text:
Language teaching/Fast ForWord

Introduction
Scientific Learning is a company that provides educational ‘brain fitness’ software to schools K-12, educational institutions, learning centers and speech language clinics worldwide. One of the programs offered by this company is Fast ForWord, a computer training program. The Fast ForWord Language series is designed to help build the foundations that are necessary for success in reading as well as other language skills in elementary students. The Fast ForWord Literacy series is designed to help readers in middle school and high school who are struggling with reading. The Fast ForWord Reading series is a reading intervention program that is designed to increase processing efficiency and critical reading skills.

Research that led to the development of the Fast ForWord program
It has been shown that difficulties in perceiving the temporal aspects of auditory stimuli are central to language-learning difficulties and later reading difficulties. Fast ForWord was developed on the basis of two underlying assumptions

 * 1) Language-learning impairments are caused by deficits in the ability to process temporal information.
 * 2) Speech modification algorithms are built into the program that help jump start critical language learning processes by remodelling the brain to better perceive rapid temporal changes in sounds.

A temporal processing deficit is characterized by difficulty recognizing and sequencing rapidly presented auditory and visual information. This deficit is common in children with language-learning impairments and can be seen as early as the first year of life. Temporal processing deficits might be caused by faulty learning systems that could be inherited from the parents as well as the use of perceptual learning strategies that involve limited use of the temporal information available in the environment. It has been demonstrated that children with learning difficulties have problems judging the order of auditory stimuli unless the spaces between the stimuli are greatly increased and exaggerated. Children with learning problems have difficulty perceiving stop consonants and fricatives, but are relatively good at telling the differences between vowel sounds, unless the vowel is immediately followed by another acoustic stimulus. Vowels are easier to perceive than consonants because they have a longer sound duration. Children with learning problems have more trouble in processing sequences of three or more sounds, even when the duration between the stimuli has been increased.

These findings were the basis of the development of the Fast ForWord program. The games were designed to lengthen and exaggerate the phonemes that were found to be difficult for children with language impairment. The games provide practice in discriminating tones with decreasing spaces between stimuli.

How does it work?
The intervention program was developed with the previous research in mind. The idea behind the program is to train students to differentiate between stimuli on the basis of short auditory cues. There are seven games that make up the Fast ForWord computer based program. The games incorporate acoustically modified speech in exercises to improve language skills of students with language impairments. This helps the students to discriminate subtle sounds differences. Several games address phonological awareness, which is a skill that has been suggested as necessary for most children when learning to read. Students are required to play five games each day as automatically determined by the software. It is expected that students will play the system for 100 minutes a day. After the student plays the games accurately, several times in a row, the software will move the student up to the next level. The software keeps track of the student's progress so that the level of play is challenging and interesting. Each game has five levels. The first level of each game incorporates auditory stimuli that have been electronically altered. These sounds have been enhanced so that they are easily understood by children with language difficulties. Each level reduces the amount of altering on the sounds and eventually, in the fifth level, the sounds are that of normal speech.

The Circus Sequence
In this game the student reproduces the order of a two-tone sequence of high and low pitch sounds. This games targets the rate of processing and temporal spacing skills. Students are trained to discriminate between a sequence of two tones which are separated by a specified interval. As the child progresses through the levels, the interval between the sounds become less pronounced, and more similar to everyday speech.

Old MacDonald's Flying Farm
In this game the student clicks the mouse as nonsense syllables are produced by farm animals, and releases the mouse button only when a target syllable is displayed. This teaches the students to distinguish phonemic sound changes.

Phoneme Identification
In this game the student listens to a target nonsense syllable followed by two subsequent productions, and then identifies the syllable that matches the target. This game teaches students to identify specific phonemes. The student hears a stimulus which is one of a pair. The animal characters then vocalize either the matching syllable or other foil syllables. The student must then try to match the stimulus to the matching pair. In each level, the interval between sounds becomes progressively shorter, as well as varying degrees of speech length.

Phonic Match
In this game the student clicks on one of many cells to find nonsense syllables that are identical sounds. When these sounds are clicked in succession, the matched pairs disappear until all the cells are gone. This game reinforces memory and reasoning skills within nonsense syllables that differ only by a single phoneme.

Phonic Word
In this game a student listens to a word while looking at two pictures of words which differ by only one sound. The student then clicks the picture corresponding to the word heard. This game teaches phoneme and word recognition for words that differ by a single phoneme. This game challenges students to distinguish between words that differ only by an initial or final consonant. In each successive level, the speech length is shortened from its greatly altered state in the first level to a state that is more like normal speech

Block Commander
This game teaches students to listen and respond to directions with an increasing number of salient features. Multiple mouse clicks and the manipulation of electronic game pieces of varying color and shape are necessary to complete the task. This game teaches listening comprehension and syntax through the use of simple sentences.

Language Comprehension Builder
In this game students listen to phrases or sentences of increasing length and syntactic complexity. Students must click one of two-to-four picture choices corresponding with the production heard auditorily. This introduces increasingly complex sentences to develop higher-level language skills, including morphology, syntax and grammar.

Research completed by Scientific Learning
Scientific Learning (2004) published a study including 452 elementary students in 9 U. S. school districts participated in a Fast ForWord study. All students who participated were identified as being "at-risk" by their teachers. All students scored below grade average on levels of performance, language comprehension and phonological ability. 288 students received the treatment measure of a computer based training program while 164 of the students served as the control group. Students were required to work at the training exercises for 100 minutes a day for about 30 school days. Students who completed the training showed an improvement in speech reception and comprehension, phonological awareness that is necessary to initiate reading, as well as other language and behavioural measures. It was found that more than 70% of the group that received the training showed a significant increase in language comprehension, with an average of 1.8 years in language age advancement over their pre-training scores. This study claims that with early, intensive computer-based training in speech recognition and language comprehension, deficits in language skills can be reduced and possibly corrected.

Scientific Learning (2006) published a study in which the Fast ForWord program was introduced into a school curriculum. Ten kindergarten students of Native American descent participated in this study. All participants were tested using the Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA) before and after using the program. The results showed that the use of the Fast ForWord program successfully helped the students improve their early reading skills along with improvements in phonological awareness and letter-to-sound recognition.

Scientific Learning company (2008) studied the effectiveness of the Fast ForWord program in the classroom over a four year period. The participants were 828 high school students in many schools in the Dallas Independent School District. Students used the programs from the beginning of the 2004 school year to the end of the 2007 school year. Their reading abilities were assessed using the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS). After using Fast ForWord products, it was discovered that struggling readers had been able to make progress to close the achievement gap between themselves and skilled readers. After comparing the results of this study with other students across the nation, it was discovered that the gap had decreased by almost 25%.

Scientific Learning (2008) published a study showing the effect of the Fast ForWord programs on students in a middle school setting. Students were placed in either a control group or an experimental group. Students used the program from the start of the 2005 school year to the end of the 2007 school year. They were tested on their reading abilities using the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) and the Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) before and after the use of the Fast ForWord program. It was found that participants who were in the control group were able to improve their scores on these tests and maintain their improvements over the two year span.

Scientific Learning Corporation (2009) studied students from the Clarke County School District during the 2006-2007 school year. They found that students who had used the Fast ForWord programs made greater gains in reading achievement than students in the comparison group regardless of starting english proficiency, special education status or socioeconomic status. These results were replicated the following year. 40% of students who were not proficient in 2006 were considered to be proficient in the 2007 replication study. This is a great increase when compared to the 27% of the comparison group who were able to cross the same threshold.

