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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love

Introduction
Saying the words “I love you” can inspire, give people hope, commit to devotion, and cause both sacrifice and tragedy, and in today’s society it represents more than just an expression of feelings, but a commitment to motivate future behaviours. Love is an emotion whereby feelings of strong affection and personal attachment are connected to another individual. In the philosophical realm, love is a virtue which, generally speaking, represents all of human kindness, compassion, and affection. In other contexts, it is also used to describe loving actions towards others, such as compassion.

In historical terms, love has been the focal point of some of the greatest literature, most importantly the works of Shakespeare, music, and paintings, and the question of what is love has been investigated by philosophers, theologians, and psychologists (Neto, 2010). The word love has many different meanings, and is used in several different contexts but the focus in this chapter is interpersonal love, which is the emotion felt by one person towards another person, basically reciprocal love. The relevance of this topic is clearly apparent in our society with people dressing up to go out on the town to bars and night clubs, or people looking to the internet to that someone. For people to fall in love it takes time and effort, and cultural expectations can have a huge impact on this process.

This chapter focuses on love between two people. Love is central to so many people’s lives. In social psychology circles, there is a large quantity of evidence that supports the idea that for most people, love and sex are tightly related, so much so that many find it hard to imagine having passionate love without sexual desire (Forster, 2010). It is one of the few ways that life is given meaning, and in many ways is seen every day, and is extremely important. Men and women fall in love all the time. When this happens they will both believe that the person they are with is their true love, their one and only; they could make a meaningful and personal commitment to the other person, after which they could decide to get married. Where does this reciprocal attraction stem from? Why did these people fall in love with each other instead of another person? As humans, what motivates us to seek love from others? Why do we fall in love? And is it a chemical reaction that causes love, does it have more to do with psychological factors, or is the reason we love based in our evolutionary history?

Intrapersonal love
Interpersonal love is the term used to describe love between human beings. It is a more powerful word than just liking someone, and carries greater sentiment.

Self-love
Self-love is believed by many to be a prerequisite for loving others (Campbell, 2002).

"If you do not love yourself, you will be unable to love others. Branden, 1994)"

Explanations are plentiful for why self-love can help promote love for others. One is that individuals who do not love themselves have the belief that others cannot love them, and in the process avoid relationships. Another is that without self-love, an individual will pursue a self-destructive attitude and get into bad relationships (Campbell, 2002). The Ancient Greeks painted a different picture of self-love, more specifically in the story of Narcissus, who was the personification of self-love. He believed himself more beautiful and better than those around him, but it was this self-love that stopped Narcissus from forming actual loving relationships. He eventually fell in love with his own image in a pool of water and died (Campbell, 2002). It can therefore be assumed that the Greeks saw self-love as an obstacle to overcome in order to love others, as well as the cause of suffering to others and the self (Campbell, 2002).

The phenomenon of falling in love
Falling in love has a power, of which has been expansively studied, resulting in several phases of falling in love which have been specified (Määttä, 2010). For many, falling in love can produce a powerful emotional response that can cause a temporary, and captivating metamorphosis. The changes that many see can be placed into three categories:
 * 1) For the individual who is in love, his/her surroundings become much more positive. Reality seems brighter, people they meet seem friendlier, and in some cases, voices, sound more melodic (Määttä, 2010).
 * 2) The individual in love sees their partner with admiration. This entails his/her positive features being emphasised more, whilst their negative features are ignored (Määttä, 2010).
 * 3) Self respect of the person who is in love increases. This is found through the positive words one receives that are filled with love that prove that one is worth loving. The by product of this is contentment and happiness. In essence, being in love gives the in love person strength, and meaning for their existence (Määttä, 2010).

Biological
The biological view of sex and love see it as a mammalian drive, and is comparable to hunger or thirst. The experience of love can be divided into three phases, which partly overlap. They are lust, attraction, and attachment (Fisher, 2002). Lust is the individual’s sex drive, and is categorised by a craving for sexual gratification. Estrogens and androgens are the most commonly associated bodily chemicals that fall into this phase, with both being the female and the male sex hormones (Fisher, 2002). The effects of these chemicals rarely last longer than a few weeks, and in some cases, months.

The attraction system, which is commonly known as romantic love is characterised by increases in energy, and focused attention on a preferred mating partner. For many of us, this phase is characterised by exhilaration, and a craving for an emotional connection with the partner (Fisher, 2002). All signs from recent studies in neuroscience have pointed towards the brain releasing certain chemical when in love. These chemicals include pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, all of which stimulate the brain’s pleasure centre, causing side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite, loss of sleep, and intense feelings of excitement (Fisher, 2002). This stage generally lasts for around one and a half to three years (Fisher, 2002).

With both the lust and the romantic love stages only being temporary, a third stage is thus needed to establish and account for long term relationships. The attachment phase of male-female love is the bonding that helps relationships last for several years, as well as decades and is characterised by feelings of calm, security, social comfort, and emotional union (Fisher, 2002). Commitments such as marriage or children, is where the attachment phase is generally based upon, sort of a mutual defence. Chemicals such as oxytocin and vasopressin have been linked in higher quantities in this phase, in comparison to short term relationships (Fisher, 2002).

The motivation and emotion system of lust, attraction, and attachment is not only associated with neurotransmitters and hormones, but different behavioural activities, as they evolve to direct different aspects of reproduction (Fisher, 2002). The sex drive, or lust phase, evolved to predominantly motivate people to seek sex with different members of the species. The attraction phase evolved as a way to conserve mating time and energy, allowing individuals to focus their attention on genetically superior individuals (Fisher, 2002). The motivation for the final phase, was for the individuals to sustain connections with another individual long enough to finish species specific parental duties. In modern terms, this would translate to the children growing up and leaving home (Fisher, 2002).

Psychological
Psychological theories of love and mate-seeking tend to be more complicated than both the biological and evolutionary theories, but generally speaking, social psychologists tend to understand peoples sexual motivations from a biopsychosocial perspective. If we are to understand people’s attitudes, motives, and behaviours towards love we must consider their immediate situation in regards to their gender roles, social experience, social structures, and their local ecologies (Wood, 2002).

Wood and Eagley’s (2002) theory that culture, socialisation, and reproductive capacities influences both men and women’s mate seeking behaviours and motivations has a large amount of support, and for example can be seen in patriarchal societies. In this form of society, men generally hold the power, and men are given the role of protector and provider, while women are assigned the childbearing and childrearing activities (Hatfield, 2010).

Sternberg (1986) theorised that the development of love and its stability has three components; this was known as the triangular theory. There are three mechanisms to this theory. The first is passion is the motivation to show infatuation along with romantic love. The second is commitment or decision, which is a cognitive component that has two temporary phases. The first is the short term decision that one individual loves someone else, and the second is the long term commitment to maintaining the professed love (Bradley, 2002). Intimacy is the third mechanism, and it refers to the feelings that cause an individual to experience emotional warmth, and attachment, such as closeness, connectedness, and bondedness. Passion is considered a relatively unstable aspect of this theory whilst commitment and intimacy are seen as relatively stable (Sternberg, 1986).

Evolutionary
Evolutionary psychologists have proposed more than a few theories of love. Research has found that both men and women respond more to cultural and social conditions than to genetic cues (Hatfiled, 2010). Human children are for at least one quarter of their life dependent on parental help. Love has therefore been postulated to be a mechanism that promotes the support from both parents of the child or children for the period of time that they are dependent on the adults (Hatfiled, 2010).

One theory has proposed that humans are designed to be monogamists. This theory argues that we as humans are serial monogamists, with couples who stay together living longer than those who part (Fisher, 1992; Dowling, 1996; Schmitt, 2001). One other theory that is a little more controversial is that sexually transmitted diseases cause people to favour long term relationships with the one partner. This is due to the side effects which can cause reduced fertility, harm to the foetus, and increased complications during childbirth. Remaining in long term relationships reduces the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (Hatfiled, 2010).

How does our culture shape how we perceive love?
Culture is one particular area that can influence romantic relationships, especially in adolescents. In Western societies such as the United States, love is promoted through ideas of passion and romance, whilst others cultures and ethnic groups will emphasise selflessness, family, and respect (Williams, 2010). Our culture and its norms can even impact the timing of relationship milestones (such as the first date, first kiss, and the first serious relationship) along with how love affects a romantic relationship.

