text:
Learning theories in practice/Project-Based Language Learning

Introduction
In the first section, a literature review on project-based learning (PjBL) is presented, including a definition, theoretical foundations, features, implementing steps, and a list of benefits as well as disadvantages, to provide a basic foundation for understanding how PjBL is used in language learning. In this section of the chapter, I refer to project-based language learning (PjBLL). Not only is the basic concept of PjBLL discussed and elaborated upon, but also its implementation and effectiveness.

Scenario 1

 * In Ms. Lee’s EFL class, several students question the usefulness of learning English. For example, Jonathon, a diligent, average student, believes that he can live a good life without English. He is reluctant to memorize vocabularies and do homework, and, therefore, scores low on his English subject. Jonathon’s mother worries a lot and asks Jonathon to attend English tutor classes twice a week after school, which makes the situation even worse. He begins by making up all kinds of excuses in order to skip the English tutor class and puts his head on the desk, refuses to play games, and pays little attention in Ms. Lee’s class.

 * In the middle of the semester, Ms. Lee is told that five primary school principals from UK are visiting the school and she is responsible for receiving the guests. She thinks it is a great opportunity for students to apply what they have learned in English. Instead of just asking proficient English students to join her, she invites the whole class in completing the project that she calls, “Diplomats of the Day.” After class discussion, the students divide themselves into groups according to their interests and are ready to embark on their task. Jonathon, who is good at performance and art, engages himself in front of a computer with his best friends in searching for information for their English presentation on introducing Taiwan’s cultural and artistic activities.

What makes Jonathon change his attitude toward learning English?

1.A Definition of PjBL
Project-based learning and problem-based learning are two similar terms. In order to avoid confusion with problem-based learning (PBL), this chapter uses PjBL as an acronym for project-based learning. Moursund’s (n.d.) easy-to-understand distinction between PjBL and PBL allows us to grasp a preliminary idea of PjBL:

 * In Project-Based Learning, students have a great deal of control of the project they will work on and what they will do in the project. The project may or may not address a specific problem. In Problem-Based Learning, a specific problem is specified by the course instructor. Students work individually or in teams over a period of time to develop solutions to this problem (para. 1).

There are numerous definitions of PjBL. Some selective definitions include:

 * PjBL is “a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks” (BIE, Section 2, para. 1).

 * PjBL is “a comprehensive instructional approach to engage students in sustained, cooperative investigation” (Bransford & Stein, 1993, as cited in Mifflin,n.d.).

 * PjBL is “an individual or group activity that goes on over a period of time, resulting in a product, presentation, or performance. It typically has a time line and milestones, and other aspects of formative evaluation as the project proceeds” (Moursund, n.d. Section 1, para 1).

Overall, PjBL is an instructional method that engages learners in learning through inquiry activities in which they work autonomously and collaboratively over a period of time around complex tasks, resulting in realistic products.

2.Theoretical Foundations of PjBL
"Doing projects" is a long-standing tradition in American education (BIE, 2007). In the 1900’s, educator John Dewey (1916, pp.212-227) advocated learning by doing and experiential, hands-on, student-directed learning, and thought that school should reflect the actual social environment.

Recently, PjBL is gaining its popularity because of two important developments over the last 25 years. The first is a need for education to adapt to the changing world where people need to learn not only civic responsibility but also being able to plan, collaborate, and communicate in the workplace (BIE, 2007).

The second is the revolution in learning theory. Constructivist theory assumes that knowledge is constructed by learners as they attempt to make sense of their experiences based on their current and previous knowledge (Driscoll, 1994). Learners do not learn with blank slates that passively wait to be filled. Instead, it is through the process of exploring, scaffolding, interpreting, negotiating, and creating that learners are active in interacting with environment and in seeking meaning. PjBL mainly evolves from the work of three influential psychologists: (1) Jean Piaget, (2) Lev Vygotsky, and (3) Jerome Bruner. 
 * Jean Piaget

A state of disequilibrium, introduced by Piaget, is created when learners encounter new knowledge that does not fit within their preexisting framework. Therefore, learners have to adopt “a more adaptive, more sophisticated mode of thought” (Driscoll, 1994, pp.179-180) to expand and reorganize their preexisting schema (Sidman-Taveau, & Milner-Bolotin, 2001). In order to resolve disequilibrium, learners are encouraged to test new ideas since errors and uncertainties are natural and important in the process of learning new knowledge (Reagan, 1999, as cited in Sidman-Taveau, & Milner-Bolotin, 2001). 
 * Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky’s notion of mediation is reflected on PjBL design that learners ponder on and articulate new concepts when they use different mediational tools or signs (Sidman-Taveau, & Milner-Bolotin, 2001). For example, learners use a jacket, not as a jacket, but as a gauge measure the length of the hallway.

Another notion contributed by Vygotsky is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the gap between a child’s “actual or current developmental level as determined by independent problem solving” and the higher level of “potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, as cited in Driscoll, 1994, p.232). In other words, ZPD is the distance between individual achievement and guided acvievement, and it is an area where development occures. This implies that when learners deal with a more complex task than the one that they can handle on their own, they experience cognitive demands and teachers need to coach accordingly. Furthermore, Vygotsky believes it is through negotiation which is carried out initially between ourselves and our parents, but later between ourselves and other humans that learners construct meaning about the world (Driscoll, 1994). 
 * Jerome Bruner

PjBL is also related to scholar work of the area of exploratory and discovery learning. Formost in this field, Jerome Bruner contended that discovery learning is not a random act, but a way that allows learners to use information effectively when depending on prior knowledge for finding the regulations and relationship in the environment (Smith, 2005). Also, there is a need for reflection and contrast to constitute a condition for successful discovery learning (Driscoll, 1994). That is, the learner should be asked not only to reflect back on the task and figure out why they succeed, but also to provide or give non-examples or contrasting events so that they can better understand the concept.

3.Features of PjBL
There are five criteria offered to consider what kind of project can be considered an instance of PjBL (Thomas, 2000):

 * 1)Centrality

 * PjBL is central to the curriculum, rather than serving to provide illustrations, examples, additional practices, or practical applications for material taught initially by other means.

 * 2)Driving questions

 * These are questions or “ill-defined problems” (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993, as cited in Thomas, 2000) that enable learners to make a connection between activities and the target knowledge or skills.

 * 3)Constructive investigation

 * Projects must involve the transformation and construction of knowledge on the learner’s part. In addition, the activities must present some difficulty to the learners so that they cannot be carried out with the application of already-learned information or skills; otherwise, the project becomes a simpler and somewhat traditional type of exercise.

 * 4)Autonomy

 * projects are learner-driven. Learner’s autonomy, choice, unsupervised work time, and responsibility are incorporated into the project. Furthermore, neither questions nor outcomes are teacher-led or predetermined.

 * 5)Realism
 * Projects are realistic, not school-like. Authenticity should be found in task, topic, roles, collaborators, contexts, audience, and products.

In addition to the five criteria, there are other defining features in PjBL, including

 * Collaboration

 * Encourage collaboration in some form, either through small groups, student-led presentations, or whole-class evaluations of project results so that knowledge can be shared and distributed between the members of the "learning community" (BIE, 2007; Mifflin, n.d.).

 * Scaffolding

 * In a PjBL learning environment, the teacher is no longer an authoritative figure who corrects and commands students but a facilitator who encourages and guides learners (Sidman-Taveau & Milner-Bolotin, 2001). In addition to the support from instructors, learners gain guidance from more experienced or skillful group members, experts in the field, and people involved in the project contexts.

 * Opportunities for reflection and transfer

 * Activities such as classroom debriefing sessions, journal entries, and extension activities provide an opportunity for reflective thinking, feedback, and student self-assessment (Grant, n.d.; Railsback, 2002).

