text:
AP European History at GRCHS/The Second Quarter

4A
I.	Scientific Revolution (1540-1700), The Century of Genius:

 * a.	The Scientific Revolution is

 * b.	Its Goal

 * c.	Its Big Question

 * d.	Its Developments

 * e.	It Began

II. Pre-Scientific Revolution Thought (Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Cosmology):

 * a.	Major Scholars

 * b.	Aristotle & the Geocentric Theory

 * c.	Ptolemy & the Perfect Spheres

III. Challenges to the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Cosmology & the Birth of the Revolution:

 * a.	Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543), & the Heliocentric Theory (Copernican Astronomy)

 * a.	Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543)

 * i.	Spheres

 * ii.	The Earth

 * iii.	The Solar System

 * iv.	The Universe

 * v.	Motion (Heliocentric Theory)

 * b.	Reality for Copernicus

 * b.	Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Non-Linear Path of Knowledge, & Confusion

 * a.	A New Star (1573)

 * i.	Supernovas

 * ii.	Copernicus & Motion

 * iii.	Motion

 * b.	Reality for Brahe

 * c.	Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) & Ellipses

 * a.	A New Astronomy (1609)

 * i.	Elliptical Orbit

 * ii.	Planetary Motion

 * b.	Reality for Kepler

 * d.	Galileo (1564-1642), Inertia, & Prosecution by the Church

 * a.	Dialogue Concerning Two World System – Ptolemaic & Copernican (1632)

 * i.	Inertia

 * ii.	Planets

 * b.	Reality for Galileo

 * e.	Francis Bacon (1561-1626) & the Scientific Method

 * a.	Of the Proficiency and Advancement of Learning (1605)

 * i.	Inductive Reasoning

 * ii.	Scientific Method

 * b.	Reality for Bacon

 * f.	Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Cartesian Dualism, & the Scientific Method

 * a.	Discourse on Method (1637)

 * i.	Deductive Reasoning

 * ii.	Cartesian Dualism (Cartesianism)

 * b.	Reality for Descartes

 * g.	Isaac Newton (1642-1727), The Universal Law of Gravitation, & the Ultimate Victory of Science

 * a.	Principia (1687)

 * i.	Calculus Theoretical Physics

 * ii.	Newtonian Synthesis/Thermodynamics/Gravity

 * b.	Reality of Newton

 * h.	 Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), Rejection of Galen, & Modern Biology

 * a.	Problems w/ Anatomy

 * b.	His Findings

IV. Diffusion of Scientific Thought:

 * a.	Culture of Science

 * a.	Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge (1662)

 * b.	French Royal Academy of Science (1666)

 * b.	Science, Religion, & Education

 * c.	Consequences of Scientific Revolution

V.	The Enlightenment (1680-1800), The Age of Reason:

 * a.	The Enlightenment is

 * b.	Its Goal

 * c.	Its Big Question

 * d.	Its Developments

 * a.	(Classical) Liberalism

 * e.	It Began

VI. Pre-Enlightenment Thought (Absolutism & Thomas Hobbes):

 * a.	Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), the Social Contract, & Leviathan (1651)

 * a.	His Social Contract

VII. Intellectual Influences on Enlightened Thought:

 * a.	John Locke (1632-1704), Natural Rights, & Tabula Rasa

 * a.	Two Treatises of Government (1689)

 * b.	An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

 * i.	Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate)

 * ii.	Born Good

 * iii.	Human Nature & Politics

 * iv.	Natural Rights

 * v.	His Social Contract

 * b.	Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757) & the Idea of Progress

 * a.	Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)

 * i.	Religion & Absolute Monarchy

 * ii.	Knowledge & Progress

 * b.	Foundations

VIII. The Republic of Ideas/Letters & the Philosophes:

 * a.	Salons

 * b.	Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) & Separation of Powers

 * a.	The Spirit of Laws (1748)

 * i.	Laws

 * ii.	Constitutionalism

 * iii.	Separation of Powers

 * iv.	Authority of the King

 * v.	Government in France

 * c.	Voltaire (1694-1778)

 * a.	Candide (1759)

 * i.	Superstition & Fanaticism

 * ii.	Religion

 * iii.	Monarchs & Nobles

 * iv.	“Everything is for the best” & “Cultivate your own garden”

 * d.	Denis Diderot (1713-1784) & the Encyclopedia

 * a.	Encyclopedia (1751-1776)

 * e.	Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) & the Social Contract

 * a.	Discourse on the Arts & Sciences (1762)

 * i.	Society & Corruption

 * ii.	Property

 * iii.	Republic & Voting

 * iv.	Legislatures

 * b.	The Social Contract (1762)

 * i.	Social Contract

 * ii.	Citizens

 * iii.	Common Good & General Will of the People

 * f.	David Hume (1711-1776) & Skeptical Philosophy

 * a.	A Treatise of Human Nature (1739)

 * i.	Skepticism

 * ii.	Impressions

 * g.	Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) & German Idealism

 * a.	Critique of Pure Reason (1781)

 * i.	Ideas Over Emotion

 * ii.	German Idealism

IX. Economic Liberalism:

 * a.	Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) & the Physiocrats

 * a.	Economic Table (1758)

 * i.	Price Controls & Free Trade

 * ii.	Agricultural Science

 * b.	Adam Smith (1723-1790) & Laissez-Faire Economics

 * a.	Wealth of Nations (1776)

 * i.	Free Market

 * ii.	Invisible Hand & Market Forces

 * iii.	Social Happiness

 * iv.	Merchant Happiness

X.	Enlightenment Ideas & Culture:

 * a.	Religious Enthusiasm

 * a.	John Wesley (1703-1791) & Methodism

 * i.	Methodism

 * b.	Diversity of Print

 * c.	Rococo Art Style (Late Baroque)

 * a.	Basic Themes

 * b.	Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684-1721)

 * i.	Pilgrimage to Cythera (1721)

 * c.	William Hogarth (1697-1764)

 * i.	Marriage a-la-mode (1743-1745)

XI. Unit 4 I.D. Terms:

1)	Scientific Revolution:

2)	Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Cosmology:

3)	Nicholas Copernicus:

4)	Heliocentric Theory:

5)	Tycho Brahe:

6)	Johannes Kepler:

7)	Galileo:

8)	Francis Bacon:

9)	Rene Descartes:

10)	Cartesian Dualism:

11)	Isaac Newton:

12)	Newtonian Synthesis:

13)	Enlightenment:

14)	Classical Liberalism:

15)	Thomas Hobbes:

16)	Baron de Montesquieu:

17)	Voltaire:

18)	Denis Diderot:

19)	Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

20)	Social Contract:

21)	Economic Liberalism:

22)	Francois Quesnay:

23)	Adam Smith:

24)	Laissez-faire Economics:

25)	Rococo:

4B
I.	18th Century Europe, The Age of Revolution:

II. The Social Order of 18th Century Europe:

 * a.	Nobility

 * a.	Barefoot Nobility

 * i.	Nobles & Sources of Revenue

 * b.	The Landed Elite (Gentry)

 * a.	Gentry & Sources of Revenue

 * c.	The “Middle Sort” (Bourgeoisie)

 * a.	Middling Sort & Sources of Revenue

 * d.	Clergy

 * e.	Peasantry

 * a.	Peasant Reality

 * b.	“Weapons of the Weak”

III. Economic Change through the Agricultural Revolution:

 * a.	Agricultural Revolution (1650-1750)

 * a.	Growth in Agriculture

 * i.	Fertilizers & Soil-Regenerating Crops

 * ii.	Crop Rotation

 * iii.	Enclosure Movement (System) of Common Lands

 * iv.	Animal Husbandry

 * v.	Land Reclamation

 * vi.	Results

 * a.	Most Productive Regions

 * b.	Agricultural Individualism (Commercial Agriculture)

 * b.	Population Growth (120 to 190 million)

 * a.	Reasons for Population Growth

 * b.	Disease & Famine

 * c.	Basic Sanitation

 * d.	War

 * e.	Marriage & Life Expectancy

 * i.	Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) & Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)

 * c.	Manufacturing: Guilds & Domestic Industry

 * a.	Decline of Guilds (18th Century)

 * b.	Cottage Industry (Proto-Industrialization) [Putting Out System]

 * i.	Results

 * d.	Inventions

 * a.	James Watt (1736-1819) & the Steam Engine

 * b.	Henry Cort (1740-1800) & the “Puddling Process”

 * c.	John Kay (1704-1764) & Flying Shuttle

 * d.	James Hargreaves (1720-1778) & Spinning Jenny

 * e.	Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), the Water Frame, & Factories

 * i.	Factories

 * ii.	Results

 * e.	Dominance of the British Economy

 * a.	Reasons for Dominance

 * f.	Expanding of the Continental Economy

 * a.	Reasons for Subservience

IV. Social & Cultural Change in 18th Century Europe:

 * a.	Growth of Towns & Cities (Urbanization)

 * a.	Cultural Attractions

 * b.	Consumer Revolution

 * b.	Social Movement within the Elite (The Triangle of Land-Ownership) [Middling Sort, Gentry, & Nobility]

 * a.	On Continental Europe

 * b.	In Great Britain

 * i.	Gentry

 * ii.	Nobility

 * iii.	Middling Sort

 * c.	Changing Conditions of the Poor

 * d.	Social Control

 * a.	Work Houses/Poor Houses

V.	Politics of 18th Century Europe:

VI. Enlightened Absolutism (Enlightened Despots/Monarchs):

 * a.	Enlightened Absolutism in Reality

 * a.	Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) of Milan

 * i.	On Crime & Punishment (1764)

 * a.	People & the Law

 * b.	Punishment

 * c.	Utilitarianism

 * b.	Catherine II (the Great) of Russia (1762-1796)

 * i.	Educational Reforms

 * ii.	Financial Reforms

 * iii.	Cultural Reforms

 * iv.	Legislative Reform

 * v.	Legal Reforms

 * a.	Charter of the Nobility of 1785

 * vi.	Rebellions

 * a.	Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773-1774)

 * vii.	Reactions to Catherine’s Reforms

 * c.	Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790)

 * i.	Governmental Reforms

 * ii.	Financial Reforms

 * iii.	Educational Reforms

 * iv.	Legal Reforms

 * v.	Religious Reforms

 * a.	Edict of Toleration (1781)

 * vi.	Reaction to Joseph’s Reforms

 * d.	Frederick II [the Great] {Old Fritz} (1740-1786)

 * i.	Economic Reforms

 * ii.	Educational Reforms

 * iii.	Legal Reforms

 * a.	Prussian Civil Code (1794)

 * b.	Essay of the Forms of Government (1781)