Crissey (2005) reported that both Hispanic and White adolescents have similar expectations for getting married at some point in their lives, but the difference was that White adolescents are more likely to date earlier than Hispanic adolescents, while Hispanic adolescents often engaged in sexual activity earlier, and with more than one partner. Due to this they also experienced higher pregnancy rates than White adolescents (Crissy, 2005). Due to the high value that is placed on family and parenthood in Mexican culture, Mexican American adolescents may experience sexual activity and pregnancy earlier than their White adolescent counterparts. Adherence to cultural beliefs can influence how individuals interpret love when in a romantic relationship, and Hispanic adolescent girls express a desire for an earlier transition from sexual activity to marriage (Chrissy, 2005).

Lee's love styles
Lee (1973, 1988) came up with an influential approach to the psychology of love known as love styles. The metaphor of a colour wheel was used to describe that love, like colours has primary, secondary and tertiary mixes, with most of Lees’ research focused on six independent love styles (Neto, 2010). The primary love styles included Eros, Ludus, and Storge. Next was a mixture of two of each of the primary love styles which would form three of the secondary styles. They were, Pragma (mixture of Storge and Ludus), Mania (Eros and Ludus), Agape (Eros, Storge) (Neto, 2010).

In Lee’s model Eros represented individuals who were emotionally intense, and is literally the love of beauty. Ludus represents in modern terms what would be known as a "player". They enjoy having multiple partners, while having no interest in making a deep commitment to a single person (Neto, 2010). They prefer quantity to quality. Storge love is a type of love that develops slowly out of friendship. Essentially, a storge lover wishes for their partner to be their best friend. Mania is characterised by insecurity and low self esteem. This often leads to feelings of jealousy and possessiveness (Neto, 2010). The agape love style is the selfless lover. They are often quite willing to make sacrifices for their lover. Pragma lovers are often rational and realistic about their expectations in their lovers. This form of love style is often seen as cold as there is a lack of emotion (Neto, 2010).

Lee’s theory is still important today, with findings suggesting that men tend to be more of a ludus, whilst women of storgic or pragmatic. In teenagers, mania is often the first love style they display (Neto, 2010). Recent research has also indicated that there is a genetic link to two of Lee’s love styles. Eros has been linked with increased dopamine, while Mania has been linked with increased serotonin (Neto, 2010).

Examples in the media
There are many movies and television shows out there which have themes of love, and here are a few examples of it.

50 First Dates (2004)
The movie 50 First Dates (2004) tells the story of Henry Roth, who is somewhat of a playboy, meets Lucy, a woman, whose short term memory loss causes her to forget every memory from the previous day. Henry must win the affections of his beloved each day by creating creative way to engage her. In one scene Henry meets Lucy over breakfast, and they connect, after which they both privately celebrate their first meeting.
 * 1)  How well do you think this movie portrays two people falling in love?
 * 2)  Do you think it is important for couples to have positive memories of when they first met? What do you believe would result if their first memories of each other were negative?

Casino Royale (2006)

In one of the James Bond movies, Casino Royale (2006), James Bond, played by Daniel Craig, meets his female accomplice, and later, his lover, Vesper Lynd, played by Eva Green. Their first meeting is not pleasant.
 * 1) In comparison to the first example of 50 First Dates, the meeting of Bond and Lynd is not pleasant. Are first meetings always pleasant?

How I Met Your Mother (2005)
The television show How I Met Your Mother (2005) is about Tod Mosby retelling the story of how he met his future wife to his children. Throughout the show Ted searches for the woman of his dreams, and he believed that he found his true love in Robin. They have a romantic relationship, for a while, even saying they love each other, but they eventually break up and she later becomes known to Ted’s children as Aunt Robin.
 * 1) Does Ted set himself up for more pain by constantly falling in love, or is it just a fundamental experience in life?

Summary
We see examples of love in everyday life, whether it be on television or on the movie screen. Falling in love, for many, will produce strong feelings, and bring upon a cascade of emotions. As humans we are able to give and obtain pleasure in a variety of ways. Some pleasures relate to our biological drives, and many are both a combination of our biological and cultural heritage. The meaning of love, how we express it, and its attainment, is not completely determined by our culture, but to a large extent is shaped by it. Gaining love from others is a fundamental aspect of a satisfying life, whilst moderating your own self-love can provide you the ability to love others.

Quiz
{Who came up with the Triangular Theory of Love? - Eagly + Sternberg - Woods - Bob Dylan
 * type=""}

{ What isn't a phase of love according to the biological theory? - Lust - Attraction - Attachment + Passion
 * type=""}

{ Which emotion isn't considered to be part of the "dark side" of love? - Jealousy + Attraction - Excessive Dependency - Possessiveness
 * type=""}

{ Why did the Ancient Greeks believe self-love was harmful? + Stops the formation of loving relationships - It causes a self-destructive attitude - You could die
 * type=""}

title: Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation

Comments
HEY!!!!!! thanks for the comments, as longs as it was interesting for you. I have updated it a bit so maybe you didnt get the whole thing :)ps. I clicked yours last night and was like "DAAAAAMMMMM" thats some fine work on sexual motivation ;)

Hey. I really like the outline of what you'll cover. Its very thorough. The overall introduction to the topic also works really well as it provides a good description of what you'll cover and the outcomes of what the reader will have once having read the chapter. perhaps you could include conditioning and the motivation or drive to engage in sexual activity or avoid it. Things like fetishes or harmful negative experiences that may impact on motivation or desire to engage in sex. best of luck with it U3033746 06:30, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

hey, your page is really coming along nicely, I love how you've got some awesome colours going with your tables, you look like your going to be covering a lot on your page, I cant wait to see the end result, have you thought about looking at a cultural pespective on sexual motivation? Shanti 11:21, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

hey sinthu, looks like your page is coming along great. Your contents looks very comprehensive. I like your summary of facts down the bottom. Very engaging colours.Trinand 11:27, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Hello there. Youre coverage on the topic of sexual motivation is very comprehensive. You look like you have covered a lot of information. Your chapter has heaps of potential. As I have a personal intrest in the evolutionary perspective of psychology as a whole, i am very intrested in what you have to say about the evolutionary significance of sex. Great job! Atice 01 12:58, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi, your progress it looking great. In regards to sexual orientation: Great graph description. It would love to see the "spectrum" theory briefly mentioned as well (AKA Kinsey scale) eg: someone can be placed along an orientation scale where they are 30% attracted to the same sex and 70% attracted to the opposite sex, and may choose to identify as heterosexual or bisexual (for personal reasons or to adhere to societal norms). The terms Pansexual and Asexual may also be relevant to the section if you are interested too. Particularly Asexuality, as they pretty much lack motivation and desire for sexual activity. Once again nice work --Jaybay 10:10, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey guys, thanks for the feedback! It's been very helpful! Shanti: I will be talking about cultural perspectives as one of the factors in sexual motivation! JayBay: thanks for your input! I actually had the definition for asexual written up, forgot to copy it across to my page! Thanks for bringing it up! I am struggling with the word count at the moment (over the word limit as always), but if I have space near the end, I will definitely consider mentioning the Spectrum Theory! Thanks again for your feedback! SKM1501 10:55, 05 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey there - interesting page, I enjoyed reading it! One thing I did pick up was in your 'quick facts' down the bottom. One of them says ' Australian men and women born between 1981 and 1986 had sexual intercourse by the age 16' - I'm not quite sure what you meant by this? Do you mean 16 years of age was the average? Just thought this might need some clarification! ShaunaB 00:42, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Not sure if this article might be of interest to you http://wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/SensualAwarenessInventory.html Miz.mira 03:04, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey. What an interesting topic - just some feedback on the pictures - maybe adding captions would contextualise the pictures a bit more? For example, the one of the two girls dancing in their underwear; I can gather from the content what it is about, but at a quick glance it's not easy to link it to a sub-section in your page. Thanks, TabithaJ 04:14, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi there, you prob haven't forgotten, but remember your reference list still to go in. Chapter is very interesting. Good mix of theory and 'interesting facts' Crazydaisy 05:11, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey there, loving the chapter so far. Perhaps a few captions for the pictures could help us in understanding their meaning. I believe the picture of the females dancing in their underwear works specifically well for this chapter and really gained my attention towards the chapter. also enjoyed the 'did you know' section, very interesting facts. Perhaps a few external links could really help. found this little link on sex as a motivation for fitness if you wanna take a look http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AZhdM_0lzjA might be pointless but i agreed with the lady in the video :). good luck with the rest of your chapter--EssDubz 06:09, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Excellent presentation - very creative and great research - very well done - congratulations - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:29, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 07:57, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Tectonic hazards/Seismic retrofit

Seismic retrofit is the modification of a building that already exists to make it resistant to earthquake impact. Seismic retrofitting techniques can be applied to other kinds of natural disasters such as tornadoes and strong winds from thunderstorms.

