text:
User:Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.c/Homework 5

Team member eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.b (Stober) forgot to sign the page when it was originally due in early November. The situation has been rectified. Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.c 19:50, 10 December 2008 (UTC)

Linear Stress-Strain Relations
The expression giving the strain induced by a stress can be rewitten to allow for the deriviation of a second expression relating the stress induced for a given strain.
 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} \varepsilon_{11} \\ \varepsilon_{22} \\ \varepsilon_{33} \\ \varepsilon_{23} \\ \varepsilon_{13} \\ \varepsilon_{12} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{1}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{1}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{1}{E} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{2G} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{2G} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{2G} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \sigma_{11} \\ \sigma_{22} \\ \sigma_{33} \\ \sigma_{23} \\ \sigma_{13} \\ \sigma_{12} \end{bmatrix} $$

Becomes,

 * $$\left\{\varepsilon_{ij} \right\}_{6x1} = \begin{bmatrix}A_{3x3} & 0_{3x3} \\ 0_{3x3} & B_{3x3} \end{bmatrix}\left\{\sigma_{ij} \right\}_{6x1}$$

Where $$A_{3x3} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{1}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} \\ \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{1}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} \\ \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{-\nu}{E} & \frac{1}{E}\end{bmatrix}$$ and $$B_{3x3} = \begin{bmatrix}\frac{1}{2G} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \frac{1}{2G} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{2G}\end{bmatrix}$$

Solving for the stress tensor,

 * $$\left\{\sigma_{ij} \right\}_{6x1} = \begin{bmatrix}A^{-1}_{3x3} & 0_{3x3} \\ 0_{3x3} & B^{-1}_{3x3} \end{bmatrix}\left\{\varepsilon_{ij} \right\}_{6x1}$$

In order to verify this result, a new matrix is defined as

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}_{6x6} = \begin{bmatrix}A_{3x3} & 0_{3x3} \\ 0_{3x3} & B_{3x3} \end{bmatrix}$$ with inverse equal to $$\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}^{-1}_{6x6} = \begin{bmatrix}A^{-1}_{3x3} & 0_{3x3} \\ 0_{3x3} & B^{-1}_{3x3} \end{bmatrix}$$

Where $$A^{-1}_{3x3} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}  \\ \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}  & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}  \\ \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}\end{bmatrix}$$ and $$B^{-1}_{3x3} = \begin{bmatrix}2G & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2G & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 2G\end{bmatrix}$$

Due to the definition of the inverse, it is known that the multiplication of matrix c with its inverse will yield the identity matrix, I.

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}_{6x6}\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}^{-1}_{6x6} = \begin{bmatrix}I\end{bmatrix}_{6x6}$$

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}c\end{bmatrix}^{-1} = \begin{bmatrix}AA^{-1} & 0 \\ 0 & BB^{-1} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}I\end{bmatrix}$$

Now, the stress-strain relation can be found using the inverted matrices, A and B.

 * $$\left\{\sigma_{ij} \right\} = \begin{bmatrix}A^{-1} & 0 \\ 0 & B^{-1} \end{bmatrix}\left\{\varepsilon_{ij} \right\} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & 0 & 0 & 0\\ \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}  & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & 0 & 0 & 0\\ \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{-E\nu}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)} & \frac{E(\nu-1)}{(2\nu^2+\nu-1)}  & 0 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 2G & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2G & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2G \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix}0 \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ \varepsilon_{31} \\ \varepsilon_{12} \end{Bmatrix} \;$$

Equation of Equilibrium Stresses
We now want to look at a non uniform stress field. To accomplish this we must first start with the basics and consider a 1-D case as a model. We will have to consider both a Uniform and Nonuniform case. The uniform case can be seen in Figure 1, while the nonuniform case can be seen in Figure 2. The uniform stress includes a single force acting on the end of a cantilever beam, while the nonuniform case has a varying shear stress acting horizontally across the top face of the beam along with the force on the end of the beam.

In the nonuniform case, the shear stress f(x) changes along the beam, thus f(x) is not a constant.

Bidirectional Bending

The recipe for Bidirectional Bending can be seen in Figure 3. The figure shows nonuniform stresses acting on a nonuniform cylinder. The equations below show the Moments about the y and z axis from $$ \displaystyle \sigma_{xx}$$. The Area over which the following integrals will be integrated are $$ dA = dy dz\;$$.

 * $$ M_y = \int_A z \displaystyle \sigma_{xx} \,dA $$

 * $$ M_z = \int_A y \displaystyle \sigma_{xx} \,dA $$

The next step is to look at the Moment of Inertia Tensors. First it is helpful to look at how the tensors can be transformed into both uniform and indicial notations.

 * $$ I_y = I_{yy} = I_{22}\;$$

 * $$ I_z = I_{zz} = I_{33}\;$$

 * $$ I_{yz} = I_{23}\;$$

Now from Figure 3, the Moment of Inertia Tensors can be determined.

 * $$ I_y = \int_A z^2 \,dA$$

 * $$ I_z = \int_A y^2 \,dA$$

 * $$ I_{yz} = \int_A yz \,dA$$

Now we will examine Hooke's Law:

 * $$\displaystyle \sigma_{xx} = E \epsilon_{xx}$$

Another way of looking of looking at Hooke's Law:

 * $$\displaystyle \sigma_{xx} = M_yy + M_zz$$

 * $$\displaystyle \sigma_{xx} = (\frac{I_y M_z - I_{yz} M_z}{I_y I_z - I_{yz}^2}) y + (\frac{I_z M_z - I_{yz} M_{z}}{I_y I_z - I_{yz}^2}) z$$

Note that the denominator is the determinant of the moment of inertia matrix.

Note that the neutral axis where $$\displaystyle \sigma_{xx} = 0$$. Thus Hooke's Law can be transformed into the following:

 * $$\displaystyle \sigma_{xx} = M_yy + M_zz = 0 $$

 * $$ z = \frac{-M_y}{M_z} y$$

By looking at the simple geometry of Figure 3:

 * $$ tan \displaystyle \beta = \frac{M_y}{M_z}$$

Thus the equation can be simplified:

 * $$ z = (tan\displaystyle \beta)y$$

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!HW Problem - Equations (2.22) and (2.23) in Indicial Form
 * Equation 2.22 can be expressed as
 * Equation 2.22 can be expressed as

 * $$\frac{\partial\tau_{xy}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{yy}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial\tau_{zy}}{\partial z} = 0$$

and can be written in indicial form by replacing the subscripts

 * $$\;x = 1$$
 * $$\;y = 2$$
 * $$\;z = 3$$

And noting that $$\tau_{ij}$$ is really merely $$\sigma_{ij}$$ with a subscripts where $$i \neq j$$ since the first subscript is normal to the facet and the second subscript is the direction of the stress. If the subscript which is normal to the facet is not equal to the subscript which signifies the direction of the stress, then the force must be a shear force. Therefore, the notation using $$\tau$$ can be replaced by only using $$sigma$$. Using indicial form, the following is shown

 * $$\frac{\partial\sigma_{12}}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{22}}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{32}}{\partial x_3} = 0$$

Similarly, for equation 2.23

 * $$\frac{\partial\tau_{xz}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial\tau_{yz}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{zz}}{\partial z} = 0$$

can be reduced to

 * $$\frac{\partial\sigma_{13}}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{23}}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{33}}{\partial x_3} = 0$$

