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United States Law/Legal Writing

What is legal writing
Law could be either oral or written. But in most cases, we assume that law is written.

There are many types of legal writing.

Legal Documents

 * Treaties
 * Statutes
 * Contracts

Documents About Law

Written analysis of a legal problem or issue with the case authority given. the open memo you have to find the case law on your own.
 * Closed Memo
 * Open Memo

 * Memo
 * Legal Brief
 * Casenote
 * Law School Outline
 * Opinion letter

Legal writing is a specialized form of writing. Legal writing emphasizes logic and clarity. It also follows the fabled "IRAC" method- Issue, Rule, Application and Conclusion.

Legal Research
Legal research is unlike the research you have done in high school and college. They look similar and certainly they both require a firm grasp of good analytical ability. Legal research can be boring and mind numbing to many because of the huge amount of material and strict rules that you must follow.

The lawyers heavily rely on the commercial electronic databases such as Westlaw or LexisNexis. Other important references used in legal research are Black's Law Dictionary, The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation,. Law schools have a huge library of books and material to help.

Some alternative and free electronic databases are available such as Justia, Findlaw, etc.

At the very minimum you need to familarize yourself with using the electronic databases since they are becoming quite popular.

Sources of the Law
In the common law system, the judicial precedences are the main sources of the law. Simply put, the judges make the law by making decisions. This contrasts with the civil law system in which the codified statues prescribe what the judges should do. In today's world however, this distinction is not black and white. For instance, the Uniform Commercial Code and the Restatement of the Law are a good example of the civil law approach taken by the U.S. legal system. Another example is the Model Penal Code.

Still, unlike the civil law jurisdictions, the U.S. lawyers are expected to read the cases (prior judicial decisions) and discern "common law" from it. The legal education in the U.S. and some parts in Canada is focused on building this skill- ability to identify the common rule or principle underlying in the apparently dissimilar cases.

Because there are 50 states in the U.S. and nearly 1 million lawyers with a natural obsession of litigation, you would expect that there would be many lawsuits and judicial decisions. To keep track of them all is quite daunting. Moreover, because there are not always a well summarized and neatly codified body of law to refer to but a vast sea of cases which sometimes conflict with each other, legal citation takes a great importance in legal writing. The reader of your legal writing wants to know which case you are referring to. Because there are so many of them, they will find it difficult to locate it unless you cite it properly.

Stare Decisis and the Doctrine of Precedent
Stare decisis, from the Latin for stand by the decision, is a crucial concept in common law. Common law, in this context, refers to the practice of deriving principles of law from judicial opinions, rather than following statutory authority such as the United States Code. The doctrine of stare decisis binds judges to precedent and ensures that the common law develops in a reasoned, consistent manner.

Judicial opinions are written to explain why a judge has ruled as they have in a given dispute. By describing the arguments of the parties and explaining why they are persuasive, or why the facts of the case make an argument correct or incorrect, judges hope to aid those who will be faced with similar disputes in the future. The opinion written for the case becomes known as precedent - it precedes any cases that may arise in the future out of similar facts, and articulates rules of law that can be applied to those facts. Stare decisis ensures that judges adhere to those rules, by requiring that similar issues be resolved in the same way as they were in the previous cases in that "line of precedent." Judges rely on precedent to support their reasoning, and borrow the authority of the court issuing the precedental opinion by citing to the previous opinion when writing their own. Stare decisis is not absolute; if a change can be justified, justices may overturn settled precedent, creating new rules of law to govern similar disputes in the future. Furthermore, judges may "distinguish from precedent," using a crucial difference in the facts of the current case to explain why the rulings of the previous cases should not control the current decision. This does not overturn the settled precedent, but still creates a new line of precedent to be followed in the future.

Stare decisis clearly binds lower courts to the authority of higher courts; trial courts must rule as the courts of appeals have ruled, and intermediate courts of appeals must rule as appeals courts of higher authority have ruled. However, the highest courts of appeals are bound only by the supreme law as expressed in the Constitution (or, for state courts, the Constitution of that state). Because these highest courts also have the power of judicial review - that is, the power to interpret the law, including the Constitution - these judges are theoretically free to rule as they wish on the case at issue, without regard to precedent and with no real check on their decision-making. In this way, stare decisis is something of a "gentleman's code"; even the justices of the Supreme Court of the United States follow precedent unless they can clearly articulate why that authority should be overturned, even though they are not required to by any authority save for tradition. Though the people have no control over the selection of federal judges, the judges demonstrate their trustworthiness by adhering to stare decisis, thus giving no reason to subject their appointment to the political process.

Briefing a Case
The most popular method of briefing a case is called IRAC.

Issue: The first step in legal writing is to identify the issue. To do this, read the facts of the case and find the part that is controversial. The controversial part is called the issue. The issue should be stated (another name for this is articulated) concisely in the first part of your brief.

Rule

Analysis

Conclusion

Case Brief, Casenotes, Memorandum
Case Analysis Case analysis is the most important class for lawyers. It determines what is the question of law that the court is trying to decide (The key facts). As a researcher you have to spot the issue. Ex. Did the defendant show a evil mind that is required for punitive damages when he; a.	Drank 10 beers within a hour b.	Took valium c.	Got in his car and speed

Punitive damages- on top of compensatory, defendant not just careless, he was reckless. Defendant knew the risk and did it anyways. “Evil mind”

Elements for a negligence claim for relief Negligence (money) a.	The law imposes your duty. You owe a duty of care to all the people whom you may foresee ably injure by your actions. b.	Defendant breached duty by careless conduct. c.	That careless conduct caused harm.

Types of Reasoning 1.	Inductive- follow precedence, looking at the facts (rule) 2.	Deductive- take the rule and apply it to the facts 3.	Slippery slope- as a practical matter we will not go there. It will open a floodgate. A decision might change a rule. Ex. A man and a woman The woman left Man follows her She told the police Police say in till he harms you there is nothing we can do The guy hires someone to throw lye in her face She is disfigured She sues the police The court says sorry the cant specially protects everyone.

4. When the court is trying to define an ambiguous term. (Could have different meanings) 2 cars - 1 man, 1 woman Hand gestures are exchanged Man shoots the woman She is pregnant Her and the baby die He is charged twice This is the unlawful killing of a human being, is the fetus a human? The court decides to not include the fetus in this.

The different sources of law In the correct order 1. Primary authority- (the law itself) A. Constitutions- state and federal B. Statutes- (law passed by the legislature) Legislature- a group of people elected to pass laws

State North Carolina general assembly Makes -North Carolina general statues

Federal United States Congress Makes - us code

State and federal Each has two houses House of representatives (lower) Senate (higher)

Proposed law- bill

2. Administrative rules and regulations- laws passed by government agencies IRS	Social security Administration Before certain government agencies a layperson can represent someone. It doesn’t have to be a lawyer. 3.Case law- judicial opinions written usually by appellate courts to explain their decision to either affirm, reverse, or remand (send it back to the trial courts with instructions) the trial courts decision. 4. Secondary authority- things that discuss the law, sources

Conflict of law- as a general rule if there is a conflict between a constitution and any other source of law the constitution wins. Conflict of administrative rules and case law the rule will win. Which ever is higher on the list will win.

But, case law, which is judge made law interprets the words in constitutions, statutes and administrative rules and regulations.

Amending- the legislature doesn’t like the courts interpretations of a statute. They amend it to make in more clear.

You have to interpret every judicial opinion in the context of its facts. Ex. Man comes home and wife is in bed with someone else He goes to the kitchen get a knife He kills the wife’s lover The question is there premeditation because he had to go to the kitchen to get the knife The answer probably will be yes.

Or

Man comes home and wife is in bed with someone else He has a gun on his side due to his job He takes the gun and shoots and kills The question is there premeditation because he already had the gun on him. Probably no premeditation

All Federal District Court judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by Senate for life terms. They are the only Court that exercises the right to write judicial opinions (federal Supplement) This is different from state judges in NC who, as a general rule are elected. However if a state judge dies or retires while in office the Governor appoints a replacement for a 4 yr term. NC Superior Court (appeals or supreme) judges are elected for 8 yr terms but if they can’t complete the term, the Governor replaces them untill the next general election which is held every 2 yrs. Judicial Opinion for North Carolina - South Eastern Reporters The opinion doesn’t actually begin instill you see the judges name. Appellate courts, at either levels or trial court judges only at state level, write judicial opinions.