Main levels of seismically retrofitted building structure performance objectives may vary, namely:
 * To protect human lives.
 * To protect a structure from total failure.
 * To preserve a structure's functionality after a strong earthquake.
 * To make a structure, practically, unaffected by any earthquake.

title: Tectonic hazards/Seismic retrofit


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TAO/Communication

So far the central ressource for communication is the mailinglist; the list is public and aims for all people interested in the building up of the TAO Community of Practice and in the development of the TAO Handbook.

You can browse through the archives following this link:

https://lists.thirdageonline.eu/public/community/

In order to post and receive messages, you need to subscribe to the mailing list.

Web conferences
Besides asynchronuous communication via above mailing list the group has regular online meetings. Polls for dates and invitation is provided via the list.

So far we used two applications for the meetings
 * AdobeConnect on https://collab.switch.ch/tao_communication/
 * Works for most of us, but problems related to Adobe's Flash are common. However especially Linux users had Problems even connecting to the meeting room.

 * BigBlueButton on http://bbb.zawiw.de/
 * Free and open source application which seems to cure (above connection) problems for Linux users. However not an alternative to avoid the common shortcomings of Flash. At current time there has not been a hint to any application avoiding Flash in general, will maybe come up with HTML5 one day.

title: TAO/Communication


text:
User:Wangxuan8331800

w:zh:User:Wangxuan8331800 meta:Help:Redirect

title: User:Wangxuan8331800


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User talk:Poetlister1

I've blocked your alternate account pending consensus to allow you to bypass the global lock. --SB_Johnny talk 22:03, 6 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I am opening up Poetlister1 for communication, changing the redirect. Poetlister1, being blocked, cannot now edit User talk:Poetlister. I will copy the comment here to that talk page. --Abd 22:14, 6 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Abd. I hadn't thought of that! --SB_Johnny talk 22:15, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

 * On the topic here, SBJ, you once wrote, and I thought it was good sense:
 * There was a supermajority of just over 75% to unblock after 5 days, so I've de-linked the account and unblocked. In the future, I would hope we would want a supermajority to justify maintaining a block, rather than requiring one to overturn a block... "not blocked" should be the default, IMO. --SB_Johnny talk 21:42, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * The only difference between that case and this is that there was an open discussion at meta in the recent case; whereas before there was only an obvious consensus of stewards to allow the lock to continue, and you once wrote that this was because the 'crat trick had been discovered. Otherwise, as Adrignola pointed out, local wikis may override any global decision, such as the global blacklist, and, in particular, global blocks, and it is only the lack of a global lock "whitelist" in the software that requires the renaming trick. Apparently now you think that it takes a local consensus to override a global lock. So a user may be blocked here without any local consensus to block or maintain a block. Has your opinion changed? --Abd 22:29, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Unblock request

 * (non-sysop comment) As far as I see it, you have not violated any specific policy here, but you are contravening your global ban via sockpuppetry - see . If you would like to continue editing Wikimedia projects, you should appeal the decision to globally ban you over at meta. -- Simone 18:09, 8 November 2011 (UTC)
 * This is not only a "non-sysop comment," it is a comment by a user who has stated that she is not interested in editing productively here. While she does have the right to comment, the position expressed is not representative of Wikiversity consensus. Poetlister1 cannot appeal at meta, it would involve creating a new account there which would be immediately blocked, since Poetlister is blocked at meta (and was thus unable to participate in that "global ban" discussion.) 'nuff said. The unblock template is for local sysop attention, and I'm hoping that a local sysop will attend to it and follow our proposed policy (WV:Blocking policy), which is clear. (It's a "proposal," as with many policies that reflect actual operating consensus, and the operative provisions have been standing without objection for years.)
 * "Sock puppetry" does not ordinarily include the use of an alternate account, disclosed as identical to the primary, where the primary account is not blocked, as User:Poetlister is not blocked. There is no local violation here, and there is no global policy that is relevant. Not yet, anyway. The real issue is whether or not a meta decision overrides local decisions, which would make meta into a government for the other wikis, a radical change from the status quo. All other meta processes (such as global blacklist, and global blocks), whether or not based on a meta consensus, may be over-ridden by local administrators, without question. In the absence of any actual harmful activity, causing real and present harm to other wikis, to reverse this tradition and precedent is dangerous. --Abd 18:53, 8 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I have started a discussion in the colloquium to try to seek community consensus to unblock. Thenub314 01:11, 16 November 2011 (UTC)

WV:Assembly
I wish to participate in WV:Assembly and request User:Abd to be my proxy until I am unblocked.--Poetlister 19:00, 11 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your confidence, Poetlister. I have added the account Poetlister1 to the table. While I could have listed "Poetlister," because I know it to be you, though email, it doesn't really make any difference -- as long as both aren't listed! -- so I've gone with the public record here. --Abd 19:34, 11 November 2011 (UTC)

Abd's nomination for full custodianship
I don't know if I'm allowed to vote while blocked. However, I would like to record my support for Abd. He has made a few mistakes, but who hasn't? However, he has shown exceptional devotion to the spirit of the rules and more importantly the principles of Wikiversity. Everything he has done seems to be motivated by what is best for this project. Not having him as a custodian will harm Wikiversity very much more than any damage that could ever be done by him. Restoring his bit would be an almost unmitigated plus.--Poetlister 08:33, 19 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Poetlister1


text: Category:Resources last modified in November 2011


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Flow

Overview
 Have you ever been involved in an activity where you have felt alert and completely absorbed in the processes of the task? Have you experienced a sense of personal control over an activity, which has challenged you and allowed you to perform at your best? Has an activity ever provided you with internal satisfaction and resulted in a loss of self-consciousness through the merging of action and awareness? Have you engaged in an activity where your sense of time transcends, and just engaging in the task itself is rewarding? Maybe you were reading your favourite book, talking to someone you care about, playing your favourite sport or doing your favourite hobby. If you answered yes to any of the above questions you may have been in a state of optimal experience defined as flow by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (Csiksezentmihalyi, 1988, 1990).

Flow and intrinsic motivation

Over the course of human evolution, every culture has developed activities to improve the quality of experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p.76). Researchers' interest in activities that foster optimal experience relates to the motivation that drives individuals to engage in tasks that provide little or no external reward. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by interests in the task itself, without reliance on external reinforcers (Cameron & Pierce, 1994).

Research suggests that intrinsic motivation is associated with higher levels of achievement and enjoyment in education and occupational environments (Cameron & Pierce, 1994). Csikszentmihalyi (1990, p. 76) suggests by learning more about activities that enable optimal experience, we may find clues to a form of motivation that is fundamentally important to utilising human resources.

The current operant conditioning principles suggest the application of external reinforcers and punishments is a more effective way to motivate individuals into acceptable behaviours (Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996 ). The danger of applying external motivators to encourage certain behaviours, is the ease at which they can be administered. For example, when a lecturer realises students will work for a grade, he or she may become less concerned with the processes of learning and, consequently, the student may prioritise the grade as the ultimate objective. The student may begin to ascertain that the processes of learning are not important, rather only the external reward (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p.3).

Intrinsic motivation allows for internal reinforcement, by which the individual can concentrate on the processes of the activity and continue the task without reliance on an external reward. Flow theory and research examines the activities that appear to contain rewards within themselves. By examining flow as a psychological process, researchers can identify the conditions of optimal experience and direct individuals and organisations to processes that will lead to greater happiness and productivity.