 * }

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!HW Problem - General Form of Equations (2.22) and (2.23) in Indicial Form The indicial forms of equations 2.22 and 2.23 can be expressed in a general form using

 * $$\sum_{i=1}^3 \frac{\partial\sigma_{ij}}{\partial x_i} = 0$$

for
 * $$j =\; 1, 2, 3$$

For equations 2.22 and 2.23, $$j = 2$$ and $$j = 3$$, respectively. When summing them up, the following is obtained

 * $$\sum_{i=1}^3 \frac{\partial\sigma_{i2}}{\partial x_i} = \frac{\partial\sigma_{12}}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{22}}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{32}}{\partial x_3} = 0$$

and

 * $$\sum_{i=1}^3 \frac{\partial\sigma_{i3}}{\partial x_i} = \frac{\partial\sigma_{13}}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{23}}{\partial x_2} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{33}}{\partial x_3} = 0$$

 * }

Equation of Equilibrium
The goal of this section is to prove that the equation below must be equal to zero in order for the body to be in equilibrium. This equation is thus called the equilibrium equation. The equilibrium equation in the x-direction is:

 * $$\frac{\partial \sigma _{xx}}{\partial x}+ \frac{\partial \sigma _{yx}}{\partial y}+\frac{\partial \sigma _{zx}}{\partial z}=0$$

This equation can be expressed in indicial notation with $$x=1\;$$, $$y=2\;$$, and $$z=3\;$$ and compressed as follows:

 * $$\sum_{i=1}^{3}{\frac{\partial \sigma _{ij}}{\partial x_i}}=0$$ for $$j=1, 2, 3\;$$

We can also note that in the case of pure torsion, the normal stress component $${\sigma _{xx}}\;$$ is equal to zero, so the equilibrium equation simplifies to:

 * $$\frac{\partial \sigma _{yx}}{\partial y}+\frac{\partial \sigma _{zx}}{\partial z}=0$$

Before moving into the derivation of the equilibrium equation for the 3-D case, The 1-D case shown in Figure 4 should first be examined. In order for this stress element to be in equilibrium, the sum of the forces must equal zero.

 * $$\sum{F_x}=0=-\sigma (x)A+\sigma (x+dx)A+f(x)dx$$
 * $$0= A \left[ \sigma (x+dx)-\sigma (x)\right]+f(x)dx$$

Now, recall the Taylor Series expansion:

 * $$f(x+dx)=f(x) + \frac{df(x)}{dx}(dx) + \frac{1}{2}\frac{d^2f(x)}{dx^2}(dx)^2 + ...$$

We can replace the term in square brackets with the first order Taylor Series expansion to simplify the equation as follows:

 * $$\frac{d \sigma }{dx}+\frac{f(x)}{A}=0$$

In this equation, $$f(x)\;$$ is in units of force per length, and the term $$\frac{f(x)}{A}$$ is called the applied load. We will now extend this derivation into the three-dimensional case. We will consider a stress element in a nonuniform stress field, without an applied load, and focus only on the stress components in the x-direction to avoid over-complicating the problem. The derivation will yield the same results if we consider the stresses acting in the y- and z-directions. The 3-D problem is depicted in Figure 5. Note that the first subscript in the stress terms defines the direction normal to the plane of the stress, and the second subscript defines the direction of the stress. The origin of the coordinate system is at the location $$(x,y,x)\;$$.

The sum of the forces is expressed as:

 * $$\sum{F_x}=0=dydz\left[-\sigma _{xx}(x,y,z) + \sigma _{xx}(x+dx,y,z)\right] + dxdz\left[-\sigma _{yx}(x,y,z) + \sigma _{yx}(x,y+dy,z) \right] + dxdy\left[-\sigma _{zx}(x,y,z) + \sigma _{zx}(x,y,z+dz) \right]$$

Simplifying the equation using the Taylor Series expansion, as in the 1-D case, yields the following:

 * $$0=(dxdydz)\left[\frac{\partial \sigma _{xx}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial \sigma _{yx}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial \sigma _{zx}}{\partial z}\right]$$

The volume term cancels out, and we are left with the equilibrium equation for stresses in the x-direction for the 3-D problem:

 * $$0=\frac{\partial \sigma _{xx}}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial \sigma _{yx}}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial \sigma _{zx}}{\partial z}$$

MATLAB Airfoil Problem Continued
The MATLAB airfoil problem, continued for HW 5, consisted of two parts. Both parts dealt with analysis of the effects of bidirectional bending on an arbitrary 4-digit NACA airfoil. Part I refers to an idealized case where only the axial effects of the stringers are considered. Part 2 considers the "full-blown" case - the bending effects of the airfoil skin, spar webs at 1/4 and 3/4 chord, and the stringers are considered. Below is a list of given and researched values used during the problem:

 * $$ A_B = 2 x 10^{-4}\;m^{2}\;$$ - Cross sectional area of the stringer at point B
 * $$ A_E = 2 x 10^{-4}\;m^{2}\;$$ - Cross sectional area of the stringer at point E
 * $$ A_F = 1 x 10^{-4}\;m^{2}\;$$ - Cross sectional area of the stringer at point F
 * $$ A_H = 1 x 10^{-4}\;m^{2}\;$$ - Cross sectional area of the stringer at point H
 * $$ t_s = .002\;m\;$$ - Airfoil skin thickness
 * $$ t_w = .003\;m\;$$ - Spar web thickness
 * $$ t_{str} = .005\;m\;$$ - Stringer flange thickness
 * $$ M_y = -1250\;N\cdot m\;$$ - y-direction bending moment (compressive)
 * $$ M_z = 500\;N\cdot m\;$$ - z-direction bending moment (tensile)
 * $$ \sigma_{u} = 1860\;N/m\;$$ - Ultimate tensile stress for steel 300M

Part I: Ideal Case

Figure 6 shows a generic airfoil with spars located at 1/4 and 3/4 chord. The points B, E, H, and F, representing the intersection of the spars with the airfoil contour, are labeled. For the purposes of Part I, these 4 points represent the location of the idealized stringers. The stringer cross-section is not considered, and each stringer is represented as a "point area" during the calculations. Below is the full MATLAB code for this part followed by a sample output run.

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!MATLAB Code Part I - Bending Effects, Only Considering Stringers
 *
 *
 * }

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!MATLAB Code Part I Output >> vqcrew_4str(.5,2,4,15,1000);
 *
 *
 * }

Figuree 7 is the output plot from the MATLAB code for Part I. Several features are notable. First, the solid black circles located at the spar-airfoil intersections represent each stringer. The blue dashed lines represent the airfoil skin and spar webs. The red dash-dotted line running across the airfoil represents the neutral axis, and the black crosshair is the centroid of the stringers. The solid red circle represents the location of maximum normal stress on the airfoil.

A notable result from the output are the ultimate bending moments for the supplied ultimate stress. The calculated moments are of opposite sign to the original given moments. This is clearly explained by the result of the maximum bending stress analysis for the original loading condition. The determined stress was negative, indicating a compressive stress. The provided ultimate stress was given as a tensile stress, and since the neutral axis and thus the point of maximum normal stress do not change for this portion of the problem, the signs on the moments must switch to produce a tensile stress at that point. This also explains why much smaller magnitude moments produce a stress in excess of the ultimate stress by an order of magnitude - the ultimate stress provided is for tensile stresses, not compressive.