In scenario 1, although not explicitly demonstrated, the project “Diplomats of the Day” can be central to the course when students not only use already-learned knowledge but also are urged to construct new central concepts that conform to the learning objectives, such as understand vocabularies about cultural activities through collaboration. Moreover, in the process of completing the task which is above the students’ ability, students are involved in a constructivist investigation; however, it is not shown in the scenario if Ms. Lee scaffolds in time. Also, because Ms. Lee does not illustrate the project well, which in accordance with the second criteria of driving questions, her students need to devise possible activities to accomplish the goal of receiving foreign guests. Therefore, students are motivated to take the lead and need to exert responsibility to a certain degree. Finally, it is needless to say that the key contributor to Jonathon’s activity and motivation is authenticity which allows him to realize the usefulness of learning English.

In addition to all the above concepts, principles, and practices, PjBL satisfies the five recommendations that embody instructional principles derived from constructivism; namely, (1) establish complex learning environments that incorporate authentic activity, (2) provide for social negotiation as an integral part of learning, (3) juxtapose instructional content and include access to multiple modes of representation, (4) nurture reflexivity, and (5) emphasize student-centered instruction (Driscoll, 1994, pp.365-366).

4.Steps of Implementing
There is no one fixed way to conduct PjBL. Synthesizing the studies (Sidman-Taveau, & Milner-Bolotin, 2001; Moss, 1998; Grant, n.d; Railsback, 2002) in this area, however, the following steps or elements can be useful for teachers when designing effective project-based instruction.

 * 1)Establish a trusting, cooperative relationship (Moss, 1998)

 * It is important to begin slowly (Grant, n.d.). In this way, teachers can design the curriculum that not only reflects mandated standards but also meets learners’ needs. Therefore, before embarking on the projects, learners need to acquire basic skills in how to interact with others and manage conflicts as well as various skills related to resources, research, and technology. Moreover, a learning environment where learners feel comfortable, less anxious, and are willing to share their ideas is indispensible.

 * 2)Set clear learning objectives

 * Selected objectives should be based on the target learning outcomes and need to be negotiated and discussed among learners.

 * 3)Select a real life problem/question

 * The topic should be broad enough for learners to choose from according to their interests. In addition, it should be one that has potential in engaging learners in adopting concepts being studied.

 * 4)Describe the real world context where the problem/question usually occurs

 * Since contextualization makes transfer of knowledge more easily, it is critical to allow learners see the connection between classroom work and its future application.

 * 5)Complete authentic material and resources
 * Teachers and learners alike should gather whatever sources used in real-world contexts by professionals. Authentic material and resources may include dictionaries, hammer, compass, computers, software, etc.

 * 6)Consciously employ the facilitator role

 * Instead of playing the traditional role of providing the right answer and correctness, teachers need to be sensitive to the students’ needs, aptitudes, learning styles, and abilities. While delegating the responsibilities to learners, the teacher shoulders a more important role that requires interpersonal and communication skills, as well as the ability to animate and supervise adequately to ensure a successful conclusion (BIE, 2007).

 * 7)Decide how to assess the learner

 * Standardized tests are inappropriate. On the other hand, formative assessments and reflection assignments are better options.

 * Portfolios. Learners are allowed to decide what will be included in the portfolios to present their effort and multiple forms of learning outcomes. (Levstik & Barton, 2001, as cited in Grant, n.d.).

 * Rubrics. Rubrics should be communicated prior to the project with learners, so that they are more aware of how they will be evaluated (Pickett & Dodge, 2001, as cited in Grant, n.d.).

 * Reflection assignments. They should be scheduled toward the end of the lesson so that learners can reflect on the processes. This is also the opportunity for learners to figure out the reason why their project is successful or not, think critically, and make improvement.

 * 8)Outline the appropriate artifact choices

 * The final tangible product can be represented in diverse way (e.g., presentation, travel plan, video, website, and artifacts) to a real audience.

5.Exemplification of Classroom Project
PjBL has been supported by a growing body of large-scale academic research to be beneficial in engaging students, boosting collaboration, and raising test scores (Edutopia, n.d.). These research include: Union City, New Jersey School District, British Math Study, Challenge 2000, Cognition and Technology Group, Co-nect, Does It Compute?, Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound, Laptops and Successful School Restructuring. (for details, see: http://www.edutopia.org/node/887) Other classroom project ideas (Mifflin, n.d.): click to follow the link http://college.hmco.com/education/pbl/project/project.html.

 * Investigating Social Change: Students choose one of the three problems, and then divide themselves into expertise subgroups, such as geographer, meteorologist, sociologist, and ecologist. After gathering information and analyzing the data, students come up with solutions which are made public and hence create a sense of community that foster mutual understanding and learning.
 * Hiking the Appalachian Trail: The project is suitable for middle school to college age students. Learners have to plan for the difficult trip to the Appalachians, considering budget, supplies, lodging, weather conditions, etc. And the final product can be reviewed by the expert in the field or a person who has hiked the trail.
 * The Egg-Drop Experiment: In this effective laboratory and investigative activities, as opposed to cookbook exercise, students design a container that keeps a raw egg from cracking when dropped from ever-increasing elevations using knowledge of the interrelationships between free-fall, force, and gravity. They also learn to evaluate the product and communicate when modification is needed.
 * Mission to Mars: The feasibility study is suitable for students from fourth grader to graduate. Students have to present how possible the trip to distant planet could be and how it could be accomplished.
 * Literacy Skills & Reciprocal Teaching: Students use cognitive strategies including four sessions: prediction, questioning, clarification, and summarization to comprehend an authentic text. Each session has to be videotaped and be reflected upon before moving to the next. The creation of a manual or instructional video can be beneficial to the peers and teachers alike.

The following link and grant project provides an analysis (http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2002/514/2.html) on the project called ‘Remembering the holocaust’ (http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2002/514/holocaust).

6.Benefits
The effectiveness of PjBL can be evaluated from the following benefits:

 * Respond to diverse needs of students.

 * Because learners can choose topics according to their experiences and interests as well as cultural or individual learning styles (Katz & Chard, 1989, as cited in Railsback), PjBL can be tailored to accommodate students’ diverse needs. Therefore, Rosenfeld and Rosenfeld (1999) believed that PjBL is beneficial to both those who fail in traditional classrooms as well as those with high academic achievements. Teachers in Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project also report that PjBL is appropriate for low-achieving students, academically gifted and talented students, special education students and language learners (Simkins, n.d.).

 * Increase motivation

 * Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project (1999) and Katz (1994) reported that students find projects fun, motivating, and challenging because they play an active role in choosing the project and in the entire planning process. Teachers often note improvement in attendance, more class participation, and greater willingness to do homework (Railsback, 2002).

 * Prepare children for the workplace

 * When learners collaborate with group members, they practice social and communication skill, time management, decision making (Blank, 1997; Dickinson et al, 1998, as cited in Railsback, 2002), problem-solving skills (Moursund, n.d.), which are necessary in workplace and habits of lifelong learning (Simkins, n.d.).

 * Improve academic performance

 * Research has shown that engagement and motivation lead to high academic achievement (Railsback, 2002). In addition, Simikins (n.d.) stated that students from Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project classrooms outperformed comparison classrooms in all three areas scored by researchers and teachers who analyzed the student products for content, attention to audience, and design. PjBL has been proved to have value for enhancing the quality of learning in subject matter areas (Railsback, 2002; Thomas, 2000) and is an effective method for teaching complex process and procedures (Thomas, 2000).

7.Challenges and Solution
Like all other learning theories, PjBL has its disadvantages. However, if it is beneficial for learners, it is worth implementing. The advocacy of PjBL does not exclude other instructional methods; rather, it is an alternative way for teachers to choose from in order to meet the diverse learning needs of their students.
 * The first question raised in teachers is, “Do I have time for PjBL?” To answer the question, it is helpful not to think of PBL as taking time away from the regular curriculum (BIE, 2007). Unlike conventional instruction, PjBL allows teachers more time to work with students, instead of working with texts. Also, since PjBL is core to the curriculum, learners are active in learning effectively and meaningfully, while at the same time acquiring the basic knowledge and skills establish by institutions. Setting up timeline and deadline can be helpful in time management too (Railsback, 2002).