History
In 2000, Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi proposed a comprehensive re-evaluation of the structure of psychological theories and research (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). They proposed a shift from the traditional preoccupations with human shortcomings and psychopathologies to concentrate on positive human experience. Rather than presenting a new field or paradigm, positive psychology was a novel approach to the study of human behaviour. To achieve its aim, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) suggested the role of psychology was to:
 * 1) Articulate a vision of a good life that is empirically sound while being understandable and attractive
 * 2) Show what actions lead to well-being and positive individuals
 * 3) Foster prosperous community by to helping to document what kind of families result in the healthiest children, what work environment support the greatest satisfaction among workers and what policies result in the strongest civic commitment.

Martin Seligman presentation on Positive Psychology

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi initially examined the processes of optimal experience in a study observing a sample of male artists. He noted that while the artists were painting, they were completely absorbed in their work (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988 p. 4). Csikszentmihalyi observed the artist as completely detached from their bodily needs and immersed in the enjoyment of the task. However, as soon as the artists finished the painting they would lose interest (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988 p. 4). Csikszentmihalyi questioned why the artist would engage in the creative process with little to no external reward to motivate their behaviour.

At the time of Csikszentmihalyi’s original study, the leading researcher in the field of motivation was Abraham Maslow. Maslow (1970) suggested that individuals engage in activities that lack external reward in an attempt to discover one’s limitation and potential (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988 p.5). Maslow labeled this type of motivation as a desire for self-actualisation. Maslow’s model, although comprehensive, did not provide explanations as to how these experiences felt, if any activity could potentially become intrinsically rewarding, or if any individual could experience flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988 p.5). Csikszentmihalyi’s text, Boredom and Anxiety (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) published the first comprehensive statement explaining the flow experience. However, in the initial stages the concept of flow was labeled an autotelic experience.

Csikszentmihalyi (1988, 1990) outlined a common set of structural characteristics that distinguished the experience of flow from other experiences in everyday living. To counter criticisms that suggested the research in Boredom and Anxiety was not generalisable, as it was based on a select group of individual and was primarily the result of laboratory setting, Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1987) developed a study using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). They provided respondents with an electronic pager and a survey questionnaire booklet. The experimenters beeped the respondents randomly seven times a day. Each time the respondents were beeped, they had to fill out a survey. By the end of the week, the researchers were able to compile a systematic description of the respondent’s activities for the day, as well as the personal experiences and dimensions of awareness (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). The results of this study showed that almost any activity in daily life could produce a flow experience. Also, just as in leisure activities, the results demonstrated that productive activities, such as studying and working, could create a flow experience. The study found that females, individuals from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and older individuals tend to value intrinsic rewards as far more important. An explanation provided by the Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1987) suggests that autotelic reasons for involvement may increase, as one grows older and more affluent. Such a relationship fits Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs.

Characteristics of flow

 * Autotelic experience, activity and personality

An activity is assumed to be autotelic if it requires formal and extensive energy output on the part of the performer, yet provides few if any conventional rewards. Originally, Csikszentmihalyi (1975, p. 10) labelled the flow experience as autotelic. The word autotelic originates from the Greek language the word auto meaning self and the telos meaning goal or purpose. To achieve optimal experience, a balance is required between the challenges perceived in a given situation and the skills of the individual. If an individual’s skills meet that challenge, a flow experience may occur. However, to remain in flow, one must increase the complexity of the activity by developing new skills to meet increasing challenges.

There should be distinctions drawn between autotelic activities, autotelic personalities, and autotelic experiences. A study by (Asakawa, 2009) examined the characteristics of flow activities, time management, and goal directedness related to autotelic personality types. Japanese college students were asked to complete various flow measures with reference to five daily activities. The results suggest that flow activities are related to the processes of personal growth and self-advancement, and also provide pleasure and motivation for subsequent activity. Autotelic personality types, as defined by the study, reported higher levels of flow in everyday activities, and the highest scores on time management and goal directedness measures.

Csikszentmihalyi (1988, 1990) identified the following 10 factors as accompanying a experience of flow:
 * 1) Goals should be clear. Expectations and rules should be discernible and goals should be attainable and align appropriately with one’s skill set and abilities. Both the skill set and challenge level should be high.
 * 2) A high degree of concentration should be exerted on a limited field of attention. The individual should be able to focus and be deeply engaged in the activity.
 * 3) A loss of self-consciousness through the merging of action and awareness.
 * 4) Sense of time transcends. The individual’s personal experience of time is altered. It is a pleasurable state that requires no external regulation.
 * 5) Direct and immediate feedback should be available so that the individual’s behaviours can be adjusted as needed. This creates a merging of action and awareness.
 * 6) There should be a balance between the individual’s ability level and the level of difficulty in the challenge. If the challenge is too easy or to difficult, then uncomfortable emotions are experienced and flow does not occur. See figure 1.1.
 * 7) The individual should hold a sense of personal control over the situation or activity.
 * 8) The activity must be intrinsically rewarding, resulting in an ease of action.
 * 9) Absorption in the activity is essential. Focus of awareness should be narrowed down to the activity itself.
 * 10) The individual should experience a lack of awareness of bodily needs. That is, the extent that one can reach a point of great hunger, or fatigue without realizing it.

When experiencing a state of flow individuals often describe a balance, in which one’s skills are adequate to cope with the challenges presented. The flow inducing activity is goal directed, with an established rule system that provides clear feedback as to how one is performing. People describe a state of concentration that is so intense, that there is no attention left over to consider anything outside the task. Consequently, self-consciousness disappears and one’s sense of time becomes distorted. An activity that produces flow is so gratifying that people are willing to take part in it without external rewards. For this reason the flow experience is the ultimate example of intrinsic motivation. The nature of the flow experience will often push individual to a higher level of performance. Individuals will engage in the task with little concern for what they will get out of it, even when it is difficult or dangerous.

Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi on The Flow Experience

Dimensions of flow

Theoretically, the two most important dimensions of experience are challenge and skill; they are represented on the two axis of Figure 1.2.

The letter A represents Andy, a boy who is learning to play chess. The diagram shows Andy at four points in time. When he starts playing chess, A1, Andy has practically no skills and the only challenge he faces is trying to remember the rules of the game. This is not a very difficult feat, but Andy is likely to enjoy it because the difficulty is suitable for his rudimentary skills, at this point he will probably be in flow. However, he cannot stay there for long. After a while if he keeps practicing, his skills will improve and he will grow bored of just moving the pieces according to the rules of the game. Or it might happen that he meets a more practiced opponent, in which case he will begin to feel some anxiety about his poor performance. Neither boredom A2, nor anxiety A3, are a positive experiences. Andy essentially has one choice as he continues to improve his skills, he must increase the challenges he is facing and enter flow as described by A4. The diagram shows that both A1 and A4 represent situation in which Andy is in flow. Although, both states are equally enjoyable, the two states are quite different. A4 is a complex state that continues to be enjoyable. It is not a stable situation. As Andy keeps playing he will get better and should continue to push himself up the flow channel as his skills improve and the complexity level gets harder and harder (adapted from Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p. 74).

A study by Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996) confirmed that the qualities of everyday life experiences are dependent on the balance of skills required in specific situations and challenges experienced. The study used the ESM technique on a sample of 208 high achieving adolescents to measure daily variation in experience based on the four dimensions; engagement in the activity, concentration, involvement and happiness. The findings confirmed the hypothesis that the balance of challenge and skill has a positive and independent effect on the quality of experience. However, challenge had a negative relationship when looking at the domains of happiness and engagement. Meaning, the higher the challenge the less engagement and enjoyment the individuals may experience{grammar}}. The study also found that experiences might differ between contexts due to the challenge and skill differing in nature. Within every context, the dimensions of concentration, involvement and happiness reached their maximum values when challenges and skill are both highest (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Therefore, it can be concluded that in order to engage in a flow experience there should be a balance between skill and challenge.

Flow in the workplace
The introduction of the positive psychology movement has placed great emphasis on identifying the factors that promote well-being at work and in education. Initially, the purpose of Csikszentmihalyi study on optimal experience was to improve the education system to ensure all students were engaging in the processes of learning. Current psychology trends endeavour to contribute to individual overall levels of well-being and to organisations’ cohesion and functioning (Schaufeli, 2004).