 * iv.	Bureaucratic Reforms

 * v.	Reaction to Frederick’s Reforms

VII. The States System of 18th Century (Balance of Power):

 * a.	Warfare in the 18th Century

 * a.	Navies

 * b.	Global Rivalries

 * a.	Britain’s Empire

 * i.	British East India Company

 * b.	Spain’s Empire

 * c.	Dutch’s Empire

 * d.	France’s Empire

 * c.	Conflicts Between the Great Powers

 * a.	The Prussian-Austrian Dynastic Rivalries in Central Europe

 * i.	Charles VI of Austria (1711-1740) & Succession

 * ii.	Pragmatic Sanction (1713)

 * iii.	Maria Theresa (1740-1780), Daughter of Charles VI

 * iv.	Frederick II & His Reaction to Austrian Succession

 * a.	Others Joining In

 * b.	The Act of War (Invasion of Silesia)

 * b.	War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

 * i.	Also Called King George’s War (North America) & included the War of Jenkins Ear

 * ii.	Maria Theresa & Internal Problems

 * iii.	Maria Theresa & External Problems

 * iv.	Maria Theresa & Her Plea to the Hungarian Diet (1740)

 * v.	Maria Theresa & Alliances

 * a.	King George’s War

 * b.	War of Jenkins’ Ear

 * vi.	Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

 * c.	Prelude to the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

 * i.	Diplomatic Resolution of 1756

 * ii.	The Act of War (1756)

 * d.	The Seven Years’ War

 * i.	Alliances for Prussia

 * ii.	Alliances against Prussia

 * iii.	Fighting in North America (French & Indian War [1754-1763])

 * iv.	Fighting in India

 * v.	Fighting in Central Europe

 * vi.	Losses for Prussia

 * vii.	A Surprising Ally in Peter III of Russia (1762)

 * a.	Catherine II & Peter III

 * viii.	Peace in the Works

 * ix.	Treaty of Paris (1763)

 * a.	France Loses

 * b.	Great Britain Gains

 * c.	Spain Gains

 * e.	War of Bavarian Succession (1778-79)

VIII. Political Changes in Great Britain:

 * a.	The Stuarts in Great Britain

 * a.	Act of Succession (1701)

 * b.	William III (of Orange) Death in 1702

 * c.	Anne I (1665-1714) & Problems w/ the Jacobins

 * i.	Queen Anne’s War (War of the League of Augsburg (1790’s)

 * ii.	Act of Union (1707)

 * d.	Anne’s Death in 1714, Rise of the Hanoverian House in Great Britain

 * b.	The House of Hanover

 * a.	George I (1714-1727)

 * b.	Scottish Uprising by the Jacobins & James II [The Pretender] (1715)

 * c.	George II (1727-1760) [son of George I]

 * i.	Bonnie Prince Charlie [Charles Edward Stuart] (1720-1788) & the Last Jacobin Uprising (1745-1746)

 * ii.	War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739-1748)

 * iii.	King George’s War (1740-1748)

 * c.	Expansion of the Central Government under George II

 * a.	Financial Crash & the South Sea Company Bubble (1719-1720)

 * i.	The Problem

 * ii.	The Crash (1720)

 * b.	Robert Walpole (1676-1745), [W] First Prime Minister (1715-1742), & Recovery

 * i.	His Reforms

 * ii.	Loss of Political Clout

 * d.	Role of the House of Commons in the 18th Century

 * a.	Loss of Confidence in the House of Commons

 * b.	Whigs vs. Tories in the Commons

 * c.	George III (1760-1820) & Loyal Parliamentary Opposition

 * i.	Whig Opposition

 * d.	Edmund Burke (1729-1797), Member of Parliament

 * e.	Rise of British Nationalism in the 18th Century

IX. Challenges to Established Authorities:

 * a.	British Radicals in Great Britain

 * a.	They Called For

 * b.	John Wilkes (1727-1797), the Original Radical in British Politics (1760’s)

 * a.	His Main Complaint

 * b.	Significance

 * c.	American Revolutionaries in the Colonies

 * a.	Colonial Leaders

 * b.	British Radicals & American Independence

 * c.	British Government Response

 * d.	War of American Independence

 * i.	Oddity of This Event

 * ii.	The War

 * e.	Results

 * d.	Parlement and the French Monarchy (1750’s to 1780’s)

 * a.	Parlement in Reality

 * b.	Jansenists Power in Parlement

 * c.	Trouble w/ Taxation

 * i.	Louis XV & Parlement (1771)

 * d.	Public Opinion on the Dissolution of Parlement

 * e.	Results

 * f.	Economic Revelation for Louis XV

 * g.	Louis XVI (1774-1793)

 * i.	The Final Act of French Economic Collapse

X.	Fading Powers in Europe: The Ottoman Empire & Poland:

 * a.	Decline of Ottoman Turkish Power in Europe

 * a.	Internal Problems

 * b.	External Problems

 * c.	“The Sick Man of Europe”

 * b.	The Disappearance of Poland

 * a.	War of Polish Succession (1733-1735)

 * i.	Results

 * b.	First Partition of Poland (1772)

 * c.	Second Partition of Poland (1793)

 * d.	Third Partition of Poland (1795)

XI. Unit 4 I.D. Terms:

1)	Agricultural Revolution:

2)	Enclosure Movement:

3)	Commercial Agriculture:

4)	Cottage Industry:

5)	Richard Arkwright:

6)	Enlightened Absolutism:

7)	Cesare Beccaria:

8)	Catherine II:

9)	Pugachev’s Rebellion:

10)	Charter of the Nobility:

11)	Joseph II:

12)	Frederick II:

13)	Prussian Civil Code:

14)	Pragmatic Sanction:

15)	Maria Theresa:

16)	War of Austrian Succession:

17)	Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle:

18)	The Seven Years’ War:

19)	Treaty of Paris:

20)	Anne I:

21)	Act of Union:

22)	Hanoverians:

23)	Robert Walpole:

24)	Louis XV:

25)	The Partitions of Poland:

5A
I.	French Revolution (1789-1799), End of the Ancien Regime:

 * a.	Modern Questions – rights of the people, the role of the state in society, democratic values, role of religion in society,

the ideas of economic freedom, sanctity of property, duties of a citizen, the idea of nation (nationalism)

 * b.	The French Revolution was

 * c.	The Ancien Regime was

 * d.	Causes of the French Revolution

 * a.	Enlightenment Ideas

 * b.	Inequalities in Society

 * i.	First Estate

 * ii.	Second Estate

 * iii.	Third Estate

 * a.	What was the Third Estate?

 * iv.	Reality of the Estates System

 * c.	Financial Crisis

 * i.	Problems w/ Agriculture

 * ii.	Problems w/ War

 * iii.	Problems w/ Public Confidence

 * iv.	Problems w/ Parlement

II. First Stages of the French Revolution:

 * a.	Calling of the Assembly of Notables (1787)

 * a.	The 1st & 2nd Estates

 * b.	The 3rd Estate

 * c.	Louis’ Reaction

 * b.	“Revolt of the Nobility”, in Parlement (1788)

 * c.	Estates General (June 1789) & the Paper Revolution

 * a.	Decision on Voting Reform

 * b.	Decision on Representative Body

 * c.	Decision on the List of Grievances

 * d.	Louis’ Reaction to the 3rd Estate

 * e.	Locked Out (July 1789)

 * f.	The Tennis Court Oath & the National Assembly

 * i.	The Paper Revolution

 * d.	The People of Paris

 * a.	The Storming of the Bastille (July 14th, 1789)

 * i.	The Bastille

 * ii.	 Destruction of the Bastille

 * a.	Acceptance of Violence

 * e.	The Countryside’s Revolt & the Great Fear

 * a.	The City vs. the Countryside

III. Consolidation of the Revolution under the National Assembly (Moderate Phase):

 * a.	Creation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen (August 1789)

 * a.	Its Ideas

 * b.	The Problem

 * b.	Popular Resentment

 * a.	Jean-Paul Marat (1743-1793) & The Friend of the People

 * c.	The March to Versailles (October 1789)

 * a.	It Began

 * b.	It Became

 * c.	It Ended

 * d.	Significance

 * d.	Reform of the Church

 * a.	Church Property

 * i.	Aristocratic Flight

 * b.	Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)

 * i.	It Said

 * ii.	Discontent by the Countryside & Thoughts of Counter-Revolution

 * e.	Constitution of 1791

 * a.	It Said

 * f.	Growth of Politics in Paris

 * a.	Main Individuals in Parisian Politics

 * i.	George-Jacques Danton (1759-1794)

 * ii.	Olympe de Gouges (1755-1793)

 * a.	Declaration of the Rights of Women

 * iii.	Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)

 * iv.	Jean-Paul Marat

 * b.	Main Political Club (Jacobins)

 * c.	Main Parisian Group (Sans-Culottes)

 * i.	Their Name

 * a.	Their Ideas

IV. Growing Radicalism of the Revolution under the Legislative Assembly:

 * a.	Louis’ Flight to Varennes (June 1791)

 * a.	National Assembly’s Reaction

 * b.	Significance

 * b.	Dissolution of the National Assembly, Creation of the Legislative Assembly (Sept. 1791)

 * a.	Left-Right Politics

 * i.	Left

 * ii.	Right

 * c.	Reactions to the French Revolution in Europe

 * a.	Persecution of Radicals

 * b.	Edmond Burke

 * i.	Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

 * c.	Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

 * i.	The Rights of Man (1791-1792)

 * d.	Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

 * i.	Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

 * d.	Austria’s (Leopold II, Marie’s brother) & Prussia’s (Frederick William II) Reaction to the Revolution

 * a.	Declaration of Pillnitz (August 1791)

 * b.	Legislative Assembly’s Response

 * e.	The Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792)

 * a.	It Said

 * f.	The Second Revolution (August 1792)

 * g.	Prussia’s & Austria’s invasion of France (Sept. 1792)

 * a.	Marat’s Influence

 * b.	The September Massacres (1792)

V.	The National Convention during the Radical Phase:

 * a.	Dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, Creation of the National Convention (Sept. 1792)

 * a.	The Problem w/ the Convention

 * b.	Preemptive Declaration of War on Great Britain & the Dutch Republic

 * i.	The Revolutionary Wars & First Coalition against France (Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, D.U.P)

 * c.	End of Monarchy, Rise of Republic (January 1793)

 * d.	Division in the Convention

 * i.	Girondins

 * ii.	Jacobins

 * b.	Military Woes (March 1793)

 * c.	Counter-Revolution Begins (Summer 1793)

 * d.	Start of the Reign of The Terror (June 1793)

 * a.	Those Accused

 * b.	Revolutionary Tribunal

 * c.	Committee of Public Safety

 * i.	Law of Suspects (Sept. 1793)

