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Demand type memory

 Demand Type Memory

Theoretically, there are two ways that you can access memory, by content, and by place-code or address. Classically the whole concept of memory that we get from folk psychology is the place-code addressable form, in which you demand that the system give you the contents of a location, and it returns the contents. This idea has roots back in the hydraulic model of memory where memory was seen to be kept in a reservoir in the brain and addressed by opening valves to let it out.

The problem with demand memory as a model of how memory works, is that it doesn't adequately explain implicit memory, where memories are added to other memories, because they are seen to be related, but without the brain being aware that it even knows the information stored there. In demand memory you can't access a memory that you don't have an address for, so implicit memory lies outside the model.

Phenomenal memory where you can't isolate an address, as in the storage of memory in a neural network also lies outside the demand memory model. This has led some people to speculate that implicit memory and phenomenal memory might be the same thing. If so it would suggest that phenomenal memory is unavailable for demand/retrieval because we cannot know the address at which to look for a particular memory.

title: Demand type memory


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Theology/Seminary Notes/Theology weened on Greek Philosophy

OT01

Key Terms:

Socrates - The doctrine and greatest discovery that was taught primarily by Socrates was the beautiful philosophical theory called the immortality of the soul. That was Socrates' so according to Dr. Partee "all you soul-type people are Socratic". Forget the Socratic method (answers through questions), that we all have aspiration for high things, that we especially have aspiration for the beautiful soul and beauty itself and that people should think about the care for the Socratic "soul" It is us that insist that it is the person that survives. We are one entity. We believe in resurection. -Socrates believed death was a friend a freeing of the soul. Jesus called death an enemy. What up with that? Plato - continued Socrates idea of aspiration (that we strive toward God) -wrote many different works but there are a few that are more important to Christianity. -Euthypho (dialogue concerned with what is holiness) Ion- argues that the poet (Homer) is inspired -He also had different accounts of what the soul was in his different works that often contradict. What is really important is the Platonic synthesis: Platonic dualism -forms (ideals) and things Forms (heaven) things (earth) and God is above all of this The world is a world of things and ideas the ideas (ideals) never changing. They don’t change because you can’t change their substance but things are ever changing. Ideas are thing to aspire to. (good and God are in the realm of ideals) The ideas are the cause of the physical world. -This whole scheme helps form the chain of being. This chain of being influence New Testament writers Aristotle -took the idea of ideas and things and put them together -the form was immanent in matter. Form and matter constitute concrete individual realities. -in everything, the form is already in the material Ex. Acorn becoming a tree. From the moment of becoming an acorn, it has a cause of moving in a certain direction. Everything in the universe has its end. -the substance tends to be the form and the attributes are changeable. (This idea of substance develops in the Eucharist (transubstaciation, consubstantiation, symbolic, Calvin's view Epicureans -believed the world was causeless -everything was a matter of chance and fortune -Developed view of Metaphysics: atoms have a property called the swerve. These atoms fly around and this swerve introduces chance. -Life Theme "Eat drink and be merry for tomorrow you die." -Ethics:- sought pleasure; hedonists -Tried to be free from evil. Believed that death was the end. Theology of Epicureans: 1.Believe that gods exist because they dream about them but the gods can’t know about the human condition 2.Since gods are without concern for the world, there can be no possible doctrine of providence. 3.There can be no creation by the gods because then they would be responsible for the evil that crept into the world. Stoics - Stoic View of Fate The concept of providence was influced by the stoic view -they believed that nature, God, fate, and providence were all essentially the same idea. Nature is determining who you are. We get in on that because in each of us there is a logos (a divine spark). This means something that is human and divine. We participate in a secondary and subordinate reality -Stoic Ethics: very rational and ethical 1. Believed in brotherhood of man (because of the logos, we are all related as one family 2. Believed that God was our common father 3. The only appropriate behavior is apathy. You need to rise above the world and your feelings and pay attention to the logos (reason) Plotinus - greatest of the pagan mystics. He said we become one with god. We are united with God and it is proper aspiration to become one with God -He was a Platonist but he took Plato in a mystical direction -had notion of great chain of being. Top is God and then you move down toward nothingness and Satan. If you exalt your animal nature you move towards nothingness. Gnostics grasped this great chain of being and believed that Jesus is the one who comes down and helps us get turned in the right direction. He does this by secret knowledge and not faith.

Ebionites- said that Jesus was only human *Docetists- Jesus only appeared human. He was only divine Arius - He wanted to preserve the humanity of Jesus and monotheism. He thought that since God was immutable and the son changes it must mean that the son is a creature and not THE God. -He believed that the son had to learn obedience (but God does not have to learn obedience) -He believed that Jesus was not co eternal. If he were then God would have a twin brother and not a son -God was not always the father but he became the father when the son was begotten. So he is not the eternal father. -For Arius, to same substance meant two principles -He made Jesus a bridge to God. An intermediatery at the top of the list. He rejected the distinction between incarnate logos and divine logos. -The son is equal in glory but not in substance. He was the highest human being. Be only becomes God by participation. Athansius Arius was opposed at Nicea by Athansius who is the father of orthodoxy Arius was opposed at Nicea by Athansius who is the father of orthodoxy -He insisted that only God can save. Jesus is our savior so he is not a creature 2. the Logos is fully divine. The Logos is now personal. All of the persons of the trinity are co eternal and co equal 3. the HS is not a creature. 4. Jesus is fully god and fully man. Nicea was an attack against Arius. It answered the who question. 1. There was an emphasis on the Eternal son. 2. Said Jesus was one substance 3. Jesus was made man 4. Had filioque clause (and the son) The Spirit proceeds from the father and the son. The next question is how

Apollanarius said Jesus had 3 different forms (mind, body and soul) He said the divine logos took on the human nature but not the human personality. He had a dual nature. He had the mind of God. -The divine nature took the place of the human soul of God. Nestorius tended to go more toward emphasizing Jesus’ humanity -He opposed the phrase theotocus (mother of God). He though this was to speak of Mary as the mother of God. He said that Jesus 2 natures are conjoined but not united. He wants to keep the two natures apart (turning Jesus into two people) -He destroys the one personality -Jesus is an appearance, behind which one finds the man Jesus and the divine logos. He loses the unity of the person. Eutichian Christ was of two natures before incarnation but not in 2 natures. In incarnation, he was one person IN two natures. -emphasized the divinity -one nature became subsumed by the other. The humanity of Christ is o only a memory of Christ -denied the reality of the human nature Divine nature always overcomes the human attributes. Chalcedon: answered the how -it was a decision and definition and not a compromise -set flexible but definite boundaries -talked about hypostatic union Jesus is fully divine, fully human, 2 natures, united in one person w/out confusion against Eutichism w/out transmuting one nature into the other- against Apoll W/out dividing them into 2 separate categories- against Nestorius Thomistic synthesis: 1274 (Angelic doctor) Theological synthesis: Grace perfects nature. Aquainas view: Cooperating grace is a gift of God infused by God into the soul (justification) and becomes habitual grace (sanctification), which is the principle of meritorious works (Christian perfection). (this is Aquainas’ position.) this depends on human ability to do good. -If you are just, you are creating meritorious works. He said that habits are the intrinsic principles of human actions of mind or will. A habit is always potential. Aristotle- the major philosophical influence for Aquanans Operating grace-grace given by God…then we have to cooperate with it Relation of philosophy and theology- you can’t be a theologian until you first learn philosophy Philosophy is the truth which can be discovered and demonstrated by reason. -we are all philosophers -philosophical theological (natural theology) appeals only to reason. One of the facets of this is the ability to prove the existence of God. Cosmological argument 1. Motion to first mover 2. Effect to cause. First cause is uncaused 3. We are all contingent. We are not necessary. Therefore, there must be one who is necessary 4. Degrees of perfection: must be a best 5. Order of universe: must be an ordered Philosophical reflection on God’s nature 1. God is pure actuality. God sees everything as one event 2. God is perfectly simple (can’t add to God). God is immutable 3. God is perfect and perfectly good How we know: 3 kinds of knowledge 1. Univocal- what we say applies in the same way to dif realities (whatever we mean by wise applies equally to 2 people, events, etc 2. Equivocal- similar but mostly deferent (she’s an angel but u don’t mean that) 3. Analogical- neither univocal or equivocal. There is something in the world that we know that we apply to ‘God (like the term father) His cosmology 1. Adopts chain of being. There is a hierchy. (angels higher than bishops, bishops higher than other people etc 2. In chain of being it is obvious that there are angels 3. Humans are composed of matter and form. We differ only in appearance but we are all human (angels, on the other hand, are different species Ethics: humans seek happiness. Perfect happiness is perfect contemplation of God (Beatific vision) Law Eternal law- way God thinks Natural law- reflection of God’s eternal reason. (children being produced form nature, etc) Divine law- God’s revelation which reaches those people who have been reached by revelation Human law- rules we make for ourselves. We must act in terms of our conscience Believes in condign merit which requires co operating grace -when God’s sovereign grace is bestowed, an adequate human response is enabled and the result is salvation. In other words: elect r predestined to grace. On that basis, they earn glory…