Part II: Full-Blown Case

For part II, the entirety of the airfoil was considered, including the cross-section of the stringers. In order to generate this cross-section, the assumption was made that the stringers were manufactured by stamping from a metal sheet of consistent thickness $$t_{str}\;$$. The following equation was used to determine the length of one flange of each stringer:

 * $$L_{brack} = .5*(A_{str}/2)/t_{str}\;$$

The stringers were assumed to be flush with the inner airfoil contour and the spar web wall. One stringer would consist of two "L-shaped" brackets on either side of the spar. Since the airfoil is assumed to have curvature, the brackets will not be identical, and the assumed manufacturing process means the angle between the two flanges will not be 90 degrees.

Figures 8 and 9 shows a generic depiction at both the 1/4 chord spar and the 3/4 chord spar. The diagram of the 1/4 chord spar is more representative of the general stringer shape. The stringers for the 3/4 chord spar are presented differently, however. The result of the above equation for the two stringers at the 3/4 spar was a bracket length of .005 m, which is identical to the provided stringer thickness. If one goes by the geometry provided in Figure 8, this essentially provides a quadrilateral cross-section, which is what is drawn in Figure 9 and also used in the code for Part II, which is provided below. After the code is a sample output run.

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!MATLAB Code Part II - Full-Blown NACA Airfoil
 *
 *
 * }

 * {| class="collapsible collapsed"

!MATLAB Code Part II Output
 *
 *
 * }

Figure 10 depicts the full output plot of the Part II code. The airfoil skin and spar webs were plotted as solid blue lines. The stringer cross-sections are plotted as small black circles, with each portion of the stringer wall represented with 5 points for ease of viewing. Zoomed in plots of the 1/4 spar and 3/4 spar are provided in Figures 11 and 12 respectively. The neutral axis is again plotted as a red dash-dotted line.

There are two centroids plotted on this airfoil; a zoomed in view of them is available in Figure 13. The green crosshair represents the centroid of the stringers when the stringer cross-sections are considered. The blue crosshair is the crosshair calculated in Part I. Also plotted is a red solid circle again representing the location of maximum bending stress on the airfoil, and a green solid circle represents the location of maximum bending stress in a stringer. Comparison and conclusions about these results follows in the next section.

Comparison and Conclusions
Below is a table showing selected data from the output of both cases. The stringer centroids, locations of maximum bending stresses, and neutral axis angle for both cases are more or less identical, which is not surprising given both are based off of the same airfoil with the same input data. The most apparent differences are in the data for ultimate bending moments and maximum normal bending stress. The higher maximum stress at lower supplied moment indicates the full-blown airfoil is slightly less efficient at carrying bending loads than the idealized airfoil. This is probably due primarily to the stringers being much, much better at carrying bending loads than either the spars or the airfoil skin. The only other notable point from the analysis is the stringer which carries the most stress in the full-blown case, which was found to be stringer B. This is not surprising, as this stringer is closest to the position of maximum thickness, which in combination with the positive slope of the neutral axis means it would be the farthest stringer from the neutral axis, and thus experience the highest stress.

 * {| border=1

 * bgcolor="red"|
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" |Ideal Case
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" |Full-Blown Case
 * bgcolor="red"|Stringer centroid (meters,meters)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (0.2083 0.0080)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (0.2088 0.0080)
 * bgcolor="red"|Moment of Inertia Tensor Components (m^4,m^4,m^4)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (6.6875e-007,3.4375e-005,9.3322e-007)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (6.2884e-007,1.4533e-004,4.8673e-006)
 * bgcolor="red"|Neutral Axis Slope (radians)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | 0 .0345
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | 0.0347
 * bgcolor="red"|Maximum normal bending stress (Pascals)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | -8.1995e+007 Pascals
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | -1.1641e+008 Pascals
 * bgcolor="red"|Location of maximum normal bending stress (meters,meters)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (0.1436 0.0467)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (0.1434 0.0478)
 * bgcolor="red"|Ultimate Bending Moments (N-m, N-m)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (28355,-11342)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (20970,-8388)
 * }
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (0.1434 0.0478)
 * bgcolor="red"|Ultimate Bending Moments (N-m, N-m)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (28355,-11342)
 * bgcolor="#99ccff" style="text-align: center;" | (20970,-8388)
 * }
 * }
 * }

Contributing Team Members
Steven Hepsworth Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.f 13:44, 6 November 2008 (UTC) Darin Toscano Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.d 22:52, 6 November 2008 (UTC) Kevin Klauk Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.E 16:55, 7 November 2008 (UTC) Adam Edstrand Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.a 18:12, 7 November 2008 (UTC) John Saxon Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.c 19:59, 7 November 2008 (UTC) Keith Javier Stober Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.b 16:38, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Eas4200c.f08.vqcrew.c/Homework 5


text:
User talk:Eml4500.f08.ramrod.D

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title: User talk:Eml4500.f08.ramrod.D


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Dutch Language

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Dutch Language/Tellen

There's a great similarity between the numbers 1 till 20 in both English and Dutch. But where one in English would say: "twenty one", one would say in Dutch: "one and twenty". Thus be aware of the opposite number system in Dutch when translating a number into English; to avoid that one would translate "vijfenveertig" as: "fifty four", because it should be translated as: "forty five".

The ordinals in Dutch are quite simple. All numbers from 1 till 19, if written out, should end in '-de' except for 'eerste' (first) and 'achtste' (eighth). From 20 all numbers end in '-ste' if they're written out, no exceptions. Ordinals written with cyphers should end with the letter 'e' to indicate it's an ordinal. Thus 21st = 21e, 33rd = 33e, 77th = 77e, etc.

title: Dutch Language/Tellen


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User:Makram~enwikiversity

Hello,

I am writing to ask for help or how to improve my writing? Thanks Makram

title: User:Makram~enwikiversity


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User talk:Makram~enwikiversity

Writing
Hi Makram, welcome to Wikiversity. I hope we can help. Start off by looking at what's available here Writing and tell us what you think! -- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:15, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 00:15, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

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Hello,

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title: User talk:Makram~enwikiversity


text:
Anatomy

This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the Wikiversity School of Medicine as defined by the overall curriculum. This module is the work of the Department of Anatomy.

Lessons

 * /Introduction/
 * Basic anatomy
 * Head and neck
 * Thorax
 * Abdomen
 * Back
 * Upper limb
 * Lower limb
 * Nervous System Anatomy

Additional Reading

 * /Bibliography/

Assessments

 * UCL anatomy

title: Anatomy


text:
Anatomy/Unit 1

UNIT 1

 * 1) ../Planes and orientation nomenclature/
 * 2) Biological organization levels
 * 3) Tissues generalities
 * 4) Organs generalities
 * 5) Systems basic concepts
 * 6) Vertebral column
 * 7) ../Head and neck/

title: Anatomy/Unit 1


text:
Anatomy/Unit 2

UNIT 2
Nervous System
 * 1) Neuroanatomy generalities
 * 2) External and internal configuration of the Central Nervous System
 * 3) Meninges, ventricles, subarachnoid cavity, cerebrospinal fluid circulation, vascularization of nervous system
 * 4) Sensitive organization (ascendant tracts)
 * 5) Motor organization (descendent tracts)
 * 6) Sensorial pathways
 * 7) Autonomous Nervous System organization
 * 8) Vision organ
 * 9) Vestible-choclear organ
 * 10) Auditive, olphatory, gustative pathways
 * 11) Radiology of Nervous System
 * 12) Nervous system alterations

title: Anatomy/Unit 2


text:
User:Sandy~enwikiversity/Week 1 Social Psychology

Definitions

 * Human behaviour understood in a social context (the individual within the group or society)
 * a combination of personal and situational influences
 * How thoughts feelings and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other individuals
 * Implied presence - the environment you are in may effect your behaviour e.g. grave yards make me behave in a calm, quiet, manner (I wouldn't dare step on a grave) with a feeling of respect and reflection
 * Imagined presence - your imagination can create a complete social world e.g. It is likely you'll modify your behaviour if you think you're on camera. I often watch my daughter play out roles with her dolls such as weddings or an imaginary audience when she's a rock star