 * Another concern is that there are myriad topics to cover in a year and PjBL may not be comprehensive enough to address them all. Railsback (2002) suggest teachers cover the basics before embarking on projects. Then, teachers need to consider: “What parts of your curriculum can be easily and successfully handled through lectures or textbook assignments? What parts require more depth? Identify those topics that reflect the most important ideas and concepts in your curriculum and incorporate those topics into projects” (BIE, 2007).

 * Teachers can delegate or empower the students progressively according to their ages, experiences, and skills if learner’s capability is a concern (BIE, 2007). Prepare learners for the investigation is necessary before the project is initiated.

 * Teacher’s ability in interpersonal, communication, and management skills as well as their general teaching styles and beliefs are critical in operating PjBL (BIE, 2007). In an open-ended process, teacher needs to let learners struggle with problem, moving around the classroom and tolerate ambiguity. No matter how comprehensive an activity or strategy is, if a teacher does not feel comfortable and confident in employing it, then it is not the optimal option. Therefore, it is a good time for teachers to examine their teaching styles. Also, teachers can attend professional development workshops to acquire the information about how to implementing PjBL into thier curricula.

8.Summary
PjBL, in debt to John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Bruner, is an instructional method that engages learners in learning through inquiry activities in which they work autonomously and collaboratively over a period of time around complex tasks, resulting in realistic products. Because it embraces the features of centrality, driving questions, constructivist investigation, autonomy and realism, it makes learning more meaningful and meets the students’ diverse needs. Teachers should recognizing its limitation and then making modifications when implementing to ensure the success of the project.

1.Origin of PjBLL
It was first discussed as an educational approach to K-12 education in an article entitled "The Project Method" by William Heard Kilpatrick (1918) who believed that using literacy in meaningful contexts provided a means for building background knowledge and for achieving personal growth (Wrigley, 1998). Beckett (2006) also pointed out that PjBL provides opportunities for language learners to receive comprehensible input and produce comprehensible output. Through the project, learners can not only use their inquiry skills but also apply their already-learned language knowledge and skills in real-world situation. However, it has to be acknowledged that there is yet a comprehensive definition for project-based language learning.

2.Underpinnings for PjBLL
PjBLL are basically derived from the theoretical foundations of PjBL. “social constructivism is playing an increasing important role in second language acquisition (Lantolf & Appel, 1996; Reagan, 1999) and social constructivist elements of project-base learning are highly relevant to foreign language learning” (Sidman-Taveau & Milner-Bolotin, 2001, p.6). While Vygotsky’s did not address specifically how his theory can be used in language learning, his ideas have been reinterpreted and the theory and practice of PjBLL has been most influenced by him (Smith, 2000). For example, Driscoll (1994) stated that “researchers suggest that joint problem solving, with opportunities to shape and reshape knowledge through talk, promotes the cognitive development that Vygotsky saw as crucial” (Driscoll, 1994, p.239).

Smith (2005) pointed out how Vygotsky’s ideas have been reinterpreted as well as the significant shifts in the practice of PjBLL:

1)Negotiation has become more a negotiation of task, rather than the meaning of semiotic signs which learners are knowledgeable about in L1;

2)Learning is situated in the culture of the local classroom, rather than the L2 culture of the target language;

3)Interaction with ‘more competent peers’ has been replaced to a significant extent by ‘interaction with peers’, who are not, in relation to the target language, likely to be more competent if at all;

4)In the writings of PjBLL theorists, ZPD no longer refers to mental development, but rather to the next stage in the acquisition of language content and fluency.

Halliday the applied linguistic adopts Vygotsky’s concept of negotiation and social interaction into methodologies of first and second language learning. It is when learner, learning task and teacher interact with one another using the tool of language that language is learned (Williams & Burden, 1997, as cited in Smith, 2005). Also, social interaction is such a critical part in language learning that both Halliday and Vygotsky consider that the role language plays in daily life has to be investigated in order to understand how language functions (Wells, 1997, as cited in Smith, 2005).

3.Examples
See table 1.1 and table 1.2 An EFL lesson plan.

4.Reasons to Employ PjBL in Language Learning and Teaching
Implementing PjBL in language can be beneficial because of the following reasons.

 * Enable learners to transfer

 * This ability to transfer is especially important in language learning. When concepts are taught in settings that are similar to real-world contexts, learners are better able to apply those particular concepts in future settings and situations (Sidman-Taveau & Milner-Bolotin, 2001), that is, learners' learning has been transferred. Additionally, learners think that language learning is related to thier everyday lives. Functional competence in language is enhanced through practical social acts, such as negotiation and decision making (Smith, 2005; Wrigley, 1998). Students also realize that language learning is not just to acquire a score on test, but is a pragmatic tool that they can use to broaden horizons.

 * Use motivation to foster language learning

 * While researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) believe that motivation is a necessary precursor for strategy use (Ellis, 1994), PjBL satisfy this requirement by engaging language learners in improving their language competence.

 * Learn through meaningful input

 * In PjBLL, students no longer learn decontextualized knowledge. Rather, learners acquire meaningful input and expression from the peers and the materials that is one step beyond their existing linguistic competence, that is, i＋1. (Ellis, 1994). And because learners come in the classroom with different level of linguistic competence at the same time, natural communicative input, which can be realized through PjBLL, is suggested by Krashen as a key to designing a syllabus (Schütz, n.d.).

 * Meet language learners’ diverse needs

 * For different levels of language proficiency students, individuals' strengths and preferred ways of learning (e.g., reading, writing, listening, or speaking) are strengthened because of the collaborative nature of project work (Lawrence, 1997, as cited in Moss, 1998).

5.Limitations and Suggestion
Smith (2005) analyzed reasons why in his study there were far less L2 language development than what is anticipated. One key factor was the tension between the need to gain course grades and the desire to improve L2 skills. Therefore, he suggested that only when the issue of assessment in formal, institutional context is addressed can learner-centered approach become fully effective.

It is argued that PjBLL is a means of using language to learn, rather than learning language. However, when learners listen, speak, read, and write with the target language in finding information, discussing, consulting experts or reference and presenting findings, they learn language in a real-world context. “Consequently, they develop vocabulary, learn rules of grammar and conventions of social language use, and integrate the use of different sign systems” (Abdullah, n.d., Section 2). While PjBLL is not appropriate in learning basic language skills, it is a meaningful method that engages learners in relating what they learn to the real-world and in becoming more motivated and competent in language using in daily life.

6.Summary
Because language is used as a means to achieve social purposes in daily life, language learning should therefore take place in a real-world context to make transfer more easily. PjBLL, therefore, is a method that invites and motivates learners of diverse proficiency levels to use and learn language through comprehensible input in the process of investigation, interaction, collaboration, and negotiation among other people, text and context.

III. Conclusion
The project-based learning movement is growing rapidly and has many strong supporters. PjBL is not appropriate as a method for teaching certain basic skills such as vocabulary or computation; however, it does provide an environment for the application of those skills. Most important of all, PjBL provides an alternative instructional method that teachers can employ as one way to engage learners, allowing learners to take initiative for their own learning. Just as Ellis (1994) questioned the assumption that there are “good” learning strategies. The best learning method is adaptive to the learning mode, including individual’s cognitive style and personalities, learning conditions, learning goals, etc. Therefore, teachers should be flexible in adjusting their pedagogy according to the context. When that happens, PjBL is more effective, motivational, and long lasting. Hopefully, this chapter provides some guidelines and ideas for how educators can implement it in myriad educational settings and situations.


text:
Learning theories in practice/Picture books

Introduction
Bruner notes that when learners see something happen, as well as read or hear about it, they encode this information both visually and verbally in their long-term memory. According to Paivio’s dual coding theory, two cognitive systems are used to process and store information: (1) a verbal system for linguistic information and (2) an imagery system for non-verbal input. Both language and images are stored independently and work together through associative cross-code links. Picture books are unique learning tools because they not only provide input in tandem but also do it contiguously in time.