Appellate courts 1.	Also called review courts 2.	Always have more then one judge, always an odd number of judges. For ex. (State and fed. Level) they sit in panels of three. On North Carolina Supreme Court we have 7 justices that sit as a group. On the US Supreme Court, 9 justices sit as a group. 3.	Appellate courts must accept the “findings of fact: of the trial court even if they disagree with it. The reason is that they weren’t there to hear the testimony. All they can do is read transcripts. 4.	Appellate courts can correct errors of law made by the trial court only if the issue was presented to them by one of the parties. 5.	Once an appellate court has reviewed a case the judges will vote as to whether to affirm, reverse the trial courts decision. They can also remand the case back to the trail courts with instructions for the new trial. How a Case gets appealed 1.	Always starts at the trial court level A. Witnesses testify B. Other evidence is considered C. Questions of fact are decided I. Where fibers from the defendant’s jacket found at the crime scene. Ii. Jury will decide the questions and there is one (Will be decide if there is no jury) 2. Law applied to the facts A. Judge tells the jury what the law is 	B. Jury applies the law to the facts

It is often said that the trial judge decides questions of law because he chooses: 1.	What evidence will be admissible 2.	What motions are granted / denuded 3.	Before the jury goes to deliberate the judge instructs them on the law. Even if the jury doesn’t like the law they still have to apply it. Special Verdict- judge gives the jury questions to answer General verdict- just a plain decision for the plaintiff or the defendant Because the trial judge is the king of the trial and makes decisions regarding questions of law its usually the trial judge who is cited on appeal. Sometimes the issue statement begins with “Did the trial judge err (commit a error) when he denied the for direct in verdict, instructed the jury?

The party who loses is the one who wants to appeal. He has 10 days in North Carolina to file a notice of appeal.

Appellate brief- same as a trial brief but for a higher court

Appellate Procedure 	The trial usually begins and ends at the trial level because it is so expensive to file an appeal. If the loser believes a mistake was made to a question of law (prejudicial error) that was so big it could affect the outcome of the case he files a notice of appeal and then becomes the appellant. . He then files an appellate brief that states what errors and mistakes were made at the trial. It must include the result of legal research to back it up. To find the back up he will refer to authority. The appellant may have been either the defendant or the plaintiff in the trial, he is just the one who was not happy with the decision and filed the appeal. Appellee is the person whom against the case is filed and he is the one who won at the trial court level. He likes the trial court decision and now must defend it. The appellate court reviews both briefs and listens to oral arguments, which usually last about 30 minutes each side. Several months later the appellate court hands down a decision to reverse, affirm or remand the trial courts judgment. Quite often the appellate court writes a judicial opinion to explain its decision. Case law is mandatory authority in its jurisdiction.

The question is why does the courts reasoning for deciding the way it did help the researcher predict the outcome of their case? There is a prior decision in your jurisdiction to disclose to a buyer that there is a hidden defect that will affect the homes value, the buyer can cancel the contract. This refers to termite damage but does it apply to a murder? You represent the buyer who recently moving to town finds out the home he bought had a terrible murder that affects the property’s value. It will not control this case because the murder was not hidden and anyone could do the research and find out about it.

Types of authority I. Primary authority - the law itself (constitution, statutes, case law, and administrative rules and regulations) A. Mandatory Authority - if it is in your jurisdiction it is binding (it must be followed) B. Persuasive Authority - Persuasive primary authority - the law outside your jurisdiction because there is no primary authority that covers these facts in your jurisdiction the court can look at this (a case of first impression) C. No effect II. Secondary Authority- it is not the law. It just discusses the law. Usually written by legal scholars, can be used by the courts at the most to be persuasive authority, if there is no primary Authority in that jurisdiction.

1.	Legal treatises (these are written by legal scholars who are experts in their field ex. The leading legal scholar in torts is Prosser, on contracts it is Williston these are often law professors) 2.	 Restatements- a group of legal scholars who review the law and discuss it. Ex. There is a restatement on contracts and a restatement on torts. Restatements often look at trends of where the law is going. 3.	Law review articles - law schools have magazines that are called law reviews. People in the top 10 % of the class are asked to write articles for this magazine in which they discuss a particular area of law. 4.	Legal Encyclopedias Legal encyclopedias for North Carolina (Strong’s North Carolina index)                                    National legal encyclopedia’s 1. American Juris Prudence- Lawyers call it am jur 2. Corpus Juris Secundum- Lawyers call it CJS

1.	When they vote, the majority of judges                                                                                A. the majority opinion becomes precedent for later cases in that jurisdiction. 2.	The judges then pick one of the majorities to write the judicial opinion.

Different kinds of opinions (in order) 1.	Majority opinion 2. When one judge disagrees with the majority of judges so strongly he may write a Dissenting Opinion. This doesn’t establish precedent but reading it may help you to understand the issues better. ONLY MAJORITY OPINION ESTABLISHES PRECIDENT. 3. Concurring opinion- one judge agrees with the majority opinion but for other reasons so he writes this. 4. Percuriam Opinion- Sometimes no judge will take credit for writing an opinion. In place of the judges name you will have the word percuriam. Majority percuriam opinions establish precedent but they are not as strong as the one a judge taking credit for the opinion. One main reason is a law clerk probably wrote the opinion. Typically every appellate court judge has a law clerk. This is typically a new lawyer who works for one year to do legal research for that judge.

Generalizing- in order to convince a jury that an accident was foreseeable the plaintiff’s lawyer will describe the accident in general and broad terms. The less detail the more foreseeable it will become.

Particularizing- The defendant will describe the accident in great detail because he doesn’t want it to be foreseeable. Therefore, he doesn’t owe the plaintiff a duty of care. The more details you give the less foreseeable it will become.

Steps to briefing a case A case brief is usually a page long The 1st paragraph of a brief is called the syllabus. This is a summary of the entire case. From this paragraph you will find the procedure. i.	Tells the important issues and where to locate them. They are like an index for the opinion they are numbered. The numbered corresponds to the same Bracketed number in the opinion. ii. Problem with head notes is that you can never rely on them alone. Without reading the opinion because of the problem of using dicta for precedent. The only part of an opinion that establishes p0recednent that must be followed is the part that deals with the actual facts. Sometimes the court will get off track and will say something like if the facts were different we would hold this way. That is only dicta. It doesn’t establish precedent. Precedent only involves the issues created by the facts of this case. Courts can only rule on the case before them, the so-called cases in controversy. Only what they decided on the actual facts establishes precedent everything else establishes dicta. (Dictum for singular) It is unethical for a lawyer to argue dicta as precedent. 1. Procedure- starts when the courts get involved, the filing of the case (civil) arrest or search etc. In criminal court, it starts with the official charge, when you trace a case you go back to the beginning and go up to the court that is writing the opinion. A. Prior- all the courts has gone thru until now B. Current- When or what court it is in now?

2. Facts- what lead up to the lawsuit? What leads up to the filing of the complaint or charge of the Defendant in criminal court? From incident up to arrest. A. Insignificant facts- they are unimportant, take them out and the case doesn’t change. They are usually eliminated and not placed anywhere in a case brief because they don’t help you understand the dispute. (ex. WFOX, name of the radio station) no names, relationships and dates (unless it involves the statute of limitations) are unimportant B. Significant facts- helps you understand the nature of the dispute. If taken out it doesn’t change the case. C. Essential facts- (key Facts) facts that are so important if they are changed or left out the out come of the case could be changed. The more times mentioned the more important they are. Key Facts- Start when procedure ends. What happened up to the filing of defendants charge? They can be found in; I. In the fact section of a case brief II. Facts that is so important they show up in the issue statement To Identify Essential facts 	They can be adjectives the judge may use to describe the fact. Ex. Determinative, which means crucial or very important or note worthy. 	Repetitive reference to the fact- continually stating that fact, especially in the analysis. 	When the court says:” if this fact were different we may have decided otherwise…” 	The courts reaction to how a lower court viewed or stressed the fact. Ex. Rape case, the lower court may have stressed sexual history of the victim when the appellate court will say that wasn’t important, or this courts reaction to how one of the lawyers characterized a fact.

Facts and issues relate to each other

When you are writing the fact section of your brief, you must be clear in your heading as though what facts led up to the dispute. When you finish briefing the opinion, and you still don’t understand this tells you your brief is no good. Sometimes its good to make a time line to understand the chain of events.

3. Issue- The question before the court Issue statement- the question of law that the court is trying to answer that is embedded (surrounded) by the essential facts. The issue is determined by the court that is writing the opinion.