ABC Triad

 * Affect - emotion, feelings - Social psycology focuses on how we feel about ourselves, others and issues
 * Behaviour - how we act - Social pysychology focuses on all the various behaviours we engage in e.g. relating to others
 * Cognition - social thinking - Social psychology focuses on what people think about themselves, others and their social world

Social Dynamics

 * Person to person relationships e.g. how I relate to my sister
 * Person to group - How single individuals relate to a whole group e.g. how I relate to my rollerblading group as a whole
 * Group to a person - How a group relates to a person e.g. the tutorial group relates to me by respecting me as a member and lets me have a say
 * Intergroup relationships - How the group relates within itself e.g. the roles people paly within a group e.g leader, devils advocate
 * Group to group relationships - How groups relate to each other e.g. sporting teams
 * Group memberships are part of what influences and defines us.

Sociometrics

 * social dynamics
 * My family consists of five members
 * 10 dyads - pairs
 * 6 triads - groups of three
 * 1 quadad - whole group

Sociology V Social Psychology

 * Sociology - the group - how society operates - cultural shifts
 * Psychology - the individual
 * Social psychology (1950s -1960s)- individuals in a social context - in groups
 * Psychology was divided between two camps:
 * Behaviourism - explains behaviour in terms of learning principles such as reward and punishment without refernce to inner states, thoughts or feelings
 * Freudian psyhoanalysis - explains beviour by looking at the unconscious forces; interpretation of individual experiences

Social Perception

 * how we interpret social objects
 * interpretation of social context e.g. understanding body language and judging those on how they look

Social Influence

 * attitudes and behaviour bought about by others - change in behaviour; may be unconscious

Social Interaction

 * interacting with others and changing our social world

Biological psychology - what happens in the brain, nervous system and body Clinical psychology - study of abnormal behaviour Cognitive psychology - study of thought processes e.g. memoryevents people notice Developmental psychology - the study of change throught out life, from birth to death Personality psychology - the self

Origins of Social Psychology
Social Facilitation -Performance on a task is improved if when others are around in most cases (i.e. sport) but not always (i.e. interviews). 1930s to 50s - Gestalt theorists -studied group processes & dynamics: Post world war two - motivated to explain atrocities: 1960s
 * Barely over 100 years old
 * Origins in Europe & North America - late 19th early 20th century
 * Volkerpsychologie - Folk psychology, mid to late 1800s
 * Crowd psychology - Group mind (LeBon, 1895)
 * First social psychology experiment - Trippett (1898) - cycling trial times
 * Allport - attitudes
 * Asch, Sherif & Lewin
 * Allport - authoritarian personality
 * Milgram - obedience (electric shock treatment)
 * Zimbarb - roles (prision experimenet)
 * Festinger - attribution theory, cognitive disonance
 * Tajfel - social identity theory - social identities change over time according to our group membership
 * Moscovici - minority influence

Applications of Social Psychology

 * Business
 * Health
 * Education
 * Law
 * Environment

Scientific Research Method

 * state the problem
 * formulate a hypothesis that is testable
 * design the study and collect the data
 * test the hypothesis against the data
 * communicate the study results

Research Ethics

 * participants must have be informed and consent
 * participants must be protected from any harm and discomfort
 * excessive use of deception must be avoided
 * confidentiality must be maintained
 * participants must be debriefed

Reductionism - looking at behaviour only and not the social context. The levels of explanation are:
 * intrapersonal
 * interpersonal or situational
 * positional
 * idealogical

Positivism - the non-critical acceptance of science and all its methods

Social constructionism - the interpretation of the meaning of behavioural change and events throughout cultural history. Our social world is the product of socially and historically situated practices.

Culture, Nature and the Social Self

 * Psyche – a broad term for the mind. It a psychological combination of the biology we inherited and what we’ve done with that culture. We can assume that the human psyche was designed by nature as a result of natural selection for culture and that culture is in our genes even though cultural differences may not be.

 * Nature – our physical world. It makes us selfish through self-preservation.

 * Natural selection – survival until reproduction passing on genes to future generations. Natural selection chooses which traits disappear and which traits are passed on.

Culture

Culture is the defining trait of what makes us human. It is:

 * An information based system that includes shared ideas and common ways of doing things
 * A collective storehouse of information and knowledge
 * Information held within our brains and communication between us
 * Cultural practices are passed on to our young
 * The world of shared ideas that enables us to interact

Meaningful information is a critical aspect of culture. It allows us to live together in an organised fashion and to satisfy our biological and other needs. Human survival depends more on how we interact with each other than how we deal with the natural world around us. Culture as practice is the practical ways of doing things. Ideas are the mental abstract representations that can be expressed in language. Nature says go (unless there is the disgust response) and culture says no enabling us to display self-control and restraint as well as giving us the ability to consider what is best for society.

Social Animal or Cultural Animal We seek connection to others and prefer to live work and play together. This makes us a social animal. Evolution shaped our psyche to enable us to create and take part in culture. We have the ability to have a division of labor, share our knowledge, help eachother and and resolve conflict in many ways other than through aggression. This makes us a cultural animal. Our brain has evolved to participate in culture and use culture to enable us to develop language, build on our experience from others and have a division of labor so we can exchange goods and services. Social brain theory – the understanding of our brains in part by our development of social complexities and complex culture. Our larger brain is linked to complex social systems (Dunbar).

The Duplex Mind
 * Automatic system - simple operations we perform outside of our consciousness
 * Conscious system - the complex operations we are aware we are doing

../Week 2_The Social Self/


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Cognitive miser

"Users aren’t stupid, they’re unmotivated. In social cognition, the term is cognitive miser."

"To conserve mental resources, we generally tend to favor quick decisions based on learned rules and heuristics."

“... [the security system] must be easy to use and must neither require stress of mind nor the knowledge of a long series of rules...”

title: Cognitive miser


text: Labelling technique

title: Labelling technique


text:
Social psychology (psychology)/Guides/Week 15

Week 15

 * 1) Complete the Week 14 guide.
 * 2) The final lecture this week reviews the previous nine lectures: Social psychology (psychology)/Lectures/Review.
 * 3) Tutorials have finished.


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User:Sandy~enwikiversity/Week 4 Aggression

Definitions of Aggression
What counts as aggressive behaviour is determined by the social codes and conventions around that behaviour. Antisocial behaviour – Behaviour that is social unacceptable or desirable or damages interpersonal relationships

Aggression can be social or antisocial – It is the behaviours associated with the aggression may be antisocial.

Aggression helps social animals to resolve conflict; human culture however restrains aggression and gives us the ability to resolve conflict and problems in non-violent ways.