• Ignatius • Justin Martin • The Gnostics • Marcion • Montanus • Irenaeus • Tertullian • Origen • Arius • Athanasius • The Cappadocians • Apollinaris • Nestorius • Eutyches • Gregory the Great • Anslem • Aquinas • Occam The Historical Impact of classical philosophy on Christian Theology. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicureans, Stoics and Plotinus all helped build the foundation of Christianity. The Historical Impact of classical philosophy on Christian Theology. Socrates provided a basis and method of thought and reflection without this and the Socratic Method there would be no creed, doctrine or dogma. He aspired for better and encouraged others to think about the care for the soul. Plato, expanded the idea of aspiration to that holiness and introduced to idea that the poet (Homer) is inspired. From Aristotle we get concepts of form, matter and being. Form and matter constitute concrete individual realities. Looking at an acorn Aristotle saw it as the substance (being) of an Oak Tree. From this seed come the complex views that develop into the Eucharist, transubstaciation and consubstantiation. The Epicureans influenced the view that God is to Holy to be in contact with fallen humanity. This restriction was taken up by Christians and melded into the debate over the substance of Jesus. We must thank the Stoics for the concept of providence, fate and predestination because they taught that nature, God, fate, and providence were all essentially the same idea. Nature is determining who you are. It gets deeper when they mix in that in each of us there is a logos (a divine spark). This means something that is human and divine. We participate in a secondary and subordinate reality. Stop the bus because I want OFF! Before I get off I need to talk about the greatest of the pagan mystics. Plotinus said we must seek to become one with god. We are united with God and it is the only proper aspiration to become one with God. In 2002 Mulholland wrote a book for modern Christian with the central theme of "Finding Christ-likeness. Without the milk of Philosophy, the fledgling Christian Church of the Patristic Period would have had nothing to suckle. Question is was it milk or hemlock.

Christianity developed with the aid of Ebionites, Docetists, Arius, Athanasius, Nestorius, Apollinaris, Nicea and Chalcedon. Christianity developed with the aid of Ebionites, Docetists, Arius, Athanasius, Nestorius, Apollinaris, Nicea and Chalcedon. Ebionites and Muslims said that Jesus was only human. Agreeing with them, Arius wanted to preserve the humanity of Jesus and monotheism. He thought that since God was immutable and the son changes it must mean that the son is a creature and not THE God. Opposing them Docetists said that Jesus only appeared human that He was 100% divine. Athanasius condemned them all as Heretic at Nicea. Vehemently stating that despite all reason four things are mysteriously true: That in order for Jesus to be our Savior he can not be a creature; that the Logos is fully divine; The Logos is now personal; All of the persons of the trinity are co eternal and co equal; That the Holy Spirit is not a creature; And Jesus is 100% fully God and 100% fully man. For his trouble Athanasius was told by the bishops of Nicea the he was less wrong than Arius who was really wrong. Therefore, Council of Nicea in an attempt to suppress the Arius Heresy and answer the question of "Who (What) Jesus is (Is) (was)." question. 1. There was an emphasis on the Eternal son 2. Said Jesus was one substance 3. Jesus was made man 4. The Spirit proceeds from the Father and The Son Unfortunately, left three questions unanswered. What does this mean to mean to me I just want to love Jesus as my Savior and Lord? Who put the hemlock in my milk? How in the world does this make any sense?

The Council at Chalcedon answered the "how" 1 It was a decision and definition and not a compromise 2 Set flexible but definite boundaries 3 Talked about hypostatic union 4 Jesus is fully divine, fully human, 2 natures, united in one person 5 There is No con-fusion against Eutichism 6 Transmuting one nature into the other against Apoll 7 There is no dividing them into 2 separate categories against Nestorius The Bishops of the Medieval Period had there hand full. The chaos and persecution of the Patrictic Period had melded into a period of intellectual and spiritual torture. The Lions and Gladiators had made way for double edged dogma, razor sharp vocabulary and an unquenchable fire of Christians shouting unspeakable heresies. They spent centuries in a proverbial Ferrari speeding down mountain roads of ultra-thin truth and faith in an unseen and inscrutable God.

The Thomastic Synthesis involved Aristotle, Dante, operating grace and condign and congruent merit. The essential difference between condign merit and congruent merit is based on the fact that, besides those works which claim a remuneration under pain of violating strict justice (as in contracts between employer and employee, in buying and selling, etc.), there are also other meritorious works which at most are entitled to reward or honour for reasons of equity or mere distributive justice, as in the case of gratuities and military decorations. St Thomas Aquainas synthesized the various problems that developed over time in the Church. He appointed himself the one to finally and for all blend the sacred words of Paul and the sacrilegious philosophical and historical foundation of the society where Paul wrote his letters. Hoping to challenge and simplify the issues that perplexed so many good men through the centuries. So many before him attempting to meet this challenge found themselves on the wrong end of the heretic's pyre. There are few ideas in political theory, in philosophy or Christianity as a whole which cannot be traced back in some form to Plato, Aristotle, and their amazingly fertile period of Greek speculative thought. Indeed, the fact that he sat down to interpret works done centuries before Christ demonstrates that the philosophical efforts of the ancient Greeks rank far above even this genius work on the subject. At any rate, when one considers the enduring quality of ancient political thought, lasting in spite of the entirely different theology and doctrine that developed in it's wake, one must realize how little man has changed in his quest for God even awash in the Holy Spirit. History demonstrates that though Christian creeds and political institutions rise and fall, the frailties of man limit the mind and soul. We are a social worm in the garden of the Divine. Theological synthesis: Grace perfects nature. Aquainas view: Cooperating grace is a gift of God infused by God into the soul (justification) and becomes habitual grace (sanctification), which is the principle of meritorious works (Christian perfection). (this is Aquainas’ position.) this depends on human ability to do good. The Augustinian Synthesis involved Plato, Pelagius and the Donatists. The Augustinian synthesis had at its roots the teachings of Plato, Pelagius and resisance to the views of the Donatists. Being one of the earliest attempts to marry the secular reason with prayful revelation this work has had implications that reverberate throughout history. Augustine had studied Plato through the writings of Plotinus. He accepted Plato's view that idea, God and spirit were combined, and he accepted Plotinus' view that the power of God touched everything, molding and giving meaning to passive matter. From Plotinus, Augustine believed he had gained an understanding of a permanence that was God. Augusine now saw God as utterly transcendent, as the creator of all, all-knowing and the source of human knowledge. He had come to believe that materiality was not evil, that the universe was a continuous active whole and that evil was merely the turning away from God. Yet Augustine believed that Plato was right about God but wrong about gods. Augustine used the creation story to illustrate how he and Ambrose viewed God as an all powerful and intelligent designer. That creation had not just happened and that God had not created the universe with a compass and a level but instead had commanded it. But Augustine's legacy was not limited to his writings. Sadly, much of his legacy was from conflict. Augustine railed against the remnant paganism among his parishioners, including astrology. He attacked the notion that humanity's course of action could be determined by the stars while animals remained free to chose between doing something and not doing it. He condemned the idea that people born in the same month - even the same hour - had some type of unified destiny in their life or a lifetime. Augustine believed that the Church needed to exclude ideas that were contrary to fundamental Christianity. So Augustine was a word warrior. Augustine also came into conflict with Donatists Christians who believed that the Church should be restricted to those who maintained the purity they had acquired at baptism, who believed that the Church was a source of holiness and that no sinner should have a part in it, that the Church should expel those who were guilty of mortal sins. For Augustine, sin was not just a matter of choice, sin was inherited and ingrained, that the Church should embrace all of humanity, saints and sinners alike, that the good and bad would be together until Armageddon, when they would be separated. Augustine claimed that the good Christian must try to become holy but must also coexist with sinners in the same community and be prepared to rebuke and correct them. His neo-Platonic education led him to see Christians as part of a world of development, as imperfection struggling toward the ideal as manifested in God. Augustine saw the Church not as a body of purists defying society but a body that should master society, a body capable of bringing truth to the masses. Augustine led the drive against Donatism. He wanted the Donatists to come under the discipline of both church and state. Like others of his time, Augustine believed that people lacked the will and wisdom to govern themselves. The battle between the Donatists and Augustinians was akin to a civil war. With one side gaining the upper hand and then the other. At one point Augustine's life was in danger. When peace was achieved by suppression of the Donatist a new villain lay on the horizon. Pelagius became disturbed by the moral laxity among Christians and began advocating a stricter morality for all Christians. Pelagius and those known as Pelagians came to believe that people could be good. The stated that rather than being born sinful, people had no excuse for sinful behavior and that every sin was a deliberate act of contempt for God. What began as an influence on those who wished to reform the Church became a threat to the church in Augustine’s mind. The ideas of Pelagius were the ideas of Dotanists. This disturbed Augustine, and once again he led the attack. This time against the Pelagians. Once again his argument involved inner feelings and patience, a belief that people should merely try to do right while convalescing within the Church. Augustine reiterated his belief in humanity's power to choose, and he added that freedom of choice was limited and, in having only a limited power to choose, people could not live flawlessly. Augustine supported his belief in the limits of will by holding up his own experinces and understanding of the scriptures. Although Augustine saw the world that God had created as overwhelmingly good, he believed that humanity was destined to envy and to lust for power. Though he had been extraordinarily active sexually in his younger days, now in his old age he saw humanity as gluttonous. Augustine described infants at the breast as filled with lust, jealousy and other vices. Adam and Eve could have had sex without lust, he wrote, but they chose instead to have it with lust. A carpenter moved his hands without lust, he added, and so too could people in sexual intercourse. Virtue, claimed Augustine, demanded complete control over one's body, but absolute control was impossible, he claimed, because of Adam' fall. The Ecumenical Councils: There are seven councils that provide an ecumenical or mutual doctrine of the Christian Church. These seven councils were all called by the emperor. Their decisions were widely received as authoritative by "Christians" in both East and West. The Arians, however, continued to exist as a separate church long after their condemnation at Nicaea I. The main dogmatic pronouncements of the seven councils are: (1) nicaea I (325): that the Son is ‘of the substance of the Father’; that is, the Son is consubstantial, homoousios, with the Father. This council condemned Arianism. (2) constantinople I (381): that the Holy Spirit is fully God. The restatement of the Nicene faith attributed to this council declares the Spirit to be ‘Lord and Life-giver, proceeding from the Father, worshipped and glorified together with the Father and the Son’. (3) ephesus (431): that Mary is theotokos, the one who gave birth to God. This council condemned Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople. (4) chalcedon (451): Defined the Divine and Human nature of Christ and condemned the view of Eutyches.