Scientific Learning (2010) investigated the longitudinal English/Language Arts, Math, Science, and Social Studies achievement of elementary and middle school students who used Fast ForWord products between the years of 2003 and 2010. This study found that from 2006-2010, English/Language Arts proficiency rose from 59% to 78%, Math proficiency levels rose from 59% to 79%, Science proficiency rose from 53% to 69%, and Social Studies proficiency rose from 59% to 72% in the 4th grade. These increases were also seen in 8th grade students, except that the increases were not as great as those of the 4th graders. It was also found that the grade completion rate of 4th graders increased from 65% to 85% during these years.

Research completed outside of Scientific Learning
Fey et al. (2010) examined whether Fast ForWord was effective as an adjuvant treatment when paired with a narrative based language intervention (NBLI). 23 students participated in this study and were assigned to one of three different groups. The first group received training with the Fast ForWord program followed by the NBLI, the second group received training with the NBLI followed by the Fast ForWord program and the third group observed a wait period followed by only the training NBLI. After 5 weeks of training within their programs, both the NBLI/Fast ForWord and Fast ForWord/NBLI outperformed the third group.

The Journal of Contemporary Educational Psychology (2003) tested the Fast ForWord program in a sample of students in grades 1 through 6. Students were placed in either the control or experimental group. They were tested before and after the 4-8 week treatment period. Students in the treatment group showed gains in expressive oral language after using Fast ForWord. Students who showed the poorest abilities going into the study were the ones who showed the most gain. These students showed improvement in expressive oral language, syllable and sound blending, and a reduction in problem behaviours. It was concluded from this study that Fast ForWord had a positive but limited impact on students reading ability.

Troia (2004) tested students in elementary school who were native spanish speakers. Students were assigned to either a treatment or control group. Students were tested before and after the treatment on spoken english proficiency, oral language competency, phonological awareness, basic reading skills, and classroom behaviour. Students in the treatment group showed gains in sight-word recognition. Students who were the least fluent in English showed the most gains by using this program. These students showed greater gains in expressive language, sight-word recognition, and pseudoword decoding. This study had the same basic conclusions as the previous study.

Loeb (2009) examined the efficacy of Fast ForWord compared to two other interventions for improving the phonemic awareness and reading skills of students with specific language impairment as well as other reading difficulties. 103 students participated in this study. All students who participated in this study had a language impairment and reading difficulties. Students were divided into treatment groups and either received Fast ForWord treatment, a computerized-assisted language intervention, an individualized language intervention or an attention control computer program. It was found that children in the experimental groups made greater gains in blending sounds in words compared to the attention control group. After being retested in 6 months, there was no longer a significant increase but a medium effect size for blending words sounds.

Problems/Criticisms
Some research has provided a critical opinion of the Fast ForWord Program. These studies may make us wonder if the claims made by the company are greater than they should be. Some of these studies are summarized below.

Gillam et al (2008) published a study regarding the efficacy of the Fast ForWord program. This study was meant to compare the language and auditory abilities in those who participated in the Fast ForWord program to those who received nonspecific or specified language intervention. 216 students participated in this study and were assigned to one of four groups: Fast ForWord, academic enrichment, computer assisted language intervention, or individualized language intervention provided by a speech pathologist. All students received their intervention method for 40 minutes a day, 5 days a week for 6 weeks. Language and auditory processing were tested before and immediately after treatment, as well as 3 months and 6 months after treatment was completed. It was found that students in all four groups benefited from the treatment they received. Students in the Fast ForWord group did not show a greater improvement then students in the other groups.

Borman and Benson (2009) implemented a randomized field trial to eight urban schools. Students from each school participated in this study, using the Fast ForWord system. Analysis of the literacy outcomes of second and seventh grade students who were more generally at risk for poor reading and language outcomes were performed. There were some problems with the implementation of the program in the field setting with this study. It was found that, in general, the Fast ForWord program did not help students in these eight schools improve their language and reading comprehension test scores.

Pokorni (2004) tested the effectiveness of three different programs: Fast ForWord, Earobics, and LiPS. The authors randomly assigned 60 students with language and reading deficits to 1 of 3 interventions. During a summer school program, the students received three one-hour daily intervention sessions. Measures of phonological awareness, language and reading related skills were collected and analyzed. Earobics and LiPS were associated with gains on phonological awareness measures after 6 weeks of intervention therapy. No effects were found on language and reading measures in any of the groups.

Hook, Macaruso and Jones (2001) explored the effects of Fast ForWord training on reading and spoken language skills in students with reading difficulties. Students who were trained with Fast ForWord were compared with students who were trained with Orton Gillingham training. Both groups made similar gains in phonemic awareness, however students who trained with Fast ForWord did not show significant gains in word attack whereas students who were training with Orton Gillingham training did show significant improvements. Fast ForWord students showed gains in speaking and syntax immediately after training, but these gains were not maintained over a two year period.

Other papers take a critical review stance on the effectiveness of the Fast ForWord program. Some of these arguments are summarized below.

Fast ForWord is a very expensive program. The majority of the cost comes from the need to purchase a software license from Scientific Learning Corporation, in addition to paying the fees of a trained professional who must administer the program.

Many of the studies that have been cited earlier talk about how well students who used Fast ForWord did with great increases in reading ability. A problem with these studies is that each study used a different test to determine the changes in reading abilities. This means that we should be mindful of the results as measurements are only as good as the instruments they are based on.

A concern, voiced by some speech-language pathologists, is that the program was made available to the public before its effectiveness could be fully determined and documented. Many parents will ask for the latest type of treatment, whether it has been proven or not.

Another common criticism of the Fast ForWord program is that it is therapy without direct involvement of a professional. This program does not claim to be able to correct all problems associated with reading and must be taken for those claims. This program is not a substitute for professional training.

Learning Activities
The activities that follow are meant to supplement the information above and reinforce the material. The first two activities are meant to get you thinking about the material above in a general way, and to test your knowledge. The final activity is meant to make you think a little deeper about the material and incorporate your own thoughts and opinions.

Scrambled Words
Using the clues provided, unscramble the word.

 * 1) hmnpeeo dfcnttniiaeiio   -   The game in which the student listens to a target nonsense syllable, and then identifies the match.
 * 2) xveenspei - Major concern with the Fast ForWord Program
 * 3) ecctsfiiin anrnlieg - Company that makes the Fast ForWord program
 * 4) noe ndheurd ntuisme - How long should students use the program per day?
 * 5) aiobserc & silp - What two program were associated with increases of phonological awareness measures over Fast ForWord
 * 6) cphsee-aeunalgg gtthsaloopi - Fast ForWord is administered by this Health Professional
 * 7) lptomera - Fast ForWord program was made based on research regarding this type of information processing deficit
 * 8) lvweso - Are vowels or consonants perceived better by children with learning disabilities?
 * 9) hgnollpiooca aanrseews - Several of the games in this program address this aspect of reading

Letter Blanks
Using the clues provided, find which word fits the letter spaces

 * 1) In what year of life can a temporal processing deficit be recognized?  __ __ __ __ __
 * 2) Children with learning problems have difficulties perceiving what?  __ __ __ __   .   __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __  &  __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
 * 3) Children with learning problems have difficulties with sequences of how many or more words? __ __ __ __ __
 * 4) In the fifth level of each game, the sounds resemble what?   __ __ __ __ __ __   .   __ __ __ __ __ __
 * 5) This games is used to discriminate between two tones.  The __ __ __ __ __ __  .  __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