Ex. Did the radio station owe a duty of care to 3rd parties on the road when it broadcast a contest to a bunch of teens, that encouraged the kids to chase the DJ from one location to the next? Sometimes the court will tell you what the issue is right in the opinion…. DON’T OVERLOOK IT!!! 4. Holding- (the courts answer) Usually yes or no		Radio station -yes 5. Rationale- how the court explained itself Where the court explains it answer and the reasoning the court gives for their answer. Helps the researcher to be able to predict whether this will control the case. The rationale in this case is the radio station owed a duty of care to others on the road because it was foreseeable that if you broadcast a contest that encourages teens to chase someone on the highway, there is a great risk of injury to others. The court relied on precedent for its reasoning.

Precedent (stare decisis)- if there is a prior case in your jurisdiction, that has similar facts to yours, the court must follow the rules established in this prior case. The purpose of precedent is to make the law predictable, and to treat people in the same situation the same way. But, the problem is that it is rare that you will ever find a case that is identical to yours. Form the courts reasoning you can predict whether this case will control yours.

If a prior judicial opinion is presented to the court as precedent for your case then the court has a choice: A. Choose to follow the precedent, each time this is done it makes the prior opinion stronger. B. Distinguish the facts from the present case by saying they are slightly different from the facts in the prior case. C. Overrule the prior opinion- this is not done often

Shepardize means the process of seeing what happened to this opinion. Was it overruled since it was decided or distinguished a lot of times?

Shepard’s citations- helps you make sure the law is still valid.

Citation -(a road map as to where you can find a particular case or statute)

Legal Memorandum- tells the lawyer what the law are - cases to agree, cases to disagree. You are impartial, just writing facts

Trial brief- your lawyer presents this to a trial judge to argue different points of the law in his favor

Syllabus- the 1st paragraph (syllabus of the case) summary of the entire case, from this you can find the procedure.

Procedure- can be prior or current

Head notes are small summaries of different parts of the opinion. Head notes tract the opinion. They assign a topic and key number. They are assigned numbers the numbers correspond to the numbers in brackets found in the opinion. Written by lawyers hired by the publisher to go thru the opinion and summarize what the court has said they help;

Head notes are helpful for 2 reasons

1. They tell you where to find it in the opinion through numbers and the numbers correspond to the same number in the opinion. 2. The problem with head notes is you can never solely rely on what is in them because without reading the actual opinion for this reason you come with the problem of using dicta as precedent. The only part of an opinion that establishes precedent that has to be followed is that part of the opinion, which deals with actual facts of the case. Sometimes the court will get off track and will say “IF this had happened, we would have said this….”that is dicta and it doesn’t establish precedent because precedent only involves the issues created by the facts of the case.” Courts can only rule on a case before them…. In other words, the case that is in controversy. Only what they decide on actual facts establishes precedent and everything else is dicta. It is unethical for a lawyer to state dicta as precedent. Reporters- The book that contains judicial opinions witching a particular jurisdiction

Digests- The digest system is a huge outline of the law and divides into topics and subtopics. Every opinion that is written by the court within a particular jurisdiction will be gone thru and assigned topics and key numbers. Topics and key numbers are a part of a companion set of books that go with reporters. In the digest, after each topic and key number there is a squib.

Every opinion that is written by the court within a particular jurisdiction will be gone thru and assigned a topic and key number. In the digest after each topic and key number there is a

Squib- it has a thumbnail summary of what a court said on this particular topic and subtopic and it contains the citation of the case it came from.

The heading of a judicial opinion is called the caption. It is in all caps: Ex. LAST NAME V. LAST NAME

How to Cite
This program follows ALWD Citation Manual published by Association of Legal Writing Directors.

 * United States Supreme Court Wikipedia v. Wikiversity, 541 U.S. 509 (2009).

 * United States Court of Appeals Wikia, Inc. v. Wikiversity Co., 321 F.3d 656 (6th Cir. 2004).

 * United States District Court Wikitravel v. Wikiquote, 71 F. Supp. 2d 475 (E.D. Pa. 1999).

 * State Supreme Court (not using the local rule) Wikimedia, Inc. v. Wikiversity, 123 A.2d 223 (VT. 2005).

 * State Appellate Court (not using the local rule) Main v. Page, 929 So.2ㅇ 214 (Miss. App. 2005).

 * Parallel Citation Recent v. Change, 159 Ohio App. 3d 234, 252 N.E.2d 921 (2d Dist. 2008).

Abbreviations for Reporters
Exercise

Try to guess what each abbreviations mean.

 * United States Reports U.S.
 * Supreme Court Reporter S. Ct.
 * United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyer's Edition L. Ed.
 * United States Law Week U.S.L.W.
 * Federal Reporter F.
 * Federal Reporter 2nd Series F.2d
 * Federal Reporter 3rd Series F.3d
 * Federal Supplement F. Supp.
 * Federal Rules Decisions F.R.D.
 * Bankruptcy Reporter B.R.
 * Atlantic Reporter A.
 * Atlantic Reporter, 2nd Series A.2d
 * California Reporter Cal. Rptr.
 * California Reporter, 2nd Series Cal. Rptr. 2d
 * New York Supplement N.Y.S.
 * New York Supplement, 2nd Series N.Y.S.2d
 * North Eastern Reporter N.E.
 * North Eastern Reporter, 2nd Series N.E.2d
 * North Western Reporter N.W.
 * North Western Reporter, 2nd Series N.W.2d
 * PPacific Reporter P.
 * PPacific Reporter, 2nd Series P.2d
 * Pacific Reporter, 3rd Series P.3d
 * South Eastern Reporter S.E.
 * South Eastern Reporter, 2nd Series S.E.2d
 * South Western Reporter S.W.
 * South Western Reporter, 2nd Series S.W.2d
 * South Western Reporter, 3rd Series S.W.3d
 * Southern Reporter So.
 * Southern Reporter, 2nd Series S.2d

Case

 * See Wiki v. Britannica, 265 U.S. 503, 512 (2008).
 * See Wiki, 265 U.S. at 512.

State Case
 * See Wikiversity v. Harvard, 123 P.2d 500, 508 (Okla. Crim. App. 2010).
 * See Harvard, 123 P.2d at 508.

Office Memorandum
The general rule is that an agent must perform the work or duties required by the principal. Taylor Association v Southern Metropolitain Partnership association, 547 U.S. 165, 172-176 (2010). these duties may be set forth in the agency agreement or it may be implied from the nature of the agency relationship. Id. at page 180.

Client Opinion Letters

 * One Ls: Resources for Writing Client Letters and Opinion Letters

title: United States Law/Legal Writing


text:
User talk:Ttoale~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Ttoale, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other wikiversiters on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mirwin 01:53, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ttoale. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ttoale~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Ttoale~enwikiversity


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User talk:Syed sibte hassan

Welcome
Hello Syed sibte hassan, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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title: User talk:Syed sibte hassan


text:
User talk:Zakkrox

Welcome
Hello Zakkrox, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other wikiversiters on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mirwin 01:54, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

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User talk:O-shield999~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello O-shield999, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Mirwin 01:57, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called O-shield999. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name O-shield999~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

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Talk:United States Law/Legal Writing

Everyone, come and help!

title: Talk:United States Law/Legal Writing


text: Template:Film School:Storyboarding:Pop Quiz:Answers3


text:
United States Law/Terminology quiz

Choose the sentence that best defines the legal term given.

Exercise 1 (Multiple Choices)
1. Act

(A) something done, a deed

(B) a division of a theatrical performance

(C) a product of a legislative body, a statute

2. Advance sheets

(A) pamphlets with the updates of recent decisions of a court or several courts

(B) a document filed to move to the next round of competition

(C) type of musical manuscript used in the Medieval period

3. Annotated code

(A) A version of a code with relevant references added to it

(B) upcoming book by Dan Brown, a sequel to the Da Vinci Code

(C) A complex master password that can bring down Wikimedia

4. Appeal

(A) resort to physical means

(B) the act, by the fielding side, of asking an umpire for a decision of whether a batsman is out or not.

(C) An application for the removal of a cause or suit from an inferior to a superior judge or court for reexamination or review.

5. Appellant

(A) someone who repels

(B) a litigant or party that is making an appeal in court.

(C) a substance or treatment for a fabric etc to make it impervious to something

6. Appellate court

(A) a hardcover book

(B) the law of reported judicial opinions

(C) Court full of sex appeal

7. Appellee

(A) a compilation of statues

(B) a directive to another term or synonym in an index

(C) ad hoc amicus curiae

8. Black letter law

(A) including what came before

(B) an expression of the reasons why a certain decision was reached in a case

(C) any law that is not black in color

9. Bluebook

(A) blank notebook used in the final exams in college

(B) a rule book for legal citation published by a group of law reviews

(C) any book that is painted blue and sold throughout the U.S.

