text:
User:Garcia123/ENES100/My Work

Write problem/project Goal
Hack car remote to use voice command on phone to unlock vehicle

My First Task
Research every major car company on what they do and use to communicate with the cars computer.

Summary of actual work over first weekend
How is what you did different than what you planned? Not Really different. Looked into each major car companies technology. Toyota Motor Corporation- Bluetooth

General Motors Company- OnStar; voice recognition, cellular, a Global Positioning System (GPS) and vehicle telemetry.

Volkswagen AG

Ford Motor Company-wifi

Honda Motor Company- V2V communication(Vehicle to Vehicle communication)

Week1 Narrative
Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend. Used search engines looking for programming codes/software to use in order to tweek the car into become a "sports car" rented out the OBD to see how it worked with my car also researching programs other people used to hack their ECU.

My Second Task
Record what you are planning on doing for the team during the second weekend.

Look into the programming codes/software to use in order to tweek the car into become a "sports car" rented out the OBD to see how it worked with my car also researching programs other people used to hack their ECU.

Worked with the OBD connector to see how it works.

Summary of actual work over second weekend
I planned to look into the programming codes/software to use in order to tweek the car into become a "sports car" but instead since I rented out the OBD connector, I decided to see how it worked with my car.

Week2 Narrative
I worked with the OBD connector, trying to get it to work. I tried to get it to work but couldn’t. I first tried using my laptop, a macbook. I plugged in the OBD connector to my brothers car then ran the software on my laptop. I followed the directions the software gave me. When I reached the step to run the program "Scan Master-ELM," I just kept on getting errors such as; "WLAN ERROR: No connection could be made because the target machine actively refused it" and "WLAN ERROR: A socket operation was attempted to an unreachable network." My laptop could not get connected to the OBD's wifi. I tried using another laptop because I thought there was something wrong with mine. I did the same procedures I did with my laptop with the new laptop and got the same results. The computer’s wifi was not able to connect to the OBD’s wifi in order for the program, Scan Master-ELM to work properly. The next day I decided to see if I can get the OBD connector to work on my phone. I downloaded the app “Torque” on my phone in order for my phone to connect with the OBD’s wifi. I tried to locate the OBD’s wifi through my phone using my phones wifi and Bluetooth. My phone’s Bluetooth was not working with “Torque” so I had to use another phone. I downloaded Torque on the new phone and then opened up the app. Then I plugged in the OBD connector to my brother’s car. I turned on the phones wifi and Bluetooth; I was able to detect the OBD’s wifi using the phones wifi. I connected to it and ran Torque. The phone was not able to successfully connect to the OBD’s wifi so I was unsuccessful in using Torque. I then tried a different car to see if the car was the problem but I came up with the same results. During class on Friday, me and my project partners went outside to try to get the OBD connector to work. David plugged the OBD connector to his car and tried to run Torque on his phone. He was unsuccessful. We came up with the conclusion that we need an OBD II connector for us to use Torque.

My Third task
Backtrack/find documentations for some of the projects people have done in TedXfor future projects in Car Hack

Summary of actual work over third weekend
Researched/looked into any documentations that contained any information we can use for future projects for car hack. There wasnt any real difference in what I did to what I planned. I was supposed to look for documentations for the projects showed in the Tedex video. I couldnt find any but found a case study that linked to one of the projects on the Tedx video.

Week3 Narrative
I searched for any documentations for the projects showed in the TedXvideo for future projects in car hack. I used Google, Yahoo, and Bing to search for the documentations. I had difficulty finding any documentation. I then thought about why I can’t find any. I came to the conclusion that the documentations are not out there for the public to see because if it got in the wrong hands people could get hurt. Then that made me think about the engineers respectability and how respectability is important for an engineer. Some engineers are working with projects that are border line legal and illegal which brings attention to their name. After doing more research, I found a case study about security and privacy vulnerabilities of in-car wireless networks through the tire pressure monitoring system in a vehicle. In the case study it did have procedures in how they tested the security and privacy vulnerabilities of in-car wireless networks through the tire pressure monitoring system in a vehicle. It could be a new starting point in a new project in car hack. The equipment used is really expensive so if new projects did start from the case study it has to be scaled down or find new ways using the equipment the school already has.

My Fourth task
Look for codes for the arduino and html codes from ECU to the arduino

Summary of actual work over fourth weekend
How is what you did different than what you planned? I actually found a use of the Arduino platform to monitor a vehicle's fuel consumption or MPG (Miles per Gallon)called MPGuino

Week4 Narrative
Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend. I used bing and google to search for codes for the arduino. I typed in "html codes from ecu to arduino" in the search bar. There were alot of forums that talked about how people used arduinos as the ECU, Miata Turbo Forum. Then I saw MPGuino in one of the links so i searched on what MPGuino is, in which I came upon a link that introduced what MPGuino is and how to get started, MPGuino. In the link there are helpful links like the Code hacks for the MPGuino.

Complete Project Page
Follow the "project done" format.

title: User:Garcia123/ENES100/My Work


text:
Engineering Experience 4: Design a Small Solar Vehicle/2012: Team PM13

Team Name
SUNPOWER

Team Members
Xin Xin Xiaotian Li Yu Chun Sun Mingzheng Wang Heng Zhang Xitis Lal Shrestha Ibrahim Alramli Chenchen Yu

Cooperation Contract
The structure of our team is a hierarchical structure. It consists of a team leader, engineering head, financial head, educating head and its members. Each member of the team has their own expertise on specific areas which they will work on in the project.

Meeting will be organized at least once a week on Tuesday. More meeting can be organized in a week according to the requirement. The information about additional meeting should be provided to each member of the team effectively at least 24 hours before the time of the meeting. Each meeting consists of a president who is in charge of date, time, place and the topic of the meeting. The president should be prepared and have a clear layout of what is to be discussed in the meeting. The president should inform the member about the layout of the meeting via email. Any illegal absence (absence without a good reason) of the member in the meeting for the first time will be dealt by the absentees having to buy drinks for each member who were present. Second absence without tolerable reason will be dealt more seriously, which is by decreasing the points in the peer assessment. On the third absence, the member will be complained to the coach.

For effective work and to ensure efficiency in the group task, each member of the team will have a mentor. The mentor is responsible to ensure that his subject finishes his work on time and checks if the contents of his work meet the requirements of quality and quantity. If the subject does not submit the work on the due date, then both mentor and his subject will be responsible for the late submission. The late submission is a major offence in the team. If a member misses a deadline then he and his mentor should buy drinks for each member of the team and the losses point in the peer assessment.

Plan of Approach
This is simply giving the idea about what we are doing, the rough idea.

Work Breakdown Structure
This is our Work Breakdown Structure, further distribution will be discussed in Gantt Chart.

Week 1
In the first week, we have the first meeting. We decided the position of each team member and waited for a good start. Based on our initial understanding of the project, Xitis and Sun wrote cooperation contract, Xin and Sun wrote work breakdown structure, Ibra and Xin wrote plan of approach, Zhang and Li wrote Gantt chart. All these documents were written after our discussion. We started searching information and preparing for the brainstorm.

Week 2
In the second week, we got DC motor and solar panel. We measured the solar panel in the lab to calculate the m value. Zhang, Sun and Li started looking for useful materials in the shops in Leuven. Wang started to study MatLAB for the simulation part. Xitis started to search information for calculations such as rolling resistance. Xin and Ibra started to think about racing strategy. Yu started to take notes and updating group blog and managing files. Also, we organized a big dinner in weekend to know each other better.

Week 3
In the third week, we learned how to calculate gear ratio. Then Xin and Wang started working on MatLAB. More importantly, we get our first design in modeling software in the first brainstorm session. We held a meeting to discuss each part of the design in detail. We came out some creative ideas to modify the initial design. We all agreed that the loss should be reduced as much as possible, so we are going to build the SSV as light as possible. Then Sun, Zhang and Li, who took charge of materials, estimated the total mass of the SSV, which is an important parameter that will be used in simulation. Then they started to buy the materials. Yu started to look for shops where can we buy gears and shafts. Ibra worked on the outer shape of SSV to reduce air resistance.

Week 4
In the fourth week, Wang and Xin did the simulation and Simulink in MatLAB and got reasonable result. We choose the best gear ratio. Zhang and Li started calculating Sankey diagram with the data we got from MatLAB. Yu, Sun, Xitis and Xin went to a far away shop and bought suitable screws, aluminum board and a shaft. Also, we found a suitable front wheel with frame made in plastic which is already done and well lubricated. This will save us a lot of time compared to making it by ourselves. Xitis, Ibra and Sun started to think about the SSV Part II in advance.

Week 5
In the fifth week until now, we are working on the Part I report. Sun, Xitis and Ibra spent not as much time as the others, because they focused on SSV Part II. Then we will also have a good start in Part II.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:Dross4565/enes100/My Work

TEAM PAGE: Car Hack

Write problem/project Goal
Hack aftermarket car remote in able to use voice command on phone to unlock vehicle

My First Task
Research all possible ODP software available. Find the best, yet cheapest ODP to use. Start figuring out how to translate codes in the software, and how to create plug-ins for voice command.

Summary of actual work over first weekend
Planned to research OBD and how it worked, which I did, but the goal of our project changed. Still used to research I did, to our advantage.

Week1 Narrative
Over the weekend, I researched how to make a car faster without using modifications. I found what was that an ECU is a computer that modern vehicles use to control everything on the car from brakes, the fuel injection, the speedometer, carbon dioxide out put, etc. and how you can used the codes with the ECU to reprogram it and adjust the RPM of the engine increasing the car's initial speed and make it faster. Also found how to read the ECU using an OBD connection with the vehicle to a laptop or cellphone and then that reads the all the codes with the ECU and makes it simple using software to make different gauges and "titles".

My Second Task
Go to junk yard and try to find ECU to bring into class in order to start reading the ECU using the OBD to read it. Also research different ECU program for the car model that we are going to use in order to understand the codes within ECU

Summary of actual work over second weekend
Picked up ECU and tested OBD

Week2 Narrative
Got the ECU from the junkyard this weekend for $10, but the cables usual attached to the ECU were gone. Right now researching cables that connect directly from ECU to OBD to compensate for this, but Martin said OBD software for computer didn't work with the software. So also researching free OBD software or app for phone that is compatible with the wifi on the OBD connector we have now. Professor also suggested new idea in hacking the wifi in a car that communicates the psi in a car's tires to the dashboard for the driver, but noone's car has that technology so unsure about that project.