Bakker (2008) found a positive correlation between flow experienced at work and over all job satisfaction. Fullagar and Kelloway (2009) tested the causality between flow and mood. Results suggest that flow is predictive of mood, but mood states are not associated with later flow. The study also confirms that creating optimal experience in work activities enhances positive mood (Fullargar & Kelloway,2009).

Other studies have highlighted the role of optimal experience in promoting workers’ performance at in-role and extra-role tasks. In-role tasks refer to the official tasks and behaviours that directly serve the goals of the organisation; extra-role tasks comprise of tasks and behaviours that promote the functioning of an organisation without necessary being directly associated with the employee’s role.

Demerouti (2006) found that flow predicted both kinds of performances among employees high on the personality trait of conscientious. Eisenberger et al. (2005) found that employees who perceived high skills and high challenges in their occupation, more frequently engaged in tasks outside their roles, such as making constructive suggestions, enhancing one’s own knowledge and skills in ways that can help the organisation, taking preventative actions to protect the organisation from potential problems and helping co-workers. The research relating to flow and work suggests that in order to better the experiences of employees and consequentially increase their productivity, employers and employees should create and engage in flow inducing activities. See: Motivation and work satisfaction

Flow in education
Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Shneider and Shernoff (2003) used a longitudinal sample of high school students in the USA to investigate the conditions under which they reported being engaged. The article defines student engagement based on characteristic of concentration, interest, and enjoyment. As hypothesised by Csikszentmihalyi (1990), students increased engagement when they perceived a balance between their ability and the difficulty of the task. If the task was too easy or to difficult, then uncomfortable emotions were experienced and the students reported less engagement. Students also reported higher engagement when they perceived control over the learning environment and there engagement was perceived as important. Students reported disengagement from learning when there was a lack of challenge or meaning in there learning. Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Shneider and Shernoff (2003) suggested to increase engagement educators should provide learning activities that support students autonomy and provide an appropriate level of challenge for the student’s skills.

Schweinle, Meyer and Turner's (2006) study of primary school students confirmed that challenge is necessary in educating students. The researchers were examining primary school student’s experiences while studying mathematics. Mathematics was chosen, as students often perceive it as a difficult subject that was also valued. Results indicated that if the mathematics task was too challenging or not challenging enough, students labelled the subject as less important. However, the study counters some components of the flow theory. The results indicate that social affect and efficacy are more impacted by perceived skills and the importance of the experience is more strongly informed by challenge. The results of this study suggest that it is important to monitor the difficulty of assessment provided to students in order not to induce negative self-efficacy or social effects.

Research suggests that personality traits may have more of an effect on student’s experiences of flow, than the characteristics of the activity. Wong and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) examined the relationship between personality traits and studying habits. It was observed that students high in the trait of intrinsic motivation were more likely to choose challenging and difficult courses to study. This supports the theory of flow, as advanced courses are optional and more difficult to handle. Therefore, internal rewards become more important. The results suggest that the students were welcoming of new challenges, persisted in the face of obstacles and maintained their interest despite failures. (Wong & Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

A study by Parr, Montgomery and DeBell (1996) examined the use of flow theory as a model for enhancing student resilience, found the occurrence of optimal experience may increase students resilience in counselling settings.

Summary

 * When experiencing a state of flow, individuals often describe a balance, in which one’s skills are adequate to cope with the challenges presented.
 * The flow inducing activity is goal directed, with an established rule system that provides clear feedback as to how one is performing.
 * People describe a state of concentration that is so intense, that there is not attention left over to consider anything outside the task. Consequently, self-consciousness disappears and one’s sense of time becomes distorted.
 * An activity that produces flow is so gratifying that people are willing to take part in it without external rewards. For this reason the flow experience is related to intrinsic motivation.
 * The nature of the flow experience will often push individual to a higher level of performance. Individuals will engage in the task with little concern for what they will get out of it, even when it is difficult or dangerous.
 * The concept of flow examines the activities that appear to contain rewards within themselves and do not rely on external reinforces. By examining flow as a psychological process, researchers can identify the conditions of optimal experience and direct individuals and organizations to processes that will lead to greater happiness and productivity.
 * Research relating to flow and work suggests that in order to better the experiences of employees and consequentially increase their productivity, employers and employees should create and engage in flow inducing activities.
 * Research relating to flow and education suggests that in order to increase engagement, educators should provide learning activities that support student’s autonomy and provide an appropriate level of challenge for the student’s skills.

Quiz
{ To experience complex flow, how should the dimensions of skill and task challenge interact? - Both be Low + Both be high - Skills be high and task challenge be low - Skills be low and task challenge be high
 * type=""}

{ The experience of flow is related to ? - Creativity - Psychopathology - Extrinsic motivation + Intrinsic motivation
 * type=""}

{ In 2000, Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi proposed the introduction of? + Positive Psychology - Freudianism - Negative Psychology - Behaviourism
 * type=""}

{ What was the concept of flow initially labelled? - The Zone - The River + Autotelic Experiences - Runners high
 * type=""}

title: Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Flow


text:
User:MrFidaAliEngr/Skardu

Skardu is the District Headquarters of District Skardu. It is located in Baltistan, Pakistan. Its elevation above sea level is about 8000 feet. In the winter season, the temperature drops to about -20 degrees Celsius.

Skardu is surrounded by very high mountains whose tops remain snow covered round the year. Pakistan's largest river, the Indus, flows through Skardu. Important crops include wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, apricots, melbury, apples, grapes, water melons, melons, turnips, etc., etc. Important livestocks include goats, sheep, cows, zhos, yaks, hens, fish, etc., etc. Important wild animals are/include markhors, tigers, snow leopards, wolves, horses, donkeys, bears, foxes, eagles, pigeons, cats, dogs etc., etc.

The human population is rapidly increasing mainly due to migration and unplanned births. Child care facilities are adequate. Hydel (hydroelectricity) projects have proved to be economically viable and technically successful in Skardu, Baltistan and its adjoining areas. Skardu has a lot of sunlight and wind which also can be utilized for power generation to fulfill power requirements. Important minerals found in Skardu and its adjoining areas include quartz, precious stones, semi precious stones, etc.

title: User:MrFidaAliEngr/Skardu


text:
Category:General Engineering Tutorials

Resources
 * Philosophy
 * Best Practice
 * These tutorials support general engineering projects
 * Wikibook General Engineering Introduction section on Tutorials

Expected outline:
 * Starting Point description ... expected background of someone reading this tutorial
 * Objectives ... reverse engineer to a building block, or build up to jumping off some cliff
 * Details: steps, links to other tutorials, pictures, videos, etc.

title: Category:General Engineering Tutorials


text:
Arduino/Software Install

Target Audience
Anyone who looks at the official introduction and sees too many words.

Starting Point
Have an arduino and test whether it is working. Have a USB cable to connect to a computer.

Replication Goal
Launch the Ardunio IDE

Procedure: Download Ardunio Software

 * 1) Step: Download the software for your platform.
 * 2) Step: Save the file when prompted
 * 3) Step: Put the file in a place it can be found, remember the file name.
 * 4) Step: Find the file and click on it
 * 5) Step: Extract the file to a place where it will be executed. It does not belong on the desktop. This is the only installation step.
 * 6) Step: Find the extracted folder. It will contain a number ... something like arduino-0022. Launch the Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) by clicking on arduino.exe

title: Arduino/Software Install


text:
User talk:Barras

Special:Contributions/150.176.249.100
Thanks for blocking. Because this wasn't just an isolated usage of the IP, I've upped it to a week. --Abd 19:10, 4 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I just jumped in as no admin was around. As I'm not an admin here, I only blocked it for some hours, all other stuff is up to the locals. Best, -Barras 19:12, 4 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes, I recognized your very proper procedure. Thanks again. --Abd 19:40, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Barras


text:
User talk:Toto Azéro

 Hello Toto Azéro, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 19:21, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks
For reverting vandalism on Web design. --Abd 19:21, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Toto Azéro


text:
Category:Resources needing expansion

__HIDDENCAT__

title: Category:Resources needing expansion


text:
Tectonic hazards/Seismic design

Seismic design rests on authorized engineering procedures, principles and criteria meant to design or retrofit structures subject to earthquake exposure. Those criteria are barely consistent with the contemporary state of the knowledge about building structures .Therefore, the fact that a building design blindly follows some seismic code regulations does not guarantee safety against collapse or serious damage.