 * e.	Societal Changes to France during the Reign of Terror

 * a.	De-Christianization

 * b.	The Cult of the Supreme Being & the Republic of Virtue

 * c.	Revolutionary Calendar

 * f.	Call to End to the Terror (April 1794)

 * g.	The Great Terror

VI. Final Stages of the Revolution:

 * a.	The Thermidorian Reaction (July 1794)

 * b.	Dissolution of the National Convention, Creation of the Directory (1794-1799)

 * a.	Reforms

 * b.	Problems

 * c.	Abbe Sieyes & His Prediction

 * c.	Second Coalition Against France (Russia, Great Britain, Austria) [1798]

 * d.	Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

 * e.	The 18th of Brumaire (18th of October)

VII. Unit 5 I.D. Terms:

1)	French Revolution:

2)	Ancien Regime:

3)	Louis XVI:

4)	First Estate:

5)	Second Estate:

6)	Third Estate:

7)	Assembly of Notables:

8)	Estates General:

9)	Tennis Court Oath:

10)	National Assembly:

11)	The Bastille:

12)	Great Fear:

13)	Declaration of the Rights of Man:

14)	Civil Constitution of the Clergy:

15)	Constitution of 1791:

16)	Jacobin Club:

17)	Maximilien Robespierre:

18)	Sans-Culottes:

19)	Legislative Assembly:

20)	Declaration of Pillnitz:

21)	Brunswick Manifesto:

22)	September Massacres:

23)	National Convention:

24)	The Revolutionary Wars:

25)	Reign of Terror:

26)	Revolutionary Tribunal:

27)	Committee of Public Safety:

28)	Thermidorian Reaction:

29)	Directory:

30)	Napoleon Bonaparte:

5B
I.	Napoleonic Era (1799-1815):

 * a.	Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), A Star Rising

 * a.	Military Accomplishments

 * b.	Involvement w/ the Directory

 * c.	Coup d’état of the Directory (October 1799), Creation of the Consulate

 * d.	Structure of the Consulate

 * i.	Napoleon as First Consul

 * ii.	Council of State

 * iii.	Tribunate

 * a.	Senate

 * iv.	Legislative Body

 * v.	Districts & Perfects

 * e.	Reforms of the Consulate

 * i.	Peace w/ the Catholic Church (Concordat of 1801)

 * a.	Catholicism

 * b.	Bishops

 * c.	Church Property

 * d.	Clergy

 * e.	Minister of Religion

 * ii.	End of the Revolutionary Wars

 * a.	Treaty of Luneville (1801)

 * b.	Treaty of Amiens (1802)

 * c.	Imperial Recess of 1803

 * iii.	Louisiana Purchase (1803)

 * b.	The French Empire under Emperor Napoleon I (1804-1815)

 * a.	Basic Reforms of the Empire

 * i.	Council of State

 * a.	New Powers

 * ii.	Bank of France

 * iii.	Expansion of Schools

 * iv.	Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804)

 * a.	Basic Ideas

 * v.	Social Hierarchy

 * vi.	Military Recruitment

 * a.	Legion of Honor

 * c.	The Napoleonic Wars (1805-1813)

 * a.	Napoleonic Warfare

 * b.	Napoleonic Tactics

 * c.	Napoleonic Battles

 * d.	Third Coalition against France (1805)

 * i.	Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

 * ii.	Battle of Ulm (October 1805)

 * iii.	Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805)

 * iv.	Confederation of the Rhine (1806)

 * a.	Francis II of Austria & Death of the Holy Roman Empire

 * v.	Battle of Jena (1806)

 * vi.	Battle of Friedland (1807)

 * vii.	Treaty of Tilsit (1807)

 * a.	It Said

 * viii.	Battle of Wagram (1809)

 * ix.	Outcome of the early Napoleonic Wars

 * a.	Nepotism in Europe

 * d.	The Tide Turns Against Napoleon

 * a.	Continental System (1806)

 * i.	What it did

 * ii.	Problems from Great Britain

 * iii.	Problems with France

 * iv.	British Retaliation under the Orders of Council (1807)

 * a.	Purpose

 * v.	French Retaliation under the Milan Decrees (1807)

 * a.	Purpose

 * vi.	Failure by 1811

 * b.	The Spanish Ulcer, the Peninsular War (1808-1813)

 * i.	Spanish Rebellion

 * ii.	Portuguese & British Support

 * c.	Nationalism in Napoleonic Europe

 * i.	Creation of a National Identity

 * d.	Napoleon’s Treatment of Conquered Lands

 * e.	Military Reforms in Prussia & Austria

 * i.	Reforms

 * ii.	Baron Heinrich Karl vom und zum Stein

 * e.	Empire’s Decline & the Russian Invasion (1812-1813)

 * a.	Internal Opposition under Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

 * b.	External Opposition

 * i.	Napoleon’s Response

 * c.	The Russian Campaign (June 1812-March 1813)

 * i.	Reasons for Failure

 * a.	Scorched Earth Policy

 * b.	The Russian Winter

 * ii.	Napoleon’s Retreat (March 1813)

 * d.	The Fourth Coalition (1813) against France

 * i.	Battle of the Nations (March 1813)

 * e.	Napoleon’s Forced Abdication (April 6, 1814)

 * f.	The Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII (1814)

 * a.	Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)

 * b.	Treaty of Paris (1814)

 * c.	Louis XVIII (1814-1815, 1815-1824)

 * i.	Constitutional Charter

 * ii.	Problems w/ Louis XVIII

 * g.	Napoleon’s Return & the One Hundred Days (1815)

 * a.	Allied Response

 * b.	Battle of Waterloo (May 1815)

II. Legacy of the French Revolution & Napoleonic Era:

 * a.	French Revolution Post-Mortem

 * b.	Napoleonic Era Post-Mortem

III. Unit 5 I.D. Terms:

1)	Napoleonic Era:

2)	Consulate:

3)	Concordat of 1801:

4)	Emperor Napoleon I:

5)	French Empire:

6)	Napoleonic Code:

7)	Napoleonic Wars:

8)	Confederation of the Rhine:

9)	Treaty of Tilsit:

10)	Nepotism:

11)	Continental System:

12)	Peninsular War:

13)	Russian Campaign:

14)	Battle of the Nations:

15)	Bourbon Restoration:

16)	Louis XVIII:

17)	Constitutional Charter:

18)	Treaty of Paris (1814):

19)	One Hundred Days:

20)	Battle of Waterloo:

6B
I.	Revolutions of 1848:  Massive revolutions that affects all great powers except Great Britain and Russia. Started by France. Shows flaws in concert europe. Famine adds to it and revolutions fail.

 * a.	Initial Success of the Revolutionaries

Have success, but only because they caught the government by surprise
 * b.	Problem with Success

There were many uprisings with many different groups, want different governments
 * c.	Ultimate Failure

People can't find a common ground. Wants peace and stability back. Government comes back.

II. The February Revolution in France, the Overthrow of the July (Orleanist) Monarch:

 * a.	The February Revolution

Revolutionaries rise up and protest against the king
 * a.	Louis Philippe’s Response

He sends in the army to crush the protest. The people start to barricade the streets to protect themselves form the army. Then they make their way to Louis Philippe.
 * b.	Louis Philippe’s Response to the Protestors

He advocates the throne and leaves Paris. When he leaves, the revolutionaries become the government
 * b.	Declaration of the Second French Republic

The government (protestors) plans to hold elections to vote in who they want to represent themselves.
 * c.	Internal Divisions in the Provisional Government

There was a problem: Before they could set up the republic, they needed to decide who will be president.
 * a.	Legitimists:

They wanted someone who was royalty (Bourbons).
 * b.	Orleanists:

They wanted Louis Philippe back, but with a stronger legislator.
 * c.	Supporters of Louis Napoleon (1808-1873):

They supported the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon. Louis Napoleon was basically exactly like his Uncle.
 * d.	European Reactions

Major powers worry about the second French revolution. Many governments wanted to intervene in French issues, but I had revolutions of their own.
 * e.	April Election Results

Out of 900 delicates, the revolutionaries only win about 100 seats. The majority are the conservatives (supporters of Louis Napoleon). The revolutionaries decide to overthrow their own government yet again.
 * f.	Crisis in France & the June Days

June Days- A gigantic battle between revolutionaries and the conservatives. The revolutionaries lost.
 * a.	Government’s Response to the June Days

They want a more conservative government, and get rid of the republic.
 * g.	Candidates for the Election in November
 * a.	Louis Napoleon

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and inhereter of his uncle's legacy.
 * b.	Louis Cavaignac (1802-1857)

The guy that lead the army during June Days.
 * c.	Alexandre-Auguste Ledru-Rollin (1807-1874)

The radical candidate.
 * h.	December Election Results

Louis Napoleon wins presidency and most of the government is Louis Napoleon supporters. 1 term is 4 years.
 * i.	The Agony of the Second French Republic

Louis Napoleon begins to reorganize the government so he can have more power.
 * a.	Louis Napoleon’s Reforms

1. Passes censorship laws. 2. All political clubs and cafes were closed. 3. If you wanted to vote, you had to own land.
 * j.	Death of the Second French Republic & Rise of the Second French Empire (November 1851)

After 4 years, Louis Napoleon doesn't want to step down. On the anniversary of his Uncle taking control of France, Louis Napoleon takes control of France and puts the constitution on hold.
 * a.	Louis Napoleon’s Call for Legitimacy & the People’s Plebiscite Vote

Louis Napoleon asked the people if they wanted him as Emperor. 95% of the French people said yes and voted themselves into slavery.

 * b.	Declaration of the Second French Empire under Napoleon III (January 1852)

Napoleon III declares himself the second French Emperor.

III. Revolution in the German Confederation, Prussia & the Frankfurt Parliament:

 * a.	Causes of Revolution in the German States

When France rises up, the Germans rise up. The people have a lack of food and a lack of representatives in government.

 * b.	March Revolutions

Describing all revolutions happening in Europe after France.
 * c.	Revolution in Bavaria

News of the French Revolution spreads, and the people of Bavaria rise up. The King of Bavaria sends in his army to stop the protests. the people barricade the streets to protect themselves from the army and made their way to the king.

 * a.	Ludwig I’s (King of Bavaria) Response

He advocates the thrown and leaves Bavaria.
 * d.	Revolutions in Saxony & Hanover

As word spreads about revolutions, Saxony and Hanover rise up. The army comes in, protestors put up barricades, and the King flees.

 * e.	Revolution in Prussia under Frederick William IV

Within Berlin, students rise up and the army comes in, protestors put up barricades, but Frederick William IV doesn't leave right then.
 * a.	Frederick William IV’s Response

He passes reforms, lightens censorship laws, and lets Liberals come into government. The King says that if the revolutionaries write a constitution, he will sign it.
 * b.	The March Days

Frederick William IV leads an army to have a sneak attack and crush the revolutionaries. This didn't work. Frederick William IV leaves Berlin.
 * c.	United Assembly of Prussia (March 1848)

The revolutionaries of Berlin's legislator. This gave everybody the same rights.