My Third task
Try to get cables for ECU and test OBD connector with wifi app on phone and read diagnostics from car on app. Look up codes people have already used in programming their own ECUs concerning the car's motor inorder to save time and/or improve their work with our project. Also look into this whole wifi psi reader in car and look into hacking that.

Summary of actual work over third weekend
Found out that the OBD connector that we had originally didn't read the ecu codes from the 2002 Toyota corolla that we are using in our project. It's not that the OBD connector doesn't work properly, but it's for older model vehicles using OBD I software not OBD II. When trying to pick up the wifi from the OBD from laptop or phone in order to read codes produced by ECU, wifi would "die off" before even opening the application used to read the codes.

Week3 Narrative
Professor asked us to start putting pictures of the tools that we used in the project on wikiversity, so went to Lowes to take pictures of equipment. Also since I figured out the problem with the OBD connector, researched OBD connections that would work with the 2002 Toyota Corolla being used in the project. Found a OBD II connector that connects directly to the laptop (so we don't have to worry about the wifi disconnection) and comes with software to read the codes from the ECU directly from the car that I purchased for $10 off of amazon. Also researched basic car hacks for the 2002 Toyota Corolla by back tracking the TEDX video located in the discuss page on our Car Hack page. Found that we can use the arduino to simplify the codes from the ecu and make the MPG for the vehicle better (which is better than trying to decipher total ECU) in a forum Toyota Nation in which other people have already figured out the codes with the ECU. So we have the location with all the codes that the ECU provides in which we can start "experimenting" with in order to make the MPG better for the car.

My Fourth task
This week, I receive the new OBD 2moro. So will install new software to laptop and read original MPG from vehicle. Next, will start deciphering and changing the codes within the ECU using the arduino in class (since we can't literally bring a car in the class room) because using the html conversion of the ECU code with the arduino is easier to rewrite since I have lots of experience with html and java. Once I figure out the codes, I can use the OBD to continuously read the MPG given off by the ECU for the car until it increases slightly or exponentially. Actually want to finish project and give the next group a foothold instead of just figuring out "what does what".

Summary of actual work over fourth weekend
How is what you did different than what you planned?

Week4 Narrative
Received the new OBD connector for our vehicle on thursday, and tried to lodad software onto laptop to start testing but software only runs properly on windows and not mac, which is on fortunate seeing how I only have a macs within my household. So downloaded another software called Parallels Desktop which allows the user to run windows and mac simultaneously on a mac. Once downloaded, I tested the OBD connection to the vehicle and opened the software within the windows settings I just downloaded using Parallels Desktop and "WA-LA" success in reading the ecu from the vehicle is a go. Because all ECUs are different depending on manufacturer and the codes used to program the ECU, I did research finding forums through google of people already trying to reprogram the ECU in the same car model, and year to give my group a direct set of codes to start decoding instead of running through the thousands of codes the ECU has within it. I FOUND SOMETHING BETTER! We can use an arduino to simplify all the codes with a ECU by taking all that code and convert it to html which the arduino does automatically. However, I found out that the ECU within the vehicle runs on a 12v communication network while the arduino translates using a 5v. So you have to use a resistor divider to knock the ECU voltage down to 5, then communication between the two is a go.

Complete Project Page
Follow the "project done" format.

title: User:Dross4565/enes100/My Work


text:
User:Numiri/KinderCalculus/algebraic identities

There are about 20 algebraic identities if we count "=" uni-directionally as 2 identities. This shear mass can be overwhelming to children. KinderCalculus reduces these 20 to 3 generalized identities called Abbreviation, Sprolo, and Forq. The latter 2 are evert identities where the outer verb moves inward.

Abbreviations
"Abbreviations" are the generalized Combine-Like-Terms operations. "Abbreviation" is a long word and sometimes we will favor the more algorithmic initialism "Nevadab". Just as in languages where an abbreviation does not need justification, they don't need it here either because the identity follows immediately from the definition of the Self-ish verbs -- there's almost no brain work involved in proving it. The term Contraction is shorter and synonymous with abbreviation, but can also mean "simplify", so we avoid it.

In traditional algebra, "like terms" refer to addition of terms with similar powers like 3x^2 + 4x^2 = 7x^2. Here we consider a more general "like terms" criteria to include those with different powers but can be combined via multiplication instead of addition. We call this principle "Nevadab", which is an initialism for "neighboring-verbs, add depth, alike bases". The "b" in Nevadab is silent. The odd word is a poor attempt at forcing the initialism into something pronounceable like "nevada".

Under the Nevadab criteria, we can combine a^3 * a^4 into a^7. Combining these terms involve 3 steps:   Check that the verbs are neighboring: the verbs +, *, ^ form a ascending complexity sequence of plus, self-plus, self-self-plus. Each successive pair are neighboring verbs. + and ^ are distant verbs, not neighboring.  Check that the bases are alike: the bases in the 2 terms must be the same.  Add depth: to combine the terms, simply add the depth  The diagram below illustrate the generalization in syntax diagram:

.                          3a + 4a = 7a. |                                             .                                |                                              .                                |                                              .                          +-+-+                                        .                          | \       / |                                        .                          |  o--*--o  |. | /      \ |       3    3                           .            3a * 4a  -+  equals   +- a  + b. (not neighbors)     |           |      (irreducible). |  --o--   |. +-+-+                                       .                                |                                              .                                |                                              .                                |                                              .                            3    4    7                                        .                           a  * a  = a. in the box,. o  =  repeater verb. (see the glossary for definitions). .
 * = seed verb.

Sprolo
Sprolo are generalized distributive & factoring rules. Generalized factoring is called common-leftover "colo" and generalized distribution is called "spread", hence the term "sprolo". Below we generalize the distributive rule beyond the usual a(b+c) = ab + ac. This generalization simplifies the many distributive rules into one -- greatly simplifying algebra!

In the picture below, the center box represents the syntactic parse tree of the distributive expression. The diagonals are the Blead reverse-verb form of the distributive relation and the verticals are the Blead forward-verb form. .                                                                              .                       3(a + b) = 3a + 3b. .                               |                                              .    (1) left divide             |         .. u + v    u   v. is same as -->         |         --o = -  =  - + -. right                  |         .. d      d   d. \       |        /                                     .                        \       |       /                                      .                         \      |      /                                       .                          +-+-+                                        .                          | \       / |                                        .                          |  o--*--o  |. | /      \ |                                        .                          |           |       3    3                           .            3a * 3b  -+  equals   +- a  + b. (uninteresting)     |           |      (irreducible). | \        |                                        .                          |   *--o--  |. | /        |                                        .                          +-+-+                                        .                         /      |      \                                       .  u     v           (2) /       |       \. o-- + o--            /        |        \. b    b                       |. =                 u*v          |          u*v      d__    d__     u     v. log u + log v =  o---          |          ---o  =  V u  * V v  = --o * --o. b      b        b           |           d                      d     d. |               root(u) * root(v). .                             3     3   3                                      .                          (ab)  =  a   b. . Notes:. 1. recall that for self-plus, left & right division reduces to plain division. 2. log poses a slight exception to the diagram, with + replacing * on the left. . u,v = leaf, lattice. a,b = bases. d  =  depth. .

Forq
Forq stands for FOrward-Reverse seQuence.

log(ab) = log(a) + log(b)
Most people are confused as to why " * " is replaced with " + " when we spread log. When log is interpreted as the depth of a snow flake, the identity is easy to see:

In Blead terms, if we draw exponentials as snowflakes, then the log is the depth of the snowflake (the number of hops it takes to go from center to leaf). Multiplication of snowflakes means that we take the blue snowflake and paste it onto each leaf of the red. Because both snowflakes have the same bases, the resultant paste is a proper snowflake. The log of the resulting snowflake is, by definition, the hop count from center to leaf, which is 2+3. log 4 + log 8 = log (red) + log (blue) = 2 + 3 = 5 = log of combined = log (4*8) 2      2        2           2                     snowflake            2

Exercises
1. -4x + 3x

2. 4y + 3x

2    3 3.  x  *  x

2   3 4.  x  + x

5      -2 5.  -3a   *  4a

5      -2 6.  -3a   +  4a

2    3 7.  x  *  y

2 3 8.  ( x  )

1          1 9.  --- x  *  - --- x     2           4

1          1 10.  --- x  +  - --- x      2           4

Merge & write as fractions using Flopposites

-1    -1 11.  2a   +  a

-2    -1 12.  a   +  a

1 -2      -1 13.  - a    *  a     2


text:
Primary psychopath

The term “Primary Psychopath” is used differently by different people. For alternative uses of the term, perform a Google search. If you have linked to this page, it probably means that the term “Primary Psychopath” was used with the following intended meaning:

Primary Psychopathy is whenever someone suffers from at least two of the following types of Cluster B Personality Disorders:

~ Narcissistic Personality Disorder(NPD)

~ Antisocial Personality Disorder(ASPD)

&

~ Borderline Personality Disorder(BPD)

Since the definition given above allows a person to suffer from all three disorders simultaneously, there 4 types of Primary Psychopathy:

1.) Antisocial Personality Disorder + Narcissistic Personality Disorder (ASPD + NPD)

2.) Antisocial Personality Disorder + Borderline Personality Disorder (ASPD + BPD)

3.) Narcissistic Personality Disorder + Borderline Personality Disorder (NPD + BPD)

4.) Antisocial Personality Disorder + Narcissistic Personality Disorder + Borderline Personality Disorder (ASPD + NPD + BPD)

Primary Psychopaths ARE clinically insane since Psychopathy can also have a serious mental illness such as Paranoid Schizophrenia or Bipolar I.Disrder.

title: Primary psychopath


text:
Narcissistic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a medial term used to refer to a dissocial individual with a leadership personality type. Individuals who suffer from NPD are excessively preoccupied with issues of personal adequacy, power, prestige and vanity.