The price of poor seismic design may be enormous. Nevertheless, seismic design has always been a trial and error process no matter it was based upon physical laws or empirical knowledge.

To practice seismic design, seismic analysis or seismic evaluation of new and existing civil engineering projects in California, by the way, an engineer should, normally, pass examination on Seismic Principles.

title: Tectonic hazards/Seismic design


text:
Draft:Original research/Logic

Logic is more than reasoning. Usually it is reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of validity. Aristotelian logic is a particular system or codification of the principles of proof and inference.

At a secondary level an introduction to logic may be helpful, where some of the more common operators are described. This introduction is a part of elementary logic at the undergraduate level. Here, there is at least one lesson available.

This learning resource is partly an article, in some subareas an essay, and mostly a lecture.

Logic is often considered a part of philosophy. And, most often is used in science to help create knowledge consisting of facts and truths. But, it finds needed applicability in law and the practice of law. A third popular field that confers a rigid structure on logic is mathematics.

Nearly all efforts, intellectual or otherwise, can be approached and have some understanding produced through the application of logic. This includes volition (e.g., emotion), affections, morality, and religion.

Reasoning
Logic can also mean the quality of being justifiable by reason.

Reason is the capacity of consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans.

"[...] the exercise of independent practical reasoning is one essential constituent to full human flourishing."

Def. the "deduction of inferences or interpretations from premises" or "the drawing of inferences or conclusions through the use of [...] statement[s] offered in explanation or justification" is called reasoning.

The philosophical field of logic studies ways in which humans reason formally through argument.

A distinction is often drawn between logical, discursive reasoning (reason proper), and intuitive reasoning.

Reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of goals, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and institutions, and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination.

In contrast to the use of "reason" as an abstract noun, a reason is a consideration given which either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or behavior.

When evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal [and impartial] weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does."

Reason is often said to be reflexive, or "self-correcting", and the critique of reason has been a persistent theme in philosophy.

Practical reasoning is the self-legislating or self-governing formulation of universal norms, and theoretical reasoning the way humans posit universal laws of nature.

Under practical reason, the moral autonomy or freedom of human beings depends on their ability to behave according to laws that are given to them by the proper exercise of that reason, contrasted with earlier forms of morality, which depended on religious understanding and interpretation, or nature for their substance.

In a free society each individual must be able to pursue their goals however they see fit, so long as their actions conform to principles given by reason, called the "categorical imperative", which would justify an action only if it could be universalized:

"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.

Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.

"Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."

"The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."

Theoretical logic
“[D]efinitions are always of symbols, for only symbols have meanings for definitions to explain.” A term can be one or more of a set of symbols such as words, phrases, letter designations, or any already used symbol or new symbol.

In the theory of definition, “the symbol being defined is called the definiendum, and the symbol or set of symbols used to explain the meaning of the definiendum is called the definiens.” “The definiens is not the meaning of the definiendum, but another symbol or group of symbols which, according to the definition, has the same meaning as the definiendum.”

Def.

 * a(1): "a science that deals with the canons and criteria of validity of inference and demonstration : the science of the normative formal principles of reasoning",
 * (2): "a branch of semiotic; [especially: syntactics]",
 * (3): "the formal principles of a branch of knowledge",
 * b: "a particular mode of reasoning", and
 * c: "interrelation or sequence of facts or events when seen as inevitable or predictable"

is called logic.

Similar to the above dictionary, or lexical, definition is

Def. "[l]ogic is the study of correct argumentation."

Def. a "method of human thought that involves thinking in a linear, step-by-step manner about how a problem can be solved" is called logic.

Logicism
"The logistic thesis is that mathematics is a branch of logic. The mathematical notions are to be defined in terms of the logical notions. The theorems of mathematics are to be proved as theorems of logic."

Def. a "generalized kind of number used to denote the size of a set, including infinite sets" is called a cardinal number.

Def. "a cardinal number which possesses every property P such that
 * 1) 0 has the property P and
 * 2) n + 1 has the property P whenever n has the property P" is called a finite cardinal (or natural number).

Def. "a non-negative integer [{0, 1, 2, ...}] " is called a natural number.

Def. "a cardinal number for which mathematical induction holds" is called a natural number.

One way to "adapt the logicistic construction of mathematics to the situation arising from the discovery of the paradoxes" is to exclude "impredicative definitions".

Ramified theory of types
"The primary objects or individuals (i.e. the given things not being subjected to logical analysis) are assigned to one type (say type 0), properties of individuals to type 1, properties of properties of individuals to type 2, etc.; and no properties are admitted which do not fall into one of these logical types (e.g. this puts the properties 'predicable' and 'impredicable' [...] outside the pale of logic)."

Relations "and classes [would be some] admitted types for other objects". To "exclude impredicative definition within a type, the types above type 0 are further separated into orders. Thus for type 1, properties defined without mentioning any totality belong to order 0, and properties defined using the totality of properties of a given order belong to the next higher order. (The logicistic definition of natural number now becomes predicative, when the P in it is specified to range only over properties of a given order, in which case the property of being a natural number is of the next higher order.)"

Axiom of reducibility
To escape that the above "separation into orders makes it impossible to construct the familiar analysis [may require an] axiom of reducibility, which asserts that to any property belonging to an order above the lowest, there is a coextensive property (i.e. one possessed by exactly the same objects) of order 0. If only definable properties are considered to exist, then the axiom means that to every impredicative definition within a given type there is an equivalent predictive one."

The "difficulty is [...]: on what grounds shall we believe in the axiom of reducibility? If properties are to be constructed, the matter should be settled on the basis of constructions, not by an axiom."

"This axiom has a purely pragmatic justification: it leads to the desired results, and to no others [so far as is known]. But clearly it is not the sort of axiom with which we can rest content."

The "desired result and no others can apparently be obtained without the hierarchy of orders (i.e. with a simple theory of types)."

The paradoxes can be classified "into two sorts,
 * 1) 'logical' (e.g. Burali-Forti, Cantor and Russell) and
 * 2) 'epistemological' or 'semantical' (e.g. the Richard and Epimenides); and [...] the logical antinomies are (apparently) stopped by the simple hierarchy of types, and the semantical ones are (apparently) prevented from arising within the symbolic language by the absence therein of the requisite means for referring to expressions of the same language."

Arguments "to justify impredicative definitions within a type entail a conception of the totality of predicates of the type as existing independently of their constructibility or definability."

"Logicism treats the existence of the natural number series as an hypothesis about the actual world ('axiom of infinity')."

"The logicistic thesis can be questioned finally on the ground that logic already presupposes mathematical ideas in its formulation."

Intuitionism
The "belief that the rules of the classical logic, which have come down to us essentially from Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), have an absolute validity, independent of the subject matter to which they are applied" has been challenged.

"According to his view and reading of history, classic logic was abstracted from the mathematics of finite sets and their subsets. ... Forgetful of this limited origin, one afterwards mistook that logic for something above and prior to all mathematics, and finally applied it, without justification to the mathematics of infinite sets."

Examples to show that principles "valid in thinking about finite sets do not necessarily carry over to infinite sets."
 * 1) the whole is greater than any proper part, when applied to 1-1 correspondences between sets,
 * 2) a set of natural numbers contains a greatest.

Analogical reasoning
Def. "a representational mapping from a known "source" domain into a novel "target" domain" is called analogy.

"In problem solving and learning, analogical reasoning promises to overcome the explosive search complexity of finding solutions to novel problems or inducing generalized knowledge from experience."

Def. "familiar [mapped] elements or relations from the source into unfamiliar (or unknown) elements or relations in the target" are called analogical inferences.

"Source, target, mapping, analogical inference, and confirmatory support [a broad spectrum of empirical evidence] are the basic materials of analogy."

Computer logic
Computer logic is a system of principles behind the arrangements of elements in a computer or electronic device for performing a specified task.

Def. ordered "steps that solve a mathematical problem" or a "precise step-by-step plan for a computational procedure that [possibly] begins with an input value and yields an output value in a finite number of steps"

is called an algorithm.

Def. "an algorithm which calls itself with "smaller (or simpler)" input values, and which obtains the result for the current input by applying simple operations to the returned value for the smaller (or simpler) input" is called a recursive algorithm.