SEVEN ECUMENICAL COUNCILS Council of Nicaea (325) Bishops from all over the Christian world came to answer key issues and to set a Christian Creed. Pope Sylvester. The Emperor Constantine. Of primary importance to those in attendance was the differing view of the Divinity of Jesus. "Was Jesus Human?" (as viewed by Arius) or Divine as ultimately presented in the The Creed Of Nicaea. First Council of Constantinople (381) Defined the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. Opposed to Macedonius. Added wording to state divinity of Holy Ghost. Council of Ephesus (431) Defined the unity of Christ, defined Mary "Theotokos",and condemned the view of Pelagius. Council of Chalcedon (451) Defined the Divine and Human nature of Christ and condemned the view of Eutyches. Second Council of Constantinople (553) of 165 bishops under Pope Vigilius and Emperor Justinian I, condemned the errors of Origen and certain writings (The Three Chapters) of Theodoret, of Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia and of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa; it further confirmed the first four general councils, especially that of Chalcedon whose authority was contested by some heretics. http://www.piar.hu/councils/ number 5 Third Council of Constantinople (680-681) Addressed the Heresy of Monothelism. Which maintained that even though Jesus had two natures there was only One Will. This Council sought to Define the Two Wills of Jesus Christ. It anathematized (To bring about the worst imaginable curse upon, The Curse of Judas) Sergius, Pyrrhus, Paul, Macarius, and all their followers. Second Council of Nicaea (787) Later Councils: Fourth Council of Constantinople (869)

--Eastern Orthodox Church Breaks With The Roman Catholic Church (1054) First Lateran Council (1123) Second Lateran Council (1139) Heresy of Arnold of Brescia Third Lateran Council (1179) Heresy of Albigenses and Waldenses Fourth Lateran Council (1215), Heresy of Albigenses again and the arrant if not heretical views of Abbot Joachim (Trinitarian). "This is the most important council of the Middle Ages, it marks the culminating point of ecclesiastical life and papal power". First Council of Lyons (1245). Excommunicated and deposed Emperor Frederick II and directed a crusade, under the command of St. Louis, against the Saracens and Mongols. Council of Lyons (1274) Council of Vienne in France (1311-1313) Council of Constance (1414-1418) Council of Basle (1431). The Crusades. The Papacy. Discuss Origen and his influence. Origen believed our body keeps us on earth. It is not evil, but it is a hindrance. Origen also: • had a theology of scripture. He described three levels of scripture (literal/historical, moral, and spiritual. • He believed in a transcendental fall. Adam and Eve were not historical, but spiritual. Means alienation from God. The fall occurs before Adam and Eve. We are born blind, and our sight is restored. • Believe in a distinction between essence and existence. Salvation is restoration to our essential being. We remove ourselves from existence. In God's eternity all are saved • thought logos was eternally generated but subordinate. Was never a time when the son was not

Discuss Anselem and the Ontological Argument and Atonement. An Ontological Arguement is a method of proving the existence of God. For Anslem the method was logical and similar to the Socratic Method of using questions until a proof is made. Anslem is famous for two proofs of God. The first that God exists in reality the second that God is necessary. God exists in reality because: If God is that thing that is greater than everything then God is the greatest power. If this concept exists in human understanding then God exists in one's mind. If God existed in reality then God would be greater than what exists in a man's. Since, existence both in reality and in imagination is greater than just one or the other. Therefore, God in reality must exist. God is necessary because: God is that entity than which nothing greater can be conceived. If it is greater to be necessary than not then God must be necessary. Therefore, God is the greatest necessary entity to exist. Anslem's view of Attonement is seated in what was his modern view of chivalry, justice and logic. This is different than our modern view but in the time of knights and Nobels is was a clear model. The first part of the model is chivalry. For Anslem, sin was an attack on the Honor of God. Each act of sin, disobedience or lowliness is a slap to the face of God. The honor of God must be re-cooped or satisfied. Yet, we are lowly creatures more lowly than a peasant to a King and only an equal can propose to repair the honor of another. This leaves only one person in a position to be able the restore God's Honor and that is Jesus. The Second part of the model is justice. Our dishonor requires an action. Justice in that period emphasizes the importance of character. In this case, our action to dishonor God demands response and justice. Otherwise, God's Honor is lost or somehow reduced. This Justice demands that the sin be punished and action be taken. The third part is logically, logic. We are all sinners. Lowly reprobates and because even the best of us would fail to live a life good enough to honor God. So, all of us fall short. Yet, it is illogical to believe that God created an entity or species for the purpose of insulting himself. Therefore, by logic there must be a means of atonement. This again leads the realization that Jesus is the only possible source for reconciliation to God. Patristc verses Medival History

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Theology as Seen in Prophets and Psalms

Theology as Seen in Prophets and Psalms

Primitive and Classical Prophecy-

This is not a crib note and is not a time to just drag and drop massive chunks of text. Read what is here and make improvements.

Don't just look and learn. Leave some insight.

/Study Guide for Final Exam/

Memorizing The Order of the Book of Twelve

Lets face it, most of us know the Books, but its not unusual to have a blank moment, especially during a time of stress. Therefore, compliments of Pastor Hal Seed of the New Song Community Church, here's a mnemonic device to help. "HoJo A OJo, MiNa, HaZe, HaZe Ma" We get that from putting together the first syllables of each of the minor prophets: “Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.”

 * /Nature of Prophets and Prophecy/
 * /Shape of Prophetic Corpus/
 * /Prophecy and Old Testament Narrative Material/
 * /Justice and Early Capitalism/
 * /Hosea's Wife of Whoredom/
 * /Destiny of Zion/

Ephraimite Prophecy-

This line runs from the Elohist narrative strand in the Pentateuch, deemed to have originated in the kingdom of Samaria, through prophetic and Levitical groups that opposed the monarchy throughout the history of the same kingdom, then to Hosea, Jeremiah, and the Deuteronomic program. They elevated the role and person of Moses as the first and paradigmatic prophet mediator.

Judean Prophecy-

Judean tradition is that of the south. The focus is on the Davinic line and a support of the kingship. The first prophets of this tradition would be Gad and Nathan. Amos, Isaiah, and other pre-exilic, exilic, and postexilic figures in the Latter Prophets with the exception of Hosea and Jeremiah were all Judean Prophets. There is a seperation between urban "Jerusalem" focused and more regional "Judea" focus. By in large the writing is characterized by support of the Davidic monarchy and emphasis on Jerusalem. Another distinction is that the prophet's message is a form of teaching. Finally, although the Judean tradition has a distinctive speech their phophets were more diverse and distinct from one another.

nâbî-

nâbî’, is the most frequent Old Testament term for prophet. The root is “to bubble up, to pour forth.” In action it "is to call, to announce or to be called". The term is vague and a lot can be read or written on variations. In short a nâbî’ seems to be “a called one” who prophesies, that is, “speaks forth” oracles. The words are divine oracles, in which the deity speaks in the first person (Hosea 11:1-7) or prophetic sayings, in which Yahweh speaks in the third person (Mic. 3:5-8.). On page 28 Blenkinsopp identifies other ways that the root is manipulated in Hebrew. For example, in the hithpael prophesizing is a wild uncontrolled behavior.

The message formula “Thus says Yahweh” (or its equivalent) reinforce the idea that nâbî are God's messengers or spokesman. Like a modern press secretary.

Speaking of modern comparisons, I came up with a few. A "Libertarian" would be an Ephramite Prophet supporting the "Northern Kingdom" and to seek to minimize or even abolish the moonarcy. A "Federalist" would be a Judean Prophet supporting the Southern Kingdom and the Davinic Line. A "Lobbyist" would be a Professional Prophet in that he/she is a paid spokesperson of god in the service of ruling powers. And finally, a "Blogger" would be a modern type of the Amateur Prophet in that his/her alliances, qualities and validity are untested.

As an interesting correlation the republican party of Abraham Lincoln was dominant in the north and the south resembled a feudal monarchy. Like a modern lobbyist many powers of ancient times (Baal worshipers, the king, the queen) could have their own paid prophets. These prophets served much the same purpose. They served to put a noble legitimizing spin on the highest bidder. The grass roots blogger can make his/her cause seem good but like the amateur prophet is outside the established power structure.