Types of aggression

 * Hostile – angry impulsive behaviour motivated by the desire to hurt someone
 * Instrumental – premeditated, calculated behaviour motivated by another goal such as revenge to restore justice
 * Passive – harming through withholding behaviour like not passing on an important message
 * Active – harming someone through performing a certain behaviour like spreading rumours

Theories and Factors
Aggression – the fighting instinct animals and humans have directed against their own kind
 * Ethological perspectives – the study of animal behaviour in their natural settings

Evolutionary Perspective
Lorenze – the study of animal behaviours in their simulated or natural habitat A natural history of aggression The evolutionary significance of phylogenesis - how a kind of animal has developed over time What is aggression good for?
 * It has a protective function e.g. defending oneself against a threat of harm (prey)
 * Defending the and protecting the young e.g. magpies swoop to keep a perceived threat away form the nest
 * Over territory - it spaces out animals so resources aren’t depleated in one area leading to starvation (survival of the species)
 * Structuring animal society – establishing leaders and a pecking order
 * Establishing a bond – through the complex interplay of aggressive mating instincts

Instinct Theories of Aggression
According to Freud the tendency for aggression is inborn, instinctive and independent. Sex(Eros) – life giving instinct Aggression (Thanatos) – destructive death instinct|

Learning Theories of aggression
Bandura’s social learning theory suggests aggression is not an innate drive but a learned behaviour learnt the same way as social behaviours through direct experience and watching others.

Observed and copied behaviour is called modelling which can weaken or strengthen aggression depending on the observed reward or punishment associated with the behaviour.

The Bobo doll experiment showed how children copied aggressive behaviour toward an object. Subsequent studies have shown how watching aggressive behaviour can influence people of all ages to behave aggressively towards other people. Although these experiments don’t show aggressive behaviour is only learned they do show that our inhibitions against aggressive behaviour can be overcome if a model is acting aggressively.

Nature and Nurture
Both nature and nurture attribute to aggressive behaviour. Our cultural socialisation and learning can increase or decrease inborn aggressive impulses and behaviours.

Inner causes of aggression

 * Frustration aggression hypothesis – frustration being the blocking or interference of a personal goal often leads to some form of aggression while aggressive behaviour always results from underlying frustration.
 * Relative depravation theory – a sense of having less than others can lead to aggressive behaviour
 * Personality – such as a Type-A personality or the tendency to perceive others actions as hostile
 * Excitation- transfer – arousal coming from a non-aggressive source such as exercise
 * Unpleasant moods – negative moods can cause aggression in the attempt to feel better
 * Anger –may lead to aggressive behaviour if there is a belief it will make us feel better
 * Cognitive theories – Scripts on how to behave in certain circumstances are learnt such as someone pushing you, you may push back

Hostile Cognitive Biases
People with aggressive tendencies have inner biases that make them expect others to react aggressively, see ambiguous acts as aggressive and assume hurtful actions were intentional.
 * Hostile attribution bias – when there is a tendency to perceive ambiguous behaviour as aggressive i.e. an action is perceived to be intentionally hostile
 * Hostile perception bias – perceiving social interactions in general as hostile
 * Hostile expectation bias – the expectation that others will react to hostile situations with aggression

Age and Aggression – aggressive behaviour peeks at age two with 25% of toddler interaction in day-care settings involving physical aggression. This can be attributed to underdeveloped skills in conflict resolution.

Other causes of aggression may include:
 * Hormones – testosterone
 * Genetic make-up – XYY chromosome
 * Gender differences - men tend to have a flight or fight response were as woman tend to befriend the aggressor engage in indirect aggression such as spread rumours

Selfishness and Influence
Aggression can be the means to resolve conflict or a form of social influence. Factors that encourage aggressive behaviour:
 * lack of concern for morality or risk
 * strong desire for the reward
 * the belief that you will be successful

Environmental or Situational Contributors to Aggression
Relative deprivation
 * the feeling you are disadvantaged in relation to other reference groups and there is little or no hope the conditions will improve

Aggressive Cues
 * guns, knives and the colour black can be trigger aggression
 * the mere presence of a weapon can increased aggressive behaviour

Mass Media Exposure to violent media can be associated with increased aggression because:
 * We can become desensitised through frequent exposure
 * Excitation transfer – we ac become aroused
 * Modelling – roles reinforce the behaviour
 * We can acquire new aggressive responses through acquiring new scripts
 * Neoassocionist analysis (Berkowitz) – priming of images can lead to antisocial acts

Unpleasant Environments Things that make us feel uncomfortable can lead to aggression such as:
 * Hot temperatures
 * Loud noises
 * unpleasant odours
 * Crowding

Chemical Influences Can cause aggression such as:
 * Testosterone – high levels
 * Serotonin – low levels
 * Alcohol – reduces inhibitions, self awareness
 * Nutrition – depletion of vitamins, junk food

Self and Culture

 * Norms and values – cultures can promote violence
 * Poor self-control – is a predictor for violent crimes
 * Wounded pride – violent individuals have an inflated sense of their self worth and feel they are better than others
 * Violent individuals – have the trait of narcissism believing they are entitled to preferential treatment. They are willing to exploit others as they have low empathy.

Crowd Behaviour
Crowds give us anonymity and diffuse our responsibility i.e. blending in with the crowd. This deindividuation can lead to anti-social behaviour.

Emergent Norm Theory (Turner)
 * there are no clear norms of behaviour in crowds
 * looking at the behaviour of others within the group can influence how we behave
 * we are more likely to notice the anti-social behaviour within a group

Social Identity Theory
(Reicher)
 * Individuals don’t lose their identity in crowds
 * A new different (social) identity can be taken
 * Crowd behaviour is an example of intergroup behaviour e.g. police versus protesters

Ghosts of Rwanda – Reflections
I found the film a very disturbing and powerful real life example of aggression and prejudice, highlighting the power of propaganda and social influence. The propaganda so highly effective it caused people to turn on their neighbours in such a hostile and aggressive fashion. I remember some of the commentary saying after a person had taken a life for the first time it became very easy.

Knowing very little about the genocide I was astounded that firstly there was denial it was genocide at all due to the legal meaning of the term itself which lead to the lack the required intervention to put a stop to it. Secondly the support that was in place was gradually withdrawn leaving the people to be slaughtered by the 100 000s.

Words can’t describe the impact the images and story of the your girl who hid in the supposedly safe haven of a church among the slaughtered dead bodies for about 44 days before she was found and taken to a safe place had.

It was inspiring to see the efforts of some to try and save those they could but highly disturbing to see only whites being evacuated highlighting prejudice and a higher value being placed on some human life over others depending on which group you belonged to. Fortunately I was able to debrief with a friend who had a good understanding of the events as the exposure to such a profound display of human tragedy has left a lasting imprint that will not be forgotten.

../Week 5 Prejudice & Stereotypes/


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User:Sandy~enwikiversity/Week 5 Prejudice & Stereotypes

Prejudice
A negative attitude, or feeling, towards a person purely because they are a member of a certain group.
 * Discrimination – unequal (positive or negative) treatment bases on group membership e.g. woman in particular roles
 * Stereotypes – beliefs that associate groups with certain traits e.g. indigenous alcoholism
 * Subtypes – categories for people who don’t fit in to a general stereotype e.g. woman in the fire brigade

Categorisation – a natural human tendency to group object

Social Categorisation – sorting people in to groups based on their common characteristics e.g. men.