Def. "a system that provides algorithms for the symbolic manipulation of first-order formulas over some temporarily fixed language and theory" is called a computer logic system.

"The aim of logic in computer science is to develop languages to model the situations [encountered], in such a way that we can reason about them formally. Reasoning about situations means constructing arguments about them; we want to do this formally, so that the arguments are valid and can be defended rigorously, or executed on a machine."

Debates
Def.
 * 1) “a type of literary composition, taking the form of a discussion or disputation”
 * 2) an "argument, or discussion, usually in an ordered or formal setting, often with more than two people, [generally] ending with a vote or other decision",
 * 3) an "informal and spirited but generally civil discussion of opposing views", and
 * 4) a discussion "of opposing views"

is called a debate.

Deduction
Def. a "process of reasoning that moves from the general to the specific, in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the premises presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true" is called deduction.

Def. "inference in which the conclusion cannot be false given that the premises are true", or "Inference in which the conclusion is of no greater generality than the premises" is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion.

"The theory of deduction is intended to explain the relationship between premisses and conclusion of a valid argument and to provide techniques for the appraisal of deductive arguments".

Dialectics
Dialectic (also dialectics and the dialectical method) is a method of argument for resolving disagreement. The dialectical method is dialogue between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject, who wish to establish the truth of the matter by dialogue, with reasoned arguments. Dialectics is different from debate, wherein the debaters are committed to their points of view, and mean to win the debate, either by persuading the opponent, proving their argument correct, or proving the opponent's argument incorrect — thus, either a judge or a jury must decide who wins the debate. Dialectics is also different from rhetoric, wherein the speaker uses logos, pathos, or ethos to persuade listeners to take their side of the argument.

Induction
Def. "the derivation of general principles from specific instances" or "a general proof of a theorem by first proving it for a specific integer (for example) and showing that, if it is true for one integer then it must be true for the next" is called induction.

Inferences
Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.

Logical calculus
"[A]n abstract logical calculus [consists of] "the vocabulary of logic, ... the primitive symbols ..., and the logical structure ... fixed by stating the axioms or postulates ... in terms of its primitive symbols."

Logic-based abduction
In logic, explanation is done from a logical theory $$T$$ representing a domain and a set of observations $$O$$. Abduction is the process of deriving a set of explanations of $$O$$ according to $$T$$ and picking out one of those explanations. To abduce $$a$$ [$$a$$ ∈ $$O$$] from $$b$$ [$$b$$ ∈ $$T$$] involves determining that $$a$$ is sufficient (or nearly sufficient), but not necessary, for $$b$$.

"[T]o discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine with reference to the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations."

Mathematical logic
In line with Boolean algebra which is a logical calculus is Boolean logic.

Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to metamathematics, the foundations of mathematics, and theoretical computer science.

Natural deduction
In logic and proof theory, natural deduction is a kind of proof calculus in which logical reasoning is expressed by inference rules closely related to the "natural" way of reasoning. This contrasts with the axiomatic systems which instead use axioms as much as possible to express the logical laws of deductive reasoning.

Principles
A principle is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of such a system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the system, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored.

Propositional logic
Propositional logic uses or may result in declarative sentences.

Sophistry
Def. an "argument that seems plausible, but is fallacious or misleading, especially one devised deliberately to be so" is called sophistry.

Symbolic logic
The systematic use of symbolic techniques to determine the forms of valid deductive argument may be deductive symbolic logic.

 * /Logic patterns/.
 * /Algebraic Deduction/
 * /Algebraic Perfect Syllogism

Trees
"The logic tree is a pro/con hierarchy, in which the main debate topic is located at the root. Arguments are added in free text format and do not follow any specific structure. Users support (or attack) arguments by adding their own arguments under pro/yes (or con/no) sections of each question. Arguments can be re-used across debates; however, each debate tree is treated in isolation."

Validity
Def. "the quality of state of [...] having a conclusion correctly derived from premises" is called validity.

A sequent, e.g. ϕ₁, ϕ₂, ϕ₃, … ⊢ Ψ, is valid when a proof for it can be found.

An argument is a formula of the kind Premices → Conclusion and it is valid when for each interpretation under which the premises are all true, the conclusion is also true, or, in other words, when Premices ∧ ¬Conclusion = false.

This is also related with semantic entailment, e.g. ϕ₁, ϕ₂, ϕ₃, … ⊨ Ψ, which is a relation ⊨ that holds if Ψ evaluates to true whenever all formulas ϕ₁, ϕ₂, ϕ₃, … are evaluated to true.

Equivalently, a formula is defined as valid when it is true in every interpretation (is a tautology (logic)). To see this, it might be worth to rewrite ϕ₁, ϕ₂, ϕ₃, … ⊨ Ψ as its equivalent ⊨ ϕ₁∧ϕ₂∧ϕ₃∧… → Ψ.

A weaker concept, when formula can be true (but not necessary in all interpretations), is called satisfability. Valid formula is also satisfable but note vice-verse. However, negation relates the concepts more tightly: formula ϕ is satisfable iff ¬ϕ is not valid.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Aristotelian logic is only a special case of validity-based logic.

title: Draft:Original research/Logic


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Category:Resources needing improved citations

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Draft:Original research/Pragmatics

Pragmatics is language in use and the contexts in which it is used. Pragmatics is an area of study within the school of linguistics, a part of the social sciences. It includes deixis, taking turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, and implicature.

Relations
Def. the "manner in which two things may be associated" is called a relation.

Def. a mode "of action; way of performing or effecting anything" is called a manner.

"Edward Churchill still attended to his work in a hopeless mechanical manner like a sleep-walker who walks safely on a well-known round. But his Roman collar galled him, his cossack stifled him, his biretta was as uncomfortable as a merry-andrew's cap and bells."

Signs
Def.

 * 1.a: a "gesture by which a thought is expressed"
 * b: "one of a set of gestures used to represent language"
 * 2: "a mark having a conventional meaning and used in place of words or to represent a complex notion"

is called a sign.

In semiotics, sign is something that can be interpreted as having a meaning, which is something other than itself, and which is therefore able to communicate information to the one interpreting or decoding the sign. Signs can work through any of the senses, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory or taste, and their meaning can be intentional such as a word uttered with a specific meaning, or unintentional such as a symptom being a sign of a particular medical condition.

A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters compose phonemes and each phoneme represents a phone (sound) in the spoken form of the language.

A character (from the Greek χαρακτήρ "engraved or stamped mark" on coins or seals, "branding mark, symbol" ) may refer to any sign or symbol.

A grapheme is the smallest semantically distinguishing unit in a [orthography] written language, analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages. A grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, and may or may not correspond to a single phoneme. Graphemes include alphabetic letters, typographic ligatures, Chinese characters, numerical digits, punctuation marks, and other individual symbols of any of the world's writing systems.

Users
Def. one "who uses or makes use of something" is called a user.

Theory
Def. "the relation between signs or linguistic expression and their users" is called pragmatics.

Def. "[t]he study of the use of language in a social context" is called pragmatics.

Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning [where context may] be interpreted as situation as it may include any imaginable extralinguistic factor. "Pragmatics studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, [conversation analysis] talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, and linguistics. It studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar, lexicon etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and so on. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence.

"Pragmatics is an approach to description, to information processing, thus to the construction, interpretation and communication of experience. At its core lies the notion of context, and the axiom that reality and/or experience are not absolute fixed entities, but rather frame-dependent, contingent upon the observer's perspective."

Conversations
The turn-taking system consists of two components: the allocational mechanism which is responsible for distributing a turn (in any case), and the lexical components that parties utilize in filling that turn while remaining concurrently sequentially implicative to deal with the contigency in the process that will result in a subsequent turn allocation.

An adjacency pair is an example of conversational turn-taking. An adjacency pair is composed of two utterances by two speakers, one after the other. The speaking of the first utterance (the first-pair part, or the first turn) provokes a responding utterance (the second-pair part, or the second turn).

For example, a question such as "What's your name?" requires the addressee to provide an answer in the following turn, thus completing the adjacency pair. A satisfactory response could be "I'm James". To provide an irrelevant response, or to fail to complete the pair, is noticed as a breach of [Gricean maxims] conversational maxim. A reply like "I'm allergic to shellfish" would not satisfy the adjacency pair, as it violates Grice's conversational maxim of relevance.