Mari-

(modern Tell Hariri, Syria) A Mari text (No. 216 byw) contains the earliest clear example of a derivation of the Hebrew nâbî. Similar to the description of Micaiah in 1 Kings 22, having the role of diviner or omen-giver. Mari was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city, located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Abu Kamal on the western bank of Euphrates River. Blenkinsopp refers to Mari (ref notes) as evidence that prophecy was not limited to Isreal. p41. Again on p. 101 Blenkinsopp references Mari vis-a-vis Mari extatics. Anyone that has a clue what Blenkinsopp is insinuating would please comment. If Zimrilim was king of Mari from about 1779 to 1757 BCE then I do not see a connection to Isaiah and Hezikiah. Do you?

The inhabitants of Mari worshiped a vast array of Sumerians gods and goddesses. Dagan, the deity of storms, had an entire temple dedicated to him, as did Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, and Shamash, the Sun god. Shamash was believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing, and in many seals he is seen standing between two large doors. According to the Epic of Gilgamesh, these doors are between Mount Mashu, and are the eastern doors to heaven. Through Mari's extensive trade network, Sumerian gods and goddesses were taken to non-Sumerian cities such as Ebla and Ugarit and incorporated into their native religions. Deborah, prophet and judge, also represented as a "mother in Israel"(Judg.5:7), passed on prophetic messages concerned with military activity in the manner of the female "prophets" of Mari.

Deir Alla-

This is where an ink inscription was found that speaks of the prophecy of Balaam. In 1967, the ink on plaser inscription provides an extra biblical account of phophets in anchient times. The prophecy writen is not biblical. It seems to be an oracle of doom. Yet, Balaam is the first Old Testament prophet to be identified in an inscription. Deir Alla was the first Bronze Age city excavated in Jordan. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/OT/balaam.html

Justice and Righteousness-

These twinned concepts (Hebrew mispat, sedaqa) connote the maintenance of right order, of societal structures, and judicial procedures respectful of the rights of all classes. The critical prophet is saying that a society that neglects that order, even one in which religious practice flourishes, does not deserve to survive. These terms are a reference for God's order for the world.

Urim and Tummin- Source One vs Source Two

These are sources of knowledge Urim means "light," and Thummim "perfection." There are two gynormous "text drops" above that don't serve much purpose at this point. If you can expand on the idea that the Isrealites had a form of divination that was directed through the Umin and Tummin which is/are something(s) that we have no agreement of what they is/are then please write it in here. It seems to me from the reading that these items were either two physical tools (plural) given by God or a skill (singular) imparted by God.

My opinion which is better expressed in an essay is that Urim and Thummim were gifts of the Holy Spirit that worked through prophets and priests throughout the Old Testament.

Message Formula-

The message formula is an introduction that keys the reader that an oracle or message from God is about to come. “Thus says Yahweh” (or its equivalent). This can be God speaking in the first person. "Thus saith the Lord '...'" or in the third person "The lord told me he will..."

So, a message formula indicates that it is the word of God. Message formulas can also be "For the Lord has spoken" Isa 1:2 There are also literary ways that act to inform the reader that God is speaking. Note that Isa 5:1 is God in first person. In this example there is no message formula but it is clear that God is speaking as evidenced in Isa 5:7.

Sigmond Mowinckel-

(Norway, August 4, 1884 died 1965) was one of the world's most significant Psalms scholars. He was educated at the University of Oslo and from 1917 onwards he was a lecturer there. From the 1920s Mowinckel headed a school of thought on the Psalms which sometimes clashed with the Form Critical conclusions of Hermann Gunkel. In broad terms, Gunkel strongly advocated a view of the Psalms which focused on the two notable names for God occurring therein: Yahweh (JHWH sometimes called tetragrammaton) and Elohim. The schools of Psalm writing springing therefrom were termed "Yahwist" and "Elohist".Mowinckel's approach to the Psalms differed quite a bit from Gunkel's. Mowinckel explained the psalms as wholly cultic both in origin and in intention.

He attempted to relate more than 40 psalms to a hypothetical autumnal New Year festival.The greatest danger in the study of Israelite cultic life is one-sidedness and the imposition of uniformity on the presentation of the procedures used in worship.This problematic trend was started by Mowinckel's hypothesis that there was an enthronement festival of Yahweh.A student of Hermann Gunkel and also considered one of the most prolific and imaginitive contributers to Old Testament studies of the 20th century.Applied Gunkel's conclusions about the original and characteristic forms of prophetic speech to Jeremiah.In this study he distinguished between the original sayings of the prophet;poetic oracles,most of which are found in Jeremiah 1-25(sourceA):stories about the prophet(B);speeches or sermons in the DTR style scattered throughout the book(C);and the so-called Book of Consolation(chapters 30-31),the last edition to the book. Mowinckel, therefore, continued in the 19th century tradition of source criticism, though now based on a certain understanding of the unique character of prophetic consciousness.

Baal- "The name of many deities of the Semitic people"

Ba'al, lit. "owner, master, lord," from ba'al "he took possession of," also "he married;" related to Akkad. Belu (source of Heb. Bel), name of Marduk. Also related to the first element in Beelzebub. Used figuratively for any "false god." The name appropriated to the principal male god of the Phoenicians. It is found in several places in the plural BAALIM (Judg. 2:11; 10:10; 1 Kings 18:18; Jer. 2:23; Hos. 2:17).

Baal is identified with Molech (Jer. 19:5). It was known to the Israelites as Baal-peor (Num. 25:3; Deut. 4:3), was worshipped till the time of Samuel (1 Sam 7:4), and was afterwards the religion of the ten tribes in the time of Ahab (1 Kings 16:31-33; 18:19, 22). It prevailed also for a time in the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 8:27; comp. 11:18; 16:3; 2 Chr. 28:2), till finally put an end to by the severe discipline of the Captivity (Zeph. 1:4-6). The priests of Baal were in great numbers (1 Kings 18:19), and of various classes (2 Kings 10:19). Their mode of offering sacrifices is described in 1 Kings 18:25-29.

The sun-god, under the general title of Baal, or "lord," was the chief object of worship of the Canaanites. Each locality had its special Baal, and the various local Baals were summed up under the name of Baalim, or "lords." Each Baal had a wife, who was a colourless reflection of himself.Also identified in relation to Mount Zaphon. In Syro-Phoenicia,north of ancient Ugarit,stood the holy mountain on which, according to ancient Syrian tradition the Baal of Heaven(b'l spn)was enthroned as the "highest god".

Early Capitalism-

Amos 2:6-8 This is an indictment on the economy of Israel.Amos speaks of the social injustice occurring in the land which is a model of early capitalism.The people are using the system for personal gain and not following the covenant deal where all the people were promised land ownership.Also addressed are the economic violations of loans and pledges.

Josiah- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O0VLy_1CxWY&feature=PlayList&p=95C15D698FD44EB6&playnext=1&index=6-

Rîb Pattern- http://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1233.pdf Note pages 401-424 rîb is a divine lawsuit. The structure of the lawsuit gives indication as to what it is that motivates the prophet. Is the rîb a covenant or is it an indictment. The manner that this lawsuit is presented is the key. Therefore the rîb pattern is a structured analysis of a prophetic work based on a legal attack. The example I found was done by I. G. Ernest Wright. Wright first provides a structural analysis of Moses' Farewell Song. These are either "thought units" or steps in a divine lawsuit.
 * 1) .	Introduction (Deut 32:1–6)
 * 2) .	Appeal to mighty acts of God (vv. 7–14)
 * 3) .	Indictment (vv. 15–18)
 * 4) .	Sentence or penalty (vv. 19–29)
 * 5) .	Poet’s assurance of salvation (vv. 30–38)
 * 6) .	The Word of YHWH confirming poet’s hope (vv. 39–42)
 * 7) .	Poet’s final exhortation to praise (v. 43)

This is the divine lawsuit, or rîb. Wright identifies three things: summons to witnesses v1, indictment v15–18 and verdict v19–29.

Huffmon’s outline of the form of rîb pattern
 * 1) .	I. Description of the scene of judgment
 * 2) .	II. Speech of plaintiff
 * 3) .	A. Heaven and earth appointed judges
 * 4) .	B. Summons to defendant (or judges)
 * 5) .	C.Address in second person to the defendant
 * 6) .	1. Accusation in question form to defendant
 * 7) .	2. Refutation of defendant’s possible arguments
 * 8) .	3. Specific indictment

Syro-Ephramite War- The opening verses of Isa 7 set the historical scene in which the Lord gives a message to Isaiah to pass on to Ahaz. It is the Syro-Ephraimite War. The kings of Israel and Syria have decided to wage war against Judah because Judah won't join them to fight the great empire Assyria. When the King of Judah, Ahaz, heard that the above kings wanted to wage war against him, the people and king were afraid. Isaiah's message to Ahaz addresses this fear and tells the King to trust God, because neither the King of Syria nor the King of Israel will survive in the future.

Both kingdoms will be overcome by Assyria (Isa 7:3-9). The lectionary reading begins with the Lord addressing Ahaz directly (Isa 7:10). The narrator invites us into the text with the ensuing dialogue between God and Ahaz. We are not told why God begins with the command for Ahaz to ask a sign of God. It appears to have little relationship to the prophecy immediately before these verses.