Dual Coding Theory (DCT) and Education
Cognition, according to dual coding theory, involves the activity of two distinct subsystems: a verbal system specialized for dealing directly with language and a nonverbal (imagery) system specialized for dealing with nonlinguistic objects and events. The systems are assumed to be composed of internal representational units, called logogens and imagens, that are activated when one recognizes, manipulates, or just thinks about words or things. Dual coding theory has its roots in the practical use of imagery as a memory aid 2500 years ago. The memory emphasis evolved into broader applications of imagery aimed at accelerating the acquisition of knowledge. Language was always implicated as vital to the process, but became explicitly involved as an educational partner when imagery began to be systematically externalized as pictures. The great educational pioneer, Jan Amos Comenius, wrote a book, Orbis Sensualium Pictus (“The world explained in pictures”), which has become the mother of all children’s picture textbooks. First published in Nuremburg in 1658, it has been used over the past three centuries as a model for more than 200 hundred editions in twenty six languages. The Orbis reflected Comenius’ commitment to concretization as an educational method. He argued that teachers must enable children to have direct experience with things, for “things are essential, words only accidental; things are the body, words but the garment; things are the kernel, words the shell and husk. Both should be presented to the intellect at the same time, but particularly the things, since they are as much objects of understanding as is language” (Comenius, 1896, p.267 ). Dual coding theory and its educational implications parallel the historical emphasis on concretization of knowledge through imagery and pictures.

Educational Applications of DCT
The important practical aspect of the DCT developmental analysis is its stress on the early development of the nonverbal system as the foundation for later cognitive skills that include language as well. The early development is based on sensorimotor experiences with concrete objects and events. It follows that cognitive growth depends on the richness of the early nonverbal experiences, increasingly associated with the language experience necessary for the development of the verbal side of a complete dual-coding mind. An important corollary is that cognitive growth will not be stimulated as effectively by a disproportionate early emphasis on language experience relative to nonverbal experience.

The contrasting emphasis on the primacy of language experience in education programs in Western countries can be seen in programs designed especially for socially-disadvantaged children. For example, the Head Start educational programs for preschoolers from low-income families in the United States have always focused on literacy, language, and numeracy skills. In their research review, Barnett and Hustedt (2005) find mixed support for lasting benefits in subsequent school achievement and only modest improvement in children’s development. For example, early increases in IQ typically fade out over time.

The “modest” nature of improvements could also reflect the language emphasis of the programs. As noted in the final public address by the late Michael Pressley, there is a similar emphasis in the recent No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, which “favors teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies, with basically no mention of anything else” (Pressley, 2006, pp.7-8). He questioned whether there is an effective classroom in the United States that focused so heavily on those skills, and suggested that “It would help if efforts were made to ensure that targeted preschoolers experience the cultural activities that provide conversational opportunities for many advantaged parents and preschoolers, such as trips to zoo, museums, shows, bookstores – and even quality toy stores!” From the DCT perspective, this recommendation emphasizes experiences that particularly stimulate growth of the nonverbal side of the dual coding system.

We turn now to instructional variables and principles specifically relevant to DCT. The evidence supports the DCT perspective principles of fostering the development of verbal and nonverbal systems by concretizing abstract verbal information on the one hand and verbalizing to concrete information on the other. Here are some conclusions in regard to literacy and other skills that follow from comprehensive reviews of the research literature (Paivio, 2006, Chapter 19; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001, Chapter 8).

1.Reading skills. Beginning readers learn to read concrete words by sight much faster when the words are accompanied by referent pictures than when paired only with their pronunciations. Instructing learners to form images during reading further enhances reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. Combing pictures, mental imagery, and verbal elaboration is even more effective in prompting understanding and learning from text by students ranging from grade school to university level.

2.Written composition. The use of concreteness, imagery, and dual coding makes students’ writing more readable and memorable. Such verbal associative techniques as listing relevant words that could be used in writing about a topic and practice combing sentences improve such features as organization and syntactic fluency of writing.

Applying Picture Books in ESL Elementary Classroom
Good teachers intuitively utilize and create stories to convey and pass on what they know (McCauley, 2000) “Instructional psychologists… are concerned with how best to enhance learning” (Dillon & Sternberg, 1986). When teachers use picture books, children can not only understand the passage but also know what they mean through pictures. When reading, making, and writing images are connected, literacy is ecpanded.

Here is a lesson plan of using picture books to teach first grade in ESL classroom. It is organized according to Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction.

Lesson Plan: Happy Mother’s Day

A.Overview: Chinese people are traditionally too shy to express their love to parents. Therefore, around Mother’s Day, schools always hold lots of activities to remind students how great their mommies are and what they should do for their mother on this special day.

This lesson plan is teaching the first grade pupils by using two picture books:

1.What Mommies Do Best

2.I Love You: A Rebus Poem.

B.Students Objectives: Students will:

1.Comprehend and express what mommies do best for them;

2.Explore the connections between words and images using rebus books;

3.Compose original rebus poems, based on a model;

4.Reflect on their writing process.

C.Materials:

1.What Mommies Do Best /What Daddies Do Best (by Laura Numeroff, 2001)

An appealing flip book that presents mirrored texts. The first half shows a mother bear, pig, mouse, elephant, and porcupine engaging in everyday activities with her children. Mommies can teach you how to ride a bicycle, make a snowman, watch the sunset, and bake a delicious birthday cake. They can also help you make a garden grow, give you a piggyback, and take care of you when you are sick. And, of course, they help sew the loose button on your teddy bear, play with you in the park, and take you trick-or-treating, read a story, and hold you when you are feeling sad. But best, "Mommies can give you lots and lots of love." Flip the book and read that Daddies can do the same thing.

2.I Love You: A Rebus Poem (by Jean Marzollo and Suse Macdonald, 2000)

”Every bird loves a tree/ Every flower loves a bee/ Every lock loves a key/ And I love you.” Illustrated with great whimsy and charm, this delightful book offers rhymes to read, pictures to decode, and a loving message to share.

D.Instruction and Activities:

Session one: warming up with mother’s love

Before reading the book, teacher asks students what they think “What Mommies Do Best.” In this stage, implementing the event of “gain students’ attention and recall their prior knowledge,” students can feel free to talk about and discuss in a group what their mothers do best with them.

Teacher read the book to students. Through the process of reading, children from any kind of family will be able to relate to the familiar domestic scenes portrayed with plenty of whimsy and warmth.

Session two: discovering the rebus poem

Read the book I Love You: A Rebus Poem by Jean Marzollo to students. When introducing this book and reading it aloud to students, encourage them to just enjoy the rhythm and rhyme of the poem on the first reading. On repeated readings, help students join in reading the rebus pictures as a shared reading experience. Have students identify the rhyming words of the poem and help them identify the pattern/structure of the book:

Every _______ loves a ________, Every _______ loves a ________, Every _______ loves a ________,

And I love you!

In this session, I present material, provide guided learning, and elicit performance, by addressing sentence patterns and having students brainstorm which pairs of words can put into the sentence.

Session three: writing your own rebus poem and making your own card

Form students into small groups of three and help them brainstorm some pairs of words that could fit into the poem and then draw the suitable pictures on the Mother’s Card. In this session, I inform the learners of the objectives that they will be able to: (1) write their own rebus poem; (2) use simple words to express their love; and (3) make a special card by themselves. Additionally, I provide feedback when some students make good ideas and draw pretty pictures on their works. I show them in front of the class and encourage others do better.