 * f.	The Frankfurt Parliament (German Constituent National Assembly) & Attempted Unification

This was supposed to be a legislator congress that supports all germans. They believe this will lead to German unification.

 * a.	Elections for the Frankfurt Parliament

The people that are elected have different ideas. They begin to argue and lie to each other.
 * i.	Important Questions include what type of GOV will the nation have, who will have the right to vote, will PRU or AUS go along w/ this plan, which state/King will accept the title of King of Germany if they want a Constitutional Monarchy
 * b.	Two Major Ideas Behind Germain Unification
 * i.	Kleindeutsch:

This means "Smaller Germany". When Germany is unified, it will not include Austria.
 * ii.	Grossdeutsch:

This means "Greater Germany". When Germany is unified, it will include Austria.
 * c.	The Frankfurt Parliament’s 1st Decision on Unification

They will go with the Kleindeutsch.
 * d.	The Frankfurt Parliament’s 2nd Decision on Unification, Basic Rights of the German People (December 1848)

The passage of a constitution for basic rights will set up the idea of a Constitutional Monarchy.

 * e.	The Frankfurt Parliament’s 3rd Decision on Unification

They decide they have to offer the crown to Prussia. Frederick William IV refuses the crown because he did not want a crown from the people.

 * i.	Significance

Prussia wants to do it their way. 1848-Prussia or Austria. After 1848-Only Prussia.

 * f.	Collapse of the Revolution in Berlin

Frederick William IV has a massive army that comes into Berlin and demolishes the revolution. Frederick William IV begins to squash all revolutions throughout Germany.

 * g.	End of Revolutions in Germany

Frederick William IV ends all of them.

 * g.	Prussian-Austrian Rivalry

This is about who is going to reunite Germany. Austria has to many problems so Prussia has to be the one. Austria and Prussia will have one last war.

IV. Revolution in Austria: Austria is afraid of Nationalism because it has the potential to destroy the nation.

 * a.	Causes for the Revolutions

Nationalism,

 * b.	Start of the Revolution, the Hungarian Revolt

Austria doesn't send any troops there. the Hungarians wanted to make a deal. They wanted it to be the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.

 * a.	March Laws

Passed by the Hungarian Diet. It says that: -The Austrian King will remain king, but the Hungarians will have their own army. Hungary also wants to conduct their own foreign policy. The problem is, the Austrian King doesn't reconize the March Laws because he hasn't signed it.

 * c.	Revolutions within Hungary, Revolt of the Croats, Serbs, & Slovenes

 * a.	Reason for Internal Revolts

The people have to pay taxes to both Austria and Hungary. also, the Hungarian Diet only applies to hungarians, NOT the Croats, Serbs, or Slovenes.
 * d.	Revolution in Vienna

 * a.	Ferdinand I’s, King of Austria, Response

He flees. But before he flees, he fires Meterneck to try to stop the revolution. This doesn't work.
 * e.	Revolution in Bohemia

The Czechs rise up in revolt.
 * a.	Czech Revolutionary Goal

To unite all he Czechs into a Czech Republic
 * f.	Revolution of the Austrian Germans

The Austrian-Germans rise up against Ferdinand I to unite with Germany.

 * g.	Revolution in Italy

Italy can't beat Austria even when Austria doesn't have an army.
 * h.	Counter-Revolution in Habsburg Central Europe

 * a.	Abdication of Ferdinand I, Coronation of King Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)

Ferdinand I steps down and lets his intelligent nephew take control. Francis Joseph I decides that they should have a counter revolution.

 * b.	Prince Felix zu Schwarzenberg (1800-1852)

He is a general of the Austrian army. He thinks that Austria should attack the weakpont of the revolutionaries.
 * c.	Austrian Counter-Attack in Bohemia

Austria bombards Prague and destroys everybody. The people that surrender are executed.
 * i.	German Revolutionaries’ Response:

Most of the revolts die down and most of the Austrian-Germans are silenced.
 * d.	Austrian Counter-Attack in Vienna

The Austrian army goes to Vienna and destroys everybody and retakes Vienna.

 * e.	Austrian Counter-Attack in Hungary, Support from Russia & the Croats

Nicholas I sends a Russian army to help Austria. Then the Croats will rise up and smash the Hungarian revolt.
 * i.	Joseph Jelacic (1801-1859):

A Croation general who leads the Croats in the counter-attack.
 * f.	Restoration of Habsburg Control

Everything is back to normal. This proves that Austria is barely strong enough to contain its national uprisings.

V.	Revolution in Italy:  Italy will try to beat Austria (but can't). Revolutions against the pope will begin.

 * a.	Rival Powers in Italy

Liberals, Nationalists, Revolutionaries, and Conservatives.
 * a.	Piedmont-Sardinia & the House of Savoy

Piedmont-Sardinia is the most powerful Italien state. Piedmont-Sardinia gets all of Italy to rise up in a revolt. The House of Savoy will eventually become the royal family.
 * b.	The Five Glorious Days, Attack on Milan

A period of time when revolutions occur accross Europe. Most of Austrians control is in Milan. The revolutionaries set up barricades throughout the country and they think that this will finally kick Austria out.
 * a.	Divisions on Unification & Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia (1831-1849)

Charles Albert wants to be crowned the king of Italy. The people are diversified. Some want Piedmont-Sardinia, some wanted a republuc, some want a constitutional monarchy, and others want unification under the Pope.

 * b.	Divisions on the Government of (Attempted) United Italy

 * c.	Revolution in Rome

The Pope is a conservative. The Pope sends in his army to stop the protests. The people barricade the streets to protect themselves from the army and made their way to him. After that, the Pope leaves Rome.

 * a.	Foreign Intervention

The French sends an army to crush revolutions against the Pope. With French help, the Pope and his army will beat the revolutionaries.
 * b.	Battle for Rome (June)

The French and the Pope's armies have a climactic battle with the revolutionaries. Most of the revolutionaries were slaughtered and the Pope takes back control.
 * d.	Joseph Radetzky (1766-1858) & the Austrian Counter-Attack in Italy

As revolutionaries were debating, Radetzky comes in and forces them into battle.

 * a.	Results of Radetzky’s Campaign

Revolutions crumble and Austria gains control once again.
 * b.	Abdication of Charles Albert, Coronation of Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1861)

Victor Emmanuel II is the new king. H's charged with the task of uniting Italy. He realizes that Piedmont-Sardinia is the only one that has enough power to do so.

VI. The Legacy of the Revolutions of 1848:  It proved that unless you have a gameplan, you'll be defeated and beaten down. Liberals will call for reform. Public opinion will be the first thing that nations will have to think about.

VII. Unit 6 I.D. Terms:

1)	Revolutions of 1848:

2)	February Revolution:

3)	Second French Republic:

4)	June Days:

5)	Louis Napoleon:

6)	Second French Empire:

7)	Napoleon III:

8)	March Revolutions:

9)	Frederick William IV:

10)	March Days:

11)	Frankfurt Parliament:

12)	Kleindeutsch:

13)	Grossdeutsch:

14)	March Laws:

15)	Ferdinand I:

16)	Franz Joseph I:

17)	Piedmont-Sardinia:

18)	Charles Albert:

19)	Joseph Radetzky:

20)	Victor Emmanuel II:

6C
I.	Era of National Unification:

II. Political Unification of Italy under Piedmont-Sardinia:

 * a.	Leadership of Italian Unification
 * a.	King Victor Emmanuel II
 * b.	Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861), Chief Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia

 * b.	Alliances & Warfare for Italian Unification (Jan. 1859)

 * a.	Why France & Napoleon III?

 * b.	Treaty of Plombieres (Savoy & Nice)

 * i.	Napoleon III’s Belief

 * ii.	Austria’s Response to the Alliance

 * iii.	Cavour’s Response to Conscription

 * iv.	Austria’s Response to Cavour’s Decree

 * a.	German States’ Response to Austria’s Aggression

 * v.	Austria’s Ultimatum

 * vi.	France’s Response
 * c.	Italian War of Unification (1859)

 * a.	Battles of Magenta & Solferino (June 1859)

 * b.	Napoleon III’s Fear & Withdrawal

 * i.	Armistice at Villafranca (July 1859)

 * c.	Treaty of Turin (March 1860)

 * d.	The Liberation of Southern Italy (1860) by Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

 * a.	Garibaldi & Southern Italy
 * b.	April 1860 Revolt in the Kingdom of the Two Siclies (Naples & Sicily)

 * i.	Garibaldi, His “Red Shirts”, & Palermo

 * ii.	Invasion of Naples

 * iii.	Cavour & Garibaldi

 * c.	North & South Unite with a Plebiscite Vote (November 1860)

 * i.	Results of the Vote for Unification

 * e.	The Nation of Italy (March 1861)

 * a.	Venetia (1866)
 * b.	Rome (1870)

 * i.	Law of Papal Guarantees (May 1871)
 * f.	Limits of Unification

 * a.	Regional Differences

 * b.	North vs. South

 * c.	Economic Woes & the North-South Gap

 * d.	Emigration to the United States

 * e.	Papal Resistance

 * f.	The Mafia in Sicily

III. Political Unification of Germany under Prussia:

 * a.	Advantages in the German States

 * a.	German Confederation

 * b.	Zollverein (1819) & Frederick List (1789-1846)

 * i.	Significance
 * c.	Prussia

 * b.	Leadership of German Unification
 * a.	William I (1797-1888)

 * b.	Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), Iron Chancellor of Prussia (1862-1890)

 * i.	Realpolitik (Statecraft)

 * c.	Prussian Constitutional Crisis

 * a.	The Crisis Was

 * b.	The Solution, Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor (1862)

 * i.	The Loophole

 * ii.	Significance

 * d.	Alliances & Warfare for German Unification

 * a.	His Plan for Eliminating External Blocks

 * b.	Friendship with Russia & the Polish Revolt (1863)

 * i.	The Results
 * e.	The Danish War (1864), the Pretext for War with Austria

 * a.	Claim of German Oppression Schleswig & Holstein (1864)

 * b.	German Response
 * c.	Treaty of Vienna (1864)
 * f.	Bismarck & the European Stage (1865)

 * a.	France & Austrian Humiliation

 * b.	Italy & Venetia (Prussian-Italian Alliance)

 * c.	German Confederation & a National Parliament

 * g.	The Conflict over Schleswig & Holstein & the Seven Weeks’ War [Austro-Prussian] (1866)