Cognitive Miser – to think in simple ways e.g. we sort people into categories to predict behaviour

Prejudice and intergroup Relations

 * Outgroup members (them) – belonging to another group
 * Ingroup members – (us) – the group I belong to
 * Out-group homogeneity bias – the assumption that the outgroup members have more in common than ingroups e.g. they all look the same
 * Eyewitnesses are more accurate when identifying people in their own racial group and angry outgroup members are easier to identify than angry ingroup members

Common Prejudices and Targets
Racial prejudice (racism) Gender prejudice (sexism) Overweight anti-fat attitudes begin as early as preschool The overweight stigma is that it is socially unappealing Both men and woman are intolerant of homosexuality in their own gender through perhaps the possible fear of a homosexual making advance on them or they may fear they’ll have a positive response to advances
 * Most prejudices come are the result of external characteristics such as the colour of the skin
 * Gender and race are the most common groups
 * Other common groups are Arabs (since September 11, 2001), overweight people and homosexuals (homophobia)
 * Stigma by association – discrimination towards those associated with the stigmatised person
 * Most people claim they are not prejudice but their behaviour can differ from the attitudes they express

Racism
Prejudice attitudes toward a particular group. It is much more subtle today than in the past. Aversive Racism Holding egalitarian values (everyone is equal) and negative feelings at the same time. Believing in racial equality and equal opportunity while feeling uncomfortable around and trying to avoid minorities where possible.

Discrimination
The unequal treatment of different people purely because of the groups or categories they belong to.

A B C of Intergroup Relationships
People are increasingly aware of what is socially acceptable (social identity theory)
 * Affective (emotional) component – prejudice
 * Behavioural component – discrimination (action taken not giving)
 * Cognitive component – stereotyping (putting people in groups)

Why Prejudice Exists

 * Our tendency to hold stereotypes and prejudices may be inborn. We learn the content of stereotypes through socialisation
 * We seem to automatically know stereotypes and have to consciously work to override them
 * We have ingroup favouritism and give preferential treatment to our own group members
 * Ingroup favouritism still occurs even if the group is randomly selected
 * Rationalisation for oppression – a powerful group retains its power through the use of stereotypes and prejudices
 * Prejudice and self-esteem – it can be self-affirming and if other groups are inferior ours must be superior. We also like to compete.
 * Culture increases the importance of stereotypes and helps us to deal with our social world
 * Stereotypes allow us to take mental shortcuts. “The law of least effort”(Allport)

Us Versus Them: Groups in Competition
Discontinuity Effect
 * Groups are more competitive than individuals and are motivated by greed or fear.
 * Realistic conflict theory – competing for a lack of resources leads to intergroup hostility

Reduce intergroup competitiveness
 * Create subordinate goals where the groups need to solve a problem or work together
 * By making the group member identifiable

Inner Processes
 * Although most stereotypes are negative they can also positive e.g. all Ethiopians are good long distance runners
 * The negative stereotypes last longer and it takes more exceptions to dispel a bad stereotype
 * Stereotypes can be formed on features that aren’t the norm and stand out (salience)
 * Scapegoat theory blames problems on the outgroup which in turn contributes and confirms the negative views
 * Self-serving bias – when things go right we attribute it to ourselves but when things wrong we blame another cause such as others or our environment
 * We behave aggressively to outgroups when things are going tough
 * Conflict and stress bring out stereotypes
 * To confirm our biases we use our existing stereotypes

Overcoming Stereotypes and Reducing Prejudice

 * We need to consciously override our prejudices and stereotypes
 * We have internal (morally wrong) and external (not socially acceptable) motivations to our prejudices and stereotypes
 * If we are accused of prejudice we tend to overcompensate or discriminate in reverse to prove the opposite
 * If we have frequent contact with a person or group this may reduce our prejudice

Impact of Prejudice of Targets
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
 * Our prediction may influence our behaviour which in turn may prove our prediction
 * Some target begin to behave the way they are stereotyped to behave

Self-defeating Prophecy
 * Our prediction may influence our behaviour which in turn may make the prediction not come true

Contact Hypothesis There needs to be equal status The social norms need to favour the equality The contact must be sustained The groups need to cooperate The groups need to be perceived as similar
 * Direct contact reduces prejudice, but:

../Week 10 Relationships/


text:
The Factors that Determine Success in Attitude Change Programs

Abstract: Due to the severe and unrelenting problems associated with tobacco smoking, this essay is an attempt to present the factors that best predict successful attitude change. After an analysis of theory, research and Australia’s current anti-smoking campaign, it is determined that several theories guide the factors that predict attitude change, including, cognitive dissonance theory, fear appeals, the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic-systemic model. In short, counter-attitudinal information, short and long-term fear appeals, effective coping measures, personal relevance, perceived self-involvement, and the utilisation of credible and expert sources, have all been implicated in successful attempts to change attitudes. The amalgamation of these factors is proposed to provide the foundations of a multidimensional model of attitude change, in the hope to assist future attitude change endeavours.

Tobacco smoking is a worldwide problem, with 1.3 billion people currently smoking cigarettes worldwide, and tobacco related illnesses killing one person every six seconds (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2008). Although smoking rates are on a steady decline, tobacco smoking remains a national issue in Australia, with 16.6 percent of Australian persons aged 14 or over smoking on a daily basis (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2008). International authorities describe Australia as a forerunner in tobacco control, facilitating large scale, nationally promoted anti-smoking campaigns since the 1970’s (Chapman, Byrne & Carter, 2003). These campaigns have driven other nations such as America, to attempt to replicate the success of Australian programs and reduce the level of tobacco use worldwide (Chapman et al.). Chang (2006) reports that these campaigns invariably utilise attitude change theories, to promote anti-smoking attitudes among the campaigns’ targeted populations. This essay is an attempt to propose the characteristics that determine the success of attitude change programs, in relation to anti-smoking campaigns. Consequently, this essay will present attitude change research and theories, including Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Fear Appeals, the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Heuristic-Systemic Model. The Australia’s National Tobacco Strategy, 2004-2009, will be utilised as an example.

Due to the alarming prevalence of tobacco use worldwide, a variety of assisted smoking cessation techniques have long been available, including pharmacology, brief intervention counselling, and community-wide programs (Viswesvaran & Schmidt, 1992). However, a meta-analytic comparison of the effectiveness of these smoking cessation methods, indicates that the success of these techniques is relatively poor (Viswesvaran & Schmidt). As a result, government and non-government authorities continue to implement nation-wide anti-smoking campaigns in Australia. In 1997, the Commonwealth government founded the National Tobacco Strategy (NTS) in collaboration with both government and non-government sectors in all Australia’s States and Territories (Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care [CDHAC], 2001). According to the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (MCDS, 2005) Australia’s current tobacco strategy is an attempt to adopt a comprehensive approach to tobacco control, building on international and local successes in slowing the tobacco pandemic. The long-term goal of the campaign is to improve the health of all Australians significantly, by reducing smoking and overall population exposure to tobacco toxins, and to reduce the social costs caused by tobacco (MCDS, 2005). Campaign coordinators and researchers agree that these goals may be achieved in many nations, including Australia, by changing social attitudes to smoking through ‘hard-hitting’ media campaigns (MCDS, 2005).