10. Case

(A) a private publisher's collection of brief summaries of court holdings on points of law from cases

(B) something that helps you find what you are looking for

(C) a container used to house an object

11. Citation

(A) a brief summary of a legal rule or significant facts in a case (B) a parmanent number given a specific topic or point of case law

(C) A ticket issued by a police officer for minor offenses, such as traffic matters

12. Cite

(A) a paperback update

(B) a citation reference to the same case printed in two or more different reporters

(C) a place or location

13. Civil

(A) res ipsa loquitur

(B) a single book or section of a book in a statue index that contains

(C) prima facie

14. Code

(A) lean white flesh of important North Atlantic food fish; usually baked or poached (B) pod: the vessel that contains the seeds of a plant (not the seeds themselves)

(C) A systematic collection of laws by category

15. Common law

(A) Law that is widely accessible and widely spread

(B) A domestic quarrel prevalent among the laymen

(C) The law developed over centuries and derived from judicial opinions rather than from legislative enactments.

16. Controversy

(A) A dispute or case

(B) quid pro quo

(C) habeas corpus

17. Court

(A) the United States Supreme Court

(B) dicta

(C) in personam

18. court

(A) courts in a general sense

(B) pinpoint references

(C) a place where one plays tennis

19. Criminal law

(A) any law that is injurious and evil

(B) the public law regarding crimes and their prosecution

(C) the method of citing consecutive pages

20. Decision

(A) An authoritative ruling that a court makes

(B) administrative codes

(C) Administrative registers

21. Defendant

(A) The person against whom a lawsuit or prosecution has been brought

(B) agency decisions

(C) A.L.R. annotations

22. Descriptive Word Index

(A) A bibliographic tool used for finding cases by subject in a print digest

(B) Books and treatises

(C) Constitutions

23. Digests

(A) Finding tools that provide subject access to cases. Digests are usually a multi-volume publication and the entries are arranged according to a subject outline.

(B) Encyclopedia

(C) Local court citation rules

24. Dissent

(A) A judge's disagreement with the majority opinion of a court

(B) Lowering of the bench in the courtroom

(C) West regional reporter coverage

25. Et seq

(A) Latin phrase for "I hate lawyers"

(B) and the following

(C) I have no idea

26. Headnote

(A) South Eastern Reporter

(B) summaries that state a decision's principles or ruling

(C) Southern Reporter

27. Hornbook

(A) A general reference to the series of treatises published by Thomson West or to other introductory texts written primarily for students (B) Order of Cited Authorities

(C) Heart rate monitors

28. Index to Legal Periodicals & Books

(A) known as ILP, an index of law reviews articles

(B) harass with persistent criticism or carping

(C) A shipment for which the carrier is responsible for collecting the sale price of the goods shipped prior to delivery

30. Judgment

(A) A court's formal ruling or decision

(B) text references

(C) Commercially published CD-ROM material

31. Key number

(A) Number given to each sub-topic in the West digest system

(B) de jure

(C) numeric value coded on a key

32. Looseleafs

(A) Organic outgrowth of tropical forest

(B) A frequently supplemented tool that specializes in a particular area of law and often contains primary legal sources, finding aids, and secondary source material.

33. LegalTrac

(A) An index of periodical literature that indexes most English-language legal periodical literature from 1980 to the present

(B) The amount of oxygen consumed by the chemical breakdown of organic and inorganic matter

(C) documents without footnote

34. Nutshell

(A) A protective shield used by naughty law professors during class

(B) A general reference to the series of treatises published by Thomson West

(C) Chris scored 145 on the December LSAT

35. Unannotated code

(A) A version of a code without reference to law review articles, case summaries

(B) Unending sequence of numbers and letters

(C) Unmarked page of a code

36. Unofficial publications

(A) Pirated copy of commercial texts published in China

(B) published work without statutory authority designating them as an official version.

(C) Books sold illegally without the cover

37. Official publications

(A) What links here

(B) Related changes

(C) authorized by statute or governmental ruling

38. Online sources

(A) Upload file

(B) Special pages

(C) Westlaw and LexisNexis

39. Opinion

(A) The reasons given for a court's judgment, finding or conclusion.

(B) Content that violates any copyright will be deleted

(C) Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia

40. Panel

(A) In reference to a court, it is a group of judges (usually three judges) among those sitting on an appellate court who hear a particular appeal

(B) Lexis's Jurisprudence of Viriginia and West Virginia

(C) Michigan Civil Jurisprudence

41. Parallel citation

(A) Black's Law Dictionary

(B) A reference to a document’s citation when the document is printed in more than one source

(C) Dictionary of International and Comparative Law

42. Plaintiff

(A) The person or entity that initiates a lawsuit against another

(B) Pinpoint reference

(C) American Law Reports

43. Pocket part

(A) A paper-back pamphlet inserted into a book through a slit in its cover (usually the back cover), that updates the information in the book itself

(B) ALWD Citation Manual

(C) Comparative legal philosophy

44. Precedent

(A) A judicial decision that a court should follow when deciding a similar case

(B) where the mineral water is bottled

(C) Statutes at large

45. Primary sources

(A) where the mineral water is bottled, Evian, France is the good example

(B) The actual law itself whether constitutional, statutory, administrative (regulations) or case law.

(C) anything that is neither secondary or tertiary

44. Regulation

(A) A rule or order issued by a government agency to carry out the intent of the law

(B) unpublished memorandum

(C) ABA model ethics codes

46. Reporter

(A) Court opinions from a particular court or group of courts are published in books referred to as reporters

(B) Uniform law and sentencing guidelines

(C) American Jurisprudence

47. Ruling

(A) An official or authoritative determination, statement, or interpretation (as by a judge on a question of law)

(B) Corpus Juris Secondum

(C) West's Maryland Law Encyclopedia

48. Secondary source

(A) law review articles, encyclopedias, and books

(B) On the federal level, the highest court in the judicial branch of government

(C) Chemical oxygen demand

49. Slip opinion

(A) An individual judicial opinion that is published separately, either in print or online, shortly after it is issued by the court

(B) italics to show emphasis

(C) Any court that requires a writ of certiorari to review a case

50. Statute

(A) A law enacted by the legislative branch of a government

(B) websites without permission

(C) Text that is licensed under a Free Content License

Exercise 2 (Free Responses)
Define the following terms in your own words.

1. Treatises

2. Slip opinion

3. Reporter

4. Pocket part

5. Nutshell

6. Looseleafs

7. Digests

Exercise 3 (Common Latin Phrases)
Click the follow Latin terms and look up their definitions.

 * ad hoc
 * amicus curiae
 * certiorari
 * de facto
 * de jure
 * de novo
 * dicta, dictum
 * en banc
 * et al.
 * et seq.
 * habeas corpus
 * in personam
 * in rem
 * inter alia
 * passim
 * prima facie
 * quantum meruit
 * quid pro quo
 * res gestae
 * res ipsa loquitur
 * res judicata

title: United States Law/Terminology quiz


text:
Talk:Challenges

http://www.microtransat.org/?lang=en --Remi 06:56, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Challenges


text:
Vector calculus

Material from Vectors was moved here.

Here we extend the concept of vector to that of the vector field. A familiar example of a vector field is wind velocity: It has direction and magnitude, which makes it a vector. But it also depends on position (and ultimately on time). Wind velocity is a function of (x,y,z) at any given time, equivalently we can say that wind velocity is a time-dependent field: $$\vec V_{wind}=\vec V(\vec r, t)$$.

Derivative of a vector valued function
Let $$\mathbf{a}(x)\,$$ be a vector function that can be represented as

\mathbf{a}(x) = a_1(x) \mathbf{e}_1 + a_2(x) \mathbf{e}_2 + a_3(x) \mathbf{e}_3\, $$ where $$x\,$$ is a scalar.