 * a.	Austria’s Response

 * b.	The War

 * c.	Treaty of Prague (August 1866)

 * h.	The North German Confederation, the Framework for German Unification

 * i.	Significance

 * ii.	Expansion of the Zollverein

 * i.	The Conflict with France & the Final Step to German Unification (1870)

 * a.	Political Isolation of France
 * i.	Austria
 * ii.	Italy

 * iii.	Russia
 * b.	The Calls for War Boil with a Conflict over Spanish Succession (1870)

 * i.	The Effect
 * c.	The Ems Dispatch (Telegraph) (July 1870)

 * i.	The Effect

 * d.	Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

 * i.	Treaty of Frankfurt (January 1871)

 * ii.	Territorial Gains & Indemnity

 * e.	Declaration of the German Empire (January 1871)

 * i.	State Structure

 * j.	Politics of the German Empire

 * a.	Kulturkampf (1873) & the War on Catholicism

 * i.	Reforms Against Catholicism

 * ii.	End of Kulturkampf

 * b.	Problems with the Social Democratic Party

 * i.	Reforms Against the Social Democrats

 * c.	William II (1888-1918), son of William I

 * i.	Resignation of Bismarck as Chancellor (1890)

 * ii.	Germany Without Bismarck

IV. National Awakening in Habsburg Lands:

 * a.	Advantages from Regionalism
 * a.	Habsburg Monarchy

 * b.	Officials & Languages

 * c.	Ethnic Nobility

 * d.	Catholicism
 * e.	Local Control

 * b.	Constitutional Reforms

 * a.	October Diploma of 1860

 * b.	February Patent of 1861

 * c.	Compromise of 1867, the Dual Monarchy, & the Austro-Hungarian Empire

 * i.	What It Did

V.	Unit 6 I.D. Terms:

1)	Unification :

2)	Italian Unification:

3)	Camillo di Cavour:

4)	Treaty of Turin:

5)	Giuseppe Garibaldi:

6)	Law of Papal Guarantees:

7)	German Unification:

8)	William I:

9)	Otto von Bismarck:

10)	Realpolitik:

11)	Schleswig & Holstein:

12)	Austro-Prussian War:

13)	North German Confederation:

14)	Zollverein:

15)	Ems Dispatch:

16)	Franco-Prussian War:

17)	Treaty of Frankfurt:

18)	Kulturkampf:

19)	William II:

20)	Compromise of 1867:

6D
I.	Dominant Powers in the Age of Liberalism: Great Britain was reforming without problem. Russia had a massive call for reforms and revolution. France was revolting.

II. The Victorian Age in Great Britain:  Queen Victoria. Her morals and beliefs were a symbol of the time period. she had the lots of middle-class values, but she was still very aristocratic and conservative.

 * a.	The Victorian Consensus under Queen Victoria (1819-1901) & Prince Albert (1819-1861)

A set of values that blanketed society. It cemented a new national culture that all classes would share.
 * a.	Entrepreneurial Ethnic

A set of ethics that held entrepreneur very high in society. It was capitalistic, symbolized by Adam Smith's ideas, and encouraged competition within the market.
 * b.	Involvement of the State

There was very little government intervention, especially economically. It was a free market, however the problem of poverty still remained.

 * c.	Morality

A set of moral codes that showed what is prim and proper.
 * d.	The Family

The family was the central unit of the Victorian age. Middle-class families were becoming smaller, their children where in courage to follow in the footsteps of their parents.

 * b.	The Liberal Era of Victorian Politics (19th Century)

During this time period debate was highly encouraged, the first liberal parties made their rise, and the people trusted the parliament.

 * a.	Liberal Dominance post-1832 Reform Bill & Whig Divisions

The whig party began to divide.

 * i.	Liberal Party

A political party seeking social reform and wanted the government to expand to help the lower classes.

 * a.	It Drew Support From

Businesses, Catholics, working and lower class, liberal middle-class
 * b.	Strong In

the House of Commons
 * c.	Party Leader in William Gladstone (1809-1898)

Dominates liberal politics. Defined being a liberal. Encourage domestic policy. Didn't like to involve the continent. He wanted to make the Liberal party the party of reform

 * b.	Conservative Opposition

that TORRES became the Conservatives. The conservatives were mostly a minority.

 * i.	Conservative Party

The conservative party wanted to increase Britain's influence in the world. They encouraged foreign-policy and wanted to invest more in colonies.

 * a.	It Drew Support From

the upper class and the Anglican Church
 * b.	Strong In

The House of Lords
 * c.	Party Leader in Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)

The political rival of Gladstone. He wanted the Conservatives to be the party of the rich. He disliked liberal politics. He felt the Liberal policy was too liberal. He was supported by Queen Victoria.

 * c.	The Politics of Voter Reform

The Liberals wanted more people to vote
 * i.	The Liberal Reform Bill

a big debate over poll taxes the Liberal party wanted to lower the poll tax

 * a.	What It Did

in the poorest rural areas it lowered taxes.
 * b.	Liberal Support

Gladstone thought it was moral and utilitarian
 * c.	Conservative Opposition

opposed saying Queen Victoria didn't want to be a democratic monarch
 * d.	Result

it failed to pass.
 * ii.	The Conservative Reform Bill (The Reform Bill of 1867)

Conservatives will oppose bills published by the Liberals. The Conservatives try to gain support by passing a bill.

 * a.	What It Did

expanded the right to vote to 4/5 of all male citizens
 * b.	Liberal Support

Gladstone supports it
 * c.	Conservative Support

they support it as well
 * d.	Result

the bill passes. Unintentionally the next major election, Liberals win big support.
 * d.	Irish Home Rule & the Pacification of Ireland

Every few years the Irish try to revolt.

 * i.	The Irish Land Act of 1870

passed to make the Irish happy. The Irish farmers who rent land are now protected.

 * ii.	Irish Land League (1879)

formed by Irish men. Press for more reform. They wanted true land reform.
 * iii.	Charles Parnell (1846-1891) & Home Rule

in Irish Protestants in Parliament proposes home rule. Ireland will have its own administration but is still loyal to Britain. It fails to pass.

 * iv.	Irish Republican Brotherhood (1879)

Forms in response to home rule being put down. There were radical calls for independence and violence.
 * v.	Divisions in Parliament & the Liberal Party (1879-1882)

This put more pressure on the House of Commons. Gladstone and the Liberals tried to push through massive reforms.

 * a.	Why Try?

conservative liberals ask why do you try? Irishmen will never be happy, they say.

 * vi.	Violence & the Coercion Act (1882)

after several acts of violence the Coercion Act denied the rights of the accused in Ireland.
 * vii.	Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914) & the Liberal Party Split (1885)

replaces Gladstone as the new leader of the Liberal party.

 * viii.	Home Rule Bill & Failures (1886 & 1893)

leads to a conservative majority.

 * ix.	Passage of Home Rule (September 1914) & Ulster

the bill finally passes. It was an act of unity, in August World War I started. The problem was that the Northern Protestants didn't like a Catholic Ireland.

 * c.	New Contours in British Political Life, King Edward VII (1901-1910)

Queen Victoria's son Edward starts a new age. During this time there were new parties and more violence.

 * a.	New Unionism

The first party, they wanted a new radical union movement. the working class wanted rights, and they would use violence.

 * i.	Black Monday (1887)

A nationwide strike occurs. The police are sent out to tame the riots, and at the end of the day hundreds are dead.
 * ii.	Taff Vale Decision (1901)

in act of law stating that not only is it illegal to strike, but the striking workers must reimburse for previous strikes. This was passed by both the conservative and Liberal parties.
 * b.	Rise of the Labour Party (1890’s)

the Labour Party tries to be huge true party of the working class reform. They rally around the Taft Vale decision

 * c.	Conservative Decline (1890’s-1910’s)

 * d.	Liberal & Labour Government (1910’s)

 * i.	Trade Disputes Act of 1906
 * ii.	Parliament Bill of 1911 & George V (1911-1936)

 * iii.	William Lloyd George & the Last Liberal Majority (1910’s-1920’s)

III. Reform, Expansion, & Revolution in Tsarist Russia:

 * a.	The Crimean War (1853-1856), the Shattering of Concert Europe

 * a.	It Started

 * b.	It Became

 * c.	War Breaks Out (1853)

 * d.	The War Ends
 * i.	Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

 * ii.	Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) & The Charge of the Light Brigade

 * e.	Peace of Paris (1856)

 * b.	Stirrings of Discontent in Russia

 * a.	Westernizes vs. Slavophiles

 * i.	Westernizers
 * ii.	Slavophiles
 * a.	Vissarion Belinsky (1811-1848)

 * b.	Alexander Herzen (1812-1870)

 * c.	Nikolay Gogol (1809-1852)

 * iii.	Pan-Slavism

 * c.	Czar Alexander II (1855-1881) & Emancipation of the Serfs

 * a.	Serfdom in Russia

 * b.	Emancipation of the Serfs (April 5, 1861)

 * i.	The Problem

 * c.	Other Reforms of Alexander II
 * i.	Creation of Zemstvos

 * ii.	Dumas
 * iii.	Creation of the Judicial Branch (1864)

 * iv.	The Army

 * v.	Third Section

 * d.	Expansion of the Russian Empire under Alexander III (1881-1894), son of Alexander II

 * a.	Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
 * i.	Treaty of San Stefano (1878)
 * b.	The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

 * i.	Nicholas II (1894-1917)

 * ii.	It Started

 * iii.	The War

 * iv.	Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

 * e.	The Revolution of 1905

 * a.	Protests at St. Petersburg (January 1905)

 * b.	Czar Nicholas II’s Response & Bloody Sunday (January 22nd)

 * c.	Czar Nicholas II’s Response & the Duma (National Parliament)

 * d.	October Manifesto of 1905

 * e.	Sergey Witte (1849-1915) & Resolution

 * f.	Dissolution of the Duma (April 1906)

 * i.	Significance

IV. Reforms of the Second Empire & Rise of the Third Republic:

 * a.	The Authoritarian Empire

 * b.	Economic Growth in France

 * a.	Construction Projects

 * i.	Construction of the Suez Canal (1869)

 * b.	Significance

 * c.	Foreign Policy of the Second Empire

 * a.	Mexico & Cinco de Mayo (1867)
 * b.	Italian War of Unification (1859)

 * c.	Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris (1870-1871)

 * i.	Significance

 * d.	Declaration of the Third Republic (Sept. 4, 1870)

 * a.	Provisional Government

 * e.	Parisian Revolt & the Paris Commune (March 1871)

 * a.	The Paris Commune (March 1871)
 * b.	End of the Paris Commune (May 1871)

 * f.	The Chamber of Deputies & the Third Republic

 * a.	Structure of the Third Republic

 * g.	Anti-Semitism in the Third Republic & the Dreyfus Affair (1894)