Contexts
Def. the "surroundings, circumstances, environment, background or settings that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an event" or other occurrence or the "text in which a word or passage appears and which helps ascertain its meaning" is called the context.

The "process of requesting clarification from someone else) is found in daily conversation in every household, village, town, and city of the world, regardless of the culture and lifestyle of the people or the language they speak."

"Not only does each of the languages have a way of doing this type of repair initiation, but the word used for doing it sounds almost the same in all corners of the world. It sounds very much like the English word Huh?"

There is "the possibility that Huh? was a universal word in the context of a large cross-language project on repair in conversation—the process of identifying and correcting a misunderstanding."

Deixis
Def. "[a] reference within a sentence that relies on the context being known to interpret correctly" is called a deixis.

Implicature
Def. "[a]n implied meaning that is not expressed directly" is called implicature.

Implicature is a technical term in the pragmatics ... which refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied (that is, entailed) by the utterance.

"Implicature" is an alternative to "implication".

The types of general conversational implicature:

1. The speaker deliberately flouts a conversational maxim to convey an additional meaning not expressed literally. For instance, a speaker responds to the question "How did you like the guest speaker?" with the following utterance:

 * Well, I’m sure he was speaking English.

If the speaker is assumed to be following the cooperative principle, in spite of flouting the Maxim of Quantity, then the utterance must have an additional nonliteral meaning, such as: "The content of the speaker’s speech was confusing."

2. The speaker’s desire to fulfill two conflicting maxims results in his or her flouting one maxim to invoke the other. For instance, a speaker responds to the question "Where is John?" with the following utterance:

 * He’s either in the cafeteria or in his office.

In this case, the Maxim of Quantity and the Maxim of Quality are in conflict. A cooperative speaker does not want to be ambiguous but also does not want to give false information by giving a specific answer in spite of his uncertainty. By flouting the Maxim of Quantity, the speaker invokes the Maxim of Quality, leading to the implicature that the speaker does not have the evidence to give a specific location where he believes John is.

3. The speaker invokes a maxim as a basis for interpreting the utterance. In the following exchange:

 * Do you know where I can get some gas?
 * There’s a gas station around the corner.

The second speaker invokes the Maxim of Relevance, resulting in the implicature that “the gas station is open and one can probably get gas there”

4. A scalar implicature concerns the uses of scalar terms, such as "all" or "some" in conversation.

 * I ate some of the pie.

This sentence implies "I did not eat all of the pie." While the statement "I ate some pie" is still true if the entire pie was eaten, the conventional meaning of the word "some" and the implicature generated by the statement is "not all".

5. Conventional implicature is independent of the cooperative principle and its maxims. A statement always carries its conventional implicature.

 * Joe is poor but happy.

This sentence implies poverty and happiness are not compatible but in spite of this Joe is still happy. The conventional interpretation of the word "but" will always create the implicature of a sense of contrast. So Joe is poor but happy will always necessarily imply "Surprisingly Joe is happy in spite of being poor".

Lexical pragmatics
"According to recent work in the new field of lexical pragmatics, the meanings of words are frequently pragmatically adjusted and fine-tuned in context, so that their contribution to the proposition expressed is different from their lexically encoded sense."

The meaning of "dominant group" is frequently pragmatically adjusted and fine-tuned in context, so that its contribution to the proposition expressed is often different from its lexically encoded sense. True or false?

Linguistic abstraction
The relation among syntax, semantics, and pragmatics has also been cashed out in terms of what could be called an "abstraction hierarchy." For instance, Rudolf Carnap in his Introduction to Semantics (1942, Harvard University Press) writes:

"'If… explicit reference is made to the speaker, or, to put it in more general terms, to the user of a language, then we assign it to the field of pragmatics. (Whether in this case reference to designata is made or not makes no difference for this classification.) If we abstract from the user of the language and analyze only the expressions and their designata, we are in the field of semantics. And if, finally, we abstract from the designata also and analyze only the relations between the expressions, we are in (logical) syntax. The whole science of language, consisting of the three parts mentioned, is called semiotic.' (p. 9)"

A related statement was made a few years earlier by Carnap's fellow American philosopher Charles W. Morris, PhD student of the sociologist and pragmatist philosopher George Herbert Mead, and heavily influenced by the pragmatist and founder of (analytical) semiotics, Charles Sanders Peirce:

"'Syntactics, as the study of the syntactical relations of signs to one another in abstraction from the relations of signs to objects [i.e., semantics] or to interpreters [i.e., pragmatics], is the best developed of all the branches of semiotic.' (p. 13)"

Presuppositions
Def. "[a]n assumption made beforehand; a preliminary conjecture or speculation", from Wiktionary presupposition, is called a presupposition.

Text organization
Def. the art of effective speaking or writing, especially using compositional techniques is called rhetoric.

Universal pragmatics
Universal pragmatics, more recently placed under the heading of formal pragmatics, is the philosophical study of the necessary conditions for reaching an understanding through communication. The philosopher Jürgen Habermas coined the term in his essay "What is Universal Pragmatics?" (Habermas 1979), where he suggests that human competition, conflict, and strategic action are attempts to achieve understanding that have failed because of modal confusions. The implication is that coming to terms with how people understand or misunderstand one another could lead to a reduction of social conflict.

History
The history of pragmatics has been described, but there is also pragmatics throughout history.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Most interhominin violence is caused by greed or fear rather than misunderstandings.

title: Draft:Original research/Pragmatics


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love

Comments
Hey CowboyDan, I am really liking your topic so far especially the media comparisons. Perhaps you could go into more detail regarding Lee and his different love styles. good luck with the rest of your topic. --EssDubz 10:40, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the feedback EssDubz. As per your request I went into detail regarding Lee's love styles thoery. Thanks Cowboy Dan 11:56, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi CowboyDan, looks really good. I like how you have looked at the origins of love, made me think about how we percive love. EamesA 12:08, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Cowboy Dan - a really good chapter - you did a great job - interesting quiz - but were't Romeo & Juliet just a couple of spoilt brats who had no thought for their family? Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:59, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:18, 11 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Flow

Comments
Hello Trinand, feel free to link my page on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to your page. I like the layout, but where's your content. Are you writing all out by hand first and then typing the rest up later??? Skachwalla 03:00, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Trinand, feel free to link to my page on work motivation. I was going to cover the topic of Flow but focused on wellbeing instead. Flow would be a great addition. Thanks! --Flow 22:30, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Trinand, just letting you know that part of the picture in the intro is covered by the text. If its meant to be like then just ignore this post, but if not just wanted to give you the heads up. Looks great though :-) EamesA 12:33, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey, Maybe make your background a slightly lighter shade,you can barely see the 'see also' links. Also the bold massive headings look really weird, and I am not really sure why they are bold. Also in the flow in eduction section, your last sentence is just 'see' just making sure you remember to stick the link or whatever is meant to be there in. Other than that, good work Mlac 13:30, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks for all your suggestions! Good luck with your work Trinand 15:51, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Trinand! I really enjoyed reading your chapter. I notice you have changed the colour scheme, which made your chapter a lot easier to read than last time! Good job SKM1501 07:25, 07 November 2011 (UTC)

(Comment from Moodle) Hi Katrina, Your book chapter looks good, love the colour! And you have obviously done your research as there is a substantial amount of info. If I could make one suggestion, there is a lot of information to take in with your topic and the lavendar boxes that are in both your 'history' and 'characteristics' box make it a little difficult to read. There is a code you can use for the split boxes which might be a more reader-friendly way for people to view the information? Its more asthetics than the information itself I guess.U3035473 21:37, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi - this is an excellent presentation - very good video - well researched - well done - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:12, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:22, 9 December 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Flow


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Negative thinking and emotion

Hi there, my chapter is on the The Power of Thought - cognition and happiness... Could be really useful to put a link to my page! I'm planning to put a link to yours! Goodluck with it! A-bryant 05:28, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi - a really interesting topic - have you read any of the Anthony Robbins books? Your chapter is really well researched - Magnolia

Rfoster 06:41, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:20, 11 December 2011 (UTC)


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User:Lux2545

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title: User:Lux2545