Then the derivative of $$\mathbf{a}(x)\,$$ with respect to $$x\,$$ is

\cfrac{d\mathbf{a}(x)}{dx} = \lim_{\Delta x\rightarrow 0} \cfrac{\mathbf{a}(x+\Delta x) - \mathbf{a}(x)}{\Delta x} = \cfrac{da_1(x)}{dx} \mathbf{e}_1 + \cfrac{da_2(x)}{dx} \mathbf{e}_2 + \cfrac{da_3(x)}{dx} \mathbf{e}_3~. $$ Note: In the above equation, the unit vectors $$\mathbf{e}_i$$ (i=1,2,3) are assumed constant. If $$\mathbf{a}(x)\,$$ and $$\mathbf{b}(x)\,$$ are two vector functions, then from the chain rule we get
 * $$\begin{align}

\cfrac{d({\mathbf{a}}\cdot{\mathbf{b}})}{x} & = {\mathbf{a}}\cdot{\cfrac{d\mathbf{b}}{dx}} + {\cfrac{d\mathbf{a}}{dx}}\cdot{\mathbf{b}} \\ \cfrac{d({\mathbf{a}}\times{\mathbf{b}})}{dx} & = {\mathbf{a}}\times{\cfrac{d\mathbf{b}}{dx}} + {\cfrac{d\mathbf{a}}{dx}}\times{\mathbf{b}} \\ \cfrac{d[{\mathbf{a}}\cdot{({\mathbf{a}}\times{\mathbf{b}})}]}{dt} & = {\cfrac{d\mathbf{a}}{dt}}\cdot{({\mathbf{b}}\times{\mathbf{c}})} + {\mathbf{a}}\cdot{\left({\cfrac{d\mathbf{b}}{dt}}\times{\mathbf{c}}\right)} + {\mathbf{a}}\cdot{\left({\mathbf{b}}\times{\cfrac{d\mathbf{c}}{dt}}\right)} \end{align}$$

Scalar and vector fields
Let $$\mathbf{x}\,$$ be the position vector of any point in space. Suppose that there is a scalar function ($$g\,$$) that assigns a value to each point in space. Then

g = g(\mathbf{x})\, $$ represents a scalar field. An example of a scalar field is the temperature. See Figure4(a).

If there is a vector function ($$\mathbf{a}\,$$) that assigns a vector to each point in space, then

\mathbf{a} = \mathbf{a}(\mathbf{x})\, $$ represents a vector field. An example is the displacement field. See Figure 4(b).

Gradient of a scalar field
Let $$\varphi(\mathbf{x})\,$$ be a scalar function. Assume that the partial derivatives of the function are continuous in some region of space. If the point $$\mathbf{x}\,$$ has coordinates ($$x_1, x_2, x_3\,$$) with respect to the basis ($$\mathbf{e}_1, \mathbf{e}_2, \mathbf{e}_3\,$$), the gradient of $$\varphi\,$$ is defined as

\boldsymbol{\nabla}{\varphi} = \frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x_1}~\mathbf{e}_1 + \frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x_2}~\mathbf{e}_2 + \frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x_3}~\mathbf{e}_3 ~. $$ In index notation,

\boldsymbol{\nabla}{\varphi} \equiv \varphi_{,i}~\mathbf{e}_i ~. $$ The gradient is obviously a vector and has a direction. We can think of the gradient at a point being the vector perpendicular to the level contour at that point.

It is often useful to think of the symbol $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}{}$$ as an operator of the form

\boldsymbol{\nabla}{} = \frac{\partial }{\partial x_1} ~\mathbf{e}_1 + \frac{\partial }{\partial x_2} ~\mathbf{e}_2 + \frac{\partial }{\partial x_3} ~\mathbf{e}_3 ~. $$

Divergence of a vector field
If we form a scalar product of a vector field $$\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{x})\,$$ with the $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}{}$$ operator, we get a scalar quantity called the divergence of the vector field. Thus,

\boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot\mathbf{u} = \frac{\partial u_1}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial u_2}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial u_3}{\partial x_3} ~. $$

In index notation,

\boldsymbol{\nabla}\mathbf{u} \equiv u_{i,i} ~. $$

If $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot\mathbf{u} = 0$$, then $$\mathbf{u}\,$$ is called a divergence-free field.

The physical significance of the divergence of a vector field is the rate at which some density exits a given region of space. In the absence of the creation or destruction of matter, the density within a region of space can change only by having it flow into or out of the region.

Curl of a vector field
The curl of a vector field $$\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{x})\,$$ is a vector whose expression can be obtained with

\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{u}} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1 & \mathbf{e}_2 & \mathbf{e}_3 \\ \frac{\partial }{\partial x_1} & \frac{\partial }{\partial x_2} & \frac{\partial }{\partial x_3} \\ u_1 & u_2 & u_3 \\ \end{vmatrix} $$

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is the amount of rotation or angular momentum of the contents of a region of space.

Laplacian of a scalar or vector field
The Laplacian of a scalar field $$\varphi(\mathbf{x})\,$$ is a scalar defined as

\nabla^2{\varphi} := \boldsymbol{\nabla}(\boldsymbol{\nabla}{\varphi}) = \frac{\partial^2 \varphi}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial^2 \varphi}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial^2 \varphi}{\partial x_3}~. $$

The Laplacian of a vector field $$\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{x})\,$$ is a vector defined as

\nabla^2{\mathbf{u}} := (\nabla^2{u_1}) \mathbf{e}_1 + (\nabla^2{u_2}) \mathbf{e}_2 + (\nabla^2{u_3}) \mathbf{e}_3 ~. $$

Identities in vector calculus
Some frequently used identities from vector calculus are listed below.
 * 1) $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b}) = \boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot{\mathbf{a}} + \boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot{\mathbf{b}}$$
 * 2) $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{(\mathbf{a} + \mathbf{b})} = \boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{a}} + \boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{b}}$$
 * 3) $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}(\varphi\mathbf{a}) = \cdot{(\boldsymbol{\nabla}{\varphi})}{\mathbf{a}} + \varphi (\boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot{\mathbf{a}})$$
 * 4) $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{(\varphi\mathbf{a})} = {(\boldsymbol{\nabla}{\varphi})}\times{\mathbf{a}} + \varphi (\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{a}})$$
 * 5) $$\boldsymbol{\nabla}({\mathbf{a}}\times{\mathbf{b}}) = {\mathbf{b}}\cdot{(\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{a}})} -                {\mathbf{a}}\cdot{(\boldsymbol{\nabla}\times{\mathbf{b}})}$$

Fundamental theorems of vector calculus
One version of the fundamental theorem of one-dimensional calculus is

 * $$\int_a^b f\,'(x)dx = f(b) - f(a)$$

This is a theorem about a function, $$f(x)$$, its first derivative, and a line segment. Two notations used to denote this line segment are [a,b] and the inequality, a<x<b. In the field of topology, $$\partial$$ denotes boundary. If we let the symbol $$\mathcal L$$ denote the infinite number of points in the line segment [a,b], then the symbol $$\partial\mathcal L$$ denotes the two endpoints (at x = a  and  x = b ) of the line segment $$\mathcal L$$. These endpoints form the boundary of $$\mathcal L$$.

Gradient theorem
The gradient theorem is a direct generalization of the fundamental theorem of calculus:

 * $$ \int_{\ell[\vec p \to \vec q] \subset \mathbb R^n} \vec\nabla f\cdot d\vec\ell = f \left(\vec{q}\right)- f\left(\vec{p}\right)   $$

The subscript, $$\ell[\vec p \to \vec q] \subset \mathbb R^n$$ informs this is an integral over the over a one-dimensinal curve (or 'path')  $$\ell$$  from point $$\vec r=\vec p$$ to point $$\vec r=\vec q$$. The function, $$ f= f(\vec r) $$ is any scalar field that is differentiable. The expression $$\subset \mathbb R^n$$ informs us that $$\vec r$$ can be a member of an n-dimensional space. (In other words the theorem is easily generalized to more than three dimensions.) A consequence of this theorem is that  $$\int\vec\nabla f\cdot d\vec\ell=0$$ for any "closed curve" The figure shows the closed curve A, as well as the "open curve", B. Two endpoints form the "boundary" of curve B.

Stokes' theorem
Stokes' theorem states:
 * $$ \int_{\Sigma\subset\mathbb R^3} \vec\nabla \times \vec F \cdot \vec{dA} = \oint_{\partial\Sigma}\vec F\cdot d\hat\ell$$

The integral subscript, $$\Sigma\subset \mathbb R^3$$ informs us that this theorem is valid only in a three-dimensional vector space. The integral is over a two-dimensional surface,Σ ,with $$\vec{dA} = \hat n dA$$, where $$\hat n$$ is normal to the surface. The integral over the surface, Σ, is nonzero only if its boundary, ∂Σ, exists. Surfaces with such boundaries are called open surfaces, and the boundary, ∂Σ, is a curve in 3-space that goes along the "edge" of the surface. This curve is integrated in the direction of positive orientation, meaning that $$\vec{d\ell}$$ and the surface normal follow $$\hat n dA$$ follow the right-hand rule.