 * a.	Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935)

 * b.	The Dreyfus Affair
 * c.	Dreyfus’ Release (1899)

V.	Unit 6 I.D. Terms:

1)	Victorian Consensus:

2)	Liberal Party:

3)	William Gladstone:

4)	Conservative Party:

5)	Benjamin Disraeli:

6)	The Reform Bill of 1867:

7)	Irish Home Rule:

8)	Labour Party:

9)	Parliament Bill of 1911:

10)	Crimean War:

11)	Westernizers:

12)	Slavophiles:

13)	Alexander II:

14)	Alexander III:

15)	Nicholas II:

16)	Russo-Japanese War:

17)	Revolution of 1905:

18)	Third French Republic:

19)	Paris Commune:

20)	Dreyfus Affair:


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Positive thinking

Case study: The Optimist and the Pessimist
Three women were meant to meet at a restaurant at 5.00pm. Two of the women arrived on time, however Angie was running late. Time continued to tick by. At 5.15pm one of the women, Maria could not help but look at her watch and began to feel anxious. Lucy, the other woman saw this and told her not too worry. Lucy ordered a drink and did not think any more of it as Angie was renowned for being late. Another 10 minutes passed. Maria could not stop looking at the time and expressed her worry, suggesting that Angie may have been involved in a car accident. Lucy remained calm, reminding Maria that Angie was coming from work and was most probably stuck in peak hour traffic. Maria did not even listen to Lucy’s explanation. Panicking further, Maria tried calling Angie to find out where she was. Angie did not answer, reinforcing Maria’s worry even further. Lucy reminded Maria that Angie was driving and that she cannot answer her phone while driving. Another ten minutes went by and Angie rushed in. Lucy said “Look, there she is, she is just fine like I told you.” Maria was still not convinced, rushing over to their friend to see if she was ok. It turned out that Angie had to stay back for an important meeting at work. Lucy and their friend started talking and began looking at the menu. Maria however, did not believe her friend entirely, still thinking that there must be another, more troublesome explanation for her friend’s late arrival. She was so anxious that she did not eat and continued to think about what ‘could’ have happened for the rest of the night.

This example outlines two different thinking styles. The first of these is the optimist, one who anticipates that things will work out. The other is that of the pessimist, one who expects the worst outcomes in any given situation (Seligman, 1998). The way in which people interpret events influences how individuals perceive their world and in turn how they act within it (Seligman, 1998). This chapter will highlight this difference in thinking patterns. With a main focus on optimistic thinking, this chapter will outline how positive thinking motivates the individual as well as what motivates an individual to think optimistically.

Learning Outcomes

 * Define positive thinking and motivation
 * Describe the varying relationships between positive thinking and motivation
 * Understand how an individual can change their thinking patterns
 * Identify what motivates an individual to think positively and how this can be achieved.

Motivation
Motivation is directed energy toward a behaviour which is constant and strong. This behaviour aims to achieve a particular goal and is able to begin, continue, change course and cease (Reeve, 2009). Both external and internal motives provide this direction and energy. These motives are made up of an individual’s needs, cognitions, emotions and external events (Reeve, 2009).

Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is defined by an intrinsic want to improve an individual’s capabilities and pursue their interests and goals (Reeve, 2009). A person is intrinsically motivated when they undertake a behaviour on their own without the influence of an external reward. As a result, extrinsic motivation or external coercion, sees lower performance outcomes than intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This is because an intrinsically motivated person’s productivity is increased, their level of engagement is enhanced and they are more likely to pursue a challenging goal for a longer period of time. For example, someone who is intrinsically motivated at university will remain more focused than someone who is externally movtivated. They will inevitably undergo a process of a high quality learning, increasing their creativity and well-being. This heightened well-being will see an emergence of positive feelings and cognitions, decreasing stress and anxiety and inevitably creating a more optimistic person.

Self Determination Theory
The Self Determination Theory focuses on the relationship between personality and motivation. In particular, the theory analyses self regulating behaviours and how they are influenced by one’s internal resources. In doing so, it explores personality development by investigating both individual tendencies for development and inherent psychological needs. It examines how these two aspects of an individual combine in order to determine the link between both personality and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In turn, this allows one to determine which external events promote positive development between the two.

The theory states that there are three fundamental psychological needs. These include autonomy, competence and relatedness. Only when all of these needs are satisfied does someone function at the optimal level, which increases personal growth, social development and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Autonomy is when an individual has control over their environment and its rewards. An autonomous act is directed by an individuals own interests and their decision to partake in a behaviour. Competence is how capable someone is and feels within a particular environment and relatedness is defined by a person’s want to engage in warm, respectful relationship. When an individual is satisfied in each of these needs they are psychologically or mentally healthy (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

The intrinsically motivated individual is not controlled by external rewards. This type of person is more excitable, interested and has an increased sense of self-esteem. These three factors, autonomy, competence and relatedness all see the individual performing at a higher cognitive level (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Even the most successful people report lower levels of well-being when pursuing extrinsically motivated goals. Therefore, it can be said that attaining an extrinsic goal is not necessarily psychologically beneficial, reinforcing the idea that intrinsic goals increase levels of well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

What is Positive Thinking?
Throughout the world, happiness is seen as the ultimate aspiration within people’s lives. Happiness can be defined by feeling pleasurable and being satisfied in each aspect of a person’s life (Martin, 2004). A person’s happiness is directly related to their state of mental health. A mentally healthy person:
 * Accepts themselves and has heightened self-esteem
 * Attempts to increase their potential
 * Is autonomous in their decision making
 * Has realistic views on world events
 * Has a sense of self-mastery and
 * Maintains goal directed behaviour (Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

As you can imagine, a mentally healthy person is more likely to think in a positive manner. Positive thinking, like optimism, can be defined by an individual having positive expectancies for their future (Scheier & Carver, 1993). This positive mindset is said to begin from childhood, where it is learned form modeling the behaviour of parents and peers (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). This type of thinking is directly linked to motivation. This is because the behaviours and decisions that individuals make, as well as expectations of what may occur are directly influenced by one’s cognitions. A positive thinker will set attainable goals and attempt to achieve these despite their complexity. However, this same person will also know when to separate themselves from a goal when it is too far out of reach (MacLeod & Moore, 2000). It is these expectancies that determine whether an individual will either give up or continue to work towards achieving their goal.

Physiological Aspects
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which is released within the brain in both animals and humans. It has numerous functions and plays an important role within the central nervous system. In keeping with the theme of motivation, the function that we will be focusing on is dopamine’s role in the brain’s motivation and reward system (Dunnett, Bentivoglio, Bjorklund & Hokfelt, 2005). Dopamine creates positive feelings within the body when an individual engages in a pleasurable activity and is also released in expectation of a positive event. The positive feeling that one receives when engaging in a positive activity allows the individual to determine which life events cause these feelings to develop and other environments that could have the same affect. This is viewed as a type of positive reinforcement (Bressan & Crippa, 2005). If an individual feels good, they will continue to seek these environments and engage in the behaviours that cause dopamine to be released. So it can therefore be said that the chance of this behaviour occurring in the future is increased (Bressan & Crippa, 2005). In terms of positive thinking, dopamine increases happy emotions, which increases positive cognitions, optimal functioning and well being.

Well-being
Well-being is defined as a satisfied state of happiness and flourishing health. Schmutte & Ryff’s (1997) studies suggest that there are six components of psychological well being and positive functioning. These are self acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy and positive relations with others. Each of these dimensions contribute to how positively an individual views themselves and their potential within a given environment. As a result, this directly influences an individual’s goals and actions they decide to undertake. These are explained in more detail below:
 * Self Acceptance:

This is seen when an individual maintains a positive attitude about themselves. They are positive about their past experiences and accept most aspects of themselves (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. “I like who I am, I have no regrets.”
 * Personal Growth:

These people are open to new experiences. They feel as if they are intelligent and have the potential to develop themselves further (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. ''“Life will always change and in doing so I will continue to grow as a person. I think new experiences will challenge how I think.”''
 * Purpose in Life:

Someone who has purpose in life believes that their past is meaningful and has a set of goals and sense of purpose for the future (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. “I have set goals that I would like to achieve in the future.”
 * Environmental Mastery:

The ability to choose an environment which is suitable and feel as if they are in control (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. “I have control over my life and can manage whatever comes my way.”
 * Autonomy:

An autonomous person has personal standards that they adhere to and are not easily influenced by others. They are independent and regulated internally (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. “Despite others thinking the opposite way to me, I am confident in my views.”
 * Positive Relations with Others:

An individual is able to engage in trusting relationships with others in a give and take relationship (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Eg. “ I try and do what I can for others and always make time for my friends.”

Individuals high on each of these dimensions flourish in their lives. Those who do not are said to suffer as they adopt a more pessimistic thinking style, decreasing their well-being. As these components determine how an individual will act in their environment, dimensions highlight not only how successful an individual is within their environment but whether they will choose to put themselves in a situation in the first place (Schmutte & Ryff, 1997). Living life with optimistic cognitions such as these sees an increase in superior athletic and academic performance. Productivity and satisfaction in relationships are also increased. Pessimistic thinking is also highly correlated with depression, which indicates that optimistic thinking benefits both physical and mental health (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Whether a person can cope with a stressful situation can also be determined by both their hardiness and resilience.

Resilience and Hardiness
Hardiness and resilience are both predictors of someone’s well-being and as a consequence, determine whether someone’s cognitions are positive or negative in nature. Hardiness is a combination of action patterns which enable an individual to turn a prospective disaster or stressor into a growth opportunity (Maddi, 2006). When faced with trauma, resilience is the ability to adapt positively (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Therefore, being either hardy or resilient is the ability to turn stress into a positive outcome. Research states that in doing so, this enhances an individual’s physical and mental health and increases success (Maddi, 2006).

Hardiness attitudes are cognitive and growth-oriented. They are comprised of a set of traits known as the 3C’s, commitment, control and challenge. These attitudes contribute to the stress resistance of a person which enables them to overcome adversity (Maddi, 2006). Throughout a stressful period, if an individual is strong in each of these attitudes, they will want to remain in control as they view stress as an opportunity for growth. This allows a hardy individual to overcome a potential disaster which then enhances both their physical and mental health (Maddi, 2006). Hardy people are more inclined to care for themselves under stress and have a supportive social life. This enables the person to perform difficult tasks, avoid rule breaking behaviour as well as decrease the likelihood of suffering from obesity, cancer and cardiovascular disease (Cole, Field & Harris, 2004).