Research has found anti-smoking campaigns to be effective in changing the attitudes of smokers and non-smokers alike, which is important in both the prevention and cessation of tobacco smoking practices (Gilbert, 2005). According to Eagly and Chaiken (1993) an attitude is a psychological tendency that is formulated by evaluating people, groups, situations, objects, activities and intangible ideas, in terms of their favourable and unfavourable qualities. Prior to the introduction of the current national tobacco strategy, research of Australian attitudes commonly found that Australians display strong favourable attitudes towards tobacco smoking. An early baseline survey of Australian attitudes, found that people report tobacco smoking behaviour as pleasurable, enjoyable, relaxing, and stress and boredom relieving (Shanahan, 2001). Following the introduction of the NTS, researchers reported a significant change in the attitudes regarding tobacco and the smoking behaviours of the Australian public (Commonwealth of Australia, 2004). Since 1997, 88% of respondents surveyed consistently agreed, “every cigarette you smoke is doing damage to your health” (Kinsman, 2005, p. 9). Furthermore, 61% of regular tobacco smokers reported that it was “very likely, or certain” that they would suffer future illness from continued smoking behaviours (Kinsman, p. 10). The demonstrated success of Australia’s NTS in the altering Australian attitudes towards tobacco smoking, suggests that an inquiry into the attitude theories and models utilised throughout the campaign is appropriate.

Cognitive dissonance theory (CDT), developed by Leon Festinger in 1957, posits that discrepancies or inconsistencies in cognitions cause psychological discomfort, which will motivate an individual to attempt to reduce or eliminate the dissonance and achieve consonance (Zimbardo, Ebbesen & Maslach, 1977). Harmon-Jones (2000) asserts that genuine cognitive changes occur as a result of cognitive dissonance. Wood (2000) furthers this point, alleging that attitudes may in fact change, to maintain cognitive consistency. In relation to smoking behaviour, however, Clark, McCann, Rowe and Lazenbatt (2004) report that people who smoke may avoid cognitive dissonance and refuse to accept aversive, negative health information. Conversely, credible research has shown that advertising campaigns that evoke cognitive dissonance in smokers are effective in fostering quit intentions (Biener, McCallum-Keeler & Nyman, 2000). The findings from an experiential intervention study, conducted by Simmons, Webb, and Brandon (2000) found that dissonance was positively correlated with the use of dissonance-reducing strategies, including the intention to quit smoking. Furthermore, recent research findings suggest that negative counter-attitudinal information can indeed change positive attitudes (Rydell, McConnell, Strain, Claypod & Hugenberg, 2007).

The NTS employs the basic tenets of CDT, utilising counter-attitudinal information to promote cognitive dissonance among the Australian public. Consider for example, an Australian smoker exposed to the NTS, which features aversive graphics of black lungs, cancerous growths and other information regarding the negative consequences of tobacco smoking, on television advertisements and cigarette packages. Prior to exposure the person may convey positive cognitions towards smoking, for example, “I enjoy smoking”, “I like the taste of cigarettes”, or “I am a smoker”. The new information, the negative consequences of smoking, is incongruent with the person’s initial cognitions, thus resulting in dissonance. Providing that the assumptions of CDT are correct, the smoker will change his positive attitudes towards smoking in an attempt to reduce cognitive dissonance For example “I don’t smoke”, or the person may retain the advertising slogan “Every cigarette you smoke is doing you damage”. The attitude change successes demonstrated by the NTS and other research studies, suggests that CDT is successful in creating cognitive dissonance and facilitating attitude change, and may be utilised effectively in other attitude change programs.

According to Friedman and Arndt (2005), reminders of mortality can also intensify individuals’ efforts to reduce dissonance. Developed by Greenberg, Pyszcynski and Solomon in 1986, Terror Management Theory (TMC) posits that the awareness of the certainty of death creates high levels of fear (Friedman & Arndt). However, health campaigns typically utilise less extreme fear appeal theories, which generally purport that making campaign recipients afraid will persuade them to discontinue a maladaptive behaviour and reduce dissonance, such as quitting smoking (Gleicher & Petty, 1992). Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), developed in 1975 by Roger, is just one example of the many fear appeal theories offered to date (Wood, 2000). PMT places emphasis on fear inducing individuals’ motivation to protect the self, or to maintain healthy living (Gleicher & Petty). In regards to health campaigns and attitude change, PMT is utilised on the premise that fear arousal, or concern about an issue will lead to attitude change (Gleicher & Petty). Indeed, research suggests that campaign messages that effectively induce fear, whilst also providing adequate means of coping, result in successful attitude change (Wood). However, minority researchers have expressed concerns regarding the use of fear appeal advertising with adolescents.

Early research indicates that attempts to alter smoking attitudes and behaviours, which utilised fear appeals among adolescents, were largely ineffective (Botvin, Epstein & Botvin, 1998). Smith and Stutts (2003) suggest that this may be due to the implication of merely physical threats and long-term health fear appeals in anti-tobacco advertising campaigns. Due to the positive baseline attitudes displayed by adolescents regarding smoking, Wood (2000) asserts that physical threats may not effectively influence adolescents to change their attitudes. A survey of adolescent attitudes toward smoking indicates that regardless of advertising campaigns, young people often continue to underestimate the objective risks associated with smoking (Romer & Jamieson, 2001). Furthermore, adolescents underestimate their own personal risk of smoking, whilst overestimating the ease of quitting smoking (Romer & Jamieson). Smith and Stutts suggest that to overcome these attitudes and subsequent barriers to successful attitude change, anti-tobacco campaigns must emphasise social threats and the short-term cosmetic consequences of smoking, as well as the more universally incorporated long-term health consequences of smoking. Investigating their proposal, Smith and Stutts found that short-term, cosmetic appeals appear to be more effective with male adolescents, whilst long-term health appeals appear to be more effective with female adolescents. Indeed, a recent study also found that long-term fear appeals are more successful with female adolescents (Tangari, Burton, Andrews & Netemeyer, 2007). These findings have important implications for effectively reaching adolescents in anti-tobacco campaigns.

Following the above recommendations, the NTS utilises both short-term and long-term fear appeal techniques, to ensure exposure to all age groups and genders. According to White, Tan, Wakefield and Hill (2003), fear appeals are utilised in the NTS’s advertising, in anticipation that an increase in the perceived severity of health risks associated with smoking will increase individuals’ perceived susceptibility to suffering from those health risks, which will subsequently increase intentions to quit smoking. Negative health risks and long-term health appeals, are heavily implicated in NTS advertising. Both television advertisements and cigarette packages commonly portray adults suffering the negative consequences of their smoking. An example of a disturbing graphic representation of the long-term illness caused by smoking, is the ‘Mouth Cancer’ advertisement. The advertisement depicts a woman visibly suffering from mouth cancer describing her experiences with radiotherapy and chemotherapy (For more information, see, Cancer Institute NSW, 2008b). Research has shown, that this type of graphic advertising, which highlights the long-term suffering caused by tobacco smoking, effectively influences the attitudes of the Australian public (Commonwealth of Australia, 2004).

An example of the short-term, more cosmetic fear appeals utilised in the NTS is the ‘If Smoking was a Friend Campaign’. This campaign portrays a smoker reflecting on his relationship with cigarettes, demonstrating to the audience the controlling nature of addiction. The advertisement ends with the slogan, “If smoking was a friend, you’d want him out of your life” (to view the advertisement, see Cancer Institute NSW, 2008c). Following the research findings regarding the use of fear appeals with adolescents, this advertisement may be more effective with young males. However, the NTS has demonstrated that communicating the negative impacts smoking has on daily life, is an effective message with all age groups and genders (Commonwealth of Australia, 2004). Surveys of the Australian public have found that people identify smoking with negative social and lifestyle factors, such as the high financial and short-term illness costs of smoking behaviours (Shanahan, 2001). The established success of the NTS in changing the attitudes of Australians of all ages, implies that long-term health risk fear appeals, and short-term cosmetic fear appeals are important inclusions in attitude change programs.