Symptoms
Symptoms of this disorder include, but are not limited to:

 * Reacts to criticism with anger, shame, or humiliation
 * May take advantage of others to reach his or her own goal
 * Tends to exaggerate their own importance, achievements, and talents
 * Imagines unrealistic fantasies of success, beauty, power, intelligence, or romance
 * Requires constant attention and positive reinforcement from others
 * Easily becomes jealous
 * Lacks empathy and disregards the feelings of others
 * Obsessed with oneself
 * Mainly pursues selfish goals
 * Trouble keeping healthy relationships
 * Is easily hurt and rejected
 * Sets unrealistic goals
 * Wants "the best" of everything
 * Appears as tough-minded or unemotional

title: Narcissistic personality disorder


text: Template:Archaeology

title: Template:Archaeology


text:
Leadership personality type

A leadership personality type occurs in individuals with two long forms of transporter region (5-HTTLPR) of the serotonin transporter gene.

5-HTTLPR (serotonin-transporter-linked polymorphic region) is a degenerate repeat polymorphic region in SLC6A4, the gene that codes for the serotonin transporter. Since the polymorphism was identified in the middle of the 1990s, it has been extensively investigated, e.g., in connection with neuropsychiatric disorders. A 2006 scientific article stated that "over 300 behavioral, psychiatric, pharmacogenetic and other medical genetics papers" had analyzed the polymorphism.

Alleles
The polymorphism occurs in the promoter region of the gene. Researchers commonly report it with two variations: A short ("s") and a long ("l"), but it can be subdivided further. In connection with the region are two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP): rs25531 and rs25532.

One study published in 2000 found 14 allelic variants (14-A, 14-B, 14-C, 14-D, 15, 16-A, 16-B, 16-C, 16-D, 16-E, 16-F, 19, 20 and 22) in a group of around 200 Japanese and Caucasian people. The difference between 16-A and 16-D is the rs25531 SNP. It is also the difference between 14-A and 14-D.

Some studies have found that long allele results in higher serotonin transporter mRNA transcription in human cell lines. The higher level may be due to the A-allele of rs25531, such that subjects with the long-rs25531(A) allelic combination (sometimes written LA) have higher levels while long-rs25531(G) carriers have levels more similar to short-allele carriers. Newer studies examining the effects of genotype may compare the LA/LA genotype against all other genotypes. The allele frequency of this polymorphism seems to vary considerably across populations, with a higher frequency of the long allele in Europe and lower frequency in Asia.

Personality traits
In a recent study, authors found that individuals homozygous for the long allele of 5-HTLPR paid more attention on average to positive affective pictures while selectively avoiding negative affective pictures presented alongside the positive pictures compared to their heterozygous and short-allele-homozygous peers. This biased attention of positive emotional stimuli suggests they may tend to be more optimistic. Other research indicates carriers of the short 5-HTTLPR allele have difficulty disengaging attention from emotional stimuli compared to long allele homozygotes. Another recent study using an eye tracking assessment of information processing found that short 5-HTTLPR allele carriers displayed an eye gaze bias to view positive scenes and avoid negative scenes. Long allele homozygotes viewed the emotion scenes in a more even-handed fashion. This research suggests that short 5-HTTLPR allele carriers may be more sensitive to emotional information in the environment than long allele homozygotes.

title: Leadership personality type


text: Template:Infobox disease

title: Template:Infobox disease


title: Template:ICD10


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team12/R3

Here's a sign up table for Report 3 problems. I know this is unconventional, but we all have busy schedules so it might be difficult to meet for a time to sort out the problems. Some of the problems, especially 3.5 and 3.10, look pretty long and elaborate, so probably two or more people might have to tackle or collaborate on those problem. If you got any questions just text Dan.

=Problem 1= =Problem 2= =Problem 3= =Problem 4= =Problem 5= =Problem 6= =Problem 7= =Problem 8= =Problem 9=

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team12/R3


text:
User:Cegnor

Coming soon

title: User:Cegnor


text:
User:Savadkoohi

DSAN

title: User:Savadkoohi


text:
UTPA STEM/CBI Courses/Calculus/Inverse Trigonometric Functions (Feng)

Backwards Design
Course Objectives

 * Primary Objectives- By the next class period students will be able to:
 * Understand the inverse sine, inverse cosine, and inverse tangent functions.
 * Evaluate inverse trigonometric functions for some special angles such as pi/6, pi/4 and pi/3 and related angles.
 * Evaluate an expression with mixed trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions.

 * Sub Objectives- The objectives will require that students be able to:
 * Undertand the definition of trigonometric functions
 * Understand what is the inverse funciton
 * At what domain the Sine, Cosin and Tangent are one-to-one functions

 * Difficulties- Students may have difficulty:
 * Confused with the notation of trig. functions and inverse trig. functions
 * Distinguish the difference between them

 * Real-World Contexts- There are many ways that students can use this material in the real-world, such as:
 * periodic motion, estimate the height of the building.

Model of Knowledge

 * Concept Map
 * Inverse Function
 * Definition of trigonometric functions
 * Definition of inverse trigonometric functions

 * Content Priorities
 * Enduring Understanding
 * Inverse sine, inverse cosine, inverse tangent functions.
 * Evaluate inverse trigonometric functions for some classical numbers.
 * Use the calculator to evaluate inverse trigonometric functions for arbitrary numbers.
 * Important to Do and Know
 * Know the domain and range for each inverse trigonometric function.
 * Inverse trigonometric function identities.
 * Worth Being Familiar with
 * Composing a trigonometric function and an inverse.
 * Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions and their relationship with the graphs of trigonometric functions.

Assessment of Learning

 * Formative Assessment
 * In Class (groups)
 * none
 * Homework (individual)
 * from textbook
 * online homework on webassign
 * Summative Assessment
 * weekly quiz
 * exam

Legacy Cycle
OBJECTIVE

By the next class period, students will be able to: The objectives will require that students be able to:
 * text
 * text
 * text
 * text
 * text
 * text

THE CHALLENGE

text

GENERATE IDEAS

text

MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES

text

RESEARCH & REVISE

text

TEST YOUR METTLE

text

GO PUBLIC

text

Pre-Lesson Quiz
Various material can be tested here, depending on time constraints.

Test Your Mettle Quiz
Various material can be tested here, depending on time constraints.


text:
User talk:Whatisdevotion

No promotional content, please
Please refrain from adding promotional content to Wikiversity, or you'll be blocked. Mathonius 22:09, 17 February 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Whatisdevotion


text:
Talk:Panspermia

Excellent point. It is in fact true that life as we know it are composed of the same atoms that compose the rest of the universe - except for the fact that by chance or sheer dumb luck, there were other factors at play for us to become what we are now. Even in Astronomy, this statement is known as fact. Dlodh574 01:10, 18 February 2012 (UTC)

Organisms do not leap from hosting planets onto a carrier and for "cells" to reach earth will take longer than two days depending on their origins.

--Shagor (talk) 02:51, 21 November 2012 (UTC)

Did the 1976 Viking's Mission to Mars prove that there was life in the soil?
The 1976 Viking's Mission to Mars conducted a labelled release experiment and found that in Mars, microbial life was present. These experiments displayed circadian rhythms, The release of Carbon Dioxide which is usually released by live organisms while the experiments were taking place may indicate a robust biological response. Three experiments support the interpretation that the Viking LR experiment did detect microbial life from the soil.

title: Talk:Panspermia


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User:Marshallsumter/Radiation astronomy1/Greens

Green astronomy is the study and use of emission and absorption lines or bands in the wavelength range 495-570 nm. The use of filters with respect to this wavelength range are common when studying the Sun. Green astronomy also studies green sources and objects.

Green radiation
Green has a wavelength range of approximately 520–570 nm, a frequency range of ~575–525 THz, with color coordinates of (0, 255, 0) and a hexagonal triplet of #00FF00 from sRGB source of sRGB approximation to NCS S 2060-G.

Def. the colour of growing foliage, as well as other plant cells containing chlorophyll; the colour between yellow and blue in the visible spectrum; one of the primary additive colour for transmitted light; the colour obtained by subtracting red and blue from white light using cyan and yellow filters is called green.

"...in nature chiefly conspicuous as the colour of growing herbage and leaves..."

Green is the color of emeralds, jade, and growing grass. In the continuum of colors of visible light it is located between yellow and blue. Green is the color most commonly associated with nature and the environmental movement, Islam, spring, hope and envy.

Green is the color you see when you look at light with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nanometers.

It is one of the three additive colors, along with red and blue, which are combined on computer screens and color televisions to make all other colors.

In the subtractive color system, used in printing, it is not a primary color, but is created out of a mixture of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan.

On the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a purple color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light. On a color wheel based on traditional color theory (RYB), the complementary color to green is considered to be red.

The perception of greenness (in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision) is evoked by light which triggers the medium-wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long-wavelength L cones. Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green. A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487–570 nm. More specifically, "blue green" 487–493 nm, "bluish green" 493–498 nm, "green" 498–530 nm, "yellowish green" 530–559 nm, "yellow green" 559–570 nm.

Green earth is a natural pigment. It s composed of clay colored by iron oxide, magnesium, aluminum silicate, or potassium. Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice, and in Italy around Verona, on Cyprus, and in Bohemia. The clay was crushed, washed to remove impurities, then powdered. It was sometimes called Green of Verona.

Entities
When any effort to acquire a system of laws or knowledge focusing on an astr, aster, or astro, that is, any natural body in the sky especially at night, discovers an entity emitting, reflecting, or fluorescing green, succeeds even in its smallest measurement, green astronomy is the name of the effort and the result. Once an entity, source, or object has been detected as emitting, reflecting, or fluorescing green, it may be necessary to determine what the mechanism is. Usually this information provides understanding of the same entity, source, or object. Green is a color that suggests the sense of sight. Most people associate astronomy with the sense of seeing, what can be termed visual astronomy. As telescope optics transmit green well, green astronomy is also a field within optical astronomy.

Does the entity transit, continue occupation of a position for longer periods, or apparently change course or position in the sky? Is it a wanderer?

Do green entities fall from the sky? Are there green meteorites?

Are biological life forms able to perform astronomy in the green portion of the visible spectrum? If so the organisms may be conducting astrobiology.