Session four: sharing time and sing a lovely song

Have students read their poems aloud in front of class and introduce their works to classmates. Through their paper works and oral speaking, I assess their performance and give students suggestions and encourage their hard-working by offering immediate feedback. Make copies of the poem for each student to take home as a special gift for his/her mother, and display on a hallway bulletin board and invite other classes to view it Sing a lovely song for a perfect ending. Students can bring the card home and sing the song for their mommies on Mother’s day. (retrieved from http://timberpoe.com/songs/skiddamarink.html)

Skiddamarink, Skiddamarinky Doo, I love you.

Skiddamarink, skiddamarinky doo, I love you.

I love you in the morning and in the afternoon,

I love you in the evening and underneath the moon, oh,

Skiddamarink, skiddamarinky doo, I love you.

E.Evaluation: The teacher evaluates the students on a basis of their creativity, participation, completeness, writing ability, and the retrival of classroom contents

Finally, students will retain and transfer this rebus poem and song they have learned to the other special holidays other than Mother’s day.

Applying Picture Books in a College Classroom
Many people think of picture books as simple texts for beginning readers. Parents read picture books to children at bedtime and primary teachers use picture books in early childhood education. This may have been true in the past (Demers & Moyles, 1982), but contemporary picture books have emerged as a key literary form within children’s literature, and as a source of enjoyment and inspiration for people from all ages. Moreover, picture books contextualize concepts, illustrate vocabularies and ideas, and help various learners make connections, while scaffolding their learning and developing their reasoning skills. Picture books provide a cognitive boost and have intrinsic appeal for all learners including those at the college level (Routman, 1994; Wilhelm, 1997). For example, Smallwood (1992) uses children’s literature with adult English learners in her courses because the text is contextually whole and provides concrete illustrations of the vocabulary she wishes to teach. When faced with the challenge of engaging remedial-reading college students in complex literature, Juchartz (2004) uses the work of Dr. Seuss and Shel Silverstein to scaffold learning and help students to bridge the gap between their levels of literacy proficiency, the meanings found in complex texts, and their lives. Forging this connection helps students become active meaning makers and more fully engaged with text.

Few articles were found in a review of the literature on using picture books in educational psychology courses. Apparently, few educational psychologists recognize how powerful picture books can be to illustrate concepts and ideas in their field. In response, a few useful picture books for teaching and learning educational psychology are listed in Table 1 (Table 1, Debby, 2005).

Theory/Concept(s)/Vocabulary	Books:

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
 * Lilly’s Purple Plastic Purse (1996) by Kevin Henkes
 * A Weekend with Wendell (1986) by Kevin Henkes

Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and prior knowledge
 * Fish is Fish (1970) by Leo Lionni

Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective of cognitive development
 * Once There Were Giants (1995) by Martin Waddell

Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
 * The Three Bears (1972) by Paul Galdone

Self-esteem, self-concept, resilliency
 * Stand Tall, Molly Lou Melon (2002) by Pati Lovell & David Catrow

Information Processing, long term memory
 * Something to Remember Me By (1999) by Susan V. Bosak & Laurie McGraw

Rewards and punishment in behaviorism
 * David Goes to School (1999) by David Shannon

Attribution theory in motivation
 * Ronald Morgan Goes to Bat (1990) by Patricia Reilly Giff

Physical development
 * Happy Birth Day! (1996) by Harris, R.H.

Effective teachers often use story intuitively when they teach. They use anecdotes, analogies, and metaphors to simplify and clarify concepts, make them more concrete, and build vocabulary. Instructors share personal experiences to enrich ideas presented in the classroom and students relate to that insider perspective. Deeper understanding occurs when a more knowledgeable other assists with vocabulary understanding and points out connections that bridge initial knowledge to life experiences. Picture books allow teachers to make their points without lecturing, challenge current ideas, and advance the reasoning skills of their students (Koc & Buzzelli, 2004). As such, it is a wonderful field to explore here in the twenty-first century when pictures are much more easily created, shared, and used.

References

Barnett, W. S., & Hustedt, J. T. (2005). Head Start’s lasting benefits. Infants & Young Children, 18, 16-24.

Bell, N. (1991). Visualizing and verbalizing for language comprehension and thinking. Paso Robles, CA: NBI Publications.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. New York: Norton.

Comenius, J. A. (1896). The great didactic. London: Adam & Charles Black.

Debby, Z., & Cory, C. H. (2005). Once upon a theory: using picture books to help students understanding educational psychology. Teaching Educational Psychology, 1:1

Debby, Z., & Cory, C. H. (2005). Piaget, Meet Lilly: Understanding Child Development through Picture Book Characters. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33, No. 1, 39-45.

Demers, P., & Moyles, G. (1982). From instruction to delight: An anthology of children’s literature to 1850. Toronto: Oxford University Press.

Juchartz, L. R., (2004). Team teaching with Dr. Seuss and Shel Silverstein in the college basic reading classroom. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 47(4), 336-341

Koc, K. & Buzzelli, C. A. (2004). The moral of the story is … Using children’s literature in moral education. Young Children, 92-96.

McCauley, R. N. (2000). The naturalness of religion and the unnaturalness of science. In F. C. Keil & R. W. Wilson (Eds.), Explanation and cognition (pp.61-86). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Paivio, A. (2006). Mind and its evolution: A dual coding theoretical interpretation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Pressley, M. (2006, April 29). What the future of reading research could be. Paper presented at the International Reading Association’s Reading Research 2006, Chicago, Illinois.

Routman, R. (1994). Invitations: Changing as teachers and learners K-12. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2001). Imagery and text: A dual coding theory of reading and writing. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Smallwood, B. A., (1992). Children’s literature for adult ESL literacy. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse on Literacy Education.

Wilhelm, J. D. (1997.) You gotta be the book. New York: Teachers College Press.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Learning theories in practice/Process writing in L2 Classrooms

Process Writing in the L2 Classroom

Writing. Each day, each hour, each minute is a chance to express ourselves in writing. Despite constant opportunities to write, many remain intimadated by it or lacking in much writing skill or competencies. This writing apprehension often extends from when first attempting to write as a young child to late adulthood. When I first taught writing to adult English language learners (ELLs), I took a form-focused writing approach that left the students uninspired to write (and me unmotivated to read their writing). The class consisted of lectures plus grammar and rhetoric exercises. The students were thoroughly bored and so was I. According to Thiagi, internationally known expert on active learning, I was taking the “deadly, dull, boring” approach to teaching (http://www.youtube.com/watch?gl=TW&hl=zh-TW&v=YSAvbbs8IW4 ). In actuality, I was following the behaviorist approach of drilling grammar and rhetorical patterns in hopes that the students would regurgitate those same patterns in their compositions (Silva, 1990). And that explains much of the problem of writing. It is painful for many, and only made worse by the instructional approaches of their teachers.

After numerous dull lectures and repetitive grammar exercises, my students were led through the planning stage of a composition on a topic from the textbook. These students were then given assigned a composition to be written at home with limited feedback from the instructor. Later, students were given an in-class exam composition that was checked for every grammatical and rhetorical mistake. Students then diligently re-wrote their compositions according to the teacher-made corrections, although I had the suspicion that many students failed to understand the reason behind the red marks on their papers.

Since all of the topics were teacher-assigned, I functioned more as an editor/proofreader, mostly concerned with students’ rhetorical and grammatical structures rather than the quality or expression of their ideas. Students, moreover, were so anxious about using the forms practiced in class that they stopped focusing on coming up with original ideas. After reading one boring, meaningless composition after another, I decided it was time for a different approach—-process writing.