However, Ahaz is to ask for a sign, no matter how difficult. Ahaz refuses, which is quite congruent with other messages in the Old Testament, that is, one does not put the Lord to the test (Exod 17:7, Ps 78:18, 41). God's response to Ahaz's refusal is one of resignation and frustration (v.13) and 'therefore' in v.14 tells us that God is going ahead despite Ahaz's inability to be obedient. The sign will be a young woman, in Hebrew this does not necessarily mean a virgin.

The traditional interpretation is 'virgin'. This not as clear as we would like but it has come down to us that way. An alternative or message that would have had meaning to Ahaz in his time would have the young woman as one of the king's consorts, known at the court and pregnant. The name given to the unborn child by Isaiah is, 'God with us'. Isaiah then predics that While he is yet a child, the lands of Syria and Israel will be deserted and the Syro-Ephraimite War would end. Map http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syro-Ephraimite_War.jpg

Sennacherib- d. 681 B.C., king of Assyria (705-681 B.C.). The son of Sargon, Sennacherib spent most of his reign fighting to maintain the empire established by his father. It is difficult to determine the exact sequence of his conquests, but his first campaign seems to have been waged against Babylonia. Later he marched against an uprising of the western nations (Phoenicia, Judah, and Philistia), who were supported by Egypt. He defeated the Egyptians at Eltekeh (701 B.C.) and prepared to take Jerusalem. Isaiah had warned Hezekiah not to join the uprising against Assyria, but the king had refused the advice.

Thus, Sennacherib destroyed many Judaean cities and besieged Jerusalem, forcing the king to pay a heavy tribute. Hezekiah built the famous Siloam Tunnel when the water supply was threatened by the approach of the Assyrian forces. Disturbances in Babylonia called the king to that area, and he waged a naval campaign against the Chaldaeans. He laid Elam waste and finally fought both the Chaldaeans and the Elamites at the battle of Halulina (Khaluli; c.691 B.C.). The exact outcome of the battle is uncertain. Two years later Sennacherib captured and destroyed Babylon. He constructed canals and aqueducts and built a magnificent palace at Nineveh.

Two of his sons, jealous of their brother Esar-haddon, murdered Sennacherib. Esar-haddon succeeded to the throne. According to DTR historian Sennacherib was chosen by Yaweh to bring judgment on Judah. The king even claimed to have received an oracle from Yaweh commanding him to destroy the Judean kingdom. Isaiah describes Sennecherib and the Assyrian army as a tool in the hands of God to bring judgment.

Julius Wellhausen-

Wellhausen described the prophets as the founders of ethical monotheism and the true pioneers behind Israel's faith. Even so, he offered no detailed interpretation, or explanation, of this view. This may be because he perceived the prophets as inspired revolutionary spirits focused only zeal for reform and spiritual renewal.Wellhausen was famous for his critical investigations into Old Testament history and the composition of the Hexateuch, the uncompromising scientific attitude he adopted in testing its problems bringing him into antagonism with the older school of biblical interpreters. He is perhaps most well-known for his Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels of 1883 (first published 1878 as Geschichte Israels), in which he advanced a definitive formulation of the Documentary hypothesis, arguing that the Torah or Pentateuch had its origins in a redaction of four originally independent texts dating from several centuries after the time of Moses, their traditional author. Wellhausen's hypothesis remained the dominant paradigm for Pentateuchal studies until the last quarter of the 20th century, when it began to be challenged by scholars who saw more and more hands at work in the Torah, ascribing them to periods even later than Wellhausen had proposed.

Herman Gunkel-(1862-1932) was a German Protestant Old Testament scholar. He is noted for his contribution to form criticism and the study of oral tradition in biblical texts. He was an outstanding representative of the "History of Religion School.Hermann Gunkel felt that the prophets represented the apex of Israelite religion. Not only in terms of religious ideas and a drive for religious ideology but in their communion with God. For him prophetic ecstasy was part of how they received their messages. He perceived the prophets as preachers. He applied his form critical method to the study of the prophets by analyzing their speech forms. The prophets as primarily spoke and their words were recorded by subsequent generations.Gunkel became an outstanding representative of the "History of Religions School" (die religionsgeschichtliche Schule), which addressed the history of traditions behind the biblical text. In addition to Gunkel, the original group also included Albert Eichhorn, William Wrede, Wilhelm Bousset, Johannes Weiss, Ernst Troeltsch, Wilhelm Heitmüller, and P. Wernle. In the beginning they were primarily concerned with the origins of Christianity, but this interest eventually broadened to include the historical backgrounds of ancient Israelite and other Near Eastern religions.His "Creation and Chaos in the Beginning and at the End of Time"(1895) compared the biblical creation/destruction myths from Genesis 1 to Revelation 12. His most important work was probably his commentary on Genesis (1901), in which he applied to that book the new critical methodology of source criticism. Source criticism was based on identifying and examining the genres used in the text to reach the "literary history" behind them, on the assumption that each form belonged to a quite definite 'setting in life' (Sitz im Leben); in this way, Gunkel and his circle believed, the previous history of a written biblical text could be reconstructed in terms of its social and liturgical setting. Nineteenth-century source criticism had examined texts on the grounds of style, vocabulary, and other criteria to identify distinctive theological and religious outlooks and thus separate the text into its original sources; source criticism, because it offered a way of going beyond the text, became immensely influential in Germany and Europe for much of the 20th century, being used and developed by important scholars such as Martin Noth.

Max Weber-(21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. He began his career at the University of Berlin, and later worked at the universities of Freiburg, Heidelberg, and Munich.Weber's major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion and government. His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. In this work, Weber argued that religion was one of the non-exclusive reasons for the different ways the cultures of the Occident and the Orient have developed, and stressed importance of particular characteristics of ascetic Protestantism which led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the West. In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern Western political science. His analysis of bureaucracy in his Economy and Society is still central to the modern study of organizations. His most known contributions are often referred to as the 'Weber Thesis'.Max Weber’s book Ancient Judaism deals with Sociology of Law and the Analysis of Israelite Law Codes and Types of Prophetic Legitimation: Traditional, Charismatic and Rational-legal Authority. The Sociology of Religion.After Weber's immense productivity in the early 1890s, he did not publish a single paper between early 1898 and late 1902, finally resigning his professorship in fall 1903. Freed from those obligations, in that year he accepted a position as associate editor of the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare next to his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart. In 1904, Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal, notably his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. It became his most famous work, and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems. This essay was the only one of his works that was published as a book during his lifetime.

Mesha Stella-

http://christiananswers.net/q-abr/abr-a019.html A history carved in stone. Much better known as

The Mesha Inscription or Moabite Stone. It was discovered in Dhiban, Jordan, in 1868. Record of a campaign that must have taken place between 848 and 841 BC, the only time when Joram and Jehoshaphat were both on the throne. These combined forces to attempt to bring Moab back under Israelite control. They attacked from the south and had some success. When they tried to dislodge the Moab King Mesha from Kir Hareseth, Mesha sacrificed his oldest son on the ramparts of the city and rallied his people. Although the whole campaign met with some success, it appears that Moab retained its independence. This is confirmed by the Mesha Inscription.

Hepatoscopy-

Ez.21:21 A form of aruspicy (Prognostication by inspection of the entrails of victims slain sacrifice). This systematic examination of the liver of an animals was practiced among the Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, etc., of the ancient world, and it is still in vogue in Borneo, Burma and Uganda. We have no evidence that it was practiced among the Israelites, for in the above passage it is the king of Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar) who is said to have "looked in the liver."

Deuteronomistic History-

Composed in the mid-sixth century BCE. The distinct resemblances in content and form between the Deuteronomistic editing in Joshua–Kings, on the one hand, and in Jeremiah, on the other. It may have been the work of a single person, who prepared an extensive composition describing the history of Israel from Moses to Jeremiah.

Deuteronomy serves as an introduction to the DH and the Book of Jeremiah concludes it. In Deuteronomy the path was delineated and norms were determined. The main body of Joshua–Kings records the ups and downs in Israel’s relationship with God. The Book of Jeremiah, is the epiloge and it focuses on the destruction of the Temple and the Exile. This is an attempt to explain the events and inform the exiles of the message of redemption. Other views

The writer of DH is refered to as the Deuteronomist [=Dtr]. He/she presents the history of the relationship between Israel and God as intricate and complex, involving sin, repentance, and forgiveness. The message is one of hope and consolation: the merciful God, who has made an everlasting bond between himself and His elected people, forgave them in the past and he will forgive them in the future. The Exile did not mean the end of relations between God and His people. On the contrary, the Lord will rescue them and return them to their land, at the end of the epoch of the “70 years” (Jer 25,11-12; 29,10)

Rechabite-

The descendants of Rechab through Jonadab or Jehonadab. They belonged to the Kenites, who accompanied the children of Israel into the holy land, and dwelt among them. Moses married a Kenite wife,(Jdg.1:16) and Jael was the wife of "Heber the Kenite".(Jdg.4:17) Saul also showed kindness to the Kenites.(ISam.15:6) The main body of the Kenites dwelt in cities, and adopted settled habits of life;(ISam30:29) but Jehonadab forbade his descendants to drink wine or to live in cities. They were commanded to lead always a nomad life. They adhered to the law laid down by Jonadab, and were noted for their fidelity to the old-established custom of their family in the days of Jeremiah; and this feature of their character is referred to by the prophet for the purpose of giving point to his own exhortation.(Neh.3:14,IChron.2:55)

Essays
Give an answer - Use the thought of the other essays or disagree.
 * Discuss: /The nature and purpose of prophecy in the ancient near east/
 * Discuss: /The criteria for "true" prophecy in Israel/
 * Discuss: /The Eighth century historical situation and how the prophets addressed it/
 * Discuss: /The logic of Amos' vision/
 * Discuss: /The theological message of the book of Hosea/

title: Theology as Seen in Prophets and Psalms


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Development of hieroglyphic writing

Egyptian hieroglyphs were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined logographic and alphabetic elements.