Have observers recorded images of sky entities in the green?

At left is Rahu. Rahu is God of the Ascending / North lunar node. Rahu is the head of the demonic snake that swallows the sun or the moon causing eclipses, according to Hindu scriptures. He is depicted in art as a dragon with no body riding a chariot drawn by eight black horses. He is a Tamas Asura who does his best to plunge any area of one's life he controls into chaos.

Planetary sciences
Of the planets in orbit around the Sun, only the Earth occasionally is seen to have green over large areas of its surface. This is usually from the presence of chlorophyll which obtains its green color from magnesium. The first image at right has green from this organic pigment.

Both the image at the page top and the second one at right show green colors in or above the atmosphere of the Earth.

The Earth of the early Archean (3,800 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.

In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island arcs and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.

Theoretical green astronomy
"Some of the [green] color [in sediment] may ... come from phytoplankton, tiny plant-like organisms that live in the sun-lit surface waters of the [Earth's] ocean."

Are the Earth auroras due to chlorophyll-containing phytoplankton aloft in the upper atmosphere?

Continua
Guinea is situated in western Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. Conakry, the capital, largest city, and principal port of the republic of Guinea, is seen in cyan colour in the centre left part of the image. The islands five to ten km southwest of town are the "Iles de Los". Conakry became the capital of independent Guinea in 1958 and it is the focus of the nation's transport routes and is its main administrative and commercial centre. In the northwest of the city can be distinguished its harbour with several boats. Envisat's ASAR is the first permanent space-borne sensor to incorporate dual polarisation capabilities - transmitting and receive signals either horizontally polarized (H) or vertically polarized (V). The image is a colour composite where the red channel contains the HV polarised image, the green channel contains the HH polarised image and the blue channel contains the ratio between the amplitude in HH and HV. The brown yellow colour that dominates the image results from the sparse vegetation (savannah) that covers the area (medium-low HV and HH backscattering, but HV backscattering higher than HH). The capital, Conakry is seen in cyan tones as it is densely populated (dominant HH backscattering). From the city of Conakry to northeast is seen a bright fringe in yellow colour due to the increasing vegetation and human settlements (high HH and HV backscattering). Coastal plains of Guinea are plenty of swamps, seen in blue tones in the image corresponding to wet areas (low HH and HV backscattering and HV lower than HH). Runway of the airport of Conakry is clearly seen to the northeast of Conakry.

"[H]igh-resolution (0.1") observations of the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 5728 with the Hubble Space Telescope [have produced images in the] green and red continua."

Backgrounds
The image shows terrain-dependent colour variations, particularly the contrast between the bluish materials in and around Herschel Crater (130 kilometres wide) and the greenish cast on older, more heavily cratered terrain elsewhere. The origin of the colour differences is not yet understood, but may be caused by subtle differences in the surface composition between the two terrains. Herschel Crater covers most of the bottom of this image.

To create this false-colour view, ultraviolet, green and infrared images were combined into a single picture that exaggerates the color differences of terrain on the moon. These data were combined with a high-resolution image taken in visible light to provide the high-resolution information from the clear-filter image and the color information from the ultraviolet, green and infrared filter images.

The natural color of Mimas visible to the human eye may be a uniform gray or yellow color, but this mosaic has been contrast-enhanced and shows differences at other wavelengths of light. During its closest-ever flyby on Feb. 13, 2010, Cassini came within about 9,500 kilometres of Mimas. This view looks toward the northern part of the hemisphere of Mimas that leads in the moon's orbit around Saturn. Mimas is 396 kilometres across. North on Mimas is up and rotated 12 degrees to the left. The images were obtained with Cassini's narrow-angle camera on that day at a distance of approximately 16,000 kilometres from Mimas. The images were re-projected into an orthographic map projection. A black and white image, taken in visible light with the wide-angle camera, is used to fill in parts of the mosaic. Image scale is 90 meters per pixel.

"[E]xposures were taken through the F492M filter (4906 Å/364 Å) to cover the [O III] λλ4959, 5007 emission. A single exposure was taken through each of the filters F547M (5454 Å/438 Å) and F718M (7160 Å/595 Å) to record the off-band continua."

Heliums
"C. FRIEDLÄNDER and H. Kayser have independently claimed to have found helium in the [Earth's] atmosphere. On examination of some photographs of the spectrum of neon I have identified six of the principal lines of helium, which thus establishes beyond question the presence of this gas in the air. The amount present in the neon it is, of course, impossible to estimate, but the green line (wave-length 5016 [501.6 nm]) is the brightest, as would be expected from the low pressure of the helium in the neon."

Helium has green lines at 501 and 505 nm, while a line at 493 nm is in the cyan and 587 nm is in the yellow.

Carbons
Carbon has an emission line in plasmas at 529.053 nm from C VI.

"The [oxygen] green line occurs at 5577.339Å, in the middle of the strong C2 (1,2) band, and thus has seldom been observed."

Nitrogens
A nitrogen green emission line occurs in plasmas at 566.934 nm from N VIII.

"[T]he 5198-, 5201-A lines of nitrogen [occur] in the [Earth's] nightglow."

Oxygens
"[A]irglow emissions [have been] measured by using vertical-viewing photometers [for the] O(1S) green line at 557.7 nm [with a] background at 566 nm".

The O III emission lines are at 495.9 and 500.7 nm.

Oxygen has an emission line that occurs in plasmas at 527.62 nm from O IV.

"Since the early work of Ångström,* we have the published records of over a hundred investigations on the spectrum, and many others on the origin or other phenomena characteristic of the aurora." "Babcock, using a Fabry and Perot interferometer, determined very accurately the wave-length of the auroral green line 5577. ... After a careful examination of all the results obtained in these reports, we may only say that the exact nature of the cosmical rays, responsible for the aurora, remains a mystery. ... The origin of the most prominent and interesting line of the auroral spectrum, the line 5577, has hitherto remained unexplained. Vegard* has recently obtained a luminescent band from solid nitrogen, that he supposes, under very special conditions, may coincide with the auroral green line. ... spectra of pure helium and of pure oxygen were taken at different pressures and with various excitations, but no trace of 5577 or of any other new lines was obtained. ... Mixtures of helium, oxygen and nitrogen were excited, and it was found that the line 5577 could be photographed on the same plate with the nitrogen band system, thus reproducing in the laboratory practically the entire auroral spectrum. In ... mixtures of neon and oxygen ... neon enhanced the line 5577 in the same manner as helium. ... From Plate 20 it will be seen that all the lines except 5577 have been identified as strong lines in the spectrum of helium, hydrogen, oxygen, or mercury. ... It has been shown that this line must be attributed to some hitherto unknown spectrum of oxygen, and that it is not a limiting member of the ordinary band spectrum of oxygen. It has been observed faintly in highly purified oxygen when currents of high density have been used."

Fluorines
Fluorine has green emission lines that occur in plasmas at 526.83, 528.56, 529.76 and 530.27 nm from F VI.

Magnesiums
At right is a visual close up of green sand which is actually olivine crystals that have been eroded from lava rocks. Some olivine crystals are still inside the lava rock.

Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) is the magnesium rich end-member of the olivine solid solution series.

Forsterite is associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks and has also been found in meteorites. In 2005 it was also found in cometary dust returned by the Stardust probe. In 2011 it was observed as tiny crystals in the dusty clouds of gas around a forming star.

Two polymorphs of forsterite are known: wadsleyite (also orthorhombic) and ringwoodite (isometric). Both are mainly known from meteorites.

At lower right is an image of a small volcanic bomb of (black) basanite with (green) dunite.

Dunite is an igneous, plutonic rock, of ultramafic composition, with coarse-grained or phaneritic texture. The mineral assemblage is greater than 90% olivine, with minor amounts of other minerals such as pyroxene, chromite and pyrope. Dunite is the olivine-rich end-member of the peridotite group of mantle-derived rocks. Dunite and other peridotite rocks are considered the major constituents of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 kilometers. Dunite is rarely found within continental rocks, but where it is found, it typically occurs at the base of ophiolite sequences where slabs of mantle rock from a subduction zone have been thrust onto continental crust by obduction during continental or island arc collisions (orogeny). It is also found in alpine peridotite massifs that represent slivers of sub-continental mantle exposed during collisional orogeny. Dunite typically undergoes retrograde metamorphism in near-surface environments and is altered to serpentinite and soapstone.

Argons
Argon has three emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 497.216, 500.9334, and 506.204 nm from Ar II.

Argon has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 553.6 nm from Ar X.

Potassiums
"The group [of potassium lines] at λλ 535, 510, and 495 Å showed no trace of structure even in an arc of but half an ampere."

Calciums
Calcium (Ca) has green emission lines at 526.170 nm and 526.556 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

Titaniums
Titanium (Ti) has green emission lines at 521.97, 522.268, 522.413, 524.729, and 526.596 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

Vanadiums
The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of the four adjacent oxidation states 2-5. In aqueous solution the colours are lilac V2+(aq), green V3+(aq), blue VO2+(aq) and, at high pH, yellow VO42-.

Chromiums
A chromium emission line occurs in plasmas at 520.84 nm from Cr II.

Chromium (Cr) has green emission lines at 522.091, 522.407, 524.336, 524.757, and 526.572 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

Cr+ has an emission line at 524.677 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

Irons
Fraunhofer's original (1817) designations of absorption lines in the solar spectrum include the E line for neutral iron at 526.96 nm.

Iron (Fe) has green emission lines at 522.319, 522.553, 524.705, 524.911, 525.021, 525.065, 526.262, 526.288, 526.331, 526.368, 526.656, and 526.727 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

"[G]round-based observations (around the solar limb) [are] of the 530.3 nm coronal line. This green solar corona is emitted by Fe XIV ions ... Green coronal intensities (Fe XIV, 530.3 nm) obtained from different coronal stations vary greatly among themselves."

Fe+ has a green emission line at 526.480 nm as observed in solar limb faculae.

Iron hydride
"Carroll and McCormack (1972) in Dublin reported complex spectra in the blue and green wavelength regions of both FeH and FeD".