Essay Question
Write a short essay regarding the following questions.
 * 1)  Test reliability and the comparability of tests between studies is an important topic and can sometimes affect the results of a study.  Please write a short essay regarding this topic in reference to the studies above.
 * 2)  Many of the studies regarding Fast ForWord show mixed results.  Please write a short essay regarding the studies mentioned previously and your thoughts on how the results should be interpreted in regards to whether you would use the program yourself.
 * 3)  Should a company, such as Scientific Learning, be allowed to fund studies regarding their own programs?  Please write a short essay about this topic, using some of the examples cited above.
 * 4)  How does the Fast ForWord program identify and attempt to solve the temporal processing deficit seen in children with reading difficulties?
 * 5)  How does the set-up and implementation of the games in the Fast ForWord program address the two main issues the company believes are related to reading and language difficulties?

title: Language teaching/Fast ForWord


text:
User talk:Egm6341.s11.team3.rakesh

Please see here, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat + Identi.ca 13:43, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

 Hello Egm6341.s11.team3.rakesh, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Egm6341.s11.team3.rakesh


text: India-America Relationship

title: India-America Relationship


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team7/HW 1

Problem Description

 * Part 1: Derive the one-dimensional partial differential equation (PDE) for an elastic bar under dynamic loading conditions. (Refer to equation 3 of lecture page 2-3.)

 * Part 2: Discuss the case in which the bar has a rectangular cross-section of area $$

\displaystyle

A\left( x \right) = b \cdot h\left( x \right)

$$.

Given

From lecture page 2-3 equation 3 ,the PDE for an elastic bar under dynamic loading conditions is:

 * $$\frac{\partial{}}{\partial{x}}[E(x)A(x)]\frac{\partial{u}}{\partial{x}}+f(x,t)=m\frac{\partial^2{u}}{\partial{t^2}}$$

Since the elastic bar is loaded dynamically, the applied force, f, is a function of distance, x , as well as time, t. This is shown in the free body diagram (FBD) to the right. Details of the remaining forces will be discussed in the solution below. The dotted line in the figure represents the centerline, or axis, of the elastic bar.

Solution
Assumptions :
 * The rod satisfies Hooke's Law, $$\sigma (x) = E(x)\epsilon (x) $$.
 * Compatible displacement field.
 * The rod obeys the strain displacement equation.

Following Newton's Second Law:

 * $$\displaystyle F=m*a $$

Where:

 * F=Force

 * m=Mass

 * a=Acceleration

Additionally,

 * $$\displaystyle m=\rho * V$$

Where $$\displaystyle\rho = $$ density and V=Volume.

and,

 * $$a=\frac{d^2u}{dt^2}$$

Where u is displacement and t is time.

Performing a force balance on the rod using the free body diagram above, the net force is equal to the internal forces plus the external, or applied, forces.

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \Sigma \text{ Internal Force } + \text{ Applied Force } = \text{ Net Force}$$ (1.1)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \Sigma \text{ Internal Force }=-N(x) + N(x+\Delta x)$$ (1.2)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \text{ Applied Force }=f(x+\frac{\Delta x}{2},t)\Delta x$$ (1.3)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \text{ Net Force}= m*a =\rho (x)A(x)\frac{\partial^2{u}}{\partial{t^2}}\Delta x$$ (1.4) Note: Acceleration is a partial derivative since the displacement, u, is also dependent on the axial position, x.
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Substituting equations 1.2 through 1.4 back into the force balance equation, 1.1:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle -N(x) + N(x+\Delta x) + f(x+\frac{\Delta x}{2},t)\Delta x =\rho (x)A(x)\frac{\partial^2{u}}{\partial{t^2}}\Delta x$$ (1.5)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

The balance of forces at position x can be expressed as:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle -N(x)=\sigma (x)n(x)A(x)=-\sigma (x)A(x)$$ (1.6)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

The corresponding force at x + Δx:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle N(x+\Delta x)=\sigma (x+\Delta x)n(x+\Delta x)A(x+\Delta x)=\sigma (x+\Delta x)A(x\Delta x)$$ (1.7)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Substituting equations 1.6 and 1.7 into 1.5 yields:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle -\sigma (x)A(x) + \sigma (x+\Delta x)A(x+\Delta x) + f(x+\frac{\Delta x}{2},t)\Delta (x) = \rho (x)A(x)\Delta x\frac{\partial^2{u}}{\partial{t^2}}$$ (1.8)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Dividing this equation and the internal forces (1.2) through by Δx and recognizing that as Δx approaches zero:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} \frac{N(x+\Delta x)-N(x)}{\Delta x}=\frac{dN}{dx}.$$ (1.9)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Equation 1.8 can be rewritten as:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial{\sigma (x)A(x)}}{\partial{x}}+f(x,t)=\rho (x) A(x)\frac{\partial^2{u}}{\partial{t^2}}$$ (1.10)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

The strain-displacement equation is
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\varepsilon \left( x \right) = \frac

$$     (1.11) By Hooke ‘ s Law
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\sigma \left( x \right) = E\left( x \right)\varepsilon \left( x \right) = E\left( x \right)\frac

$$     (1.12)
 *
 * }

and substituting into equation 1.10 yields:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |

\frac{\partial }\left[ {E\left( x \right)A\left( x \right)\frac} \right] + f\left( {x,t} \right) = m\left( x \right)\frac

$$     (1.13)
 *
 * }

Given
The width of the bar (spatial dimension into the page of the free body diagram) is defined as b (see bar cross-section in below right figure). So rather than the area being an arbitrary value A(x) at position 'x' or A(x+Δx) at position 'x+Δx' as in the first part of the problem, the area can be defined more explicitly as
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

A\left( x \right) = b \cdot h\left( x \right)

$$     (1.14)
 *
 * }

Solution
The mass
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right) = \rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\frac{1}{2}\left[ {h\left( x \right) + h\left( {x + \Delta x} \right)} \right]b

$$     (1.15) Take the limit $$\Delta x \to 0$$
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

m\left( x \right) = \rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)b

$$     (1.16) Substituting Equation 1.14 and 1.16 into Equation 1.13
 *
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |

\frac{\partial }\left[ {E\left( x \right)h\left( x \right)b\frac} \right] + f\left( {x,t} \right) = \rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)b\frac

$$     (1.17)
 * <p style="text-align:right">
 * }

Authors
Johnathan Whittaker Bullard

Philip Flater

Brandon Hua

Jiang Jin

Braden Snook

Srilalithkumar Swaminathan

Zongyi Yang

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team7/HW 1


text:
User talk:Claudia~enwikiversity

 Hello Claudia, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat + Identi.ca 15:19, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Claudia. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Claudia~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:32, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Claudia~enwikiversity


title: File:Fe1.s11.mtg8.djvu


title: File:Nm1.s11.mtg8.djvu


text:
User:Egm6341.s11.team3.JA

= 2.9 =

Given

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \omega = ]0,1[ \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.1)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ a_2 = 2 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.2)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ f = 3 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.3)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \frac{\partial{u}}{\partial{t}}(x,t) = 0 $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.4)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \Gamma_g = 1 \quad $$, $$ g = 0 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u(x=1) = 0 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.5)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \Gamma_h = 0 \quad $$, $$ h = 4 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *  $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ -\frac{du^h}{dx}(0) = 4 \quad $$ $$
 *  $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.6)
 * }

Find
Find approximate solution $$ u^n \quad $$ and compare it to exact one

Consider base function $$ b_j(x), j = 0, 1, 2, 3,... n \quad $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ b_j(x) = cos(jx+\phi) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.7)
 * }

Consider $$ \phi = \frac{\pi}{4} $$ and $$ \phi = \frac{\pi}{2} $$

(1) Let $$ n = 2 \Rightarrow ndof = n+1 = 3 \quad $$

Generate variables considered for $$ n = 2 \quad $$ case

(2) Find 2 eqs that enforce b.c.'s for $$ u^h(x) = \sum_{j -0}^{n} d_j b_j(x) $$

(3) Find 1 more eq. to solve for $$ \underline{d} = d_j (j = 0, 1, 2) $$ by projecting the residue $$ \underline{p}(u^h) $$ on a basis function $$ b_k(x) \quad $$ with $$ k = 0, 1, 2 \quad $$. The additional equation must be lineally independent from the above 2 equations in part (2).