Hieroglyph Evolution Data
Looking at some of the ancient objects found at for instance Hierakonpolis it may be interesting to find examples of the oldest form of hieroglyphs and see how they are used. We are looking at examples of interest in relationship to Architecture.

Note: this is not meant to be a complete list of hieroglyphs, please refer to the Resources link at the bottom for sites that offer more.

Format
Please list the following:
 * Name,
 * Date,
 * notation,
 * known meaning,
 * if made into an object like the Ankh and size.

Ankh
I'm not entirely sure but the falcon on top of the serekh often seems to hold something in one of its claws. Sometimes it looks like an ankh, sometimes it looks more line a twig. In this example it looks more like an ankh. This artefact is a vessel fragment with the name of king Aha (first dynasty). The other image shows a similar scene but here the bird (falcon) does not seem to be grabbing an ankh, but some other object.

Egyptologists do not have a commonly agreed upon theory about the origins of the ankh. Over the years several theories have been put forth. Below is a list of some of the proposed origins of the ankh:
 * A union of the male and female. (Thoman Inman, 1869)
 * The belt buckle of the mother goddess Isis. Similar to the Tyet symbol (also known as the Isis Knot). (Sir Wallis Budge, and later Westendorf)
 * A sandal strap where the loop is the part wrapping around the ankle. (Sir Alan Gardiner)
 * The sun crowning over the horizon.
 * The path of the sun from east to west (with the loop representing the Nile)
 * A stylized person
 * A combination of the male and female symbols of Osiris (the cross) and Isis (the oval) respectively, and therefore signifies the union of heaven and Earth.

More on Wikipedia Ankh.

C4 & C5: Khnum
"Khnum (Khenmew, Khnemu, Khenmu, Chnum), from the Egyptian 'unite', 'join' or 'build', was an ancient deity of fertility, water and the great potter who created children and their ka at their conception.... inundation and silt. Sometimes he was shown with four ram heads, aligning him with the sun god Re, the air god Shu, the earth god Geb and Osiris, lord of the dead. In his four headed form, he was known as Sheft-hat." Source: Tour Egypt: Khnum, Potter God of the Inundation Silt and Creation by Caroline Seawright

D24 & D25; edge, lip; both lips
Note that another depiction shows 2 arc'd lines filled with segments, not as shown here

D28 & D29
D28 is a logogram representing the Ka. It could also be used as a determinant for the Ka. D29 is purely a logogram used to represent the Divine Ka. The direction and precise position of the arms is not known. Some have seen D28 as representing an embrace, while others see it as a gesture of praise or even defensive in nature. The ka represents a soul or spirit and was part of any human being. In some depictions the ka was created right along with the person by the god Khnum on his potter's weel.

The term ka also appears in the ancient name for the city Memphis (or at least its great temple): Hut-ka-Ptah which means "House of the ka of Ptah".

D34 & D34a
Arms holding a shield and an axe. This is a logogram meaning to fight (`h3). means to fight.

D37, D39; derep
D37 and D39 was a determinant meaning to offer. D37 shows an arm and hand offering a stylized loaf of bread. D39 shows an arm and hand with an offering jar. (there are many styles of jars)

D40; der
Arm with "stick of power" D40 is der, or  ṭer, "to destroy", for example "remit a tax" or

D50 and D50a
One finger represented the number 10,000. Two fingers stood for accurate or precise.

I9, I10 and I11:
The first glyph is a horned adder and is used to reresent the letter f. It means he, him or his in some constructions. His son would be written as: I10 and I11 depict cobras and represent D and DD respectively. The word for eternity is Dt

I12 and I13
These cobras represent the uraeus and Buto respectively. The Nebty name of a Pharaoh is always listed with the G16 glyph whiuch seems to contain I13 as a component: Nekhbet, the vulture goddess, represents Upper Egypt and Wadjet, the cobra goddess represents Lower Egypt.

M3: Branch; khet

Phonetic value khet (from "khet", wood). A determinative for objects made-of or related to wood.

M4: "Year"-symbol—bald palm panicle
variants: M5, M6, M7: M4: Pronounced renpet. From Palermo Stone time.

N1: Sky; Heaven
Pronounced pet the sky hieroglyph represents the heavens. This glyph was sometimes decorated with stars. The sky goddess Nut was sometimes depicted in a pose that reminds us of the sky sign.

N2 and N3: Night, Darkness
Both N2 and N3 could be used as logograms or determinants representing night or darkness.

N5 and N6: Sun
In some depictions the sun disk is shown with a uraeus on both sides. In the depictions of the sun disk as the Aten, the disk with its rays often has a uraeus depicted attached to the bottom center of the disk. The disk is related to the worship of Horus, Re, and later Amun-Re. They could both be used as a logogram or a determinant. N5 may have had a slightly broader meaning. Its meaning may have included time, day, hour, and to rise.

N7: "The course of a day"
An abbreviation of the word "the course of the day"

N8: Sunshine, to shine; "The people of the Sun"
The Aten was the sun god depicted as a solar disk.

The N8 hieroglyph is closely related to N5 and N6. They all represent the sun.

N14: Star
The star is sometimes known as seba. Stars played an important role in the development of the Egyptian calendar. The image of the five pointed star appears on ceilings of tombs and temples. There are for instance examples of the goddess Nut depicted with a dress covered with stars. The goddess Seshat's symbol involved a star. N14 could also stand for dwa (dua). It was part of the title duat netjer, which is often translated as divide adoratrix and referred to a priestess of Amun.

N16, N17 : Land, Earth, Eternity
(Lord (of the) Two Lands) Phonetically: ta. These glyphs represent land, earth and eternity. One of the main titles of the king was Lord of the Two Lands which was neb tawy in egyptian. The hieroglyphics were a basket (for Neb)  and usually two copies of N17 (or N16) to represent the Two Lands (tawy) - i.e. Upper and Lower Egypt. The female version of the title Nebettawy was written almost the same, except for an extra breadloaf, pronounced t, to indicate a female form.

N20: Sandbank
Phonetically stands for Wedjeb or Udjeb (wDb) and is the determinant for the term sandbank.

N22: Sandbag, Land, Field
Determinant for sandbag, land or field.

N25: Foreign Land, Desert, Desert Land, "Land of Retjen"
Determinant and logogram representing foreign land, desert and desert land. The title of the King's Son of Kush (Viceroy) was for instance written sa nsw n Ksh, where Kush is written with the N25 determinant.

N26: Mountain
Phonetically N26 stands for Dju (Dw) and it represents a logogram of a mountain.

N27: Horizon, Akhet
N27 is a logogram representing the horizon. The horizon appears in the official names of the sungod Aten. and The second version being a later form of the name of the Aten, representing the elimination of names of old deities.

Interesting is that in the name of Khufu's pyramid Akhet is written "phonetically":  The bird is a crested ibis and represents the idea of spirit. Here akhet is formed by the glyphs for the crested ibis, the horizon, and the bread loaf (making it a female word?). The natural question would be: does this akhet represent the same idea as the akhet represented by the sun disk emerging from a hill?

N28: Crown, Hill of the Sunrise
One of the standard titles of the pharaoh was "sa Re neb khau" which is sometimes translated to "Son of Re, Lord of Horizons" I have also seen it translated as "Lord of Crowns" or "Lord of Diadems"

N29: Hill
Phonetically represents q. Determinant and logogram of hill.

N35 and N35A: Water
The water glyph is a common hieroglyph found in texts. In the scene shown here - usually attributed to Queen Kiya, the secondary wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten - the royal lady is shown in a purification scene with water poured over her head.

N36: Canal, to love, Nile, river, lake

The canal glyphs could stand phonetically for "mer" (beloved of). Sety's name translates to "Sety beloved of Ptah".

In the scene with the musiscian and the three dancing girls from Thebes three "mer" signs appear as part of the inscription in the center.

N39: Pool; N38: (sloped)-Pool; N37: (also "pool-shape")

The garden scene from a tomb in Thebes (maybe 1400 BC) shows a pond with flowers and animals.

In the perfume making scene a depiction of a pool is shown above the vat, but there are no water waves indicated (rectangle, pool-shape).

O4 & O5, reed shelter
O4 has the phonetic value h. O5 is used in a wide variety of terms.

1. means to descend (ha(i)); 2. means to send (hab); 3. means day, daytime (heru); 4 means jubilation (henu).

O6 & O7, manor & street

The name of Hathor actually reads hwt-hor Which means something like "House of Horus". The hieroglyph is the house glyph with Horus as a falcon depicted inside the house.

Nephthys's name is written as a house (manor) with the hieroglyph neb (the basket) on top and a bread glyph to give the female ending. Her name in Egyptian then is nebet-hwt "lady of the manor".

O24 & N25: pyramid (Memphis), obelisk
The O24 hieroglyph is used as a determinant in the names of the pyramids.