Resilience is the ability for an individual to be able to adapt positively after a stressful or traumatic situation. A person's level of resilience is defined by the strength of this success, if an individual were not able to overcome this adversity they would not be seen as resilient (Maddi, 2006). It appears that there are a number of psychological processes that are involved in resilience. These processes explain why a person has been resilient in a particular condition, these are referred to as coping reactions. Resilience is often referred to as a personality trait influenced by biological, environmental and psychological factors (Maddi, 2006). This means that resilience is affected by the different social environments in which people live and how they process information (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007). Like hardy people, a resilient individual also maintains better physical and mental health than those who are not. By analysing the hardy and resilient person, it is evident that these personality traits determine one's cognitive perspective on stressful situations and as a result, how they choose to act.

Learned Optimism
Learned optimism helps someone to persist, it attempts to explain negative outcomes by blaming the outer environment for its cause, distancing the individual from a negative event (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). It appears that throughout history, psychology has focused on curing suffering resulting from mental illness, divorce, death and abuse (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). By only focusing on the weaknesses of individuals, this has left modern day psychologists next to useless when devising ways to prevent these weaknesses. This has brought about the development of positive psychology. Rather than trying to cure what is broken, positive psychology aims to focus on people’s strengths and build their resilience (Seligman, 1998). In doing so, individuals are given the motivation they need to make decisions, preferences and choices in their lives that are masterful and successful in often hopeless situations. Positive psychology’s final aim is to help people live not only productive, but happy lives through the use of positive thinking.

Seligman
Martin E.P.Seligman is often referred to as the founder of positive psychology, he is the main reason for the growing interest within the field today. The opening case highlighted that a person’s thinking has consequences on their behaviour. When compared to pessimists, optimistic people appear to perform better in all aspects of their lives. Their health appears to increase, age does not affect their physical and mental performance to the same degree and they are more successful at both school and the workplace (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). However, the good news is that research states that individuals can choose how they think, which means that pessimists can learn to be optimists.

Seligman (1998) touches on the idea of learned helplessness and explanatory style in his theory of personal control. Learned helplessness is defined by believing that anything you do will not appease a situation and sees people give up as a result. For example, someone may not apply for a job because someone else will be chosen over them as they don’t think they are good enough. Explanatory style is how someone explains why an event has occurred. An optimistic explanatory style does not show learned helplessness, for example, if an optimistic person failed a test, they would attribute their failure to the level of difficulty (Seligman, 1998). A negative explanatory style on the other hand sees the opposite of this, where a person would blame their own stupidity for the low grade. In turn, an individual’s explanatory style predicts just how capable or incapable someone will be when faced with obstacles in everyday life (Seligman, 1998). Differing types of therapy attempt to change these thought patterns.

Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive Therapy aims to change the thinking styles of pessimist people through the following five ways.

 * 1) The individual concerned must be aware of their automatic thoughts. These are the immediate cognitions that someone experiences in a situation. They are persistent in nature.
 * 2) The individual must gain evidence to contradict the negative automatic thought, attributing the cause of the situation to an outside influence, rather than a personal one
 * 3) A new, positive explanation for the event must be attributed to the negative event
 * 4) One must sidetrack their thoughts to either positive thoughts or none in an attempt to control their thinking style
 * 5) In doing so the individual concerned is able to identify these negative thoughts and ponder whether they are actually true (Seligman, 1998).

By engaging in cognitive therapy, this changes the pessimistic thinking style to an optimistic one. However, this only works if an individual is intrinsically motivated to change their patterns of thinking in the first place. It is the individual concerned that chooses to make this change in order to feel better and maintain a more positive outlook on life (Seligman, 1998). This highlights how intrinsic motivation plays a role in changing someone’s initial negative cognitions to positive ones.

Solution Focused Therapy
Solution Focused Therapy is a brief therapy designed by Steve de Shazer which aims to find solutions to problems. It is reported to have high success rates in various instances where patient’s lives have changed dramatically in as little as three sessions. These sessions see clients identifying a problem within their lives that they would like to change. With the help of a therapist, they are able to choose attainable goals in order to overcome these obstacles (O’Connell, 2005). By starting off with a small attainable goal towards overcoming a more prominent issue this increases the client’s sense of self mastery. For example, the conversation between the therapist and the client may go something like this:

 * Therapist: We can really only focus on one problem at any given time.  What issue is concerning you most at this point in time?
 * Client: My drug abuse, however this is also influenced by my schizophrenia.
 * Therapist: Once we solve your drug addiction, if this is still an issue, then we can move on to your other problems (Macdonald, 2007).

This therapy sees the therapist taking on an empathetic role when treating the patient across a multitude of circumstances (O’Connell, 2005). In doing so, therapists must show that they believe the patient will achieve their goals in the given time frame. They must also remind themselves of their client’s goal and act as if the current session could be the last to increase treatment quality. Evidence shows that by making patients feel competent and encouraging them to aspire to attainable goals, they feel more empowered and are better able to implement these strategies into their lives (O’Connell, 2005). This is significantly highlighted in what is referred to as the miracle question.

 * Therapist: Imagine that you wake up tomorrow, and a miracle has occurred, your problem is solved. What would be the first indicator to you that this has happened?
 * Patient: I would be happy and not feel the need to take any drugs
 * Therapist: Who would be the first person to notice this change?
 * Patient: My family, they would be so proud and joyful (Macdonald, 2007).

This question sees patients thinking in a different, more positive way and gives them further motivation to attain their goals in order to achieve this possible future outcome. In turn, patients adopt a more positive thinking style and this potential outcome intrinsically motivates the individual to achieve their goals.

Try This: Mini Therapy
(Snyder & Lopez, 2007, pp. 13-14 )
 * Identify three good things you would like to happen tomorrow
 * Think of one thing that you do not want to happen in the upcoming days
 * Imagine what you want not to happen as a circle that is getting smaller and smaller
 * Of the three good things you want to happen tomorrow imagine the least important one getting smaller and smaller.
 * Imagine the small circle of what you want not to happen getting so small it is hard to see
 * Let go of what you want not to happen. Say goodbye.
 * Of the two good things you want to happen tomorrow, imagine the least important one getting smaller and smaller
 * Focus your mind on the one good thing that remains as the most important for tomorrow
 * See this good thing happening in your mind’s eye
 * Practice having this good thing happen in your mind
 * When you awaken tomorrow, focus on the good thing happening
 * Repeat to yourself during the day, “I make this positive possible.”
 * Repeat the phrase “I choose how to focus my thoughts.”

This experiment aims to inform people that they have far more control over their thoughts than they know. By focusing on what people want in their lives, rather than be reactive people are more likely to own what they have in their lives. Thinking about what people want to happen tends to increase positive thoughts and decrease the reactions people have when avoiding things (Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

Religion
Eastern thinking accepts that in life, both good and bad events will occur. Rather than seeing these misfortunes as a challenge, these problems are seen as potential triumphs. When confronted with obstacles, easterners appear to take on a problem solving approach, seeking to find meaning in the positive and negative that enters their lives. Unlike Western thinking which seeks physical rewards in life, Easterners seek spiritual rewards in the afterlife and attempt to lead a more fulfilling life in doing so (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). The intrinsic motivation to achieve optimum cognitive functioning is highlighted in Taoism, Buddhism and Hinduism.

 * Taoism:

Followers of Tao must live by his work. The way, refers to movement, method, direction and thought. Tao is an energy that everyone and everything is surrounded by. Taoism beliefs state that there can be no light without dark, and that this is why negative periods in one’s life are bearable. The goal of Taoism is to achieve spontaneity and a natural sense in life. Someone who encompasses this view will automatically functions at an optimal level as if it were natural (Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

 * Buddhism:

Buddhist’s follow the teaching of Buddha, who states that suffering is brought about by the human emotion of desire. Buddhists believe that true, inner peace cannot be reached if one has cravings for more. Buddhism describes several virtues which must be obtained in order to overcome desire. These include love (maitri), joy (mudita) and compassion (karuna). In order to reach these virtues, the individual must remove the desire from their lives, putting an end to suffering. When an individual’s desires disappear, this state is referred to as Nirvana and the individual is then deemed as being free (Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

 * Hinduism:

Finally, Hindus believe in two types of after life. The first is reincarnation where the spirit returns to earth after death. The second is non-reincarnation where in life, the individual gained the highest knowledge possible. This is a more respected and leveraged path that Hindu’s attempt to achieve. To achieve this, one must live life to the full in a positive way in order to avoid reincarnation and having to repeat life’s lessons. To return means failure. As a result, this religion emphasises personal improvement and this sees Hindus continually striving for knowledge and working towards goals.(Snyder & Lopez, 2007).

These brief definitions of Eastern religious beliefs show yet another way in which the individual can be motivated to maintain a positive mind frame.

Just for Fun: Did You Know?
In 2006, Rhonda Byrne released a book called ‘The Secret.’ The idea of ‘The Secret’ has been shared amongst some of the most successful and intelligent people in history. This Secret is actually the law of attraction and states that what we think we actually attract into our lives. We transmit a frequency through our thoughts, and as like attracts like, this results in our thoughts becoming things (Byrne, 2006). The Secret attempts to persuade people to think positively in order to draw good things into their lives. Byrne (2006) likens The Secret to a genie lamp, stating that this law can grant our every wish. By following the steps of asking, believing and receiving we can have anything we want, big or small. By focusing our thoughts on what we do want, not what we do not want, we can apparently create our own lives. However throughout this process, one must remain positive and be grateful for what they already have in order for The Secret to be successful (Byrne, 2006). To learn more, see the official The Secret website.

Summary
This chapter focused on the relationship between positive thinking and motivation. It is evident that across an array of situations, both positive thinking and motivation influence one another. Not only is this seen physiologically, but it is also witnessed in relation to coping styles, well-being, learned optimism, positive psychology and religious beliefs. Motivation is able to help individuals achieve their goals of changing how they think, improving their mental, physical and everyday functioning as a result. Positive thinking however, can also motivate the individual to achieve their goals. This is highlighted through a person’s coping mechanisms and by their religious beliefs. In conclusion, this chapter has outlined how positive thinking motivates the individual as well as what motivates an individual to think positively in the first place. {{Hide in print| {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Test Your Knowledge}}

How much have you learnt?