(4) Display 3 equations in matrix form

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \underline{K}\underline{d} = \underline{F} $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.8)
 * }

Observe if $$ \underline{K} $$ is symmetric

(5) Solve for $$ \underline{d} \quad $$

(6) Construct $$ u_n^k(x) $$ and plot $$ u_n^k(x) $$ vs. $$ ux) $$

(7) Repeat steps (1) to (6) for

 * (7.1) $$ n = 4 \quad $$
 * (7.2) $$ n = 6 \quad $$

(8) Compute $$ u_n^h (x = 0.5) \quad $$ for $$ n = 2, 4, 6 \quad $$

error

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ e_n(0.5) = u_n(0.5) - u_n^h(0.5) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.9)
 * }

Plot $$ e_n(0.5) \quad $$ vs. $$ n \quad $$

Solution
(1)

For $$ n = 2 \quad $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \underline{b} =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} b_0     & b_1 & b_2 \end{bmatrix}

$$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.10)
 * }

From base function expression $$ b_j(x) = cos(jx+\phi) \quad $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \underline{b} =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} cos(0x+\phi)     & cos(1x+\phi) & cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

=

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)     & cos(x+\phi) & cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

$$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.11)
 * }

Unknown function

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \underline{d} =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} d_0     & d_1 & d_2 \end{bmatrix} $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.12)
 * }

Approximate solution

(2)

at B.C. $$ u(1) = 0 \quad $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u^h = \sum_{i=0}^{n=2} d_ib_i $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.13)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u^h(x) = d_0cos(\phi) + d_1cos(x+\phi) + d_2cos(2x+\phi) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.14)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u^h(1) = 0 = d_0cos(\phi) + d_1cos(1+\phi) + d_2cos(2+\phi) =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)     & cos(1+\phi) & cos(2+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} d_0     \\ d_1 \\ d_2 \end{bmatrix} $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

at B.C $$ \frac{du}{dx}(0) = 4 $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ (u')^h(x) = \frac{du}{dx} = \sum_{i=0}^{n=2} d_ib_i' $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.15)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \underline{b}' =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} 0     & -sin(x+ \phi) & -2sin(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

$$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.16)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ (u')^h(0) = - 4 = d_00 - d_1sin(\phi) - d_22sin(\phi) =
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} 0     & sin(\phi) & 2sin(\phi) \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} d_0     \\ d_1 \\ d_2 \end{bmatrix} $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

(3)

By projecting the residue part of a function on the bases, 3rd equation can be generated:

From the definition of elastodynamics case of ODE function $$ P_u(x) \quad $$

Rewriting $$ Eq. 2.3.7 \quad $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ b_j(x) = cos(jx+\phi) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

In this, more specific, "self adjoin" case

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ P(u^h) :=[a_2u']' + a_0u - g = 0 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.17)
 * }

noting

$$ g = 0 \Rightarrow \quad $$ no forcing function (steady state)

$$ a_0u = f = 3 \quad $$ (given)

$$ a_2 = 2 \quad $$ (given)

$$ P(u^h) :=[2u']' + 3 = 0 \Rightarrow \quad $$ since $$ u \quad $$ is given as constant 2 (not function of "x")

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ P(u^h) :=2u'' + 3 = 0\quad = 2\frac{d^2u}{dx} +3 = 0 $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.18)
 * }

From $$ Eq. xxx $$, $$ u^h \quad $$ was defined as

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u^h = \sum_{i=0}^{n=2} d_ib_i = d_0cos(\phi) + d_1cos(x+\phi) + d_2cos(2x+\phi) $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.19)
 * }

Taking $$ 2^{nd} \quad $$ derivative with respect to "x"

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u^{h''} = 0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.20)
 * }

Therefore

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ P(u^h) := 2(0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi)) +3 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.21)
 * }

Afterwords, noting that

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \int_\omega w P(u^h) dx := 0 \Rightarrow w_i = b_i \Rightarrow \int_\omega b_i P(u^h) dx := 0 $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.22)
 * }

which is also noted in $$ 10-4, Eq. (2) \quad $$

and substituting for $$ P(u^h) \quad $$ equation above, we get

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \int_\omega b_i ([2(0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi))] +3 dx) := 0 \quad $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.23)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \int_\omega b_i [2(0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi))] dx := \int_\omega b_i -3 dx \quad $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.24)
 * }

recalling that $$ \underline{b} =

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)  \\ cos(x+\phi) \\ cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix} $$

and taking any of the equations as the last needed equation, for example $$ b_1 \quad $$, we get

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \int_\omega
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)  \\ cos(x+\phi) \\ cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

[2(0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi))] dx := \int_\omega

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)  \\ cos(x+\phi) \\ cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix} -3 dx \quad $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.25)
 * }

Doing symbolic integration and evaluating interval on $$ \omega = ]0,1[ \quad $$ we get

The outputs are as follow:

$$ \int_\omega

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)  \\ cos(x+\phi) \\ cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix}

[2(0 - d_1cos(x+\phi) - 4d_2cos(2x+\phi))] dx := $$ 0   0.3818   -1.0137         0    0.2919    0.7126         0    0.1781    2.3464

$$ \int_\omega

\begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)  \\ cos(x+\phi) \\ cos(2x+\phi) \end{bmatrix} -3 dx \quad := $$

2.1213   0.8099   -0.5376

(4)

Assembling the matrix $$ \underline{K} \underline{d} = \underline{F} \quad $$ from 2 B.C. constrains and 1 more equation generated by weighting factor method:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \begin{bmatrix} cos(\phi)     & cos(x+\phi) & cos(2x+\phi) \\ 0     & sin(\phi) & 2sin(\phi) \\ 0 &   0.3818  & -1.0137     \end{bmatrix}
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

\begin{bmatrix} d_0     \\ d_1 \\ d_2 \end{bmatrix}

=

\begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 4 \\ 2.1213   \end{bmatrix} $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.26)
 * }

For "K" matrix: 0.7071  -0.2130   -0.9372                           0    0.7071    1.4142               0    0.3818   -1.0137

For "F" matrix:

0   4.0000    2.1213

(5)

Solving for $$ \underline{d} = \underline{K}^{-1} F\quad $$ at $$ \phi = \frac{\pi}{4} \quad $$ we get

(tried to solve for $$ \phi = \frac{\pi}{2} \quad $$, matrix approx. value came if not exact, then really close to exact and the warning of matlab was issued about singularity)

d = 1.7193   5.6137    0.0216

(6)

Constructed $$ u^h \quad $$ matrix on matlab by using formula $$ u^h = \sum_{i=0}^{n=2} d_ib_i $$

