: System


text:
Aquaria/Moonlight gourami

(Please note this is the how to page, for other information see Moonlight gourami (Very brief, needs revising)

Tank conditions
Although undemanding about water conditions and requiring only intermediate care, the moonlight gourami thrives best in soft, acidic water. Because it is so tolerant of less than perfect water, it is often recommended for a beginner in the fishkeeping hobby. However, as in most other fishes, regular water changes will help maintain the health of the moonlight gourami. Ideal pH level for the gourami is 6.0–7.0 with the water hardness at 2.0 to 25 dGH and the temperature kept between 26 and 30°C (79 and 86°F).

It thrives in a heavily planted aquarium. Preferable plants are the sturdy Java fern and Vallisneria. The moonlight gourami is a social and peaceful fish suitable for community tanks. However, large specimens, particularly males, may attack others of the same or closely related species. On the other hand, the moonlight gourami could be a shy and timid fish that regularly hides behind vegetation and gets bullied by more aggressive tank mates. The moonlight gourami is also a top- or mid-level dweller. Minimum tank size requirement is 20 gallons.

The moonlight gourami will accept flakes, frozen, and live foods. However, in the case of community tanks, other large, fast fish can scare the moonlight gourami away from food, as the timid gourami does not compete well for its meal even if starving.

Breeding
Breeding of this fish is easy. The moonlight gourami should be provided with a separate breeding tank because other fish consider eggs and small fry as food. An ideal breeding tank has very soft water reduced to a depth of about six inches; floating plants can also be present to give the fish security. The pH should be slightly acidic and the temperature should be raised to at least 80°F over a period of several days to trigger spawning. Dark gravel, plenty of floating plants to assist in bubble nest building, and feeding of live foods to the breeding pair will increase the chances for successful reproduction. After spawning, the aquarists often provide the female a thicket of fine-leaved plants in which to hide if the male becomes aggressive; however, the moonlight gourami will not harm the female as other species of labyrinth fish might.

Once the eggs hatch, the fry must be fed very fine foods several times daily. The fry are tiny and delicate for the first few weeks of their lives. Most losses of fry are due to the lack of adequate food or low water temperature. Live foods such as daphnia, artemia and rotifers are ideal. However, very finely chopped lettuce, banana skins, and finely ground flake food can also be used to feed the young. The water temperature 80-85°F are ideal while the fry are growing.

title: Aquaria/Moonlight gourami


text:
User:Bci21/Books/Biophysics2012

Copyright@2012 by I.C.Baianu

 * Biophysics
 * Mathematical biophysics
 * Relational biology
 * Complex Systems Biology
 * School:Mathematics
 * Category Theory
 * Commutative property
 * Nonabelian Algebraic Topology
 * Noncommutative geometry
 * Category_Theory
 * Algebraic topology
 * Category_theory
 * Abstract Algebra/Category theory
 * List_of_category_theory_topics
 * Introduction to Category Theory
 * Category
 * category (mathematics)
 * Exact sequence
 * Exact additive category
 * Abelian category
 * Discrete_mathematics
 * Set_Theory
 * Abstract_Algebra
 * Group
 * Abelian Groups
 * Topic:Group theory
 * Monoids
 * Groupoids
 * Topic:Applied Category Theory
 * Logic
 * Boolean algebra
 * Logic
 * Automata theory
 * System
 * Dynamic system
 * Differential equations
 * Quantum biophysics
 * Atomic orbitals to molecular orbitals
 * Quantum computing
 * Quantum mechanics
 * Combining general relativity and quantum theory
 * Standard Model
 * Quantum field theory
 * Standard Model
 * Quantum Algebraic Topology
 * Introduction to approximate quantum chemistry
 * Biochemistry
 * Quantum biochemistry
 * Quantum biology
 * Photosynthesis
 * Thylakoids
 * Topic:Cell biology
 * Overview of Cell Biology
 * Mitosis
 * Lesson 3:Life structures and anatomy
 * Cell Biology
 * Stem cells
 * Pluripotent stem cells
 * Embryonic stem cells
 * Organelle
 * Quasicrystals and Paracrystals
 * Topic:Paracrystal
 * Topic:Quasicrystal
 * Nanostructure
 * Protein crystallography
 * Protein Crystallography project
 * Actin and myosin
 * Actin structure and dynamics
 * Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Cells
 * Muscle contraction
 * Microtubule Dynamics and Organization
 * Lectins
 * Topic:Molecular biology
 * Topic:Genetics
 * Genomics and Bioinformatics
 * Genetics
 * Quantum genetics
 * RNA interference
 * Bioinformatics
 * Molecular evolution
 * Molecular dynamics
 * Topic:Medical physics
 * School:Medicine
 * Topic:Physiology
 * Human Physiology
 * Topic:Immunology
 * Topic:Neurobiology
 * Topic:Histology
 * Topic:Pharmacology
 * Topic:Microbiology
 * Virus
 * About viruses-what is a virus
 * Topic:Virology
 * Classification of the viruses
 * List of viruses
 * Bacteriophage
 * Epidemiology and Biostatistics

title: User:Bci21/Books/Biophysics2012


text:
User talk:Suvra2012

 Hello Suvra2012, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Collingwood (talk) 21:43, 3 June 2012 (UTC) --Collingwood (talk) 21:43, 3 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Suvra2012


text:
Quantum physics

Welcome to the Department of Quantum Physics! COLLEGE OF SCIENCES Portal:Physical Sciences · Portal:Life Sciences · Portal:Engineering and Technology ·  Portal:Mathematics Biology · Chemistry · Computer Science ·Economics · Mathematics· Physics and Astronomy ·

 * Quantum physics, Wikiversity projects on the interpretation of quantum theories:
 * Département:Mécanique quantique
 * Département:Logique quantique
 * Quantum computing
 * Quantum Logics
 * w.Quantum Logics
 * Quantum physics at Wikipedia

Welcome also to the School of Physical Sciences! ·

Notation Table
Polish- or Łukasiewicz's notation for logic

 * The table below shows the core of Jan Łukasiewicz's notation for sentential logic, or Propositional Logic. The "conventional" notation did not become so until the 1970s and 80s. Some letters in the Polish notation table means a certain word in Polish, as shown:

 * Note that the quantifiers ranged over propositional values in Łukasiewicz's work on many-valued logics.

 * Portal:Mathematics
 * Portal:Physical Sciences

title: Quantum physics


text:
Dominant group/Classes of meaning

A dominant group in any field may have at least four meanings: (1) a field-based entity, (2) source, (3) object, or (4) a group in some way associated with the field. A dominant group, once identified, can be an entity, source, or object of study.

As the field of dominant group is unknown, mythology is as likely as any other. But, mythologists study the myths and their uses by human groups.

Dominant group
Examples from primary sources are to be used to prove or disprove each hypothesis. These can be collected per subject or in general.

 * 1) Accident hypothesis: dominant group is an accident of whatever processes are operating.
 * 2) Artifact hypothesis: dominant group may be an artifact of human endeavor or may have preceded humanity.
 * 3) Association hypothesis: dominant group is associated in some way with the original research.
 * 4) Bad group hypothesis: dominant group is the group that engages in discrimination, abuse, punishment, and additional criminal activity against other groups. It often has an unfair advantage and uses it to express monopolistic practices.
 * 5) Control group hypothesis: there is a control group that can be used to study dominant group.
 * 6) Entity hypothesis: dominant group is an entity within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 7) Evolution hypothesis: dominant group is a product of evolutionary processes, such groups are the evolutionary process, produce evolutionary processes, or are independent of evolutionary processes.
 * 8) Identifier hypothesis: dominant group is an identifier used by primary source authors of original research to identify an observation in the process of analysis.
 * 9) Importance hypothesis: dominant group signifies original research results that usually need to be explained by theory and interpretation of experiments.
 * 10) Indicator hypothesis: dominant group may be an indicator of something as yet not understood by the primary author of original research.
 * 11) Influence hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article containing original research to indicate influence or an influential phenomenon.
 * 12) Interest hypothesis: dominant group is a theoretical entity used by scholarly authors of primary sources for phenomena of interest.
 * 13) Metadefinition hypothesis: all uses of dominant group by all primary source authors of original research are included in the metadefinition for dominant group.
 * 14) Null hypothesis: there is no significant or special meaning of dominant group in any sentence or figure caption in any refereed journal article.
 * 15) Object hypothesis: dominant group is an object within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 16) Obvious hypothesis: the only meaning of dominant group is the one found in Mosby's Medical Dictionary.
 * 17) Original research hypothesis: dominant group is included in a primary source article by the author to indicate that the article contains original research.
 * 18) Primordial hypothesis: dominant group is a primordial concept inherent to humans such that every language or other form of communication no matter how old or whether extinct, on the verge of extinction, or not, has at least a synonym for dominant group.
 * 19) Purpose hypothesis: dominant group is written into articles by authors for a purpose.
 * 20) Regional hypothesis: dominant group, when it occurs, is only a manifestation of the limitations within a region. Variation of those limitations may result in the loss of a dominant group with the eventual appearance of a new one or none at all.
 * 21) Source hypothesis: dominant group is a source within each field where a primary author of original research uses the term.
 * 22) Term hypothesis: dominant group is a significant term that may require a 'rigorous definition' or application and verification of an empirical definition.

Entities
"For instance, resources made available by a dominant group, such as the National Science Foundation, can be viewed both as “powers over” possible research agendas of others, and also as “powers with” others in assisting researchers pursuing certain kinds of projects."

Objects
"[O]nly dominant group members who derive a sense of belonging and social value from their membership in the dominant ingroup should be motivated by group-based identity concerns to show signs of defensiveness in response to external explanations."

Identifiers
The term may serve as a theoretical identifier designated by the author, based on observations of phenomena.

"Groups, according to their range, may be denominated either predominant, dominant, sub-dominant, or quiescent."

Associated groups
"Especially Bacillus species are commonly isolated from mural paintings [2,4,6] and also in this study, they are the dominant group."

“[A]esthetic preference plays a part in cultural supremacy and that sometimes the taste of the dominant group is an aggressive assertion of mastery."

"According to Livy, the first 100 men appointed as senators by Romulus were referred to as "fathers" (patres), and the descendants of those men became the Patrician class. The patricians were distinct from the plebeians because they had wider political influence, at least in the times of the Republic."

Def. "[o]riginally, a member of any of the families constituting the populus Romanus, or body of Roman citizens, before the development of the plebeian order; later, one who, by right of birth or by special privilege conferred, belonged to the senior class of Romans, who, with certain property, had by right a seat in the Roman Senate" is called a patrician.

"In the beginning of the Republic, all priesthoods were closed to non-patricians. There was a belief that patricians communicated better with the Roman gods, so they alone could perform the sacred rites and take the auspices."

"Until the year 445 B.C. [2445 b2k] a regular marriage (iustae nuptiae) could be contracted only between patricians - members of the ruling class." Bold added.

Def. in Roman mythology, "[t]he legendary founder of Rome and the twin brother of Remus" is called Romulus.

"Ioannes the Lydian, writing in the sixth century on the usage of his native town, says: 'Our own Philadelpheia still preserves a trace of the ancient belief. On the first day of the month (sc. January) there goes in procession no less a personage than Ianus himself, dressed up in a two-faced mask, and people call him Saturnus, identifying him with Kronos2.'"

"The twins [Romulus and Remus], as in the case of Janus, attach themselves to the Universal Monarch as his two faces, looking in opposite directions."

Romulus may not have been a human, but perhaps something in the sky used by a group of humans to make themselves into a ruling class.

Majorities
A dominant group "need not be a numerical majority (although it often will be)."

Artifacts
Def. "[a]n object, such as a tool, weapon or ornament, ... structure or finding in an experiment or investigation ... made or shaped by some agent or intelligence, ... [as] a result of external action, the test arrangement, or an experimental error ... rather than an inherent element" is called an artifact, or artefact.

Are dominant group and some or all of its relative synonyms artifacts? Dominant group may be only an artifact.

Fossils
Def. "[t]he mineralized remains of an animal or plant" or "[a]ny preserved evidence of ancient life, including shells, imprints, burrows, coprolites, and organically-produced chemicals" is called a fossil.

Any dominant group seems an unlikely candidate to be a fossil.

Then, we have "When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one. "

Regions
Def. "[a]ny considerable and connected part of a space or surface; specifically, a tract of land or sea of considerable but indefinite extent; a country; a district; in a broad sense, a place without special reference to location or extent but viewed as an entity for geographical, social or cultural reasons" is called a region.

In Kirby's An Introduction to Entomology from 1826, a dominant group of species is determined by a regional distribution. "Groups, according to their range, may be denominated either predominant, dominant, sub-dominant, or quiescent." Later, this regional distribution became relative and the term entered the field of evolution.

“The dominant species of the larger dominant groups tend to leave many modified descendants, and thus new sub-groups and groups are formed.”

"We have seen that it is the common, the widely-diffused, and the widely-ranged species, belonging to the larger genera, which vary most; and these will tend to transmit to their modified offspring that superiority which now makes them dominant in their own countries."

Darwin's use of the term "dominant groups" in reference to "their own countries" suggests that "dominant group" is a term in the science of regions.

The question becomes, "Which came first the "dominant group" or the region?" It may be possible that some groups as they increase in numbers alter their local region in such a way that it increases their numbers and produces their dominance.

As has been demonstrated in small group studies, each use of "dominant group" is accompanied in context by the region of this group. The limits which separate the group from the population, or those that determine the region or country within which the dominant group is possible may be correlated with the criteria of dominance. Changing the limits which define the region should change the dominant group or eliminate dominant groups except as an artifact of examination.

A group that wishes to become or remain as a dominant group may change the limits of a region so as to create or maintain itself as dominant. Naturally occurring apparent dominant groups may be only an artifact of the choice of regions.

Indicators
The term may serve as a theoretical indicator.

"But once this dominant group has been deposed, other [art] producers take their place and can assert their hegemony, drawing authority away from consumers by a process of de-commodification."

Analogy
Dominant group is like "differential equations". Although "differential equations" is a subject within mathematics, its spread to other fields such as physics with ensuing use, advanced knowledge within those fields.

Terminology
Dominant group may be a subject-independent entity (a two-word scientific or technical term, or a two-word cultural or humanities term), or simply a two-word term.

Evolutionary processes
Perhaps it is an evolutionary process. In materials science, is the term dominant group an artifact, an evolutionary process, or only an entity?

With respect to dominant groups, evolutionary processes
 * 1) produce dominant groups,
 * 2) are the same as dominant groups (dominant groups are an evolutionary process),
 * 3) are produced by dominant groups, or
 * 4) are independent of dominant groups (i.e., dominant groups are an artifact or accident).

Dominant group may be a force for extinction.

On page 212 of a 1944 book by Simpson is "[i]n the history of life it is a striking fact that major changes in the taxonomic groups occupying various ecological positions do not, as a rule, result from direct competition of the groups concerned in each case and the survival of the fittest, as most students would assume a priori. On the contrary, the usual sequence is for one dominant group to die out, leaving the zone empty, before the other group becomes abundant." "Simpson noted that major extinctions provide opportunities (space, ecological niches, etc.) for later diversification by the survivors."