 * Footnote: According to Wikipedia, this form of the theorem was first discovered by Lord Kelvin, who communicated it to George Stokes in a letter dated July 2, 1850. Stokes set the theorem as a question on the 1854 Smith's Prize exam, which led to the result bearing his name.

Divergence theorem
The divergence theorem states:

 * $$\int_{\Omega} \vec\nabla \cdot \vec F \;dV=

\oint_{\partial \Omega\subset\mathbb R^3} \vec F \cdot d\vec A $$.

The integral subscript, $$\Omega\subset \mathbb R^n$$, informs us that this theorem is valid in an (arbitrary) n-dimensional vector space. The n-dimensional volume is Ω, and ∂Ω is its boundary. If n =3 dimensions, ∂Ω is a surface. Since this surface encloses a volume, it has no boundary of its own, and is therefore called a closed surface. The figure shows six surfaces. The three on the left have no boundary and are therefore closed; the ones to the right have a boundary (shown in red) and are therefore open. Note that the closed surfaces to the left are themselves boundaries volumes which are defined as what is "inside" the surface.
 * Footnote: In index notation, the gradient theorem can be written as $$ \int_{\Omega} u_{i,i}~dV = \int_{\partial\Omega} n_i u_i~dA $$

title: Vector calculus


text:
User:Jamalwolf

I  am  teaching   English,Hindi,   Urdu   and   persian.

title: User:Jamalwolf


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September/Maintenance

This page is used to track missing identification data for plants blooming in May in Southeastern Pennsylvania.

Leaf Arrangement
DynamicPageList tracking using:  category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=BCP/Opposite leaves notcategory=BCP/Alternate leaves notcategory=BCP/Whorled leaves notcategory=BCP/Basal leaves only order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

The pages below do not have leaf arrangement defined:

 category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=BCP/Opposite leaves notcategory=BCP/Alternate leaves notcategory=BCP/Whorled leaves notcategory=BCP/Basal leaves only order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

Leaf Complexity
DynamicPageList tracking using:  category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=BCP/Simple leaves notcategory=BCP/Pinnately compound leaves notcategory=BCP/Palmately compound leaves notcategory=BCP/Trifoliate leaves order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

The pages below do not have leaf complexity defined.

 category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=BCP/Simple leaves notcategory=BCP/Pinnately compound leaves notcategory=BCP/Palmately compound leaves notcategory=BCP/Trifoliate leaves order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

Using substituted templates
 category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=Bloom Clock Project Plants order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

 category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=Bloom Clock Project Plants order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007

Project page for the course in winter 2007.

Project FUBAR (Group 6)
Roland Kammerer, Christian Paukovits, Gernot Vormayr

µC comparison
([[media:FUBAR_comparison.pdf|pdf version]])
 * Altera NiosII
 * Atmel ATmega 16
 * Infineon C167
 * Motorola 68k

ISA and Assembler for the CPU
ISA: ([[media:FUBAR_opset.pdf|pdf version]])

Assembler: assembler (source code)

Simulator: simulator (source code)

CPU Documentation
[[media:Docu.pdf|pdf version]]

Project Nincompoop (Group 2)
Alexander Oh, Andreas Haschka, Claudia Hermann, Stefan Tauner

Instruction Set I
([[media:IsaI.pdf|pdf version]])
 * Alpha
 * ARM
 * i960

Project MAD (Modern Auxilary Device) (Group 5)
Gerald Scharitzer, Markus Kammerstetter, Philipp Effenberger, Armin Novak

- Sparc - IBM S/360 - Atmel AVR
 * assignment 1
 * We have compared the following three ISAs ([[media:Assignment1.pdf|PDF]]):

 * assignment 2
 * The ISA we developed is described here: [[media:Assignment2.pdf|PDF]]
 * An updated [final] version of the ISA can be found here: commons:Image:MAD-Instruction-Set-Description-Final.pdf
 * Additional documentation and design of the processor is here: commons:Image:MAD-Pipeline-Design-Detail.png
 * The source code of the assembler can be found in our svn repository

 * assignment 3
 * The Quartus II projects for UART output and input are stored in our svn repository

Project LIAR - Liar Is A Risc (Group 3)
Michael Zöch, Michael Wessner, Gürsel Ayaz, Christoph Sieghart

Instruction Set I
Our analysis of three ISAs.

Instruction Set II
Our ISA and Assembler.

Project CZD (Group 4)
Eszter Csuta Manuel Zaera David Dobler

See Details here.

Assembler Source Code

Project -1 (Lucky .. das Ding aus dem See) (Group 7)
Bernhard Fischer, Hubert Kraut, Richard Salzer, Oliver Zendel

Instruction Set 1
For assignment Instruction Set 1 we examined the following processors: - MOS Technology 6502 - Motorola 68k - ARM ARMv5

Instruction Set 2
The complete Instruction Set can be found in Instruction Set 2.

FPGA Design Flow
Our results can be found here: FPGA Design Flow.

Processor
Documentation of our processor.

Project Tante Emma (Group 1)
Alexandra Schuster, Franz Hartl, Harald Weillechner, Peter Hilber

Processor Comparison
Summary of the following microprocessors:
 * MOS Technology 6502 (Accumulator)
 * DLX (RISC)
 * 4stack (VLIW in combination with Stack Architecture)

Instruction Set
We have a detailed description about our microprocessor, though some contents can change during development progress.

Assembler
To generate the binary input for the processor, download the actual version (v1.3) of our Tante Emma Assembler.

We generated some example assembler files which can be executed with the Tante Emma Assembler. We we have precompiled asm files, the binary files are also for download.

We further offer a short description for our assembler.

Simulation
We have generated a Matlab Simulation which includes all defined operations except division and multiplication. Furthermore the operations out, in, st, and ld are not implemented, since the data memory is not implemented. The instruction memory is only for test and therefore not exactly implemented as if it represents the RAM in real world. Branches, Jumps, returns and instruction cache misses are all tested and are working correct. You can download the actual version of our Tante Emma Simulator. To ran the simulation you need Matlab and Simulink.

Tante Emma Analysis
In this section we want to analyse our Tante Emma Processor in a more abstract way. We want to show features acourding to the Computer Architecture VO. For more details click here.

Project Διογένησ (Group 8)
Andreas Fellnhofer, David Rigler

Overview

 * Pipeline Schematic
 * Diogenes is a RISC Architecture CPU.
 * It has 4 pipeline stages, namely: Fetch, Decode, Execute and Writeback
 * Program and data-memory are separated (Harvard)
 * All instructions are 16 Bit wide
 * The general purpose registers and data-paths are 32-bit wide
 * No DRAM interface
 * Minimalistic design ==> high clock frequencies

Instruction Set I
- MIPS I   - ARM7 - Z80 Comparison of these architectures: pdf

Instruction Set II

 * Current Diogenes Instruction Set

Tools

 * Description of Tools (Assembler, Simulator)

Examples

 * Diogenes Assembler Examples

External Components

 * Diogenes External Components

Downloads
VHDL Source, Assembler, Simulator and ASM Examples: tar.bz2

Project MoM (Group 9)
Florian Brandner

My project is somewhat special. I'm not writing a processor on my own, but instead write a tool that generates a VHDL model of the processors core from a high level specification. This high level architecture description language (ADL) is developed at the Christian Doppler Laboratory; and already used to generate a simulator model, and parts of a compiler from the same ADL model.

There is some (not much) information at my website: http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/cd/brandner

Overview
The core that is generated is based on the MIPS, as described in the book "Copmuter Organization & Design" by Hennessy and Patterson - with some modifications to get the "beast" running.

 * 4 stage pipeline
 * 32 32-bit general purpose registers
 * most integer instructions
 * pipeline, forwarding and control generated from the ADL model
 * hand coded instruction decoder, memory, I/O

Instruction Set
Most integer instructions are implemented - including all branch, load, store, logic and arithmetic operations.

Here are the most important limitations:
 * multiply: mult, multu
 * divide: div, divu
 * load: lwl, lwr (because of legal issues ;-)
 * store: swl, swr
 * all floating point and co-processor instructions
 * all privileged instructions
 * no exceptions (add, addiu, sub)

The list of instructions is available here: http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/cd/brandner/ca/mips.isa

Tools
Although many instructions are not available the regular MIPS tools (gcc, binutils, newlib) can be used - with some limitations of course.