0.02156*cos(phi + 2.0*x) + 5.614*cos(phi + x) + 1.719*cos(phi)

Exact solution:

Given a general expression for 2nd Order ODE

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ a_2(x)y'' + a_1(x)y + a_0(x)y = g(x) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.27)
 * }

and taking a more specific case ("Self adjoin") for this specific problem, we have

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ [a_2(x)y']' + a_0(x)y = g(x) \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.17)
 * }

$$ g(x) = 0 \Rightarrow \quad $$ no forcing function (steady state)

$$ a_0(x)y = f(x) = 3 \quad $$ (given)

$$ a_2 = 2 \quad $$ (given)

Therefore $$ Eq. 2.3.17 \quad $$ becomes

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ [2y']' + 3 = 0 \quad $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.28)
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \frac{du}{dx}(\frac{du}{dx}2) + 3 = 0 $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \int \frac{du}{dx}2 = \int -3 dx $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \frac{du}{dx}2 = -3x + c_1' \Rightarrow \frac{du}{dx} = -1.5x + c_1 $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.29)
 * }

at B.C of $$ -\frac{du}{dx}(0) = 4 \Rightarrow $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ -4 = -1.5(0) + c_1 \Rightarrow c_1 = -4$$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \int {du} = \int (-1.5x - 4) dx $$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u = \frac{-1.5}{2}x^2 - 4x + c_2 $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.30)
 * }

at B.C of $$ u(1) = 0 \Rightarrow $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ 0 = \frac{-1.5}{2}(1)^2 - 4(1) + c_2 \Rightarrow c_2 = -4.75$$ $$
 *
 $$ \displaystyle
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ u(x) = -0.75x^2 - 4x - 4.75 \quad $$ $$
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 $$ \displaystyle (Eq. 2.3.31)
 * }

So taken in account the exact solution formula, different plot were generated for different n values (n = 2, 4, 6)

Different 'u' values plotted on 1 graph for different member number 'n'

Highly zoomed in view, by zooming in it is clear that n =4 is good enough approximation for these series.

Error came out to be ex = n=2       n=4       n=6 -0.2291  -0.0102    0.0000

= ref=

title: User:Egm6341.s11.team3.JA


text:
User talk:Keith Nagy

This user talk page was created by Keith Nagy. This usr talk page was created on January 20, 2011. This user talk page is 0 days old. This user talk page has been vandalized 0 times.

 Hello Keith Nagy, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 20:46, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

title: User talk:Keith Nagy


text:
Psycholinguistics/Words, Meaning, and Word Recognition

Introduction
Words and their meanings refer to the oral utterances made to describe, demand or explain a particular action, event, feeling or object. Every culture in the world has developed a collection of words to use when referring to objects, people, places, or ideas. In some cultures, there are multiple meanings for the same word, and in others, there are multiple words of the same meaning. Words are made up of, depending on the word or culture, a collection of sounds or a single sound. It is the collection of sounds, their arrangement and order which make words recognizable and distinguishable to their speakers.
 * What are words?
 * What are words composed of?

Word Beginnings
naon ue
 * When were words first used?
 * What were some of the first words of various cultures? Why these?

Meanings of Words

 * What types of words were first used?
 * What were the meanings of the first words, and what were their purpose in society?

Word Recognition
Cinta Septa is love until die
 * What words are most easily recognized?
 * How can word recognition be made easier?

Learning Activity

 * Explanation
 * Instructions
 * Conclusion


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title: File:DRB1-1504.gif


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text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team3.sahin

Main Page Lecture Plan Report Table

Team3

Homeworks HW1 HW2 HW3.9 HW3.10 HW4.2 HW5.3 HW6.2 HW7.2
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 1
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 2
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 3
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 4
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 5
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 6
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 7

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team3.sahin


text:
Complex socio-ecological systems/List of Participants

General introduction to the group

We have a very heterogeneuos and interdisciplinary group in this class, representing a diversity of students, research associates and faculty, including ecologists, anthropologists, sociologists, with people working in different parts of Latin America, Africa and the United States. We have also people accompanying and contributing from a far, including students in Guatemala, Costa Rica and Brazil and a non UF contributor from Germany interested in systems theory (Erkan). Some expectations expressed by participants relate to interest in pursuing a better understanding of how resilience might be applied to social contexts and, more broadly, to research in the social sciences. people also mentioned interest in exploring the applications of resilience thinking to climate change and natural disasters. Claudia mentioned her interest in understanding better the concept of robustness as applied to socio-ecological systems.

PRELIMINARY LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

1.	Adam Watts – UF/SNRE

2.	André Baby – UF – Visiting Scholar (ACLI)

3.	Arika Virapongse – UF/SNRE/TCD

4.	Caitlin Baird – UF/Anthropology

5.	Claudia Monzon – UF/SNRE/TCD

6.	Claudia Romero – UF/Biology

7.	Danielle Watts – UF/SNRE

8.	David Hanson – UF

9.	Erkan Yilmaz – Germany

10.	Flavia Leite – UF/Sociology

11.	Franklin Paniagua – UF/SNRE/TCD

12.	Grenville Barnes - UF/SFRC/TCD/African Studies

13.	Jennifer Arnold – UF/SNRE

14.	Jeremy Radachowsky – Guatemala

15.	Julia Quaedvlieg – UF/Sociology

16.	Laura Avila – UF/SNRE/TCD

17.	Lisandro Juno – UF/ Visiting Scholar (ACLI)

18.	Marliz – UF/Sociology

19.	Raissa Guerra – UF/SNRE/TCD

20.	Renato Farias – UF – Visiting Scholar (ACLI)

21.	Ricardo Mello – UF/SNRE

22.	Sam Schramski – UF/SNRE

23.	Shelly Johnson – UF/SNRE/SFRC

24.	Thaissa Sobreiro – UF/SNRE

25.	Wendy-Lin Bartels - UF/Florida Climate Institute/ACLI

26.	Xanic Rondon – UF/Sociology


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team3

 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 1
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 2
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 3
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 4
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 5
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 6
 * User:Eml5526.s11.team3/Homework 7

We agree to multi-license all our contributions, including our user pages, as described below (MultiLicenseWithCC-BySA-Any):

Team Members

 * hylon
 * akj
 * vnarayanan
 * ushnish12
 * risher
 * sahin
 * perry

Homework 1
Submitted

Homework 1

Homework 2
Submitted

Homework 2

Homework 3
Submitted

Homework 3

Homework 4
Submitted

Homework 4

Homework 5
Submitted

Homework 5

Homework 6
Due time: 16:59(EST), Wed, 6 Apr 11

Homework 6

Homework 7
Due time: 16:59(EST), Wed, 20 Apr 11

Homework 7

Useful Links

 * Eml5526.s11
 * Template

Page Editor

 * hylon

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team3


text:
User talk:Majrjejm

 Hello Majrjejm, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twiter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 20:40, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

 Hi! Our name is Vicky-Verity. We are twins and are Wikiversity mascots. We think Wikiversity is a great place to learn and make friends (when we aren't sleeping). Leave us a message!