"Carroll et al. (1976) detected a number of coincidences between laboratory lines of FeH and weak unidentified solar lines, again in the blue and green wavelength region, in addition to the infrared."

Nickels
Nickel has an emission line occurring in the solar corona at 511.603 nm from Ni XIII.

Mercuries
"The green mercury line λ 5461 appears to be quite unique in the possession of its satellites."

There are "telluric mercury lines".

There are an additional pair of lines for mercury, one at 496.03 nm in the green and the second at 491.6 nm in the cyan.

Thalliums
There is a green thallium line that shows up in arc spectra using "two to eight amperes at 120 volts, usually between ordinary arc carbons."

Sun
As an astronomical object sets or rises in relation to the horizon, the light it emits travels through Earth's atmosphere, which works as a prism separating the light into different colors. The color of the upper rim of an astronomical object could go from green to blue to violet depending on the decrease in concentration of pollutants, as they spread throughout an increasing volume of atmosphere. The lower rim of an astronomical object is always red. A green rim is very thin, and is difficult or impossible to see with the naked eye. In usual conditions, a green rim of an astronomical object gets fainter, when an astronomical object is very low above the horizon because of atmospheric reddening, but sometimes the conditions are right to see a green rim just above the horizon.

A number of emission lines have been detected in solar limb faculae.

Limb brightness
The RGB colors correspond to the following respective infrared wavelengths: 5.0, 2.0, and 1.3 microns. The first image depicts Titan's surface and atmosphere along its limb, which is separated by the black line. The second and third images show different parts of Saturn before being occulted by (going behind) Titan's limb. The fourth image shows Titan's atmosphere refracting the image of Saturn, hence the brighter limb relative to the last few images.

"An excess brightness [at or near the "edge" of the Sun] can be expected to have a pronounced color dependence, whereas a geometrical oblateness cannot depend on color."

There is "a time varying, excess equatorial brightness"

Def. "the radial distance q from the Sun's center such that the following finite Fourier transform is zero:

 * $$F(G; q, a) = \int_{-1/2}^{+1/2} G(q + a \sin \pi s) \cos(2\pi s) ds,$$

where s is a dummy variable, G is the observed solar intensity as a function of the radius, and the parameter a determines the extent of the solar limb used" is called the solar edge.

"When F(G; q, a) = 0, the a dependence of q can be used to choose different points as the edge."

"The wavelength dependence of the facular excess brightness ... is ... normalized to unity for the [intensity of transmission of] the green filter [(525±70 nm)]. ... An unweighted least-squares fit to the five points [(five filter transmission intensities)] gives

 * R(λ) = -0.0568 ± 0.0634 + (0.582 ± 0.038)λ-1".

"[T]he blue contrast lies about 1 σ above the λ-1 curve. ... [I]f real, [this] may be the result of an increasing opacity in the blue and an increasing ΔT/T in the upper layers of the photosphere. An increasing opacity in the blue may be due to line haze since the blue filter has a 78 nm width."

Solar coronal clouds
In the image at right the iron (Fe XIV) green line is followed by doppler imaging to show associated relative coronal plasma velocity towards (-7 km/s side) and away from (+7 km/s side) the large angle spectrometric coronagraph LASCO satellite camera.

"The striking absence of green emission above both polar regions at activity minimum led Waldmeier (1957) to use the German term 'Koronalöcher', ie, coronal holes." "Here we restrict ourselves to a qualitative study of large scale structures of the green emission line corona."

The image of the solar coronal cloud at above right shows the polar coronal holes.

Solar cycles
"The course of the solar cycle can ... be tracked by changes in the line blanketing. The line-blanketing variations during solar cycle 21 have been measured by Mitchell & Livingston (1991) who found that in disk-integrated spectra the spectral lines in the 500 to 560 nm range are on average 1.4% shallower and have 0.8% smaller equivalent widths at solar maximum than at solar minimum."

Venus
"Venus at times shows [the oxygen] green line emission with an intensity equal to terrestrial values [Slanger et al., 2001]. Furthermore, the intensity is quite variable, as is true for the much stronger O2( a-X) 1.27 μ emission."

"In 1999, observations of the Venus nightglow with the Keck I telescope showed that the 5577 Å oxygen green line was a significant feature, comparable in intensity to the terrestrial green line. Subsequent measurements have been carried out at the Apache Point Observatory (APO) and again at Keck I, confirming the presence of the line with substantially varying intensity."

"Ground-based studies suggest that the [557.7 nm oxygen green line] emission is correlated with the solar cycle."

Airglows
In the International Space Station image at right, you can "see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Airglow is the emission of light by atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere after they are excited by ultraviolet radiation. ... Astronaut photograph ISS030-E-015491 was acquired on December 22, 2011, with a Nikon digital camera, and is provided by the ISS Crew Earth Observations experiment and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, Johnson Space Center."

Airglow (also called nightglow) is the very weak emission of light by a planetary atmosphere. In the case of Earth's atmosphere, this optical phenomenon causes the night sky to never be completely dark (even after the effects of starlight and diffused sunlight from the far side are removed).

Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were photoionized by the sun during the day, luminescence caused by cosmic rays striking the upper atmosphere, and chemiluminescence caused mainly by oxygen and nitrogen reacting with hydroxyl ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the scattered light from the Sun.

Auroras
At right is a natural color photograph of the Aurora Borealis or northern lights and the Manicouagan Impact Crater reservoir (foreground) in Quebec, Canada. They are featured in this photograph taken by astronaut Donald R. Pettit, Expedition Six NASA ISS science officer, on board the International Space Station (ISS).

The second image contains both red and green auroral components.

Auroras result from emissions of photons in the Earth's upper atmosphere, above 80 km (50 mi), from ionized nitrogen atoms regaining an electron, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms returning from an excited state to ground state. They are ionized or excited by the collision of solar wind and magnetospheric particles being funneled down and accelerated along the Earth's magnetic field lines; excitation energy is lost by the emission of a photon, or by collision with another atom or molecule:
 * oxygen emissions: green or brownish-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed
 * nitrogen emissions: blue or red; blue if the atom regains an electron after it has been ionized, red if returning to ground state from an excited state.

Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to ground state: it can take three quarters of a second to emit green light and up to two minutes to emit red. Collisions with other atoms or molecules will absorb the excitation energy and prevent emission. Because the very top of the atmosphere has a higher percentage of oxygen and is sparsely distributed such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red. Collisions become more frequent progressing down into the atmosphere, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually even green light emissions are prevented.

This is why there is a color differential with altitude; at high altitude oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and nitrogen blue/red, then finally nitrogen blue/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the most common of all auroras. Behind it is pink, a mixture of light green and red, followed by pure red, yellow (a mixture of red and green), and lastly, pure blue.

The third image is taken from the International Space Station. "Green colors of the aurora are dominant in this image captured by a digital still camera on October 4, 2001. Auroras are caused when high-energy electrons pour down from the Earth’s magnetosphere and collide with atoms. Green aurora occurs from about 100 km to 250 km altitude and is caused by the emission of 5577 Angstrom wavelength light from oxygen atoms. The light is emitted when the atoms return to their original unexcited state."

Coral reefs
"Pale green when viewed through the water of the Persian Gulf, coral reefs fringe the shoreline and islands of the United Arab Emirates in this Landsat satellite image. The reefs are more extensive than the islands they surround in many cases. The natural-color image was made from data collected by the Landsat 7 satellite on July 3 and July 10, 2002."

"The reefs are an oasis of biological diversity, and they are among the most extensive reefs in the Gulf. Starting in January 2005, a division of the World Wildlife Federation in Abu Dhabi used Landsat images such as this one to create the first map of coral reefs off Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates and Qatar. The map will help resource managers assess the quality and quantity of marine resources in the region and to make decisions that protect them."

Forests
"At ground level, tulips and daffodils mark the arrival of spring. But from a satellite's vantage point, the wash of green that appears across the forests of the eastern United States is one of the most noticeable signs of winter's passing. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument on NASA's Aqua satellite captured this view of spring greening on April 7, 2012, an unusually cloud free day."

"The deepest greens of lush foliage are most visible throughout the Piedmont, a forested plateau between the Appalachians and the lower elevation plains along the Atlantic coast. The Appalachians appear brown because cooler temperatures at higher elevations cause a lag in the greening. In this case, the trees at the higher elevations were likely still in bloom and hadn't started to produce leaves. The speckles of tan throughout the coastal plain are farmlands, where fields often stay bare or filled with dry crop stubble until late spring planting."

Hydrogen sulfide emissions
In the image at right, "[p]ale green patterns tinted the water along the Namibian coast in late February 2012. But unlike other bright hues that occasionally show up in the ocean, these colors didn’t result from a phytoplankton bloom.

"[H]ydrogen sulfide gas is emitted periodically along the Namibian coast. Ocean currents carry oxygen-poor water to the region, and chemical and biological processes can deplete what little oxygen is available. The sediments in the local seafloor are also rich with organic matter. When organic matter decays in an oxygen-poor environment, hydrogen sulfide emissions can result."

"The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured this natural-color image on February 29, 2012. The pale-hued surface waters snake along the shore of the Namib Desert, stretching roughly 150 kilometers (90 miles)."

"The milky-green colors along Namibia’s coast indicate high concentrations of sulfur and low concentrations of oxygen. Episodes like this aren’t just colorful, they are actually toxic to local marine organisms. Fish die in the low-oxygen water; however, what is deadly for the fish can be good for birds that feed on their carcasses. Likewise, lobsters crawling onto shore to escape the toxic seawater can make meals for locals. And some species of foraminifera—tiny shelled marine organisms—actually thrive in the oxygen-poor sea floor sediments off the Namibian coast."

Phytoplanktons
"Phytoplankton swirled across the Arabian Sea on February 18, 2010, drawn into thin green ribbons by turbulent eddies. The bloom stretches from the shores of Pakistan (top) to the coast of Oman (lower left). The washed out appearance at the upper left of the image is due to sunglint, which is the mirror–like reflection of sunlight off the water. Some of the brightness may be caused by blowing dust. Pakistan’s coastal waters are tinged blue as well as green. The color may result from numerous influences, including phytoplankton and sediment."