To ensure the success of the addition of fear appeals in attitude change campaigns, researchers recommend the portrayal of effective measures of coping to campaign recipients (Gleicher & Petty, 1992). According to research conducted by Wood (2000), recipients are less likely to accept a message when threat levels are high, and self-perceived coping availability is low. Therefore, it is important to provide sufficient coping mechanisms to the recipient throughout the campaign. The NTS provides the Australian public with ‘quit’ information (such as the Quitline) at the conclusion of every television advertisement, and on cigarette packages. Prior to providing quit information, the NTS furthers the recipients quit intentions with the statement, “Quitting is hard, not quitting is harder”. This strong statement in combination with quit information, effectively facilitates attitude change and quit intentions (Commonwealth of Australia, 2004). To further strengthen these achievements, the NTS devised the ‘Quitline Services Campaign’, which is specifically intended to inform the Australian public of the services and support available to assist them to quit smoking. To provide message recipients with effective coping assistance, the various television advertisements provide an insight into the Quitline and the support available (to view the advertisements, see, Cancer Institute NSW, 2008d). Including coping information in future attitude change campaigns, concurrent with the NTS’s success, supports the theory of achieving higher levels of acceptance and attitude change, when perceived threat and coping are both high (Wood).

The NTS’s demonstrated success is also due in part to the utilisation of dualistic process theories in the campaigns development. Although cognitive mechanisms are involved in the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Heuristic-Systematic Model, these theories differ from CDT and other theories, as they do not implicate argument-based processing in achieving attitude change (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Although there are application differences between the two theories, for the purpose of this analysis, a discussion of the common themes will be presented (for a comprehensive comparison of the two theories, see, e.g. Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), developed by Petty and Cacioppo in 1986, and the Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM), developed by Chaiken in 1980, posits two meditational routes to persuasion, the central and peripheral (Axsom, Yates, & Chaiken, 1987). ELM and HSM propose that when an individual’s capacity and motivation are relatively high, the said individual will carefully consider and evaluate the available information, utilising the central or systemic route (Van Overwalle & Siebler, 2005). In contrast, when capacity and motivations are low, an individual will process the information on a more trivial level, utilising only the peripheral or heuristic route. This results in the individual retrieving simple schemas or stored decision rules to evaluate the information being presented (Axsom et al.; Van Overwalle & Siebler).

The ELM and the HSM hypothesise that attitude changes resulting from central or systemic processing will show greater persistence, resistance, and will better predict behaviour (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Evidence for the relevance of the ELM and the HSM in attitude change success has been demonstrated by the NTS and in several recent studies. In an attempt to achieve persistent and resistant attitude change, the NTS utilises the central route of processing, through a variety of media advertising. The use of personal stories, such as the ‘Anthony campaign’ (currently showing on national television), utilise the central route of processing and provide an element of personal relevance. Anthony is shown in hospital, diagnosed with throat and lung cancer, as he communicates his condition and his plans to see his daughter in the near future. The audience is informed that Anthony died ten days following filming, never seeing his daughter (to view the advertisement, see Cancer Institute NSW, 2008a). Personal relevance and involvement is described as a primary factor in both the ELM and the HSM (Ajzen, 2001). Personal relevance and perceived self-involvement have also been associated with increases in attitude strength and greater information processing (Ajzen). Indeed, Park, Levine, Kingsley Westerman, Orfgen and Foregger (2001) regard personal relevance as the key to success in persuasive attempts.

Providing support for the ELM and the HSM, a study conducted by Petty, Brinol and DeMarre (2007) found that during the attitude change process, people engage in a higher level of information processing. The strong negative health messages and arguments presented by the NTS, such as health related statistics and personal information, require a greater level of information processing, which results in the utilisation of the central or systemic route of processing. The success of the NTS and other research studies, have important implications for the ELM and HSM, suggesting that the central or systemic route hypothesis is indeed correct. To ensure widespread campaign exposure, however, the NTS also utilises the peripheral route of processing. According to Axsom et al. (1987), heuristic processing is relatively effortless and the receiver of a message typically evaluates message validity without full consideration of the semantic content. The inclusion of ‘expert’ authorities in NTS’s television advertisements, such credible sources including surgeons and doctors, allows the audience to evaluate the message quickly with a low level of processing. This usually results in the easy retrieval of a stored decision rule, such as “experts can be trusted” (Van Overwalle & Siebler, 2005). The aversive graphic content of smoking related diseases depicted on television and cigarette packages, also allows for peripheral processing. Repeated exposure to the stimulus over time, results in the recipient processing the information quickly, evaluating the content as unpleasant, or disturbing. A negative evaluation of advertising content enhances the campaign’s level of persuasion and credibility, whilst also promoting a sense of urgency among the Australian public (Commonwealth of Australia, 2004). Due to these findings, it is recommended that future endeavours to change attitudes include techniques that utilise both the central and peripheral routes of processing.

Due to high levels of tobacco smoking, and the often positive tobacco smoking attitudes conveyed by Australian people, it is crucial to develop an understanding of the underlying factors that determine the success of attitude change programs. This essay has presented a mere sample of the potential factors that have demonstrated success in theory, research and throughout the administration of Australia’s national tobacco strategy. It is proposed that future attitude change campaigns would benefit from the inclusion of factors guided by cognitive dissonance theory, fear appeals, the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic-systemic model. More specifically, the factors that have demonstrated success in research and the national tobacco strategy include, counter-attitudinal information, facilitating cognitive dissonance, and both short and long-term fear appeals in combination with the conveyance of effective coping measures. The creation of personal relevance and perceived self-involvement, which induces high levels of processing, and utilising credible and expert sources to encourage low levels of information processing, are also important factors to consider in attitude change programs. The factors described in this essay contribute to a multidimensional model of attitude change, demonstrating success in Australia’s National Tobacco Strategy, and providing guidance to authorities attempting large-scale attitude change in the future.

References: Ajzen, I. (2001). Nature and operation of attitudes. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 27-58. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2008). 2007 national drug strategy household survey: State and territory supplement. Canberra: Author. Axsom, D., Yates, S., & Chaiken, S. (1987). Audience response as a heuristic cue in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 30-40. Biener, L., McCallum-Keeler, G., & Hyman, A. L. (2000). Adults’ response to Massachusetts anti-tobacco television advertisements: Impact of viewer and advertisement characteristics. Tobacco Control, 9, 401-407. Botvin, G. J., Epstein, J. A., & Botvin, E. M. (1998). Adolescent cigarette smoking: Prevalence, causes, and intervention approaches. Adolescent Medicine, 9, 299-313. Cancer Institute NSW (2008a). Anthony campaign. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/cancer_inst/campaigns/anthony.html Cancer Institute NSW (2008b). Health warnings campaign: Mouth cancer. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/cancer_inst/ campaigns/healthwarnings2006.html Cancer Institute NSW (2008c). If smoking was a friend campaign. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/cancer_inst/campaigns/ friend.html Cancer Institute NSW (2008d). Quitline services campaign: 13 QUIT. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/cancer_inst/ campaigns/13quit.html Chang, C. (2006). Changing smoking attitudes by strengthening weak antismoking beliefs: Taiwan as an example. Journal of Health Communication, 11, 769-788. Chapman, S., Byrne, F., Carter, S. M. (2003). Australia is one of the darkest markets in the world: The global importance of Australian tobacco control. