text:
Democracy Project/Open Source Constitution

Who has the Right to Vote? Article I, Section 2 states that, "...and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature." According to Wikipedia: "The Constitution does not spell out qualifications for voters; rather, it provides that those qualified to vote in elections for the larger chamber of a state's legislature may vote in Congressional elections as well." Wikipedia

So maybe you already have the right to vote? Do we even need the Bill of Rights to be sure, or can we delete it and just rely on the Constitution? You help decide by editing any of the text below.

Full Text of The Open Source Constitution
The Text Below is the Group Effort of An Internet-Age Community

Intro
We the People, pursuant to form a more perfect union, establish justice and domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, secure autonomy of societal well being, ensure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for these united states of America.

Section. 1.
All Powers herein granted shall be vested in a House of Representatives.

Section. 2.
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of all the United States.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of eighteen Years, and been six Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be a Resident of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State. The actual Enumeration shall be made within one Year after the first Meeting of the House of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of California shall be entitled to choose fifty-three, Texas thirty-two, New York twenty-nine, Florida twenty-five, Illinois nineteen, Pennsylvania nineteen, Ohio eighteen, Michigan, fifteen, Georgia thirteen, North Carolina thirteen, New Jersey thirteen, Virginia eleven, Washington ten, Massachusetts ten, Indiana nine, Arizona nine, Tennessee nine, Missouri eight, Maryland eight, Wisconsin eight, Minnesota eight, Colorado seven, Alabama seven, South Carolina seven, Louisiana six, Kentucky six, Oregon five, Oklahoma five, Connecticut five, Iowa four, Mississippi four, Arkansas four, Kansas four, Utah three, Nevada three, New Mexico two, West Virginia two, Nebraska two, Idaho two, Maine two, New Hampshire two, Hawaii two, Rhode Island two, Montana two, Delaware one, South Dakota one, Alaska one, North Dakota one, Vermont one, Wyoming one, and the District of Columbia one.. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section. 3.
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the House may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations.

The House shall assemble at least once in every Month, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section. 4.
Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of a Supermajority, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of a Superminority of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Section. 5.
The Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of the House during his Continuance in Office.

Section. 6.
No state shall interact with powers outside of the United States unless given permission by the House, in times of emergency, or when permission is assumed to be given.

All actions of a state may be questioned by the House, and the state may be penalized for inappropriate action as determined by the House.

Section. 1.
The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Every citizen of the United States can, if they choose to do so, vote for the presidential candidate of their choice once per election. The states are responsible for counting the number of votes submitted for each candidate and send them to the House. The House has the responsibility of counting all the votes from the states and determine which candidate had the most votes submitted. A recount can be requested by the House if it chooses to do so. A re-vote can be administered if a supermajority of House members choose to do so. No Person except a Citizen of the United States shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of eighteen Years, and been eighteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the House may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly affirm that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section. 2.
The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the House, to make Treaties, provided a supermajority of the House present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the House may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section. 3.
He shall from time to time give to the House Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section. 4.
The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Section. 1.
The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the House may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2.
The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;-- between a State and Citizens of another State;--between Citizens of different States;--between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the House shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the House may by Law have directed.

Section. 3.
Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

The House shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Section. 1.
Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the House may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section. 2.
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

Section. 3.
New States may be admitted by the House into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the House.

The House shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section. 4.
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature against domestic Violence.

Article. V.
The House, whenever a supermajority of the House shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of supermajority of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the House; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article. VI.
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article. VII.
The Ratification of the Conventions of any number of willing States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

Signatures
Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the UNKNOWN DATE of UNKNOWN MONTH in the Year of UNKNOWN YEAR and of the Independence of the United States of America the UNKNOWN TIME In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

''This document has yet to be signed and ratified. Below is a list of the signers and/or contributors to the original constitution, as well as internet contributers.''

Original Contributors:

G°. Washington President and deputy from Virginia

Delaware Geo: Read Gunning Bedford jun John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jaco: Broom

Maryland James McHenry Dan of St Thos. Jenifer Danl. Carroll

Virginia John Blair James Madison Jr.

North Carolina Wm. Blount Richd. Dobbs Spaight Hu Williamson

South Carolina J. Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler

Georgia William Few Abr Baldwin

New Hampshire John Langdon Nicholas Gilman

Massachusetts Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King

Connecticut Wm. Saml. Johnson Roger Sherman

New York Alexander Hamilton

New Jersey Wil: Livingston David Brearley Wm. Paterson Jona: Dayton

Pensylvania [sic] B Franklin Thomas Mifflin Robt. Morris Geo. Clymer Thos. FitzSimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouv Morris

Internet Contributor:

Exos

Ossibuspawn

Roracle

The Preamble to The Bill of Rights
Congress of the United States begun and held at the City of UNKNOWN CITY, on UNKNOWN DAY the UNKNOWN DATE of UNKNOWN MONTH, UNKNOWN YEAR.

THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution.

RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.

ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution.

Amendment I
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; save practices that were found to be in violation of the non aggression principle. (I.E. violent crimes).

Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press.

Congress shall make no law abridging the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II
1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment III
Congress shall make no law restricting the free trade of items, personal or commercial use of alcoholic beverages, tobacco, cannabis, coffee, opium, coca, or any of their derivatives or synthetics within the confines of private property. Negligent or violent crimes may still be prosecuted.

Amendment IV
No Federal, State, or Local Law shall infringe on the right of a Person to use their property for household agricultural purposes. Commercial agriculture may be regulated by only the States and Local Law.

Amendment V
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. By the people, it is meant not only individuals within any given State in the Union, but also collectively the people are the unorganized militia in their respective State.

Congress shall have no power to regulate the people's right to ownership, be it of the arms themselves or munitions, nor to define, control, or legislate what the people might bear.

Amendment VI
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war.

Amendment VII
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment VIII
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without willful sale by the private party.

Amendment IX
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment X
In Suits at common law the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment XI
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment XII
Congress shall make no law and have no power to lay taxes upon the people either directly or indirectly, nor shall Congress have the power to issue loans or grants, nor shall they garner wages. These powers shall be delegated to the states respectively, and the people of the states may not be subject to taxation of states of which they do not reside. Congress may take donations to pursue the funding of projects, and may address the states themselves for petition of funds, but may not enforce this upon any state or person, for the purposes of military or otherwise.

Amendment XIII
Congress shall have no power to make any law which set wages for themselves or others.

Amendment XIV
The people of the United States are not limited to the rights enumerated in the Constitution and the absence of a right does not mean it can't be granted. The Constitution only sets the minimum of freedoms granted to citizens.

Amendment XV
The jurisdiction of rights not expressed in the Constitution belongs to the States.


text:
Democracy Project/Where it Started

Full Text of The Original US Constitution
The following text is a transcription of the Constitution in its original form.

Source: The US National Archives and Records Administration

Introduction
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article. I.
Section. 1.

All Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section. 2.

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section. 3.

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section. 4.

The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section. 5.

Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section. 6.

The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section. 7.

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States: If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section. 8.

The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section. 9.

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another; nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section. 10.

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Article. II.
Section. 1.

The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section. 2.

The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section. 3.

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section. 4.

The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article III.
Section. 1.

The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2.

The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;-- between a State and Citizens of another State;--between Citizens of different States;--between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section. 3.

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Article. IV.
Section. 1.

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section. 2.

The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section. 3.

New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section. 4.

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic Violence.

Article. V.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article. VI.
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article. VII.
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

The Word, "the," being interlined between the seventh and eighth Lines of the first Page, the Word "Thirty" being partly written on an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the first Page, The Words "is tried" being interlined between the thirty second and thirty third Lines of the first Page and the Word "the" being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

Attest William Jackson Secretary

Signatures
Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

G°. Washington Presidt and deputy from Virginia

Delaware Geo: Read Gunning Bedford jun John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jaco: Broom

Maryland James McHenry Dan of St Thos. Jenifer Danl. Carroll

Virginia John Blair James Madison Jr.

North Carolina Wm. Blount Richd. Dobbs Spaight Hu Williamson

South Carolina J. Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler

Georgia William Few Abr Baldwin

New Hampshire John Langdon Nicholas Gilman

Massachusetts Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King

Connecticut Wm. Saml. Johnson Roger Sherman

New York Alexander Hamilton

New Jersey Wil: Livingston David Brearley Wm. Paterson Jona: Dayton

Pennsylvania B Franklin Thomas Mifflin Robt. Morris Geo. Clymer Thos. FitzSimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouv Morris

Full Text of the Original Bill of Rights
'''The following text is a transcription of the first ten amendments to the Constitution in their original form. These amendments were ratified December 15, 1791, and form what is known as the "Bill of Rights."'''

Source: The US National Archives and Records Administration

The Preamble to The Bill of Rights
Congress of the United States begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine.

THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution.

RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.

ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution.

Amendment I
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment VII
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Democracy Project/Where it Started


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The Australian Eye

 is a 52 minute documentary which takes a hard, confronting look at racism in Australia. The documentary features American educator Jane Elliott conducting a version of her controversial, experiential prejudice-awareness 'blue-eyed, brown-eyed' training with Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Jane Elliott's controversial training method involves separating brown-eyed people from blue-eyed people. Those with brown eyes are given all the power, while those with blue eyes are discriminated against and made to feel inferior.

title: The Australian Eye


text:
Comparative law and justice/Australia

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic information
Australia is a large country which is ranked 6th in the world for landmass, which measures at 7,682,300 sq km. Australia is also ranked 54th in the world for population which is 21,262,641 as of July 2009. As a oceanic country, Australia is bordered by two bodies of water, The Indian and The South Pacific Ocean. Australia also includes Tasmania, an island off its southern tip. Its geographical features include large mountain ranges (The snowy mountains are home to Mount Kosciuszko, the highest mountain in Australia); important bodies of water such as the Savannah Gulf which is home to the Great Barrier Reef and Ningaloo; the Outback; and numerous beaches on the 18,000 km coast line. The climate ranges from 70% semi-arid in most of the country, to temperate in south and east Australia, to tropical in the Northern regions.

The total population of Australia is 21,262,641 as of July 2009, While its national capital is located in Canberra, the cities with the largest population Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. Sydney is the most populous of these mainland state capitals The total population has roughly 1 male per 1 female, 18.6% are 14 years old and younger, 67.9% are between 15-64 years of age, and 13.5% are 65 years of age and older.

Australia has a rather small ethnic diversity, with 92% being white, 7% Asian, and the original inhabitants (aborigines)and others making up 1% of the population. There is a large religious diversity, 25.8% are Catholic, 18.7% are Anglican, 5.7% are United Church, 3% are Presbyterian and Reformed, 2.7% are Eastern Orthodox, 1.7% are Muslim, 2.4% other, 11.3% unspecified, and 18.7% have no religion, according to the 2006 Census. English is the most commonly spoken language in Australia, (78.5%) Chinese, Italian, Greek, Arabic, and Vietnamese are also spoken, but only around 1.5% for each of these languages. However, 8.2% were other and 5.7% unspecified. Aboriginal languages were grouped in other.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
The Australian economy is fairly developed ranking 19th in the world with a Gross Domestic Product is $802.9 billion The GDP per capita is $38,200 (24th in the world) The Australian economy is driven by several industries, mining, industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals and steel. It is a gross exporter of coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. The currency is the Australian dollar.

Australia, although industrialized and developed, only ranks 196th for infant mortality; having 4.75 deaths per 1,000 live births. Males have a life expectancy of 84.14 years of age, this places Australia as 7th in the world.

In Australia it is expected that by age 15 and over 99% of the total male population and 99% of females of the total male population; will be literate. It is expected that males will spend 20 years in school from primary to tertiary education and females will spend one more year, at 21 years of schooling. The country expends 4.5% of GDP towards education which ranks Australia 86th in the world. Children are not allowed under any circumstances to "drop out" of schooling.

Brief History
The first inhabitants of Australia were the Aborigines (offensively named 'Nungas' by the Europeans), 60,000 years ago. This was before Cook and the Europeans arrived in Australia and began to map the lands. Europeans did however, name the animals, plants, and recorded the history. The British colonies in Australia were produced from mostly criminals sent to Australia from Britain for exile. On January 1, 1901 the nation was born from six Australian colonies that had been built. A constitution was made and proclaimed Australia's loyalty to England and England's monarch. This constitution formed the federal Government in Australia, now know as The Commonwealth of Australia. After WWII Australia became more multicultural and many convicts being brought to the colonies were able to thrive. An example of this thriving life is Gregory David Roberts who was once a criminal turned successful writer of the book Shantaram. In the past 20 years Australia has become a tolerant and cosmopolitan nation in our world.

Governance
Australia is a common-law country derived from The United Kingdom. Its government is described as a federalist and also as a parliamentary democracy. Australia is rated 8th for corruption in the world. .

Australia is governed by one Federal Government organized under the one Federal Parliament in Canberra, six state parliaments in each of the six states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania) and two territory parliaments, The Northern Territory and The Australian Capital Territory. The Federal Government is led by the Prime Minister, state Governments have chief ministers. The federal judiciary consists of the High Court of Australia, the federal court of Australia, family courts, and the Federal Magistrates Court of Australia. Federal judges and magistrates are appointed by the government and have to have practiced law for at least five years prior to appointment. State governments vary, but follow and adversarial legal system with a high value on presumption of innocence.

Each local government can pass legislation or by-laws, in conjuction with the constitution. The Territorial and State police enforce these by-laws.

Elections
Elections are conducted locally and overseen by states for federal and state elections. Voting can be done by any Australian citizen 18 years of age or older, or has lived for at least one month at their current address. Any criminal serving a sentence of 3 years or more is not eligible. An election for the Prime minister is presented in Australia after he is picked by the speaker of the House of Representatives. The current political party is always lead by the Prime Minister at the time with majoritarian representation from the House. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison.

Judicial Review
The High Court of Australia adds to its common-law history, judicial review is used in cases concerning the Constitution and disputes. It also has the power to dismiss by-laws that do not adhere to the Constitution and produces decisions on matters that can not be handled in other courts.

Courts and Criminal Law
The court system in Australia is organized in a hierarchical system. Initial matters are handled in state courts first and then can be appealed to The Australian High Court. The only time that this is not the case, is in matters of the Constitution where if an interpenetration has been made, or where the court sees a principle law involved in a case which is publicly important. These cases will go straight to the High Court rather than starting in state or federal courts. These cases will also be heard by the full court which comprises all seven Justices (Judges) if available. The appeals that are heard by the High Court can come from the Supreme courts of states and Federal Courts. Thus, cases are heard by no less than two Justices. The High Court hears cases from arbitration, all the way to family law and trade practices.

Australia has an adversarial legal system. Trials have Justices and barristers (lawyers) who represent the parties present. An appeal book must be present in order for High Court trials, these books provide necessary information for the case, they are formed by the appellant's barrister. Court hearings also involve a counsel (jury) the number of the counsel can deffer depending on the trial and not all cases in court have counsel.

In Australia there is a presumption of innocence, and guilt must be proved. Like The United States the Constitution protects against self-incrimination and voluntary confessions. Voluntary confessions and statements, however, are allowed. A barrister is appointed to all criminals and appeals. Either side can enter an appeal, however once a case is appealed to the High Court, the final decision is binding and may not be appealed any farther. The High Court holds binding decisions over all courts in Australia.

Civil court hearings are used for dispute resolution and damages are often sometimes available to the prosecuting party. Australia has workers compensation, disability benefits, and national health care. The national health care system in Australia is much like the one in Europe and saves many companies from unneeded civil law suits, although there still are some law suits for malpractice.

Punishment
In Australia most offences even criminal are only punished by large fines. Murder charges have fairly long prison sentences, however there is no capital punishment in Australia. The last reported case of capital punishment in Australia was in 1967 In cases of assault and theft there are much lesser prison terms. In some cases such as with speeding a loss of license or impounding of the car can occur. Some criminal offences are punished by imprisonment, but only in crimes seen as heinous. Australia is very strict with drug and drinking while driving offences. If someone is found with drugs of any kind they are immediately arrested. The same goes for drinking, there are what are called "Booze Buses" which are check points in the form of hospital buses in the cities at night, they will pull everyone out of the car and if the driver is drinking they will be arrested. If any of the passengers have drugs in their system or in their possession, they are also arrested.

As of June 30th in 2003 there were 23,555 prisoners in Australia. According to statistics the imprisonment rate has risen by nearly 50% in the past 10 years. Fifty-five percent of prisoner in 2003 were male ages 20-34 years of age. Between 1993 and 2003, the female prisoner population has increased by 110%, in comparison to a 45% increase in the male prisoner population. Most of the prisoners in prison are incarcerated for drug offences, theft, and assault.

Prison conditions in Australia generally hospitable. However, there is now a push for another "Super max" prison to be built in Australia in the next couple of years. These types of prisons will host the mentally ill prisoners, terrorist suspects, and convicted inmates. There is regimented control in these prisons, especially for the terrorist suspects who do not have any visitation rights at all. Prisoners have health care and can practice their own religions. Punishment in Australia emphasizes treatment and confinement. There is a separate prison for women and men. One of the woman's prisons is located in Perth. Juveniles do not really have prisons, however if the juvenile is the at a certain age (determined by each state and territory court) they will be tried as an adult. If juveniles misbehave in school to where they are kicked out they are sent to special rehabilitation housing.

Legal Personnel
Federal justices and Magistrates are appointed by the government on any given day. The person who is being appointed for these position must have at least five years of prior legal experience. More often than not they have previously served as a barrister. A Federal court judge can also be appointed if they served as a justice in a different court. Family court justices must be able to deal with family laws and law matters with proper training, experience, and a good personality for family courts. Judges are called Justices in Australia. All Federal Justices and Magistrates are only appointed at age 70.

Barristers in Australia are the equivalent of lawyers in The United States. Barristers are trained in the same manner as lawyers in America. Barristers must be trained in law school for at least three years. Upon graduation of law school the Bar for the area must be passed and then one year of supervised work must be conducted. The aplication for the bar is intensive and requires a full background check and requires the applicant to disclose some personal information in order to decide if the applicant can be considered as a Barrister.

Law Enforcement
Australia has several different police forces. There is one force for each of the six states and also The Australian Federal Police. Australian police forces are not closely associated with the military forces and military has no responsibility for the maintenance of civil order.

Australian police recruits must complete there secondary education in order to be eligibe for the recruiting process. University training is encouraged for all Australian Federal Police applicants. A extensive medical and psychological test are administered to each recruit. These test measure the physical and mental well-being of a recruit to ensure they are able to handle the day to day stresses of the job. Recruits are also evaluated on their overall suitability, competence, physical fitness, and character.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Crime rates are fairly high in Australia. The most common offences are drug offences, with 86,470 total for the years 1991-1992. This estimates to 494.1 per 100,000 people. Crime data in Australia are collected from the annual reports of Australian police forces for each year. It is likely that there is significant reporting error due to unreported crimes, such as rape and assault.

Public Opinion on crime and criminal Justice
People in Australia on average do not favor a "tough on crime" perspective. In fact crime has decreased in the past couple of years in Australia.In 2005 the victimization prevalence rate for household crime was 6.2%, compared to 8.9% in 2002. Comparisons with 2002 for all selected types of household crime showed statistically significant decreases in the prevalence rates for: break-in, where the victimization rate in 2005 was 3.3% compared with 4.7% in 2002 attempted break-in, where the victimization rate in 2005 was 2.6% compared with 3.4% in 2002 motor vehicle theft, where the victimization rate in 2005 was 1.0% compared with 1.8% in 2002. For personal crime, the victimization prevalence rate for 2005 remained unchanged from the 2002 figure of 5.3%. Most Australians have faith in the Justice system in Australia.