Great! Thank you for the welcome. I am still getting oriented in order to begin a project I have in mind. I am getting advice on another page. --Majrjejm 21:56, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

Mark, thanks for the lead. I made some discoveries as well and have created several links in the Lamb article to both wikipedia as well as wiktionary. Jheflick 05:15, 25 January 2011 (UTC)

Charles Lamb
Hello, Majrjejm. I see you blanked the page "Charles Lamb". Do you have a reason to do that? If you want to change the title, I guess that would be better to move the page, don't you agree?” TeleS (T M @ C G) 03:44, 26 January 2011 (UTC)

Hello Teles. Yes, it would have been better to move it, but we just created it yesterday and gave it the wrong title. In addition, I don't think I have move privleges yet. --Majrjejm 03:47, 26 January 2011 (UTC)
 * You have more than ten edits and more than fours days of registration. Are you sure you can't move a page? Well, if you agree, I can move it to you, but now the page will have to be deleted first.” TeleS (T M @ C G) 03:59, 26 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Ah . . . I see it now. I tried last night and couldn't, and I didn't notice that the privledge had been added. I'll be sure to "move" rather than "blank" in the future. Thanks. --Majrjejm 04:02, 26 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Nice. Thanks for your attention.” TeleS (T M @ C G) 04:05, 26 January 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Majrjejm


text:
User:Sjoglekar

Hi.I am Shreyas.

title: User:Sjoglekar


text:
User:Egm6341.s11.team3.elango

Numerical Methods 1: Team 3
{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%" ! Submission 1: Jan 5 - Jan 14

Find
Evaluate $$\lim _{x\mapsto 0}f\left ( x \right )$$ and plot $$f\left ( x \right ), x\in \left [ 0,1 \right ]$$

Given

 * $$f\left ( x \right )=\frac{e^{x}-1}{x}$$

Solution
In its simplest form, l'Hôpital's rule states that for functions f and g:

If $$\lim_{x \to c}f(x)=\lim_{x \to c}g(x)=0 $$ or $$\pm\infty $$ and $$\lim_{x\to c}f'(x)/g'(x)$$ exists,

then $$\lim_{x\to c}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = \lim_{x\to c}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}.$$

REF : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27H%C3%B4pital%27s_rule

Hence, we differentiate the numerator and denominator individually to apply the limit

Numerator:
 * $$\frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} x}\left ( e^{x}-1 \right )|_{x=0}=e^{x}|_{x=0}=1$$

Demoninator:
 * $$\frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} x}\left ( x \right )|_{x=0}=1$$

Therefore
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

 * style="width:50%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 * $$ \displaystyle
 * $$ \displaystyle

\lim _{x\mapsto 0}\frac{e^{x}-1}{x}=\frac{1}{1}=1 $$ $$
 * $$\displaystyle
 * }
 * }

HW 1.4

 * }

{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%" ! Submission 2: Jan 5 - Jan XX

HW 2.4

 * }

title: User:Egm6341.s11.team3.elango


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User:Eml5526.s11.team4.cook

Homework 1

Team page

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team4.cook


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team4.cook/HW1

= Dynamic Response =

Problem Statement

Derive the following dynamic response of an elastic bar with variable cross-section such as the one shown in the figure

subject to the boundary conditions

and initial conditions

Solution
Starting with D'Alembert's principle,

where

 * $$\mathbf {F}_i$$ || are the applied forces,
 * $$\delta \mathbf r_i$$ || is the virtual displacement of the system, consistent with the constraints,
 * $$ m_i \scriptstyle$$ || are the masses of the particles in the system,
 * $$\mathbf a_i$$ || are the accelerations of the particles in the system,
 * $$m_i \mathbf a_i$$ || together as products represent the time derivatives of the system momenta, and
 * $$i$$ || is an integer used to indicate (via subscript) a variable corresponding to a particular particle.
 * }
 * $$\mathbf a_i$$ || are the accelerations of the particles in the system,
 * $$m_i \mathbf a_i$$ || together as products represent the time derivatives of the system momenta, and
 * $$i$$ || is an integer used to indicate (via subscript) a variable corresponding to a particular particle.
 * }
 * $$i$$ || is an integer used to indicate (via subscript) a variable corresponding to a particular particle.
 * }

The three force contributions are $$N(x+dx)$$, $$N(x)$$, and $$f(x)dx$$. There is one body, the differential body with a mass $$ A(x) \rho(x) dx$$. Note that the differential body mass is approximated and has an error before the limit is taken.

dividing by $$dx$$

Taking the limit

Noting that $$dx$$ changes from the finite difference as shown in the figure to a differential difference.

Dividing the normal stresses, $$N(x)$$, by the area, $$A(x)$$, yields the stress $$\sigma(x)$$.

In one dimension the strain is

Bringing in Hooke's law

From (1.7) and (1.9)

Substituting into (1.6)

where $$A(x)\rho(x)=m(x)$$

Equation (1.1) has been derived.

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User:Eml5526.s11.team2.cleveland

Useful Links
Egm6341 Course Wiki

Eml5526 Course Wiki

Egm6321 Team03 Example Page

Homework
Report table

Homework #1

Homework #2

Homework #3

Homework #4

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team2.cleveland


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team2

Useful Links
Egm6341 Course Wiki

Eml5526 Course Wiki

Egm6321 Team03 Example Page

Template
Homework Template

Homework
Report table

Spring 2010 Version

Homework #1

Homework #2

Homework #3

Homework #4

Homework #5

Homework #6

Homework #7

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team2


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team2/hwk1

=Problem 1.1.1=

Problem Statement
To derive the second order differential equation for elastic bar problem the static model was introduced in the Meeting 5-6 and for the dynamic problem the dynamic model was introduced in Meeting 6-1 in the lectures. Using a free-body diagram apply the appropriate force balance and verify that the following differential equation holds for the dynamic case of a 1-D axially loaded bar as shown below:

Where boundary conditions are

and the initial conditions

Solution (Method I)
Let $$\displaystyle \vec{n}(x) $$ be defined as the unit vector having positive orientation in the direction of $$ \sigma $$ on the element we are considering. This means that the sign convention of our unit vectors will be

Which corresponds to the convention depicted in the free-body diagram shown above. Let us also define $$ \displaystyle \sigma(x) $$ as the force for a given area as,

Upon the rearrangement of terms we arrive at

Classical mechanics allows us to write the sum of the forces as the mass times the acceleration

We will define the mass and acceleration for this system in equation (1.7) as

Using the free-body diagram, let us now consider all of the forces acting on the elastic bar $$\displaystyle f(x), N(x), $$ and $$\displaystyle  N(x+dx) $$. Balancing the forces acting on our finite element results in the following relation,

Next we will substitute (1.5) and (1.6) into (1.10) to get

Recall that a Taylor's Series expansion (See:Taylor Series) about $$ a $$ near $$ x $$ has the following form:

Next we will need to determine a relationship for the displaced area and stress, namely $$\displaystyle \sigma(x+dx)$$ and $$ \displaystyle   A(x+dx)$$. To accomplish this we will performing a Taylor Series expansion choosing $$\displaystyle a=x+dx $$ and neglect all higher order terms.

Taking the product of (1.13) and (1.14) gives us

Substitute (1.15) into (1.11) results in

This can be simplified by canceling the like terms and dividing through by $$ \displaystyle dx $$ as shown below,

to get the following simplified relation,

Next we must apply the product rule in the reverse directions. Meaning we will consider (1.19) the expansion obtained by applying the product rule and recombine terms to get the unexpanded form shown here,

Young's modulus, E, is generally defined as the ratio of the tensile stress to tensile strain:

where

Rewriting the definition of Young's Modulus in (1.21) we obtain a differential relationship in terms of the tensile stress according to Hooke's Law

Substituting (1.22) into our simplified and unexpanded form of our force balance shown in (1.20) we arrive at the solution,

Solution (Method II)
Divide Equation 1.11 in the above method 1 by $$ \displaystyle dx $$.