Process Writing
Heald-Taylor (1986) describes the process method in the following way:

"Process Writing is an approach which encourages ESL youngsters to communicate their own written messages while simultaneously developing their literacy skills in speaking and reading rather than delaying involvement in the writing process, as advocated in the past, until students have perfected their abilities in handwriting, reading, phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. In Process Writing the communication of the message is paramount and therefore the developing, but inaccurate, attempts at handwriting, spelling, and grammar are accepted, know that within the process of regular writing opportunities students will gain control of these sub-skills. These skills are further developed in individual and small group conference interviews." (as cited in Jarvis, 2002)

Prewriting
The first stage is coming up with ideas for writing. There are many activities that students can do, such as: lists, free-writing, brainstorms, Venn diagrams, drawing and labeling a sketch, clustering (http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/cluster.html), researching, or journal writing on a topic. There us a cyles of prewriting activities that free the mind for idea generation and later evaluation of those ideas. During the past few decades, writing teachers as well as students have gained appreciation for the prewriting stage. Technology tools like concept mapping, outlining, and brainstorming aids often play a significant role in such activities.

Drafting/Writing
Next, students write their first draft—this is where students’ ideas take form. Students are encouraged to write multiple drafts. During this process students consider audience and format. Thoughts on paper; that is the goal of this stage. There might be further reflections back on prewriting during this time as the process approach to writing is neither prescriptive or totally sequential. Think of it more as a recursive process where each stage might play a role as needed.

Revising
Revising is an opportunity for students to look critically at their own writing in order to add, delete, rearrange, rethink or rewrite their piece of writing. Ratiocination is a revision activity for de-coding one’s writing in order to look for clues that will help improve a piece of writing (Carroll & Wilson, 1993). Many writing instructors teach students to avoid revising too early or focusing too narrowly on editorial activities that they lose a sense of the macro structure of the text. Revising can occur at the word level, the sentence or paragraph level, or the manuscript level.

Proofreading
Students can edit their own writing by using an editing checklist or work with a partner to edit each other’s papers, as in peer editing. First, it is necessary to demonstrate the process and help students to realize that they are helping their classmates rather than grading or correcting their classmates’ writing. Vygotksy's sociocultural theory points to the importance of learning on such a social plane. It is during social interaction with peers about one's writing wherein new strategies emerge and can be internalized. Such strategic internalization moves from the interpsychological plane to the intrapsychological plane of development.

In addition to checklists and peer review, another useful technique at the proofreading or editing stage is called clocking. When clocking, students sit facing each other in two concentric circles (like a clock). The teacher calls out details to be checked. Students in the inner circle remain seated while the other students move one place to the right after each detail is checked (Carroll & Wilson, 1993).

Publishing
Publication does not necessarily entail publishing student work into book format. There are many forms of self-publishing. It may simply mean that students write or type a clean, revised and proofread final copy of their composition. Other students may want their writing shared more publicly in a school newspaper, anthology, wiki or class webpage. This particular wikibook is one example of how technology foster publishing in new venues which brings extended audiences and the potential for still further feedback.

In a face-to-face classroom, students might create an anthology of their work and put it on display in a dentist's office or in the school library. They might also share their work verbally via “author’s chair” or “read around.” In “author’s chair,” students decide to share their writing by sitting in the special author’s chair to read their writing to the class. In “read around,” all students sit in a circle and share their writing while the others respond either nonverbally with nods and smiles or applause (Carroll & Wilson, 1993).

Reading Writing Connections
One technique to get students to use rhetorical devices that they might not otherwise use is called spillover. Spillover is a technique in which students read a piece of writing as many times as they wish and then turn over their paper and write a retelling of what they just read from memory. Students then compare what they wrote with their classmates before the teacher debriefs the activity (Freeman & Freeman, 2004).

Focused Freewriting (http://writing2.richmond.edu/wac/freewrit.html) is another way for students to write as they reflect on a reading assignment. Five to fifteen minutes is a normal allotment of time for freewriting. In a total freewriting or wet ink activity, students are asked to write without much reflection.

Another such technique is the cooperative script. In a cooperative learning script, pairs of students might read the same passage and write down their summary of it as a tool for memory. In a cooperative teaching script, they read separate passages and turn them over and teach them to each other. Writing could play a significant role in the summarization of that passage. It is in elaboration and summarization of content wherein learning occurs.

Writing Conferences
Writing conferences offer an opportunity for teachers to listen and ask questions that will prompt students to improve their writing. Rather than tell students how to write their compositions, the goal is for teachers to strengthen the authority of the writer and help students to see what they already know (Carroll & Wilson, 1993).Again it is the social dialogue of the conference wherein learning occurs.

Mini-Lessons
The teacher presents brief 5 - 10 minute grammar tips that he/she deems that the class needs or are developmentally ready for. These mini lessons may be presented to the whole class, a small group, or to an individual student during a student-teacher writing conference (Weaver, 1996). Moving from such lessons to small group activities or cooperative writing tasks has been shown to be highly effective.

Students write regularly
In a process writing classroom students write daily on a variety of topics and for a variety of purposes. In addition to compositions, students write journal entries, personal stories, brainstorms, freewriting, and double entry notebooks. Writing becomes a natural extension of what students do. They are writing all the time. It is just expected as part of daily practices.

Reading writing connections
Students read to inspire and inform their writing. Sometimes they read the teacher’s writing, their classmates’ writing, or other writing examples.

It’s meaningful
Students write about topics of their choice that have real meaning to them. Students are motivated to write about topics they care about.

It’s student-centered
Many English language learners don’t like writing because they fear making mistakes. Yet learning to do anything takes time. In a process-writing classroom, students can significantly improve, no matter what their ability. Once ELLs understand the process and trust that their teacher will accept and approve of their writing, their ability improves dramatically (Jarvis, 2002).

Grammar in context
In a process-writing classroom, the teacher first focuses on ideas. Students’ first drafts are likely to have many syntactical and grammatical errors, yet accepting the language a student uses is very important. All students should feel positive about writing.

During the revising and editing phases of the writing process, students will have time to focus on improving their sentence structure and grammar. Individual teacher conferences are also a time to work on syntactical issues. The goal is for students to gradually learn to edit and revise their own writing in order to become independent writers.

Process Writing Instruction Compared with Traditional Writing Instruction
According to Freeman and Freeman (2004), there are two views of second language development: (1) a learning view and (2) an acquisition view. From a traditional learning point of view, language must be taught directly. Language is broken into parts that are drilled and practiced. Students are corrected to develop good language habits. From an acquisition view, language is made comprehensible so that it can be used for a variety of purposes. Students use language communicatively and errors are seen as natural. Teachers keep the focus on meaning by helping students understand and express ideas.

Likewise, there are two views of writing. Traditional classrooms take a learning a learning view in which writing must be taught directly. Process Writing Classrooms take the acquisition view, that writing is a reflection of the language competence an individual has acquired. Teachers from both points of view teach writing, but their instruction differs in a number of ways (Freeman & Freeman, 2004):

Goals
Traditional Classroom-- learn how to produce good pieces of writing.

Process Writing Classroom--produce good writing while aquiring knowledge of the writing process.

Methods
Traditional Classroom--Begin with the parts and build up to writing a whole text.

Process Writing Classroom-- Begin with a message and develop the skills needed to produce the message.

Role of the teacher
Traditional Classroom--Teacher directly instructs students in how to form letters, then words, then how to combine words into sentences, and then sentences into paragraphs

Process Writing Classroom--Teacher creates conditions for authentic written responses and then helps students express themselves in writing

Approach to correctness
Traditional Classroom--Writing product must be conventional from the beginning. The teacher corrects each piece of writing.

Process Writing Classroom--Writing moves naturally from invention to convention. Classmates and others, including the teacher, respond to drafts (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p. 29).

Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1997)
•	Peer Editing—vicarious experience that provides comparative information about the writing ability of one’s peers (Driscoll, 2004).