O36: wall, enclosure
like the perimeter wall?

O39: (short)-block
also (long)-block  (N37) various size blocks of stone.

P3: Barque; wia

R4: Originally gameboard & gamepiece; later, Mat w/ Loaf of Bread

Phonetic value htp, (hotep); for content, peace, satisfied, (happy, etc.). Many pharaohs used "Hotep" as part of their name: ex: Amenhotep: for "Amun is Complete", or "(The) Peace of Amun", "Satisfier (of) Amun" (etc.).

R12: Insignia-Carrier, iat-Support (a "standard")
and R13 (support with Hawk & Feather)

Predynastic and Narmer Palettes. The cosmetic palettes have some of the first uses of hieroglyphs, with the Narmer Palette probably culminating the timeperiod.

Originally, the beginning cosmetic palettes were 'rough', 'crude', in a rhomboidal-shape, unadorned, but later incorporated with a powder mixing circle, and highly thematic, including animal-shaped (zoomorphic palettes.

R20: Goddess Seshat's Emblem
and R21 (archaic form)

Goddess Seshat, from the Old Kingdom, can be seen on the Palermo Stone: "creation of a statue to Goddess Seshat and Mafdet", from Palermo piece, at Palermo Museum (confer with article Den (pharaoh)).

S-20: Seal
and S19 (later (curved-cording-Seal)

Alabaster vase of 1st Kingdom: "Seal-bearer-(of the)-King, H-ma-ka" (Hemaka). 2nd photo of later style Seal, with curved cord.

S24: Knot

The "reef knot" is often found on belt buckles. Ideogram in ṯst (tjst) for "knot", "vertebra", or similar words.

T26: Bird Trap (or Bird-Cage-Carrier)
and T27 (Old Kingdom style)

A scene from Ptahhotep's tomb, 5th Dynasty shows the hieroglyph, as well as a 'carrier-attendant' with pole, and a bird "trap" (cage) on each end. (Old Kingdom style hieroglyph)

U25: (vertical) Hand "Lathe" (=Drill)

2-opposing Stone-weights, an offset handle, and a cutting-tool tip at shaft's end; used for drilling holes into stone, typically small unguent bowls, or larger ceremonial bowls.

Examples of "sets" of zoomorphic bowls are known from the Old Kingdom time. First drilled, then the outside of the bowl turned into an animal figure.

V13: Tethering Rope
V14-(variant)

Phonetic value Th

The procession leader (behind the 4–Standard-Bearers) has their name in front of their head:  using the female determinative, unless the person's name is Thet.

W21: 2-Wine-Jugs

2-Wine-Jugs.

W25: Pot w/Legs

Phonetic value an. A determinative for bring, brought, etc. The middle register (sculpture), center-right shows the destruction of an enemy stronghold. , with the "walking pot hieroglyph" (at left).

Aa10, unconfirmed
Note, as drawn elsewhere (see reference below) this is shown as a triangle with the bottom horizontal, shortest side vertical. ramp/stair in sed-hed court? ramp to access heights, as in for people or to build pyramids? ramp to the heavens?

Aa30: Frieze (ornament)
and Aa31 (older or archaic type, different usage)

"Kheker"-Ornament. Later usage.

Resources
Gardener's Sign List from Ancient Egypt Online

Comments and Questions
Talk: Development of hieroglyphic writing. Or click on discussion tab at the top of the page.

title: Development of hieroglyphic writing


text:
User:Katherineschultz

bio
Hello all. My name is legally Katherine, but I go by Kate. Turns out I am not quite as computer literate as I had thought. I am in the fashion design program and would probably still be making clothes for my old Barbies if I had them. I enjoy discovering tasty, cheap places to eat, alphabetizing my book, music and movie libraries and getting booted out of respectable businesses all over the Seattle area for bringing along my Boston terrier, Virginia Woof, everywhere I go.

midterm
Although I’ve been living in Seattle for two years now, this was the first time I had taken a thorough look at Olympic Sculpture Park. I was incredibly impressed with the layout of the park and the quality of the sculptures and didn’t experience anything resembling a vehement dislike of any piece. It probably helped that the weather was impossibly gorgeous both times I visited. However, I was least inspired by the work of Tony Smith, specifically his piece “Wandering Rocks”. I didn’t find it thought-provoking or emotionally evocative in the least, and my dislike grew after reading his quote on the marker about his intention with the piece, which struck me as incredibly pretentious.

After doing a bit of research on Smith and discovering that not only did he keep quite a fascinating circle of acquaintances but that he also initially worked as an architect with Frank Lloyd Wright, was a pioneer of the minimalist art movement in America and taught at NYU, Cooper Union, Pratt, Bennington, and Hunter, I gained an enormous amount of respect for him as a thinker, educator, and innovator.

I returned to “Wandering Rocks” ready to view it with a newly opened and educated mindset, and while I still felt a strong dislike for his comments on the piece I decided to look at the work itself in respect to its surrounding environment and the connotations I personally associated with it. I ended up really liking it being located in the Olympic Sculpture Park as it fits in seamlessly with the natural beauty of the coast and its large, varied rocks. I found that its minimalism and nature references also evoked a feeling of tranquility in me this time.

I find it comforting to know that I’m not so set in my ways that I can’t change my opinions and hasty judgments by educating myself and using different perspectives. However, it also makes me consider the fact that judgments and opinions can be entirely conditional, which brings up an entirely new subject….

final
By the end of this quarter, I want to create an original painting using acrylics on canvas.

The research component of this goal is to research basic methods and tutorials, as well as certain periods and schools in art history in which acrylic painting was a primary medium.

WEEK 2: Find three good step-by-step acrylics painting guides/tutorials and begin research on acrylics-related periods and schools.

WEEK 3: Continue art history-related research and buy needed supplies. Choose inspiration for paintings.

WEEK 4: Begin working on paintings on paper.

WEEK 5 (MID-TERM): Have at least one painting on paper completed that I’m happy with.

WEEK 6: Begin final painting on canvas.

WEEK 7: Finish research.

WEEK 8: Finish canvas painting.

title: User:Katherineschultz


text:
User:BulimicMind~enwikiversity

I am a(n): Biophile, Ignostic Atheist, Cosmopolitan Anarchist, Agorist/Mutualist, Agrarianist, Hard Determinist.

Who is worried about the end of the world, and is interested in the development of a phonetic-universal script and language, the development of post-oil infrastructure and economy, porn, and alternative educational resources/philosophies.

One day, when I know more and know it more certainly, I would be very interested in participating in a project like this. Until then, hello and goodbye.

title: User:BulimicMind~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Development of hieroglyphic writing

QuickLink to Main Home Page: Ancient Egyptian Monuments Project
 * QuickLink back to Comments and Questions Development of hieroglyphic writing

Response: The front claw seems to be holding the same thing in both images, a arched box (one box is pushed up against a vertical line). The other claw holds a 'line' and in the left example the line opens to a hole and the other it is but a dot... It certainly looks similar to an Ankh on the left... I wonder if it used to be a dot on a line and the dot opened? Notice how if you look at it as a 3D image, it looks like the bird has landed on a table and the thing it's grabbing looks like a mallet. Interesting example. I think the Ankh will be a really fun one to examine. --NBuccalo 05:41, 13 January 2009 (UTC)

I'm confused about the Anket entry. To my knowledge Anket (or Anukis) refers to a goddess, not a hieroglyph. Or did you have something else in mind? Barta 19:46, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Anket, I think I was referring to something different and was trying to remember the name... funny, cause I don't think I've ever heard of Anket before, but it sounded right --NBuccalo 04:27, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

Ankh: I noticed the Ankh didn't show up as a hieroglyph in the Gardner List. Is it a hieroglyph? My confusion is when I see it on an example of what hieroglyphs are, like here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs; Image, Ankh is near top right: Papyrus of Ani or on the Rosetta Stone. Never the less, I'd like to include is and perhaps other things I find (if not hieroglyphs) as part of our analysis. --NBuccalo 04:27, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

Ankh is S34 in Gardiner's list. Barta 16:29, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

= Page Merge = ''Hi, I am trying to merge these two pages you have founded. This is from here ([ last version]).''--Juan de Vojníkov 20:22, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

I've started this, my first, questions and comments page... please help edit the format, thanks. --NBuccalo 16:02, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

General Discussion Topics- Formating of information
I liked your method for identifying data for Pyramids and mastabas. I was thinking of the development of heiroglyphs that were made into jewelry or other items, like the Ankh. What I'd like to see in the description of hieroglyphs, besides title, location and date, is the size of the artifact. For writing on wall I don't think this has any significance. But for jewelry, it can show one aspect of the evolution and stylization of the item. --NBuccalo 16:53, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Should we have 'lines' separating each hieroglyph? I see you put them in and this might be a good idea considering how many examples for each we will be posting? --NBuccalo 19:03, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Ankh
We have several theories, some with references but no links to additional information regarding the sources and to a fuller description of these other theories. Additionally, I feel we should have a time line devoted to the Ankh, which I know will be very hard to create, but could show the evolution of the design itself to help acknowledge how meaning either changed or became better represented over time. --NBuccalo 19:59, 27 September 2009 (UTC)

See Development_of_hieroglyphic_writing for talk about Ankh, I'm sure in the wrong location. --NBuccalo 26 Apr. 2016