"The phytoplankton blooms in the northern Arabian Sea are strongly influenced by the seasonal wind shifts (the monsoon) that dominate the area’s climate. Because the Arabian Sea is landlocked to the north, it is less influenced by large-scale ocean circulation and more strongly influenced by the monsoon winds. Large blooms of phytoplankton occur in the summer, when strong southwesterly winds blow from the ocean toward land, mixing the water. Blooms also happen in the winter, however, when northeast winds blow offshore."

Sediments
"A burst of color lit the shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico off the Yucatan Peninsula on December 14, 2008, when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured this image [at right]. The swirls of tan, green, blue, and white are most likely sediment in the water. The sediment scatters light, giving the water its color. The sediment comes from two sources: the land and the sea floor. Some of the color may also come from phytoplankton, tiny plant-like organisms that live in the sun-lit surface waters of the ocean."

"Near the shore, the water is tan where rivers carry dirt from land to the ocean. As the sediment disperses, the water fades to green and then black. To the north, the water is more blue and white than tan and green. In these regions, the sediment has likely come from the sea floor. Made up of chalky white calcium carbonate from shell-building marine life like coral, sea floor sediment gives the water a white or bright blue color. The sediment was probably brought to the surface in shallow waters by strong waves. A few days before the image was taken, strong winds churned the Gulf. The blue-green cloud in this image roughly matches the extent of the shallow continental shelf west of the peninsula."

Volcanoes
"After two months of eruptions and six months of quakes and tremors, the underwater volcano off the coast of El Hierro appears to be quieting down. A mass of new crust has been building by tens to perhaps a hundred meters, but it is still nowhere near rising above the ocean surface and extending the Canary Island chain."

"The Advanced Land Imager (ALI) on NASA’s Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) satellite captured this natural-color image of the island and its offshore eruption on December 16, 2011. The eruption is located about one kilometer south-southwest of the town of La Restinga."

"The milky green swirls in the Atlantic Ocean are a volcanic brew of steaming lava fragments, bits of rock, heated gas, and other debris that are carried to the west and north by currents. Meanwhile, tremors have been occurring on the north side of the island at depths of 17 to 23 kilometers. Red circles mark the locations of three tremors reported on December 18. The white puffs over the island are clouds, not volcanic emissions."

"El Hierro is a shield volcano growing along the southwestern edge of the ancient El Golfo volcano. El Golfo collapsed about 130,000 years ago, but the ruddy brown and rugged terrain of the island attests to many years of volcanism in the area. El Hierro last erupted in 1793, according to some historical records, and the area has the greatest concentration of young vents in the Canary Islands."

Greenstones
Greenstone belts are zones of variably metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences with associated sedimentary rocks that occur within Archaean and Proterozoic cratons between granite and gneiss bodies.

The name comes from the green hue imparted by the colour of the metamorphic minerals within the mafic rocks. Chlorite, actinolite and other green amphiboles are the typical green minerals.

A greenstone belt is typically several dozens to several thousand kilometres long and although composed of a great variety of individual rock units, is considered a 'stratigraphic grouping' in its own right, at least on continental scales.

"Greenstone belts" are distributed throughout geological history from the Phanerozoic Franciscan belts of California where blueschist, whiteschist and greenschist facies are recognised, through to the Palaeozoic greenstone belts of the Lachlan Fold Belt, Eastern Australia, and a multitude of Proterozoic and Archaean examples.

Archaean greenstones are found in the Slave craton, northern Canada, Pilbara craton and Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia, Gawler Craton in South Australia, and in the Wyoming Craton in the US. Examples are found in South and Eastern Africa, namely the Kaapvaal craton and also in the cratonic core of Madagascar, as well as West Africa and Brazil, northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula (see Baltic Shield).

Phanerozoic ophiolite belts and greenstone belts occur in the Franciscan Complex of south-western North America, within the Lachlan Fold Belt, the Gympie Terrane of Eastern Australia, the ophiolite belts of Oman and around the Guiana Shield.

Meteors
This image shows one of the largest known single objects in the Universe, the Lyman-alpha blob LAB-1. This picture is a composite of two different images taken with the FORS instrument on the Very Large Telescope (VLT) — a wider image showing the surrounding galaxies and a much deeper observation of the blob itself at the centre made to detect its polarisation. The intense Lyman-alpha ultraviolet radiation from the blob appears green after it has been stretched by the expansion of the Universe during its long journey to Earth. These new observations show for the first time that the light from this object is polarised. This means that the giant "blob" must be powered by galaxies embedded within the cloud.

"[T]he first identification of the OI 5577 Å green line [in a meteor spectrum was] (Halliday, 1959). ... the emission is a major contributor to wake spectra. ... emission occurs only from the upper part of the meteor light curve being generally confined to the height interval 100 - 110 km, and that its occurrence is rare in meteors whose velocities are less than about 40 kms-1."

Meteorites
Moldavite is an olive-green or dull greenish vitreous substance possibly formed by a meteorite impact. It is one kind of tektite.

Because of their difficult fusibility, extremely low water content, and its chemical composition, the current overwhelming consensus among Earth scientists is that moldavites were formed 15 million years ago during the impact of a giant meteorite in present-day Nördlinger Ries. Splatters of material that was melted by the impact cooled while they were actually airborne and most fell in central Bohemia—traversed by [the] Vltava river. Currently, moldavites have been found in [an] area that includes southern Bohemia, western Moravia, the Cheb Basin (northwest Bohemia), Lusatia (Germany), and Waldviertel (Austria). Isotope analysis of samples of moldavites have shown a beryllium-10 isotope composition similar to the composition of Australasian tektites (Australites)and Ivory Coast tektites (Ivorites). Their similarity in beryllium-10 isotope composition indicates that moldavites, Australites, and Ivorites consist of near surface and loosely consolidated terrestrial sediments melted by hypervelocity impacts.

Zodiacal clouds
The Zodiacal light is a faint, roughly triangular, diffuse white glow seen in the night sky that appears to extend up from the vicinity of the Sun along the ecliptic or zodiac. Caused by sunlight scattered by space dust in the zodiacal cloud, the zodiacal light covers the entire sky, being responsible for major part of the total skylight on a moonless night.

"[T]he distribution [is] over the sky of the linearly polarized component of the zodiacal light at λλ5080 Å and 5300 Å. In the antisolar hemisphere the distribution shows three clear effects: (i) There is a slight (~ 3°) clockwise overall rotation of the orientation of the polarization plane relative to that calculated for spherical interplanetary dust; (ii) near the antisolar point the polarization plane tends to be normal to the ecliptic, but the distribution of the polarization vectors is asymmetric with respect to the ecliptic plane ("north-south asymmetry"); (iii) significant day-to-day and month-to-month changes occur in the zodiacal light but without clear trends."

Earthshines
Def. sunlight reflected from the earth's surface is called earthlight.

Def. reflected earthlight visible on the Moon's night side is called earthshine.

"The search for life on extrasolar planets" requires a test of vegetation detectability from a single dot source.

"The earthshine, or ashen light, is the glow of the dark part of the lunar disk visible to a night-time observer. ... [T]he light rays coming from different parts of the Earth are mixed together in the ashen light and mimic the Earth as a single dot."

"[T]he vegetation spectrum which is unequivocal ... presents a bump at 0.5 µ in the green wavelength range, which implies that plants appear green".

Moon
"During its mission, the Galileo spacecraft returned a number of images of Earth's only natural satellite. Galileo surveyed the moon on Dec. 7, 1992, on its way to explore the Jupiter system in 1995-1997."

"This color mosaic was assembled from 18 images taken by Galileo's imaging system through a green filter. On the upperleft is the dark, lava-filled Mare Imbrium, Mare Serenitatis (middle left), Mare Tranquillitatis (lower left), and Mare Crisium, the dark circular feature toward the bottom of the mosaic. Also visible in this view are the dark lava plains of the Marginis and Smythii Basins at the lower right. The Humboldtianum Basin, a 400-mile impact structure partly filled with dark volcanic deposits, is seen at the center of the image."

Mars
"[O]bservations from the SPICAM spectrometer on the Mars Express spacecraft ... of the [oxygen] green line [are compared with simulations]".

"O(1S) [green line] emission is seen in the atmospheres of all three terrestrial planets -Venus, Earth, Mars."

Asteroids
"This is the first full picture showing both asteroid 243 Ida and its newly discovered moon to be transmitted to Earth from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Galileo spacecraft--the first conclusive evidence that natural satellites of asteroids exist. Ida, the large object, is about 56 kilometers (35 miles) long. Ida's natural satellite is the small object to the right. This portrait was taken by Galileo's charge-coupled device (CCD) camera on August 28, 1993, about 14 minutes before the Jupiter-bound spacecraft's closest approach to the asteroid, from a range of 10,870 kilometers (6,755 miles). Ida is a heavily cratered, irregularly shaped asteroid in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter--the 243rd asteroid to be discovered since the first was found at the beginning of the 19th century. Ida is a member of a group of asteroids called the Koronis family. The small satellite, which is about 1.5 kilometers (1 mile) across in this view, has yet to be given a name by astronomers. It has been provisionally designated '1993 (243) 1' by the International Astronomical Union. ('1993' denotes the year the picture was taken, '243' the asteroid number and '1' the fact that it is the first moon of Ida to be found.) Although appearing to be 'next' to Ida, the satellite is actually in the foreground, slightly closer to the spacecraft than Ida is. Combining this image with data from Galileo's near-infrared mapping spectrometer, the science team estimates that the satellite is about 100 kilometers (60 miles) away from the center of Ida. This image, which was taken through a green filter, is one of a six-frame series using different color filters. The spatial resolution in this image is about 100 meters (330 feet) per pixel."

Io
At right is an "eerie view of Jupiter's moon Io in eclipse ... acquired by NASA's Galileo spacecraft while the moon was in Jupiter's shadow. Gases above the satellite's surface produced a ghostly glow that could be seen at visible wavelengths (red, green, and violet). The vivid colors, caused by collisions between Io's atmospheric gases and energetic charged particles trapped in Jupiter's magnetic field, had not previously been observed. The green and red emissions are probably produced by mechanisms similar to those in Earth's polar regions that produce the aurora, or northern and southern lights. Bright blue glows mark the sites of dense plumes of volcanic vapor, and may be places where Io is electrically connected to Jupiter."