•	Writing Conferences—By asking questions about students’ ideas, teachers strengthen the authority of the writer through verbal persuasion (Driscoll, 2004).

•	Publishing—sharing writing through the act of verbal or other forms of self-publishing becomes an enactive mastery experience that provides students with feedback on their own writing capabilities (Driscoll, 2004).

Cognitive Information Processing
•	Process Writing—is broken into manageable steps—pre-writing, drafting, revision, proofreading, and publishing—that can be easily remembered.

•	Pre-writing—is a way of coming up with ideas through the use of graphic organizers such as Venn Diagrams and concept maps that at the same time organize information visually for learners.

Motivation and Self-Regulation in Learning
•	Curiosity and interest are maintained by involving students in variety of writing activities.

•	Process Writing offers multiple opportunities for self-regulation by allowing students to plan their writing in pre-writing, observe their performance as they revise their writing, compare their performance to a goal by reviewing the writing rubric, and reflect on their writing by reviewing their writing folder or writing portfolio.

•	Confidence is built because students’ writing is accepted and their ideas are encouraged.

•	Sharing their writing with others generates satisfaction.

Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory
•	Prior knowledge is activated through the use of advance organizers in the planning phase of writing.

Learner Center Principles
•	Differences are taken into account.

•	Learning is influenced by social interaction with peers in peer-editing, publishing, and in other collaborative activities.

•	By choosing their own topics, personal interests are taken into account.

Constructivism
•	Students actively engaged in knowledge construction

•	Responsive to learners’ needs and interests

•	Learning is expected to be different for everyone

•	Errors are seen as necessary for encouraging learning.

•	Social negotiation takes place through peer-editing, spillover, conferences, etc.

•	Students reflect on their writing.

Large class sizes
Since the teacher responds individually to student writing, process writing could be time consuming with large classes. Also, teachers may not have sufficient time to schedule individual writing conferences in large classes. Peer-editing and clocking are options, but beginning ELLs benefit from one-on-one conferences with a native speaker teacher.

Large amounts of writing to grade
Learning to write effectively in English takes practice and time, but that means lots of grading for the teacher. Or does it? Not every piece of writing must be graded. Like learning a musical instrument, students need practice writing. Just as not every song practiced is played at a performance, in writing, not every piece of writing needs to be graded. On some writing assignments, students can get feedback from their peers and on others from the teacher. A feedback cycle can be set up for journal writing. For example, on Monday the teacher responds to journals, on Wednesday a peer responds, and on Friday a native speaker buddy responds. Self reflection is another form of assessment that does not involve too much more work for the instructor. External feedback from experts is also possible with collaborative technologies.

Rubrics can also cut down on grading time, by helping the teacher to focus on certain areas of student writing, rather than fixating on every grammatical mistake.

Implementing Process Writing in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Setting
From my own experience, I have found that neither a pure traditional nor a pure process writing approach is ideal in an intensive English language setting for university bound students. In an EAP setting, attention to form is paramount; however, focusing primarily on form by using the cookie-cutter traditional approach is patronizing to adult learners who have ideas of their own and need to learn to express them effectively in English. Process writing, on the other hand, allows learners to focus on ideas, form, and rhetoric, but has its own drawbacks.

Time is clearly an issue. In an eight-week intensive English language program, there is simply not enough time for students to do pre-writing, write five or more drafts, and have six 5-10 minute writing conferences, numerous mini grammar lessons, revise the paper, proofread it, write a final copy, and then share their composition. To expect a teacher to include all of these activities each time may create more frustration and stress than it is worth. Moreover, it has been argued that process writing is not realistic considering that students will not get multiple chances to write and revise their work at the university (Atkinson, 2003). It is crucial for instructors to be aware of learners’ strengths and weaknesses in order to decide which parts of the writing process will be most beneficial at which points in a writing course.

Peer editing poses other issues in an EAP setting. For one, English Language Learners, who have not yet dominated the English language, have been found to be inefficient editors. Less proficient students, moreover, may feel unsure about editing the work of a more proficient classmate. I tried to remedy this problem in my classroom by focusing peer editing on ideas, organization, and rhetoric rather than on grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Even in that situation, I found that some students did not feel comfortable giving constructive criticism to a classmate.

It is clear to me that the instructor must model how to peer-edit and emphasize that students are to help rather than put down their partner’s writing. A good idea is to teach peer-editing in three steps: (1) First, read the piece of writing and compliment the author; (2) Next, read it again and give some suggestions; (3) Finally, read the writing a third time and make corrections in spelling, grammar and punctuation (Dennis-Shaw, 2002-2009). (See Peer Edit with Perfection handout ). Although the third step may be problematic for non-native English speakers, they are likely to learn more about grammar, spelling, and punctuation by testing out their own hypothesis.

If students are to write meaningfully, it seems only natural that they would be able to choose their own topics. However, allowing students to choose their own topics in an EAP setting is problematic for several reasons. For one, students are likely to choose personal topics, whereas they need to write with an academic audience in mind. With beginning ELLs, it may be helpful to begin with a personal writing topic, such as introducing oneself or a classmate; however, in an EAP setting, it is wise to leave personal topics primarily for journal writing and reflective writing assignments.

Moreover, most EAP settings have a curriculum that dictates the teaching of certain genres. In the academic level writing class I teach, students use process writing to write compositions on topics they choose according to the genre we happen to be focusing on. They are more motivated since they choose their topic, yet their choice is limited by the particular genre of focus.

A major concern with process writing in an EAP setting is the background role of the teacher. In my own experience, I have certainly played more than just a background role in my students’ writing. Students are keen to listen to my comments and make the changes I suggest since I am the person who will ultimately grade their final work (Atkinson, 2003). As more of an expert on academic writing, I think it is appropriate for the instructor to signal weak areas in student writing in order to help students write more effectively. Let me close with a cautionary statement from Raimes on the teacher’s role in writing instruction (1987, as quoted in Atkinson, 2003):

When teachers read writing assigned for reinforcement, training, and imitation, they correct errors (Zamel, 1985); when they read writing assigned for communication and fluency, they react and respond to the content. When writing for learning is the dominant purpose, however, teachers find that they combine the two. . . (p. 41)

Conclusion
Process writing offers an accepting and encouraging learning environment for English language learners who either failed or were unmotivated to write under a more traditional writing approach. Of course, it can help all learners, no matter their individual writing skill or competency level.

As with any theory or approach, process writing, has its limitations, but is adaptable to most L2 settings. Fortunately, the usefulness of process writing far outweighs the disadvantages.


text:
Learning theories in practice/Self-Efficacy

Introduction:
Self Efficacy is a rising interest among those in the field of higher education. Many researchers are determined to find ways to increase the motivation and self efficacy beliefs of the students of today. Researchers posit that students beliefs in their ability to succeed in courses or activities and their amount of science self efficacy, influences their choices of school related tasks, the effort they expend on those activities, the perseverance they show when encountering difficulties, and the ultimate success they experience in their courses. The research of self efficacy goes back to original ideas of Albert Bandura. According to Bandura (1995), self efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. Another definition of self efficacy is the strong belief that a student has that they can succeed in any given task or activity, having the ability to persevere in the face of difficulty, and being able to promote confidence as they meet obstacles. Self efficacy is also known as a judgment of confidence. It is context sensitive, it can be task specific. It is made and used in reference to some type of goal. It is domain specific. It is more of a question of can. Students with self efficacy ask themselves “Can I do this?” The purpose of this wiki book chapter is to inform higher education students and educators of the importance of strong self efficacy belief in students and to engage and encourage the conversation on motivation strategies and ways to promote self efficacy in students.