You will need some additional files for newlib, these can be found here: http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/cd/brandner/ca/adllib.tar.bz2

Building the tools is an art on its own - a short how-to can be found here: http://www.jopwiki.com/MIPS

Examples
- Simple Hello World: #include  int main {   setbuf(stdout, NULL); /// disable buffering of I/O return puts("flo!\n"); }

- Queens This program finds all the possible ways that N queens can be placed on an NxN chessboard so that the queens cannot capture one another. http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/cd/brandner/ca/queens.tar.bz2

Current Status
Currently everything works fine - after troubles synthesizing Block RAM with byte-enable. The example program is running on a Virtex-4 (XC4VL25) at 25Mhz. I'll try to get more examples running - but time is short :-)

title: Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007


text:
User talk:Meenu

Welcome
Hello Meenu, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other wikiversiters on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 15:30, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Meenu


text:
School talk:Zoology

Zoölogy is interesting!

Animals...

Questions
I am very new to Wikiversity so, my apologies if I do not do this correctly. Should I still be citing information included so that fellows can do their own research, or is this truly a compendium of knowledge? I am thinking I should be making citations, but am a little confused. Please allow me time to finish the entire taxonomic branches section, it was very late when I stumbled upon the Zoology section here, noticed how empty it was, and wanted to contribute in some way. I would like to add photos to the taxonomic trees as well, because my experience has often been that the trees tend to be textual, and I am not certain this captures everyone's imagination, however finding images to represent all of the branches through public domain images may take time, and overcrowding the page is a big concern for me. A custom-made Powerpoint may do wonders, heck I can even see species being animated properly or live-action to show movement, since comparative anatomy is so important in Zoology both old and new. As you go up the tree to higher forms, such as vertebrates, both live-action/animation and skeletal forms could be displayed (cross-sections under magnification could be used for lower forms). It might be too much, but at certain intervals differences in internal structure could be highlighted. The different expressions of Zoology are so varied, especially as you go back in history. Should this be covered? The changes and/or diversity of Zoology? Is there a way to unify these foci, and if so, should they be? The Zoology I know is rather self-taught, and a combination of different expressions of the study. There are also a lot of differing philosophies in Zoology. Should they, too, be covered? --AmandaEP 08:03, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

One big issue I wish to point out is I have noted cases where Zoology crosses over into human anatomy and physiology, especially in medical applications of the study. I think limiting it only to animals again separates humans from animals, and most versed in biology I know personally do not share this view. --AmandaEP 08:25, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

Currently, there are two (or more depending on your views) ways of classifying animals in taxonomy. I have begun the taxonomic section on the main page with Linnaean classification in mind, but only because he was the starting point. I think it might be important to show the other systems as well, but this then makes things tricky. I did a little digging, and just on the talk and other Wiki pages alone, there is a large though unheated debate currently ongoing as to how best to utilize and display all the types of classifications, or if to do so at all. This barely even touches on the actual scientific debate, where those versed in anatomy and physiology are pitted against those of phylogenetics, et cetera. Personally I do not see how these two alone are not interdisciplinary more so then they already are, because just with genetics, from what I understand, something can share outward characteristics with another form of life, but arrive at it entirely separate from one another, because it suits the environment in which it inhabits, and so on, or maybe we do not yet understand all the intricacies of the relationships.--AmandaEP 21:43, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

I noted someone did an excellent job on a table displaying 38 Phyla under the entry for phylum at Wikipedia, so I included it here. The credit for the table is certainly due the person who took the time to create it. There are three Wiki pages I am comparing data from, as well as personal library resources. If I am crossing any lines, or there is erroneous data, my apologies, as I did not create all of the data I am trying to include here, and this is my first Wikiversity contribution. The entries I would like to somehow combine with this page are: [] [][][] --AmandaEP 23:45, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

 * "very new to Wikiversity"....."noticed how empty it was" <-- Most topics here are just getting started. If you are familiar with Wikipedia, you might need to un-learn a few things. Feel free to experiment and try different formats. We have room for multiple approaches to the same topic. When dealing with biology, I often feel that the topics have a life of their own that needs to be freely explored.....without trying to fit that expression into a single "best way to do it". Have fun! --JWS 23:55, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

 * You clarified quite a lot! Thanks so much!! =D --AmandaEP 00:11, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

I was wondering if I could add the Zoology Powerpoint to this University and how. This is one of my favorite subjects and would like to add to the site.
 * What is the "the Zoology Powerpoint"? --JWSchmidt 16:49, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

- Create a power point about Zoology and add it! ;)

ECO ECOOO!!
Why is such a nice subject as Zoology so empty??! Is anyone there?? Please an specialist that add something!! --user:91.65.132.76 at 19:06, 24 August 2010.

title: School talk:Zoology


text:
Digital Electronics/Lecture Karnaugh Map Reductions

The Karnaugh map, also known as a Veitch diagram (K-map or KV-map for short), is a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. A Karnaugh map is unique in that only one variable changes value between squares, in other words, the rows and columns are ordered according to the principles of Gray code.

History and nomenclature
The Karnaugh map was invented in 1953 by Maurice Karnaugh, a telecommunications engineer at Bell Labs.

Usage in boolean logic
Normally, extensive calculations are required to obtain the minimal expression of a Boolean function, but one can use a Karnaugh map instead.

Problem solving uses
 * Karnaugh maps make use of the human brain's excellent pattern-matching capability to decide which terms should be combined to get the simplest expression.
 * K-maps permit the rapid identification and elimination of potential race hazards, something that boolean equations alone cannot do.
 * A Karnaugh map is an excellent aid for simplification of up to six variables, but with more variables it becomes hard even for our brain to discern optimal patterns.
 * For problems involving more than six variables, solving the boolean expressions is more preferred than the Karnaugh map.

Karnaugh maps also help teach about Boolean functions and minimization.

Properties

A Karnaugh map may have any number of variables, but usually works best when there are only a few - between 2 and 6 for example. Each variable contributes two possibilities to each possibility of every other variable in the system. Karnaugh maps are organized so that all the possibilities of the system are arranged in a grid form and between two adjacent boxes only one variable can change value. This is what allows it to reduce hazards.

When using a Karnaugh map to derive a minimized function, one "covers" the ones on the map by rectangular "coverings" that contain a number of boxes equal to a power of 2 (for example, 4 boxes in a line, 4 boxes in a square, 8 boxes in a rectangle, etc). All of the ones must be covered and a covering cannot have a zero in it. Once a person has covered the ones, a term of a sum of products is produced by finding the variables that do not change throughout the entire covering, and taking a 1 to mean that variable and a 0 as the complement of that variable. Doing this for every covering gives you a matching function.

One can also use zeros to derive a minimized function. The procedure is identical to the procedure for ones except that each term is a term in a product of sums - and a 1 means the complement of the variable while 0 means the variable non-complemented.

Each square in a Karnaugh map corresponds to a minterm (and maxterm). The picture to the right shows the location of each minterm on the map.

Size of map
In a Karnaugh map with $$n$$ variables, a Boolean term mentioning $$k$$ of them will have a corresponding rectangle of area $$2^{n-k}$$. Common sized maps are of 2 variables which is a 2x2 map; 3 variables which is a 2x4 map; and 4 variables which is a 4x4 map (shown below).

Example
Consider the following function of four variables (which, in binary, has a maximum number of combinations of 16):

 * $$f(A, B, C, D) = E(6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14)$$

The values inside $$E$$ lists the minterms to map (i.e., which rows have output 1 in the truth table).

Truth table
Using the defined minterms, the truth table can be created:

Map
The input variables can be combined in 16 different ways, so our Karnaugh map has to have 16 positions. The most convenient way to arrange this is in a 4x4 grid.

The binary digits in the map represent the function's output for any given combination of inputs. We write 0 in the upper leftmost corner of the map because $$f=0$$ when $$A=0$$, $$B=0$$, $$C=0$$, $$D=0$$. Similarly we mark the bottom right corner as 1 because $$A=1$$, $$B=0$$, $$C=1$$, $$D=0$$ gives $$f=1$$. Note that the values are ordered in a Gray code, so that precisely one variable flips between any pair of adjacent cells.

After the Karnaugh map has been constructed our next task is to find the minimal terms to use in the final expression. These terms are found by encircling groups of 1's in the map. The encirclings must be rectangular and must have an area that is a power of two (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, …). The rectangles should be as large as possible without containing any 0's. The optimal encirclings in this map are marked by the green, red and blue lines.