"North is to the top of the picture, and Jupiter is towards the right. The resolution is 13.5 kilometers (8 miles) per picture element. The images were taken on May 31, 1998 at a range of 1.3 million kilometers (800,000 miles) by Galileo's onboard solid state imaging camera system during the spacecraft's 15th orbit of Jupiter."

Enceladus
At right is a pair of images showing "[a] fine spray of small, icy particles emanating from the warm, geologically unique province surrounding the south pole of Saturn’s moon Enceladus[. It] was observed in a Cassini narrow-angle camera image of the crescent moon taken on Jan. 16, 2005. Taken from a high-phase angle of 148 degrees -- a viewing geometry in which small particles become much easier to see -- the plume of material becomes more apparent in images processed to enhance faint signals [right image of the pair]."

"Though the measurements of particle abundance are more certain within 100 kilometers (60 miles) of the surface, the values measured there are roughly consistent with the abundance of water ice particles measured by other Cassini instruments (reported in September, 2005) at altitudes as high as 400 kilometers (250 miles) above the surface."

"The image at the left was taken in visible green light. A dark mask was applied to the moon's bright limb in order to make the plume feature easier to see."

"The image at the right has been color-coded to make faint signals in the plume more apparent. Images of other satellites (such as Tethys and Mimas) taken in the last 10 months from similar lighting and viewing geometries, and with identical camera parameters as this one, were closely examined to demonstrate that the plume towering above Enceladus' south pole is real and not a camera artifact. The images were acquired at a distance of about 209,400 kilometers (130,100 miles) from Enceladus. Image scale is about 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) per pixel."

Iapetus
"Although it is no longer uncharted land, the origin of the dark territory of Cassini Regio on Iapetus remains a mystery. Also puzzling is the equatorial ridge that bisects this terrain, and how it fits into the story of the moon's strange brightness dichotomy. The ridge is seen here, curving along the lower left edge of Iapetus. The view looks down onto the northern hemisphere of Iapetus (1,468 kilometers, or 912 miles across), and shows terrain on the moon's leading hemisphere."

"The image was taken in polarized green light with the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle camera on Nov. 12, 2005 at a distance of approximately 417,000 kilometers (259,000 miles) from Iapetus and at a Sun-Iapetus-spacecraft, or phase, angle of 95 degrees. Image scale is about 2 kilometers (1 mile) per pixel."

In the second image are three "different false-color views of Saturn's moon Iapetus show the boundary of the global "color dichotomy" on the hemisphere of this moon facing away from Saturn. The "color dichotomy," which has been detected in images from the Cassini imaging team, is a second global pattern found on Iapetus besides the well-known global brightness dichotomy."

"This image consists of three panels, each of which was contrast-enhanced in different ways to bring out surface features. Minimal enhancement was applied to the image on the left panel while those on the middle and right panels were enhanced more (with contrast increased by factors of two and four, respectively), making them appear brighter and overexposed."

"In the case of the color dichotomy seen here, its boundary is quite well correlated with the boundary between the moon's leading and the trailing hemispheres. At near-infrared wavelengths, the bright terrain on the leading side is redder than on the trailing side. This pattern is visible in the panel on the left, which uses normal contrast enhancement. The characteristic reddish distribution also appears on the dark material, as seen in the middle and right-hand panels that have been adjusted with even higher contrast. Indeed, the otherwise uniformly dark material shows different color hues, depending on whether the viewer looks at the leading vs. the trailing side."

Tethys
At right is an image of Saturn's moon Tethys in green light.

"On the top left of the image there is huge Odysseus Crater. See PIA07693 for a closer view. On the bottom right there is Ithaca Chasma, a series of scarps that runs north-south across the moon for more than 620 miles (1,000 kilometers). North on Tethys is up and rotated 25 degrees to the right."

"This view looks toward the area between the leading hemisphere and Saturn-facing side of Tethys (660 miles, or 1,062 kilometers across)."

"The image was taken in visible green light with the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle camera on Sept. 14, 2011. The view was acquired at a distance of approximately 178,000 miles kilometers (287,000) from Tethys and at a Sun-Tethys-spacecraft, or phase, angle of 11 degrees. Image scale is about 1 mile (2 kilometers) per pixel."

Uranus
"Spring has finally come to the northern hemisphere of Uranus. The newest images, both the visible-wavelength ones described here and those taken a few days earlier with the Near Infrared and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) by Erich Karkoschka (University of Arizona), show a planet with banded structure and detectable clouds."

"The "aqua" image (on the right) is taken at 5,470 Angstroms, which is near the human eye's peak response to wavelength. Color has been added to the image to show what a person on a spacecraft near Uranus might see. Little structure is evident at this wavelength, though with image-processing techniques, a small cloud can be seen near the planet's northern limb (rightmost edge)."

Neptune
The images were taken at a range of 4.4 million miles from the planet, 4 days and 20 hours before closest approach. The picture shows the Great Dark Spot and its companion bright smudge; on the west limb the fast moving bright feature called Scooter and the little dark spot are visible. These clouds were seen to persist for as long as Voyager's cameras could resolve them. North of these, a bright cloud band similar to the south polar streak may be seen.

Comets
For elongated dust particles in cometary comas an investigation is performed at 535.0 nm (green) and 627.4 nm (red) peak transmission wavelengths of the Rosetta spacecraft's OSIRIS Wide Angle Camera broadband green and red filters, respectively. "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves". "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo." The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.

"[U]nequivocal detections [occurred at McDonald Observatory on 10 nights from 25 June through 17 July 2000] of the O (1S) and O (1D) metastable lines in emission in the cometary [Comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)] spectrum. These lines are well separated from any telluric or cometary emission features."

"[T]he presence of the [oxygen] green line can still be questioned, unless the 2972 Å trans-auroral line [1S - 3P] is detected (Herbig, 1976)." "The transitions involved (allowed and forbidden) in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" are 557.7 nm, 630.0 and 636.4 nm, 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), 799.0 nm, 844.7 nm, and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.

"When the green line is overwhelming (in faint comets like Encke), this emission is mainly due to the airglow, the red airglow emission being quenched and consequently weaker than the green."

"The measured intensity on 10 January 1980, when the comet was 0.71 a.u. from the Sun and 0.615 a.u. from the Earth, is 30±15 Rayleighs.

Protoplanetary disks
"Seven papers in [the journal] Science [...] (December 2006) discuss details of the sample analysis. Among their findings are discoveries of a wide range of organic compounds, including two that contain biologically usable nitrogen. Indigenous aliphatic hydrocarbons were found with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse interstellar medium. The Stardust samples contain abundant amorphous silicates in addition to crystalline silicates such as olivine and pyroxene. The presence of crystalline silicates in Wild 2 is consistent with mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, something which had been deduced spectroscopically before (see quote above). No hydrous silicates or carbonate minerals were detected, which suggests a lack of aqueous processing of Wild 2 dust. Very few pure carbon (CHON) particles were found in the samples returned."

Ghost Head Nebula
At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."

Stars
Alpha Centauri A is the principal member, or primary, of the binary system, being slightly larger and more luminous [151.9% the luminosity of the Sun] than the Sun. It is a solar-like main sequence star with a similar yellowish color, [surface temperature of 5790 K] whose stellar classification is spectral type G2 V. From the determined mutual orbital parameters, Alpha Centauri A is about 10% more massive than the Sun, with a radius about 23% larger. The projected rotational velocity ( v·sin i ) of this star is 2.7 ± 0.7 km·s−1, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 22 days, which gives it a slightly faster rotational period than the Sun's 25 days.

Capella B
Capella B, the image at right, has a surface temperature of approximately 5700 K, a radius of approximately 9 solar radii, a mass of approximately 2.6 solar masses, and a luminosity, again measured over all wavelengths, approximately 78 times that of the Sun.

Capella B is spectral type G0III star and an X-ray source from the catalog [FS2003] 0255 by ROSAT. Its surface temperature has an uncertainty of 100 K. It is part of a binary star with Capella A a G8III. From SIMBAD, the orbital period is 104.0217 d with an eccentricity is 0.001 and inclination of 137.2° to the line of sight.

Although the binary star Capella is not an eclipsing binary, it is a RS Canum Venaticorum variable. These are close binary stars having active chromospheres which can cause large stellar spots. These spots are believed to cause variations in their observed luminosity. Systems can exhibit variations on timescales of years due to variation in the spot surface coverage fraction, as well as periodic variations which are, in general, close to the orbital period of the binary system. Typical brightness fluctuation is around 0.2 magnitudes.

Galaxies
"[H]igh-resolution (0.1") observations of the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 5728 with the Hubble Space Telescope", in the images at right, show the full color of the galactic nucleus and a green continuum image of the active galactic nucleus.

At left is a Hubble Space Telescope image in the light of the green [O III] emission line in the active galactic nuclear region of NGC 5728. "The emission-line images reveal a spectacular biconical structure with overall extent [of] 1.8 kpc. The two cones share a common axis and apex. The cones' axis coincides to within ≃ 3° with that of the one-sided nuclear radio continuum emission but is not aligned with the rotation axis of the galaxy disk."

These "ionization cones" are "conical regions of high-excitation emission-line gas extending from an active nucleus. ... The generally accepted interpretation is that partially collimated ionizing radiation shines out from the nucleus and ionizes gas in its vicinity. ... two exposures were taken through the F492M filter (4906 Å/364 Å) to cover the [O III] λλ4959, 5007 emission. ... The high-excitation gas can be traced to ≃ 8.5" (1.6 kpc) from the apex in the SE cone, but only to 1.5" (270 pc) in the NW one."

Holocene
The Holocene starts at ~11,700 b2k and extends to the present.

Osiris is the mythological father of the god Horus, whose conception is described in the Osiris myth, a central myth in ancient Egyptian belief. The myth described Osiris as having been killed by his brother Seth, who wanted Osiris' throne. Isis joined the fragmented pieces of Osiris, but the only body part missing was the phallus. Isis fashioned a golden phallus, and briefly brought Osiris back to life by use of a spell that she learned from her father. This spell gave her time to become pregnant by Osiris before he again died. Isis later gave birth to Horus. As such, since Horus was born after Osiris' resurrection, Horus became thought of as a representation of new beginnings and the vanquisher of the evil Set.