Take the $$ \lim_{x \to 0} $$ so as to obtain the differential form in space.

Notice that equation 1.27 matches equation 1.20 from Method 1 above. Recall the following definition for stress.

Now insert equation 1.28 into equation 1.27 to obtain the final desired form.

=Problem 1.1.2=

Problem Statement
Discuss the case where the elastic bar has a rectangular cross-section and derive the appropriate PDE for the 1-D axially loaded bar.

Solution

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right) = \rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\frac{1}{2}\left[ {h\left( x \right) + h\left( {x + dx} \right)} \right]b $$  (2.1)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 * }

multiply both sides by $$dx$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\frac{1}{2}\left[ {h\left( x \right) + h\left( {x + dx} \right)} \right]b} \right]dx $$     (2.2)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

expanding $$ h(x+dx)$$ with taylor series

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\frac{1}{2}\left[ {h\left( x \right) + h\left( x \right) + \fracdx \ldots } \right]b} \right]dx $$     (2.3)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\left[ {h\left( x \right) + \frac\frac{2} \ldots } \right]b} \right]dx $$     (2.4)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\left[ {h\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)} \right]b} \right]dx $$     (2.5)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

now expanding $$ \rho \left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)$$ and $$h\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)$$ by taylor series

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\left[ {\rho \left( x \right) + \frac\frac{2} \ldots } \right]\left[ {h\left( x \right) + \frac\frac{2} \ldots } \right]b} \right]dx $$     (2.6)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right) + \rho \left( x \right)\frac\frac{2} + h\left( x \right)\frac\frac{2} + \frac\frac{2}\frac\frac{2} \ldots } \right]bdx $$     (2.7)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Neglecting higer order terms and considering first three terms of expansion

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right) + \frac\frac{2}} \right]bdx $$     (2.8)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)dx + \frac\frac{2}} \right]b $$     (2.9)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Neglecting second term due to presence of $$d{x^2}$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \left[ {\rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)dx} \right]b $$     (2.10)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

as $$bh\left( x \right) = A\left( x \right)$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)dx = \rho \left( x \right)A\left( x \right)dx $$     (2.11)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right) = \rho \left( x \right)A\left( x \right) $$     (2.12)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

It shows that regardless of the cross-section in the differential element RHS of the equation will be same for all distances. The high order terms will vanish all the time and this will lead that only order one terms can stay in the equation.

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right) = m\left( x \right) $$     (2.13)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Now PDE for the general cross section as proved in 1.1.1

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)A\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + f\left( {x,t} \right) = m\frac $$     (2.14)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

For given rectangular cross section put $$m = m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)$$
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)A\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + f\left( {x,t} \right) = m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right)\frac $$     (2.15)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

From equation (2.13) $$m\left( {x + \frac{2}} \right) = \rho \left( x \right)A\left( x \right)$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)A\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + f\left( {x,t} \right) = \rho \left( x \right)A\left( x \right)\frac $$     (2.16)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *
 * }

Now put $$A\left( x \right) = bh\left( x \right)$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)bh\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + f\left( {x,t} \right) = \rho \left( x \right)bh\left( x \right)\frac $$     (2.17)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *

 * }

As $$b$$ is a constant, taking it out of partial differential

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle b\frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)h\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + f\left( {x,t} \right) = b\rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)\frac $$     (2.18)
 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |
 *

 * }

Dividing both sides of equation with $$b$$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial }\left( {E\left( x \right)h\left( x \right)\frac} \right) + \frac{b} = \rho \left( x \right)h\left( x \right)\frac $$     (2.19)
 * style="width:95%;text-align: center; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 * style="width:95%;text-align: center; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 *

 * }

This partial differential equation represent a bar with varying rectangular cross section.

=Contributing Members=

= References =

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team2/hwk1


text:
Psycholinguistics/Internet Jargon

Introduction: Language and Society
In our everyday lives, we engage in spontaneous social acts that are interconnected with the activities of those around us without taking notice. These well-established practices are considered aspects of the social norm derived from the culture in which one habituates. The subtleness and intricacy of these spontaneous joint activities is strongly reflected not only in our social acts but also in the way language is used within social groups. Compared to cognitive research, which largely sees language as an individual process, and to social science research, which sees language as a social process, it has been argued that language use embodies both individual and social processes (Clark, 1996, p. 1). When considering what people are talking about in a conversation and what they are tying to achieve by conversing, language can be seen as being used as a form of joint action (Clark, 1996, p.1). Language is more than the sum of the speaker and the listener, but the joint action that emerges when they perform their individual actions in coordination (Clark, 1996, p. 1). It can be said that everything we do and say as humans is rooted in the information we have about our perceptions, emotions, interests, activities, and surroundings (Clark, 1996, p. 92). In a given culture or subgroup, common ground, such as mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, and mutual expectations, shift to accommodate the circumstances and the parties with whom we are conversing. Language comes to exist in conversational layers that can shift and enable the establishment of new common grounds (Clark, 1996, p. 92). In this chapter, the ways in which language functions within society is going to be thoroughly examined. This chapter will highlight the relationships between that way different subgroups think and how this determines the words used in their languages. In examining language and thought in a social context, we will consider how psychological processes, social processes, and affective meaning are related to one’s cultural lexicon. To further understand how speech shifts as a function of one’s social situation, this chapter will look at the use of slang, sexual talk, and taboo words in different contexts.

What is Slang?
Slang is an informal set of words and phrases that are used to reinforce or establish one’s identity within a social group or with a trend in society (Eble, 1996, p. 11). Slang is an important aspect of language to touch on in this chapter because it is vocabulary that embodies the social functions of language. Slang seems to be as old as language itself given that it is part of ordinary interactions in all languages in which communities are large and diverse enough to have identifiable subgroups (Eble, 1996, p.11). Because of slang’s social and psychologically complex vocabulary, four identifying criteria have been proposed (Eble, 1996, p. 11):
 * 1) The presence of slang will, at least momentarily, lower the formality of serious         speech.
 * 2) The use of slang implies the user’s special familiarity with a class of people who also have special familiarity and use the term.
 * 3) The slang term is a taboo term in discourse with people of higher social status or greater responsibility.
 * 4) Slang is used as a replacement for a well-known conventional synonym to either protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional term or to protect the used from the bother of elaboration.

According to authors Bethany Dumas and Jonathan Lighter, when at least two of these defining criteria are met, a linguistically sensitive audience will react to the word or phrase in some way (Eble, 1996, p.12). This immeasurable reaction is the fundamental identifying characteristic of slang (Eble, 1996, p.12). For instance, take the phrase, “that guy was a jerk for cutting me off before the intersection!” According to the criteria, jerk would qualify as slang because it satisfies criteria 1, 2, and 4.

Why Do People Use Slang?
The existence of certain slang words and phrases may in fact seem to be part of a short-lived pattern of overused terms being reinvented with new meanings when mainstream culture deems appropriate. The vocabulary of particular subgroups such as, college students, can actually illustrate this innovative characteristic of slang. For example, Dead Soldier, a military slang term that has been around since the eighteenth century when it meant ‘empty bottle’, re-emerged in 1987 at University of North Carolina with a more modern definition of ‘empty beer can’ (Eble, 1996, p. 15).