For each of these encirclings we find those variables that have the same state in each of the fields in the encircling. For the first encircling (the red one) we find that: Thus the first term in the Boolean expression is $$A\overline{C}$$.
 * The variable $$A$$ maintains the same state (1) in the whole encircling, therefore it should be included in the term for the red encircling.
 * Variable $$B$$ does not maintain the same state (it shifts from 1 to 0), and should therefore be excluded.
 * $$C$$ does not change: it is always 0.
 * $$D$$ changes.

For the green encircling we see that $$A$$ and $$B$$ maintain the same state, but $$C$$ and $$D$$ change. $$B$$ is 0 and has to be negated before it can be included. Thus the second term is $$A\overline{B}$$.

In the same way, the blue rectangle gives the term $$BC\overline{D}$$ and so the whole expression is: $$A\overline{C} + A\overline{B} + BC\overline{D}$$.

Toroidally connected
The grid is toroidally connected, which means that the rectangles can wrap around edges, so $$A\overline{D}$$ is a valid term, although not part of the minimal set — this covers minterms 8, 10, 12, & 14.

Perhaps the hardest-to-visualize wrap-around term is $$\overline{B}\,\overline{D}$$ which covers the four corners — this covers minterms 0, 2, 8, 10.

Inverse
The inverse of a function is solved in the same way by encircling the 0's instead.

The three terms to cover the inverse are all shown with grey boxes with different colored borders:
 * brown — $$\overline{A}\,\overline{B}$$
 * gold — $$\overline{A}\,\overline{C}$$
 * blue — $$BCD$$

This yields the inverse:
 * $$\overline{F} = \overline{A}\,\overline{B} + \overline{A}\,\overline{C} + BCD$$

Through the use of De Morgan's laws, the product of sums can be determined:
 * $$\overline{\overline{F}} = \overline{ \overline{A}\,\overline{B} + \overline{A}\,\overline{C} + BCD }$$
 * $$F = \left(A + B\right)\left(A + C\right)\left(\overline{B} + \overline{C} + \overline{D}\right)$$

Don't cares

Karnaugh maps also allow easy minimizations of functions whose truth tables include "don't care" conditions (that is sets of inputs for which the designer doesn't care what the output is) because "don't care" conditions can be included in a ring to make it larger but do not have to be ringed. They are usually indicated on the map with a hyphen/dash/X in place of the number. The value can be a "0," "1," or the hyphen/dash/X depending on if one can use the "0" or "1" to simplify the KM more. If the "don't cares" don't help you simplify the KM more, then use the hyphen/dash/X.

The example to the right is the same above example but with minterm 15 dropped and replaced as a don't care. This allows the red term to expand all the way down and, thus, removes the green term completely. This does impact the blue inverse term and must be restricted by $$\overline{A}$$.

This yields the new minimum equation:
 * $$F = A + BC\overline{D}.$$

Note that the first term is just $$A$$ not $$A\overline{C}$$. In this case, the don't care has dropped a term (the green); simplified another (the red); and removed the race hazard (the yellow as shown in a following section).

Race hazards
Karnaugh maps are useful for detecting and eliminating race hazards. They are very easy to spot using a Karnaugh map, because a race condition may exist when moving between any pair of adjacent, but disjointed, regions circled on the map.

 * In the above example, a potential race condition exists when C is 1 and D is 0, A is 1, and B changes from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue state to the green state). For this case, the output is defined to remain unchanged at 1, but because this transition is not covered by a specific term in the equation, a potential for a glitch (a momentary transition of the output to 0) exists.
 * A harder possible glitch to spot is when D is 0 and A and B are both 1, with C changing from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue state to the red state). In this case the glitch wraps around from the top of the map to the bottom.

Whether these glitches do occur depends on the physical nature of the implementation, and whether we need to worry about it depends on the application.

In this case, an additional term of $$A\overline{D}$$ would eliminate the potential race hazard, bridging between the green and blue output states or blue and red output states: this is shown as the yellow region.

The term is redundant in terms of the static logic of the system, but such redundant, or consensus terms, are often needed to assure race-free dynamic performance.

2 variable maps
The following are all the possible 2 variable, 2x2 Karnaugh maps. Listed with each is the minterms as a function of $$E$$ and the race hazard free (see previous section) minimum equation.

Problems with Karnaugh maps
Karnaugh maps generally become more cluttered and hard to interpret when adding more variables. A general rule is that Karnaugh maps work well for up to four variables, and shouldn't be used at all for more than six variables. For expressions with larger numbers of variables, the Quine-McCluskey algorithm can be used. Nowadays in general the minimization process is carried out by computer, for which the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer has become the standard minimization program.

Applications

 * Using Karnaugh maps to control traffic lights


text:
Talk:Digital Electronics/Lecture Karnaugh Map Reductions

copy + paste from Wikipedia
Hello, this seems to be only a copy from Wikipedia's article Karnaugh map Why don't we make a learning experiment now with this and try to rephrase this in our own words or use Wikipedia's article to generate information or a better learning experience on another level ? Everybody can just copy + paste :-(

Please also see: What Wikiversity is not

 * "A duplication of other Wikimedia projects. While Wikiversity complements other Wikimedia projects, it will not simply duplicate their content. So, if you want to read about a topic, you may be better off visiting, say, Wikipedia or Wikibooks, but if you want to learn about this topic, you can do so at Wikiversity. Learning materials will be created and used on Wikiversity, but materials on other projects may also be used as learning materials themselves or even places to consolidate this learning, i.e. writing an article, manual etc based on what you've learned. There may be some overlapping, but each project will maintain its own focus."

Also worthwile reading: What is Wikiversity? How to Cite from Wikipedia. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 16:42, 4 October 2007 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Ncb42

Hello, could you have a look here please ? Also this and this seems the same copy + paste :-( Thank you. Below you will also find some info. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 16:42, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Ncb42, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other wikiversiters on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 16:42, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

hey saw youve added some stuff to ee
hey saw you add the kaulfman map stuff as well as binaray and graycode     its all good content but it will need some work to make it fit more closely with wikiversity. heres a cuple things that have helped me. Welcome%2C_newcomers  Basically the differences I work by is that wikipedia is a reference wikivirsity is class/lesson

Anyhow ive been looking for opinions of another ee person there are several talk pages with 1 sided discussions going  would love to have another involved
 * Talk:EE_111_Digital_Electronics
 * Topic_talk:Electronic_engineering

also be shure to get on IRC irc.freenode.com #wikiversity-en Eadthem 09:49, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ncb42


text:
Digital design in electronic engineering

Syllabus
Simplification of functions using Karnaugh map and Quine McCluskey methods, Variable Entered Mapping, Minimization and combinational design, Combinational circuit design using Multiplexer, ROM, PAL, PLA, Design and analysis of sequential circuits, Analysis and design of Synchronous sequential Finite Sate Machine, Counters, Timing and triggering considerations in the design of synchronous circuits, Asynchronous sequential logic

Text Books

 * John F. Wakerly: Digital Design Principles and Practices, Pearson Education
 * Roth C H: Fundamentals of Logic Design, Jaico Pub
 * Morris Mano: Digital Logic and Computer Design, PHI
 * Taub B & Schilling: Digital Integrated Electronics, McGraw Hill

Reference Books

 * Morris R KL: Design with TTL Integrated Circuits, McGraw Hill
 * Lewin D & Protheroe D: Design of Logic Systems, Chapman & Hall
 * Karz R H: Contemporary Logic Design, Benjamin / Cummings Pub


text:
Talk:World War II

The Second World War
The Second World War, can also be refered to as the ideology wars. This is because it is seen that the war between was fought by two ideologies, democracy and freedom, rivaled to autocracy war and hardship, the second world war directly lead on the the continuation of the idology wars, manifested as the cold war. User:62.253.219.178, 08:57, 5 June 2007

The following is moved from the page The Second World War to here. On the page The Second World War will be set up a redirect to World War II. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 17:37, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Abandoned Resource
Anyone still using this? --Unlachen_K (discuss • contribs) 16:30, 4 January 2018 (UTC)

 * It appears to be abandoned. You are welcome to adopt and improve it. Be bold! -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 15:22, 5 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Gladly :) --Unlachen_K (discuss • contribs)

Invasion of Normandy
This is Just about the Invasion of Normandy I guess. AkJackster (discuss • contribs) 18:30, 15 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:World War II


text:
Category:World War II

Here you find pages about the World War II.

title: Category:World War II