Family Law
Family law matters are handled by each of the six states individually. There are not many restrictions on the marriage of adult couples, even same sex marriage is allowed in Australia. A special act was put in place for the same sex marriages in 2002, called The Act Amendment (lesbian and gay law reform) Act. Marriages must be conducted by a minister of religion, by a State Registrar, or by other persons authorized by the Attorney-General. Notice of the intended marriage must be given to the official conducting the marriage ceremony at least one month but not more than six months before the marriage. Other paper work must also be completed in order for the marriage to be official, fourteen days after the marriage has taken place. In 1991 an Act was introduced that required minimum ages at marriage of 18 for males and 18 for females. Marriages of minors (for males aged 16 or 17 and for females aged 14 or 15) are allowed only if a judge or magistrate issued an order permitting the marriage or with their parents permission. Under no circumstances may and juvenile under the age of 18 be married.

Divorce is allowed Australia, however certain guidelines must be followed. One can separate without having to file any divorce paperwork. One must be separated for 12 months or more before one can officially file for a divorce. An application is taken by The Federal Magistrates Court, who then decides for or against the divorce. The splitting of properties is decided between the divorcees. This is rarely not taken to court unless absolutely necessary.

Like America, there is no right to child-bearing, and children can be taken from the home if there is suspected abuse or neglect. Adoption rights are obtainable, however they are not set in stone. Adoption of international regions is allowed, however the process is much lengthier. Same sex partners are allowed to adopt as well as male and female partners.

Inheritances are set up privately for the most part. Spouses are legally entitled to most of the spouses' land, buildings, etc. With a will more or less can be given to the spouse and children. There are no probate courts in Australia and any other matters concerning properties will be handled by one of the state courts first if there is any problems with inheritance.

Social Inequality
Women are unrepresented, although they have full citizenship rights, in some aspects of Australian life. For example women are underrepresented in managerial positions in the work place. They also remain unrepresented in the political era as well. There are a lack of family-friendly exceptions and maternity in the work place contributing to women's under representation. Women are also earning less than those men that are in top positions at work. This is not much different from other areas of the world, including America.

Minors do not have full citizenship rights. They are considered part of a protected community. Elders are also a protected community, however they do have full citizenship rights and are generally not treated much differently than other adults.

There is a severe discrimination against the Aborigines in Australia. In February 208 the Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, made a public apology to the Indigenous people for abuses of Indigenous ancestors. The Aborigines do not have access to equal opportunity health care in Australia and because of this the life expectancy is much lower for the Indigenous population. The is a lack of proper living areas, clean water, and healthy foods. Many Aborigines suffer from alcoholism. The Aborigines also have separate schools than most Australians, whom pay for private boarding education, thus the Aborigines may not receive a good education. There have been numerous attempts by amnesty groups to try and rectify this rising problem.

Human Rights
Rights in Australia range from protection of Free speech, religion, criminal trials, appeals, bail, and not to be denied the right to vote, and travel.Australians also have rights concerning children protection, health care, and marriage. Recently the right to own a firearm in ones own house was revoked and it has become a law that no person in Australia can own a firearm unless allowed by the Government (such as police etc.)There are many more rights, which are all practiced by the Constitution of Australia and reviewed consistently by the High Courts.