"The Phoenician El - Saturn - has four eyes, as does the Orphic Kronos (Saturn)."

"The Chinese Yellow Emperor Huang-ti--identified as Saturn--is also four-eyed.74"

"Osiris, as the Ram of Mendes, is the god of "four faces on one neck."62"

Temperatures

 * $$\frac{c2}{\lambda T}\frac{1}{ e^{\frac{c2}{\lambda T}} - 1}e^{\frac{c2}{\lambda T}} - 5 = 0.$$

c2 = 1.438833 cm K may be used to approximate a pair such as (495 nm, 6100 K).

For a simple calculator, y=(1.48833/(0.0000570*5260))*exp(1.48833/(0.0000570*5260))/(exp(1.48833/(0.0000570*5260))-1)-5, followed by print y, yields a value close to zero (-1.006663E-03). The closer to zero the more accurate the estimate.

Although Planck's equation is not an exact fit to a star's spectral radiance, it may be close enough to suggest if a star is an astronomical green source using the above derivative.

From a Planckian spectrum peaked in the green radiation band the wavelength temperature pairs are approximately (495 nm, 6100 K) and (570 nm, 5260 K).

As the Sun has a surface temperature of 5777 K, it is a green radiation source as a Planckian radiator.

Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is an excellent example of a radiation astronomy satellite designed for more than one purpose: the various astronomies of optical astronomy.

The HST is an optical astronomy telescope that incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest.

The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-1) was in use from about 1990 through 1993. It carried 48 filters on 12 filter wheels of four each. For the green band, these were the F492M, F502N, F517N, F547M, and the F555W. Those ending in 'N' are narrow-band filters.

One of these filters is F492M which allows imaging with the [O III]λλ4959,5007 and its adjacent green continuum. The filter band pass is centered at 490.6 nm with a full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of 36.4 nm. "The F492M filter also includes Hβ.

The F502N is centered at 501.85 nm with a band pass of 2.97 nm. The F547M is centered at 546.1 nm with a band pass of 43.8 nm.

The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-2) replaced PC-1 and carried the following filters on the same filter wheels: F467M, F502N, F547M, F555W, and the F569W. In December 1993 PC-1 was replaced with PC-2 and the HST was declared operational on January 13, 1994.

Onboard the HST is the Faint Object Camera (FOC) which carries filters for green astronomy: F470M, F480LP, F501N, F502N, and the F550M.

The Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) is the Hubble Space Telescope's last and most technologically advanced instrument to take images in the visible spectrum. It was installed as a replacement for the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 during the first spacewalk of Space Shuttle mission STS-125 on May 14, 2009.

Filters
Most astronomical filters work by blocking a specific part of the color spectrum above and below a bandpass, significantly increasing the signal to noise of the interesting wavelengths, and so making the object more visible, 'contrasty', or defined. ... The broadband and narrowband filters transmit the wavelengths that are emitted by the nebulae (by the Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms), and are frequently used for reducing light pollution.

Color filters work by absorption/transmission, and can tell which part of the spectrum they are reflecting and transmitting. Filters can be used to increase contrast and enhance the details of the Moon and planets. All of the visible spectrum colors each have a filter, and every color filter is used to bring a certain lunar and planetary feature; for example, the #8 yellow filter is used to show Mars's maria and Jupiter's belts. The Wratten system is the standard number system used to refer to the color filter types. Professional filters are also colored, but their bandpass centers are placed around other mid-points (such as in the UBVRI and Cousins systems).

The Dark green: Improves cloud patterns on Venus. Reduces sky brightness during daylight observation of Venus. Increases contrast of ice and polar caps on Mars. Improves visibility of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter and other features in Jupiter atmosphere. Enhances white clouds and polar regions on Saturn.

Narrowband filters are astronomical filters which transmit only a narrow band of spectral lines from the spectrum (usually 22 nm or less). It is mainly used for nebulae observation. Emission nebulae mainly radiate the doubly ionized oxygen in the visible spectrum, which emits near 500 nm wavelength. These nebulae also radiate weaker at 486 nm from the Hydrogen-beta atoms. There are three main types of Narrowband filters: Ultra-high contrast (UHC), Oxygen-III & Hydrogen-beta, and Hydrogen-alpha, the narrowest of the three filters with 8 nm range. The UHC filters range from 484 to 506 nm. It transmits both the O-III and H-beta spectral lines, blocks a large fraction of light pollution, and brings the details of planetary nebulae and most of emission nebulae under a dark sky.

The Broadband or light pollution reduction (LPR) filters are nebular filters that block the light pollution in the sky and transmit the H-alpha, H-beta, and O-III spectral lines, which makes observing nebulae from the city and light polluted skies possible. These filters block the Sodium and Mercury vapor light, and also block the natural skyglow such as the auroral light. The broadband filters differ from the narrowband with the range of wavelengths transmission. The broadband filters have a wider range because the narrower transmission range causes a fainter image of sky objects, and since the work of these filters is revealing the details of nebulae from light polluted skies, it has a wider transmission for more brightness. These filters are particularly designed for nebulae observing, are not useful with other deep sky objects. However, it can improve the contrast between the DSOs and the background sky, which may clarify the image.

Spacecraft
"[T]he Solid State Imaging (SSI) camera ... [at right of the Galileo spacecraft] uses a high-resolution, 800 x 800 charge-coupled device (CCD) array with a field of view of 0.46 degrees. Multi-spectral coverage is provided by an eight-position filter wheel on the camera, consisting of three broad-band filters: violet (404 nm), green (559 nm), and red (671 nm); four near-infrared filters: 727 nm, 756 nm, 889 nm, and 986 nm; and one clear filter (611 nm) with a very broad (440 nm) passband."

Hypotheses

 * 1) At least one image has been taken in the green of each major astronomical object or source in the Solar System.


text:
User:Egm4313.s12.team8.lucas/R3.8

Problem Statement
Find a real, general solution to each L2-ODE-CC.

Number 5) $$\ y''+4y'+4y=e^{-x}cosx$$

Number 6) $$\ y''+y'+(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})y=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

Number 6
$$\ y''+y'+(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})y=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

To find the homogeneous solution, we set r(x)=0:

$$\ y''+y'+(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})=0$$

$$\ \lambda^2+\lambda+(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})=0$$

$$\ \lambda=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}$$

$$\ \lambda=\frac{-1 \pm \sqrt{1-4(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})}}{2}$$

$$\ \lambda=\frac{-1 \pm \sqrt{-4\pi^2}}{2}$$

$$\ \lambda=-\frac{1}{2} \pm 2\pi i=\alpha +\omega i => \alpha=-\frac{1}{2},  \omega =2\pi $$

The homogeneous solution with complex roots will take the form:

$$\ y_{h}(x)=e^{\alpha x}(Acos\omega x+Bsin\omega x)$$

By substituting alpha and omega, we get the homogenous solution:

$$\ y_{h}(x)=e^{-x/2}(Acos2\pi x+Bsin2\pi x)$$

The form of the particular solution is based on r(x):

$$\ r(x)=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

$$\ y_{p}(x)=e^{-x/2}(K sin \pi x+ M cos \pi x)$$

Differentiating this gives:

$$\ y'_{p}(x)=-\frac{1}{2}e^{-x/2}(Ksin \pi x+M cos \pi x)+e^{-x/2}(-M\pi sin \pi x+ K\pi cos \pi x)$$

Differentitaing again gives:

$$\ y''_{p}(x)=\frac{1}{4}e^{-x/2}(Ksin \pi x+M cos \pi x)-\frac{1}{2}e^{-x/2}(-M\pi sin \pi x+K\pi cos \pi x)-\frac{1}{2}e^{-x/2}(-M\pi sin \pi x+ K\pi cos \pi x)+e^{-x/2}(-K\pi^{2} sin \pi x-M\pi^{2} cos \pi x)$$

Cancelling like terms gives:

$$\ y''_{p}(x)=e^{-x/2}sin \pi x(-\frac{K}{4}+\pi M-\pi^{2}K)+(^{-x/2}cos \pi x(-\frac{M}{4}-\pi K-\pi^{2} M)$$

Then, we substitute $$\ y_{p}(x)$$, $$\ y'_{p}(x)$$, $$\ y''_{p}(x)$$ into the original ODE:

$$\ y''+y'+(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})y=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

$$\ [e^{-x/2}sin \pi x(-\frac{K}{4}+\pi M-\pi^{2}K)+e^{-x/2}cos \pi x(-\frac{M}{4}-\pi K-\pi^{2} M)]+[-\frac{1}{2}e^{-x/2}(Ksin \pi x+M cos \pi x)+e^{-x/2}(-M\pi sin \pi x+ K\pi cos \pi x)]+[(\pi^2+\frac{1}{4})e^{-x/2}(K sin \pi x+ M cos \pi x)]=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

$$\ (-\frac{K}{2})e^{-x/2}sin \pi x+(-\frac{M}{2})e^{-x/2}cos \pi x=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)$$

Equating like terms gives:

$$\ (-\frac{K}{2})e^{-x/2}sin \pi x=e^{-x/2}sin(\pi x)  =>   K=-2$$

$$\ (-\frac{M}{2})e^{-x/2}cos \pi x=0  =>   M=0$$

Substituting K and M into the general form of the particular solution gives:

$$\ y_{p}(x)=-2e^{-x/2} sin \pi x$$

To find the final solution to the ODE, we add the homogeneous and particular solutions:

$$\ y(x)=y_{h}(x)+y_{p}(x)$$

$$\ y(x)=e^{-x/2}(Acos2\pi x+Bsin2\pi x)-2e^{-x/2} sin \pi x$$

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team8.lucas/R3.8


text: User talk:Ariandra 03

title: User talk:Ariandra 03


text:
User:M Imtiaz

I am currently studying Electrical Engineering on Wikiversity.Once done,I will join the Contributors for the School of Electrical Engineering.

title: User:M Imtiaz


title: File:CORDIC.fixedc.1.A.20120218.pdf


text: File:LogTay.vql.svg

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