Another important identifying characteristic of slang is its group-identifying function. Slang is often used when the user wants to be accepted by a select social group (Eble, 1996, p. 119). A strong sense of belonging can stem from the sharing and maintaining of an ever-changing vocabulary that undoubtedly serves to include and exclude members from social groups (Eble, 1996, p. 119). Like keeping up with fashion trends, slang must be new and appealing, and must be effective enough to gain group acceptance (Eble, 1996, p. 120). Slang’s function within subgroups is to enhance the feeling of internal solidarity and the shared vocabulary helps specific groups such as sports teams to work together in a stressful environment (Eble, 1996, p. 123). In the fall of 1990, members of the cross-country track team at UNC were using terms like rigging, which stood for the tightening of muscles at the end of a tough race, and doing carbo-loading, which stood for drinking beer after a race (Eble, 1996, p. 122).

Sexual Terminology
Sexual terminology is learned at a young age through interactions with our peers (Jay, 2000, p. 85). Parental inhibition and punishment of the use of sexual references teaches children that sexual words are powerful (Jay, 2000, p. 85). In a study done on the topic of how children learn to talk about sex, parents discussed their difficulties and solutions with their children’s use of sexual slang (Jay, 2000, p. 124). The findings of this study revealed that learning about sexual terminology is a process of socialization (Jay, 2000, p. 125). From this study, we learn that a double standard in sex talk is obvious; parents will speak to their friends differently than to their children and fathers will speak differently with female friends than male friends (Jay, 2000, p. 125). Due to differences in socialization, daughters and sons of the same household will even acquire different sexual vocabularies (Jay, 2000, p.125).

As we develop linguistically and sexually, sex talk becomes more dependent on who is listening rather than the fear of parental negation and omission that comes with sex talk (Jay, 2000, p. 86). Sexual talk is an interesting topic because it is one that holds strong personal relevance yet maintains a socially unaccepted stigma in formal contexts. The following research on sexual talk will illustrate the differences in the use of sexual language in interpersonal and social contexts.

The Four Systems of Sexual Language
As we develop psychologically and as our social contexts shift, the sexual lexicon modifies accordingly (Jay, 2000, p.127). There are four different systems for sexual talk:

 * 1) child language – taught to children by parents, allowing them to describe body parts and functions without using slang or medical terms (e.g., wienie, tushy, poo-poo, bum)
 * 2) street language – used by peers, to indicate in-group identification and often to impress other (e.g., screw, make out)
 * 3) euphemisms – used to avoid using explicit terms for sex in any conversation by adults (e.g. making love, sleeping together)
 * 4) medical-scientific language – a technical and concrete language of sexual terms learned in school and from books (e.g., penis, vagina, defecate, coitus) (Jay, 2000, p. 127)

According to this set of systems, childhood terms eventually evolve into more offensive terms or euphemisms. The medical-scientific language system is used in more formal exchanges and settings.

Sexual Talk in Different Interpersonal Contexts
Given that sexual talk is highly dependent on one’s surroundings, it is not surprising that other factors play a role on how one uses sexual lexicon. Many studies have been done that look at the relationship between context and sexual terms, which highlight how the overt expression of sexual identity highly depends on social contexts. Much research has focused on the different use of sexual vocabulary amongst genders, showing that males make greater use of sexual slang than females (Wells, 1989). Given the fact that different cultures and sub-groups tend to maintain their own in-group slang, it is appropriate to consider the impact of sexual orientation on the use of sexual vocabulary. In a study s investigating the use of sexual language amongst genders in different interpersonal contexts based on sexual orientation, results indicated that differences in sexual vocabulary are significant (Wells, 1989). This study used a sample of 440 heterosexual and homosexual undergraduate male and female students from the University of Northern Iowa with a mean age of 22 (Wells, 1989). A questionnaire was given to the participants asking them to write the word or phrase they would use for male genitalia, female genitalia, and sexual intercourse when with a spouse or lover, mixed-company, in a same-sex conversation, and a conversation with parents (Wells, 1989). The results shown in the following table demonstrate that lesbians used more female-oriented terms for male genitalia, love making, and oral sexual contact than did heterosexual males, homosexual males, or heterosexual females (Wells, 1989). Homosexual males used slang more often with a spouse or lover than any other group of participants (Wells, 1989). Further, heterosexual males made the largest change in language use when shifting from the primary use of slang in a same-sex context to more formal terms or euphemisms when with a spouse or lover in all sexual concepts (Wells, 1989). This study demonstrates that sexual orientation is yet another dimension that affects the use of sexual language.

Total Language Use for Sexual and Social Context by Gender and Sexual Orientation in Percentages (Wells, 1989).

A Relevant Aspect of Language
It is important to note that when scholars disregard swearing as an irrelevant aspect of language, we are left with a false understanding of verbal communication (Jay, 2009). In the past, psycholinguists strongly held Noam Chompsky’s structuralist theory of language, which did not touch on the idea of emotional language at all (Jay, 2009). For a more complete understanding of language, conventional interpretations of language must expand to include the communication of emotional information, which is spoken and understood through word choice, emphasis, and speech volume (Jay, 2009). It has been argued that the emotional aspects of words are stored in the brain along with the word’s semantic and syntactic properties (Jay, 2009). Once a semantic network with lexical emotional information develops, emotion can be used as a basis for lexical access when swearing (Jay, 2009). This means that once emotional words are processed with information regarding their level of arousal, offensiveness, and appropriateness, the use can choose to use an offensive or inoffensive word (Jay, 2009). Given some background information on how taboo words are processed and expelled, the next section will discuss the origin of taboo words, why they exit, and what motivates people to use them.

What Are Taboo Words and Why Do They Exist?
According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, a taboo is a “ban or inhibition resulting from social custom or aversion” (Jay, 2009). Taboo words, or swear words, are deemed offensive at an institutional and social level (Jay, 2009). Taboo words acquire this offensive status and arousing effects by aversive classical conditioning (Jay, 2009). As children, we are taught that swear words are bad and when they are used, punishment is often the result. Hence, swear words are learned through the socialization of speech.

History of Taboo Words
The use of taboo words in language goes back to ancient history. Religious authorities have prohibited profanity and blasphemy since biblical times (Jay, 2009). More recently, in 1966, ethnic slurs such as Redskin were being used; a term coined by the first British settlers to describe the Native American Indians (Allen, 1990, p. 3). As other ethnic groups arrived and the country became more diverse, the name-calling increased exponentially (Allen, 1990, p.3). Many taboo terms originated from great events in American history such as waves of immigration, urbanization, wars, and depressions (Allen, 1990, p.4). Today, taboos in English tend to be primarily based on sexual, profane, and blasphemous references and new terms are constantly emerging, especially in slang (Jay, 2009).

Taboo Words and Social Context
As with the use of slang and sexual talk, the use and interpretation of taboo words depends on contextual variables. For instance, in the previously discussed college study where students were asked to list which sexual terms they would use in different contexts (i.e. with a partner, lover, parent, or mixed company), technical terms were said to be more likely used with mixed crowd and with parents whereas sexual obscenities were used with same-sex crowds and with a partner or lover (Wells, 1989). Ultimately, the offensiveness and appropriateness of swear words are determined by the relationship between those conversing as well as the social setting (Jay, 2009). This sense of offensiveness is also determined by age and level of maturity (Jay, 2009). For instance, a young boy would find terms such as baby and wimp to be more offensive than adults (Jay, 2009). The task at hand for the social speaker is to determine what words are appropriate in a given social setting.

title: Psycholinguistics/Internet Jargon


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am attracted with spanish language,so i would like to read...if you will join me on your class pleases.

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