Accidents
Any dominant group may be only an accident.

"There is no evidence that the superiority of any existing dominant group is based on any thing but an accident, and any attempt to maintain that dominance by reason, is merely the rationalization of a "myth.""

Def.

 * 1) "[a]n unexpected event with negative consequences occurring without the intention of the one suffering the consequences"
 * 2) "[a]ny chance event"
 * 3) "[a]n unintended event such as a collision that causes damage or death"
 * 4) "[a] property attached to a word [or term], but not essential to it, as gender, number, case"
 * 5) "[a]n irregular surface feature with no apparent cause"
 * 6) "casus; such unforeseen, extraordinary, extraneous interference as is out of the range of ordinary calculation"
 * 7) "[a]n unplanned event that results in injury (including death) or occupational illness to person(s) and/or damage to property, exclusive of injury and/or damage caused by action of an enemy or hostile force" is called an accident.

"Instead of a competitive situation, these societies disclose a monopolistic control of the principal resources by the dominant group, and, as in the case of the United States, it is this group that allocates positions in the society as a whole."

"In all these societies, historical accident (conquest, colonization, forced or free migration) made for important and commonly recognized differences in anthropological culture."

Dominances
Defining the dominant group with respect to an evolution of the criteria of dominance, for example, "[t]races the evolution of the dominant group in Canada since 1931 by examining criteria for dominance that have evolved over time." "[T]he category of "dominant group" has unclear limits and varies from one geographical region to another."

"When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one. "

Ecological dominance is the degree to which a species is more numerous than its competitors in an ecological community, or makes up more of the biomass.

"In many paleontological studies, taxonomic diversity" carries with it "[t]he implicit assumption ... that more species in a lineage indicate greater biomass in the lineage as well." "Although this generalization may apply in animals, there are strong reasons to think that among plants there is no strong correlation between biomass dominance and species diversity".

Perhaps, dominant group is independent of a criteria of dominance and serves instead as an indicator of change based on influence. At one point in time, a dominant group A may be observed or identified, at a later time there may be no identifiable dominant group, then even later dominant group B is identifiable.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Using enough scholarly literature sources it should be possible to demonstrate the falseness or applicability of each dominant group hypothesis.

title: Dominant group/Classes of meaning


text:
User:BorisVM

Hello! BorisVM (talk) 05:41, 4 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User:BorisVM


text:
User talk:BorisVM

Good day! BorisVM (talk) 05:41, 4 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:BorisVM


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Causes/Deficiencies/Glutathione

"Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant, preventing damage to important cellular components caused by |reactive oxygen species such as free radicals and peroxides. All human cells have the capability of synthesising GSH but the principal source has been shown to be the liver."

Research
2011

Garrido et al evaluated the effects of raising and lowering glutathione levels in rats. They found that in both cases the nigral neurons deteriorated and resulted in the development of Parkinsonian symptoms. They postulated that a glutathione imbalance might be a cause of the disease and its proper regulation might be considered as a viable therapy.

There are some current research results related to the neuroprotective effects of glutathione which should be added here. You are invited to do the search of PubMed under Today below and summarise the relevant abstracts. Droflet (talk) 09:24, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

Related Pages
Glucathione (GSH),--


text: Category:Spectroscopy

title: Category:Spectroscopy


text:
Tricolour Voting Game/PSAG Workshop

This is the first iteration of the Tricolour Voting Game. It was palyed at the Political Simulation and Games Workshop, 8th June 2012. This was run by Higher Education Academy and hosted by the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Westminster.
 * (See here for mor details.)

Maxims
For this game the maxims were:

Print and Play
These pdfs can be used to print either directly on to coloured card, or onto paper and inserted in coloured deck protector sleeves.Only Black and White printing is required.
 * 1) Click on image of pdf - this will take you to the pdf file.
 * 2) Then click on pdf image, which will then open as a pdf.

title: Tricolour Voting Game/PSAG Workshop