The front claw seems to be holding the same thing in both images, a arched box (one box is pushed up against a vertical line). The other claw holds a 'line' and in the left example the line opens to a hole and the other it is but a dot... It certainly looks similar to an Ankh on the left... I wonder if it used to be a dot on a line and the dot opened? Notice how if you look at it as a 3D image, it looks like the bird has landed on a table and the thing it's grabbing looks like a mallet. Interesting example. I think the Ankh will be a really fun one to examine. --NBuccalo 16:02, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

I want to create a diagram to help people analysis the Ankh correctly, to appreciate its subtleties. It will consist of the following (roughly put): --NBuccalo 16:28, 14 January 2009 (UTC)
 * 1) Center vertical guide line should show that both left portion of the Ankh and right portion are reverse images and that the arms are of equal length on both sides.
 * 2) Horizontal guide line centered on the horizontal arms should show that portion of the arm above the guide line is a mirror image of what is below (a reflection).
 * 3) The Arms ends are larger and decrease in size towards the center.
 * 4) (this one is hard to describe) The cirvalinear shape above the horizontal arms is not a circle or oval. It should spring from an area around the intersection off all parts and angle between both the vertical and horizontal guide lines, curving gently until it reaches a point where is it partially a radius form.  Where the arc crosses the center vertical guide line, it the arc appears to flatten out.  The reverse is true.
 * 5) The vertical portion below the arms (Base) springs from the center in an angled fashion similar to the reverse area above the arms represented by the curvilinear form.
 * 6) After this initial angle downward, the base line(s) move generally straight down but not exactly, more of a slight angle away from the outside edges of each other.
 * 7) Towards the ends of the base and at the lowest portion of the Ankh, the lines may flare out more.
 * 8) The Base may, as in potentially early examples, may have two lines which somewhat echo the arc'd lines above the arms.
 * 9) The Arms may, as in potentially early examples, may be divided horizontally into two equal reflective parts.
 * 10) The Arms may, as in potentially early examples, have at their center a horizontal rectangular shape superimposed on the arms and symmetrically positioned.
 * 11) The Arc above the Arms may, as in potentially early examples, have it uppermost part flatter than in later examples.
 * 12) All the parts may, as in potentially early examples, be more linear (i.e., as if drawn in lines) in form while later stylized examples are more solid in form merging the variety of parts and simplifying the geometry and details (as did the Pyramids).

N18: Island, Horizon, Desert
Speculation: I believe this was used at the center and aligned with the arms of the Ankh denoting horizon. Furthermore, I believe it was intentionally used in early Ankh symbols to help people read the Ankh correctly, that is, as a picture of the Nile. --NBuccalo 20:16, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Speculation: "To fill with land to create a field?" --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

N26: Mountain
Phonetically N26 stands for Dju (Dw) and it represents a logogram of a mountain.

Speculation: "Two mountains and a valley, the Nile valley" --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC) Speculation: okay (stands for a mountain), but it seems odd to then show 'mountains', and what do mountains create... valleys. To me its a figure/ground relationship, the 'object' in the middle is the valley (the void). I'd be interested to know what context(s) this was used in to see if it had another association, or if the meaning changed over time. --NBuccalo 21:22, 21 January 2009 (UTC)

N27: Horizon
N27 is a logogram representing the horizon. The horizon appears in the official names of the sungod Aten. and The second version being a later form of the name of the Aten, representing the elimination of names of old deities.

Speculation: "Sun shining on the valley of the Nile" --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

N28: Crown, Hill of the Sunrise
One of the standard titles of the pharaoh was "sa Re neb khau" which is sometimes translated to "Son of Re, Lord of Horizons" I have also seen it translated as "Lord of Crowns" or "Lord of Diadems"

Speculation: "who needs N27 when you have N28" --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

N30: Hill of Earth
Speculation: "Human made hill?" --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

N39: Pool
Note wave form --NBuccalo 19:01, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

The garden scene from a tomb in Thebes (maybe 1400 BC) shows a pond with flowers and animals. In the perfume making scene a depiction of a pool is shown above the vat, but there are no water waves indicated.

In Gardener's List, it is drawn with waves in the center. --NBuccalo 03:00, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

O36: wall, enclosure
like the perimeter wall?

(temporary)
I would like to explore hieroglyphs that have anything to do with the following subjects and their derivations:
 * Ankh and anything that looks like or has some of the components of an Ankh including a line with a dot.
 * water, river, inundation, flow or direction of Nile, wave.
 * Sun, sunrise, sunset, path of sun, cycle of sun, etc. Including derivations like the Akhet AND the Mound symbol. N7 hieroglyph.
 * anything with an arch form, or sine wave form,
 * land
 * bridges and boats


text: Template:Test Preload

title: Template:Test Preload


text: Start a Wikiversity Project/Sample Activity Page


text:
User:Judsonhenckel

bio
Oh, well hi there. My name is Judson Henckel. I'm in my first year at the art institute studying fashion marketing. I used to live in Bellingham, Washington where I was enrolled at Western Washington. I found the school to be too big and unfocused. I hope to graduate from the Art Institute and work as an event organizer or PR rep. for a major design label.

reflective assessment
I definitely have learned quite a bit about research from taking this course. Before, I used to use wiki as a resource for one, mostly because I was not aware of the user changes. I think the main concept that I can pull away from this course is to always check where the research is coming from. To examine the sponsors and creators of the information and make sure they are both accurate and credited with some form of acceptable license to give out information on the topic at hand. I do think however that I need to spend a lot more time examining the many logical fallacies that are abundant in today’s media and make sure that when I do graduate, that I do not perpetuate more ethically questionable advertisements into society. I think I’m prepared to continue my studies with a watchful eye on my sources. Just knowing that all information on the Internet is not accurate is not enough. I have learned that everything must be taken with a grain of salt, or examined in close detail as to why an author would write what they did. The midterm project helped me to understand that I can’t always change the way my opinions are towards things, and if that is true it also stands to reason that others would have the same issue. Overall I have had a great time in this class and hope that if I take any other forms of English or writing classes at the Art Institute that I am lucky enough to get Steven Arntson for them.

title: User:Judsonhenckel


text:
Template:Activity summary

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Igneous rocks

These are described as formations that begin as molten rock or magmas within the asthenosphere that rise up towards and through the lithosphere. Intrusive rocks either settle beneath the crust or solidifying within the country rock (crust) and forming plutons. Extrusive rock break through the crustal rock and extrude onto the surface of the Earth through volcanoes, spreading centres and mantle plumes.

Intrusive Igneous rock

For the rest of this page we will be dealing only on this topic and its effects on fossilization.

For a rock to be an intrusive igneous rock or plutonic rock it must have rose up as a magma and solidified at some point within the lithosphere. Igneous rock makes up 95% of crustal rock and are one of the oldest types of rock the main rocks that are formed from intrusion are Granite, diorite, gabbro and ultramafic Rocks. Of these the most common type is the granite rock which is composed of mainly potassium and silicon rich Feldspars and quartz. Because intrusive rock is in the lithosphere, the heat release is slow and the magma can cool slowly over thousands to millions of years, the magma slowly forms silicate minerals that make up igneous rock and the crystal structure can become quite large if there is enough room.

Intrusive rocks are named and classified according to 1. Is the body large or small? 2.Does it have a particular geometric shape? 3. Did the rock form at considerable depth or was it a shallow intrusion? and 4. What is the geometric relationship of the intrusion to the country rock? (McGeary and Plummer 1994, p.217)

Small intrusive bodies
Dikes, sills and laccoliths are small but important intrusions. Dikes are discordant and sills are concordant and tubular intrusions, while a laccolith is a domed concordant intrusion. A laccolith is also rare as an intrusion because of the pressure needed to force other rock apart and make its unique shape. These small intrusions are generally offshoots of banoliths and other magmatic hotspots.

Effects of intrusive body on fossilization
When an intrusive body penetrates a rock strata like siltstone, shale etc, the effects of heat from the intrusion on the country rock and the fossils it may contain can be drastic. Firstly, any rock directly in contact or within reach of being altered, will destroy any presence of a fossil. For rock that is not directly melted but still receives substantial heat, this rock can be morphed into another type of rock, eg. limestone into marble. This metamorphosis will either distort the fossils appearance or may destroy it.

Readings

 * Resources from the central Michigan University
 * Rock types and hardness By Kim Brannon
 * Igneous Rock by Dave Jessey and Don Tarman

title: Igneous rocks


text:
Talk:Rock and minerals formations

Wipp do a tootal overhall of the subject, as I creat pages and make this page more dissambigous. Enlil Ninlil 09:22, 13 January 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rock and minerals formations


text:
Plant fossil structure and preservation

On this page will discuss the type of fossil material that makes up what we know about plant evolution.

Palaeobotany is the study of plant fossils. Plants are known as fossils from many localities across the globe, and their preservation is rarer than that of hard shelled invertebratea and vertebrate skeletal structure. The fossilisation of a plant is dependant on that plants structure and mineral content and the locality. An important factor in the fine preservation of plant material is the absence of oxygen.

Wikipedia articles

 * Cooksonia
 * Evolutionary history of plants

Resources

 * Chapter 10 Life of the Paleozoic by Harold L. Levin, interscience.wiley.com
 * Minguasha National Park section on fossil plants and a little on their evolution., sepaq.com

title: Plant fossil structure and preservation