{A mentally healthy person:
 * type=""}

- Accepts themselves and has high self esteem - Attempts to increase their potential - Has a sense of self mastery + All of the above

{What would be an optimist's reaction to a stressful situation?
 * type=""}

+ Everything will work out in the end - Bad things always happen to me - Life never goes the way you want it to - This situation will never be resolved

{Which of these three components make up the six components of well-being?
 * type=""}

+ Self acceptance, personal growth and purpose in life - Environmental mastery, optimistic thinking and happiness - Pessimistic thinking, autonomy and positive relations with others - Personal growth, hardiness and resilience

{Which of the following are therapys used to increase optimism? (2 Answers)
 * type="[]"}

-Optimistic Therapy -Self determination therapy +Cognitive Therapy +Solution Focused Therapy

{Which answer is not a benefit of positive thinking? - Success in the workplace - Improved physical and mental health + Increased levels of depression - Heightened sense of control
 * type""}

}}

Key Terms
Automatic Thoughts: Immediate cognitions that are experienced when an event intially takes place (Seligman, 1998)

Autonomy: When an individual has control over their behaviour and environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

Competence: How capable a person is in a particular environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

Dopamine: A neurotransmitter released in the brain that plays an important roel in the central nervous system (Dunnett, et al., 2005)

Explanatory Style: How an individual attributes external or internal causes to an event (Seligman, 1998)

Extrinsic Motivation: The motivation to achieve a goal at the prospect of receiving an external reward (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

Happiness: A feeling of pleasure and satisfaction (Martin, 2004)

Hardiness:A combination of action patters enabling an individual to turn a stressor into an opportunity of growth (Maddi, 2006)

Intrinsic Motivation: The intrinsic want to improve one's indivdiual capabilities, goals and interests (Reeve, 2009)

Learned Helplessness: Believing that anything you do will not matter and giving up as a result (Seligman, 1998)

Motivation: A combination of directed engergy towards a behaviour which is constant and strong (Reeve, 2009)

Optimist: A person that beleives any negative situation will work out in the end (Seligman, 1998)

Pessimist: An individual that expects the worst possible outcome in any given situation (Seligman, 1998)

Positive Thinking: A thought process whereby someone has positive expectancies about their future (Scheier & Carver, 1993)

Relatedness: A person's want to enage in a warm, reciprocal relationship (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

Resilience: Tha ability to adapt positively when faced with trauma (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007)

Well-being: Is a satisfied state of happiness and flourishing health (Ryff & Schmutte, 1997) {{Hide in print|

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Stress, arousal and coping

Introduction
“Life is full of challenges, stresses and problems to be solved. Emotions exist as solutions to these challenges, stresses and problems” (Reeve, 2005).

Stress is an emotion that can have a positive or negative outcome. It is caused by a stimulus, which results in arousal and possible action. Arousal is another emotion that involves activation and excitation. At high levels of stress and arousal, actions can be inhibited. Thus, it is important that people have strategies to cope with stress and control arousal to ensure maximum performance.

What is Stress?
"Stress is mostly a function of how demanding and controllable the environment is” (Reeve, J.M. 2005). It can also be “defined in terms of specific environmental conditions that produce arousal” (Beck, R.C. 2004) or “demands placed on a person in relation to his or her resources” (Morris, T. 2005). Sometimes people can live in areas that increase stress levels, such as near an airport where noise triggers arousal and increases stress. “Stress is a state manifested by the pattern of symptoms that characterizes the emotional fight-flight reaction” (Beck R.C. 2004). It can be positive, eustress or negative, distress. Eustress is defined as stress that gives one fulfilment and distress is stress that results in pain, sorrow, trouble or suffering. Stress can be related to many emotions and disorders such as anxiety, depression and post traumatic stress disorder. Post traumatic stress disorder is an example of stress that occurs after a traumatic event. Many war veterans suffer post traumatic stress disorder which can involve nightmares about the war and intense distress after something triggers memories of war, such as loud noises.

What causes Stress?
Stress can be caused by any stimulus or event that triggers arousal. The stimulus can be referred to as a stressor. “Stress occurs when the demands of the environment are too great for the organism to cope with” (Beck, R.C. 2004) is just one belief. It can be triggered by an event the person believes is out of their control or by a situation that makes them anxious. Stress can also be a result of a traumatic experience, like being held hostage or trapped in a burning house. Life changes such as moving house, starting a new job, general everyday hassles like environmental load, people crowding someone’s personal space and noise levels can contribute to someone’s level of stress. Some people are more susceptible to stress than others, this is determined by genetics and early life experiences. Some people can inherit chemical imbalances resulting in different responses to stressful situations; also different temperaments are a result of genetic differences that contribute to how someone interacts with their environment and reacts to stressors. Some researchers suggest a stressful situation in early life teaches coping skills, but this would depend on the individual. “For cognitive theorists, human beings experience a rich diversity of emotion because situations can be interpreted so differently” (Reeve, J.M. 2005).

Why is Stress important?
“Emotions (such as stress) call for actions most broadly described as being approach or avoidance” (Beck R.C. 2004). This statement suggests stress can be a driving force to take action either towards getting something done or procrastinating. Beck also suggests “moderate stress, especially in early life, promotes successful coping later” (2004). This is because young children are like sponges, taking in everything they can and have a much higher learning capacity than adults. This statement suggests moderate stressful situations teach children how to cope, without stress coping is not learnt. From this it can be said stress is a necessary part of life and as Friedrich Nietzsche once said “what doesn’t kill us makes us stronger” (Brainy Quote. 2010).

What is Arousal?
Arousal is a “natural ongoing state” (Williams, J.M. 2006) that “represents a variety of processes that govern alertness, wakefulness and activation” (Reeve, J.M. 2005). It is sensory stimulation, mental, behavioural or physiological activation, neural excitation and an energizing function that causes tense muscles, high blood pressure, heart and respiration rate. “Arousal is mostly a function of how stimulating the environment is”(Reeve, J.M. 2005). Arousal can be affected by factors such as fatigue.

What causes Arousal?
Arousal is a constant emotion even as we sleep our body is still functioning. It can be increased by certain stimuli or stressors. Williams suggests that “some degree of uncertainty is necessary to increase arousal” (2006). Sexual arousal is a type of arousal which is both physiological and psychological and different for the male and the female.

Why is Arousal important?
Like stress, arousal is an emotion that results in a response or an action and teaches people how to cope. “Emotion and emotional behaviour provide animals with ingrained and automated ways for coping with the major challenges and threats to their welfare” (Reeve, J.M. 2005). Arousal is important to enable humans to live life responding to our environments and learning appropriate reactions to stimuli.

Definition of Coping
Coping is “anyway that we may voluntarily try to control stress or anxiety in ourselves” (Beck R.C. 2004) through problem focused coping or emotion focused coping. Problem focused coping works on improving the stressful situation, for example removing yourself from an argument with someone to calm down and reduce arousal and stress. On the other hand emotion focused coping seeks to make the person feel better, possibly denying there is a problem, such as going for a run. Lazarus says “coping shapes emotion, as it does psychological stress, by influencing the person-environment relationship and how it is appraised” (Strongman, K.T. 2006).

How do we Cope with Stress?
(Beck R.C. 2004) Monat and Lazarus (1985) presented 3 stress management techniques:
 * 1) Changing the environment and lifestyle
 * 2) Changing personality and perceptions
 * 3) Modifying biological responses

Morris and Summers support the 2nd management technique through their 3 interventions:
 * 1) “Interventions can be applied to change the person’s perception of the demands” (2005).
 * 2) “Interventions that build up the performer’s confidence” (2005).
 * 3) “Interventions that increase coping resources” (2005).

Technique 1 is a part of problem focused coping that was mentioned above and technique 2 and the interventions are a part of the emotion focused coping.

Arousal Management

“Our capacity to attend to environmental cues varies according to our internal state” ( Beck, R.C. 2004). Internal state is referring to our levels of arousal, stress and other emotions. According to Drive theory the increase in arousal should increase performance, suggesting a linear relationship between the two variables (Williams, J.M. 2006). This however is not the case. “Almost any response can be potentially be inhibited at a high enough level of arousal” ( Beck, R.C. 2004). For example when someone has stage fright their arousal is too high causing the performer to freeze, thus inhibiting action or response. It is therefore very important for performers and athletes to acquire “the ability to self-regulate arousal (as it) enhances not only one’s learning and performance of athletic skills but also one’s functioning in many non-athletic situations” (Williams, J.M. 2006). In the figure an inverted U is used to represent the relationship between arousal level and performance. It shows performance is at its greatest level when arousal is moderate, as arousal increases to a high level performance decreases and as arousal decreases to a low level so too does performance. Williams states “weight of the scientific evidence continues to favour the inverted-U hypothesis as the best description for how arousal affects performance” (2006). The inverted U hypothesis however doesn’t support the fact that some people “may become aroused by irrelevant peripheral noise but also more focused on the task” ( Beck, R.C. 2004). For example a student says listening to rock music improves his/her ability to study. It is also suggested by Reeve that the “hypothesis summarises the relationship between arousal and performance/emotion, but stops short of explaining how arousal facilitates or impairs performance/emotion” (2005). It is important to be able to understand this relationship in order to cope with arousal. Learning how to control emotions is the best technique to manage arousal levels.

Coping Methods
 There are many methods for coping but each is not guaranteed to work for every individual, thus the reason for many methods is to enable each person to find the technique that works best for them. Research suggests “fitter individuals have smaller increases in heart rate and blood pressure in response to any particular psychological stressor” (Abernethy et. al. 2005) and “involvement in regular exercise has been shown to reduce existing depression and to onset of depression” (Abernethy et. al. 2005). Therefore exercise can be a useful method of coping for some people. Other people may prefer more psychological techniques such as learning mental skills like emotional control, goal setting, self-confidence, positive self-talk, visualisation/ imagery, relaxation and time management. Relaxation is a widely used technique which can be obtained through different techniques such as Meditation, breathing exercises and progressive relaxation exercises. Coping Skills Test

Conclusion
In the lifetime of a human being obstacles are encountered that create stressful situations. The way people respond to these situations is different for each individual. Stress can increase one’s performance and can in turn teach them how to cope in different situations. At high stress levels performance levels do not increase but can be inhibited. As with stress, increasing arousal at a high level decreases performance quality, eventually inhibiting the action. Arousal is an emotion that is a constant part of a person’s life, even when sleeping. Arousal is alertness, activated by stimuli. A moderate level of arousal is ideal for high performance. Arousal and stress are important emotions for human beings as they push a person to take an action. However, it is very important that people know how to process what is happening in a stressful situation and respond in a positive way whether it is to minimise stress levels through relaxation exercises or to resolve a conflicting situation. It is also important for humans to control arousal levels in order to execute any action to the best of their ability. There are many coping strategies available but it is how the individual copes with and learns from the emotion that is important in the development of their emotional intelligence. {{Hide in print|


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User talk:Prashantsharma~enwikiversity

 Hello Prashantsharma, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Prashantsharma. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Prashantsharma~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:47, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:18, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Prashantsharma~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Neomax

 Hello Neomax, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Neomax


text:
User talk:Ldklotz~enwikiversity

 Hello Ldklotz, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
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 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ldklotz. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ldklotz~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:14, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ldklotz~enwikiversity