Immigrants who have not attained citizenship in Australia are supplied with some rights like health care, however, they are not given all rights. Immigrants also must be on some sort of visa in the country, school, work, spouse, or working vacation related. It is hard to gain citizen ship into Australia. All immigration paper work for permanent citizenship is done on a point system and so many points are given based on whether or not a person is attending school in Australia, has worked in Australia before, has vacationed to Australia, etc. After a persons temporary visa is expired, they must immediately leave the country. Also, while under a work visa one cannot keep the same job for more than six months at a time. Australia,also,does accept refugees and even has separate schools were people can volunteer to teach and help refugee children from the Middle Eastern areas.

title: Comparative law and justice/Australia


text:
User:Paula~enwikiversity

= Social Psychology =

title: User:Paula~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Paula~enwikiversity

Well done
Good job on setting up your account,. Let me know if I can do anything as you go along. 'Official' Wikiversity welcome below. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 14:19, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

 Hello Paula, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random random project.
 * Browse everything on Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 14:19, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

 Hello , we are the Baah and Bahh twins and we'd both like to welcome you to Wikiversity. While you sit back and explore Wikiversity, enjoy some of our fresh goat milk. You can help us learn by creating new learning resources or help us by improving the guided tours and other exploration tools. We look forward to seeing you around. Baaaahbye for now.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Paula. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Paula~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:47, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paula~enwikiversity


text:
User:Dark Mage/matrix/line

 * - bgcolor=
 *
 * align="left" |  ::
 * align="left" |  ::
 * align="left" |
 * align="left" | contribs
 * align="left" |

Usage
The following gives the parameter meanings...

Code was taken from User:Monobi

title: User:Dark Mage/matrix/line


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User:Dark Mage/matrix

This list provides information of who I am on the Wikimedia Foundation sites.

title: User:Dark Mage/matrix


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Talk:Hormone

For later perhaps... August 2008 ''Testosterone key to disease transmission Emesee 19:39, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hormone


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C Sharp/Compilers

About Compiling
Source code is really just a string of text. You can open most source code in any text editor (like Notepad, vim, textmate, etc) and view the code. The amazing part of the coding process is the compiler. The compiler takes the text that you've written and will convert it to machine code (in the case of languages such as C++) or an intermediary language that can be executed by a Just In Time Compiler (in the case of languages such as C# and Java). You could follow the lessons and learn the basics of the language from reading alone, but you'll need to get a copy of a compiler to run the code in the lessons.

Visual Studio - Windows only
Visual Studio is the compiler and IDE created by Microsoft for Windows computers. Visual Studio has several versions. The professional version can compile C# code, as well as a number of other languages. However, this professional version is expensive. If you are a student you can obtain a free copy of Visual Studio 2008 Professional from Microsoft on their http://www.dreamspark.com (404 link) website.

The free alternative to Visual Studio Professional is Visual Studio Express Edition. Visual Studio Express Edition is perfect for learning how to code in C#, and can be obtained for free from Microsoft on their http://www.microsoft.com/express/vcsharp/ website. This is probably the best choice for learning C# on Wikiversity.

Microsoft offers three editions of Visual Studio: Community, Professional, and Enterprise. If you want to download Visual Studio to learn C#, the Community edition is a powerful IDE and free for personal use.

MonoDevelop - cross platform
Mono is a project lead by Novell with goals to create a .NET compatible set of tools, including a compiler and Common Language Runtime (CLR). Mono is available as source for free, and can be compiled on Linux, BSD, UNIX, macOS, Solaris and Windows. It supports x86, SPARC, PowerPC, ARM, S390, x86_64, IA64 and SPARC processors. You can also get mono as a package for most operating systems. Mono can be downloaded at the http://www.mono-project.com/Main_Page website.

MonoDevelop is the accompanying IDE for the Mono Project. It is also available from source, and has many features that make it an easy to use compiler.

title: C Sharp/Compilers


text: C Sharp/Lessons

title: C Sharp/Lessons


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Template:Explain

[ explain? ]

title: Template:Explain


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BCP/Hypericum mutilum

Hypericum mutilum

title: BCP/Hypericum mutilum


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BCP/Hypericum mutilum/Logs

2008 Logs

 * Jomegat 02:37, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

2009 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Jomegat 23:40, 18 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 15:49, 26 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 03:49, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

title: BCP/Hypericum mutilum/Logs


text:
Template:ROOTNAME

Magic word; similar to BASEPAGENAME

title: Template:ROOTNAME