Literature Review:
Most of the research done on self efficacy and the field of motivation has been conducted by Albert Bandura and Robert Zimmerman. In Bandura’s research he states that self efficacy influences the choices that students make concerning their education(Bandura, 1986). The amount of self efficacy a student has can determine the amount of effort. If a student has a high level of self efficacy then they will make wiser choices about their education and put more effort into making sure that they are successful in school. Self efficacy also influences how long students persist when they confront obstacles or failures in the classes that they take. Most of all, it impacts how the students feel. This impacts whether or not a student has a high or low self esteem in life in general. How a student feels in their academic life determines how they feel in their personal, non academic life. Self efficacy beliefs affect academic performance by influencing a number of behavioral and psychological processes (Bandura, 1986).

Self efficacy beliefs are also positively associated with key motivation constructs such as self concept (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003) ( the students’ perceptions about their ability and their feelings of self worth associated with this ability), self- regulation ( "students are able to set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features of the environment”(Pintrich, 2000, p.453) mastery goal orientation (Urdan, 1997), and adaptive causal attributions ( Stajkovic & Sommer, 2000).

Types of Self Efficacy:
There are different ways for those to develop self efficacy, however it is not a fixed trait. Everyone does not have the same levels of self efficacy beliefs. There are four sources of self efficacy that are formed by students as described by Bandura(1986, 1997). The four sources are mastery experience, social persuasion, physiological states, and vicarious experience.

Mastery experience is the most influential of the four. Mastery experience is referring to the learners’ previous success at a given task. This experience is when students are engaged in tasks and activities. Mastery experiences happen when the student has reached the point where they understand the content knowledge enough to perform a task own their own. It happens with plenty of prior exposure to the content. They are able to interpret the results of their actions and use those results to develop their capability to engage in future actions or tasks. These students are able to participate in tasks on a first hand basis with little or no assistance from outside influences. Through a strong mastery experience, a student should be able to get feedback on their own learning capabilities. This is when a student feels confident to conduct a research project or a science experience with little direction from the instructor.

Vicarious experience is the second source of self efficacy. It is when the learner is primarily gaining self- efficacy or confidence in a given task through observation of a role model attaining success at a task (Bandura, 1986). The learner does not play an active role in the learning experience. They are learning more through the watching of someone who already understands the task or the objective or is on the same skill level as the observer. This type of experience would not be as effective if the person being observed was on a lower skill level or have not mastered the given objective or task. This source of self efficacy is known to be a weaker source than that of the mastery experience. Students in this source are often unsure of how they are able to perform an academic task independently. These are the same students that work well with their peers or need to see a finished product before they are able to construct a way to complete an assignment.

Physiological States is the next source of self efficacy beliefs for students. Students gage their degree of confidence by the emotional state they experience as they contemplate or engage in an action. Physiological states are when the student has a “gut feeling” as to whether or not they have the ability to succeed or fail at an academic task. These feelings can include many things such as anxiety, stress, arousal, fatigue, and mood states. If a person is considered to be in a good mood, then they are will more confident about their academic abilities. However, if something was said or happened to that person to make them have a bad mood or to become stressful, then they will begin to doubt their academic abilities due to that bad feeling that they have. Tired or anxious people are most likely not able to feel as confident about their abilities to succeed. This source of self efficacy is the most unstable of the four because a person’s mood or feelings can change by the minute, hour, or day. A person’s feelings is never a stable thing and for it to be connected to a person’s academic confidence is not a stable situation. In research conducted, it has been discovered that women are more likely than men to allow the physiological states affect their academic self efficacy beliefs.

The last source of self efficacy is the social persuasion or the verbal persuasion as it is also called. This is the exposure to the verbal and nonverbal judgments that others provide that can impact the level of self efficacy that a student has. There are both positive and negative verbal persuasions. Positive persuasions can work to encourage and empower the student to succeed for better. This means that the student needs to surround themselves with a support system that uplifts them and encourages them at going to school and give empowering statements when the students feels unsure about continuing. Professors and college advisors are able to play a major part in this encouragement. They can form relationships and bonds with the students and use the experience that they have in learning and education to guide and advise the students.

How Students can develop their own self efficacy:
Individuals have to be motivated to learn before the actual learning has taken place, during the process of learning and after the task has been learned. In order to increase a student’s self efficacy beliefs they should surround themselves with positive and encouraging role models. This peer modeling works best for all types of students whether they are considered to be gifted, special education, or regular students. Students need to be taught what it looks like to have high self efficacy beliefs, because many students do not have the proper role models to teach or encourage high self efficacy traits. If students are around people that are positive confident in their own abilities then that is a very good way to motivate the students to strive for better.

Rewards and positive reinforcement is not a factor that is used when encouraging higher self efficacy beliefs in students. Majority of the beliefs of self worth and confidence must be derived from within the student and based on their knowledge and success at a task. The student should not be confused by receiving rewards for having confidence. Many extrinsic rewards will undermine the effects of self efficacy. It has been stated in research that providing rewards only for participation in an activity has generally led to decreased interest in that activity (Bates, 1979) and that is not the results that we desire in the students that we teach. We want them to continue to have interest in the tasks that are presented to them.

Students can develop their own self efficacy by knowing how they learn best. Once a student is more knowledgeable about their own learning and what works best for them, they will be able to experience more success. That student should then focus more on their strengths, but still attempt to work at the task that are more difficult for them.

What can educators do?
When some students experience failure in school or a particular subject matter, it can at times cause them to have a low self -efficacy belief about their skills to succeed. When a student has those failure experiences multiple times, it can cause a student to shut down emotionally and mentally from the learning process. This shut down effect can block the pursuit of future educational plans and the pursuit of certain careers that is similar to that content area where they were unsuccessful. Educators play a huge role of impacting students to strive for more. Educators must be educated and aware of the sources of self efficacy in order to make sure that students are making future decisions on career choices and academics based on the level of interest they have and not for fear or lack of confidence. Educators must set up expectations for their students and push them to meet those expectations and strive to exceed those expectations. The teacher must start with smaller expectations that are on a level that is comfortable for the students. After the student sees success, then the educator can gradually increase the level of expectations held.

For educators in the primary and secondary education arena, the scaffolding technique is very beneficial in developing self efficacy beliefs as the students move from concepts in lecture or textbooks to hands on assignments. The students must become engaged in authentic inquiry in for them to become motivated. It is the job of a knowledgeable instructor to pair the weaker student with one that is stronger in that content knowledge. This allows for peer tutoring. Peer tutoring is good at strengthening the stronger student’s mastery experiences while the weaker student is being assisted in the task or content that they needed extra help with. The students are able to assist with the development of self efficacy beliefs as well. It is best to use vicarious experiences for those students who have very limited mastery experiences. It is up to the educators to play the role in making the students feel comfortable in the classroom in order to relieve them of any anxieties or fears they might have concerning the content matter.

In the science curriculum, educators can assist in building self efficacy by using a more constructive model of learning. Have the students to determine the task. Let the students build on their previous knowledge. Another way is the use more of the inquiry method of learning and not a direct instructional method. Let the students have the opportunity to explore their own learning. Allow for a more hands on approach to learning. Some students are more comfortable with being able to see actual examples of the content that they are learning. If the students are more comfortable then they will be more confident at the learning.

When educators are knowledge about their students, it helps in making their students more confident in learning. Teachers can give an interest survey at the beginning of the year to see what successes and failures that the student has already experiences. They can also learn their strengths and weaknesses as well. When the teacher knows in advance about their student, they can tailor their instruction based on that knowledge. If they know that the student learns better with a partner assisting them, then the teacher can attempt to use small grouping when the students are participating in independent practice.

Conclusion:
The future of self efficacy research is very bright. There are still some research that could be conducted on the varying self efficacy beliefs among different cultures, socio economic groups, genders, and age groups. All of this impacts the type of learning that occurs in the classroom, so in order to be of service to the universities and the students’ additional research is much needed on the topic.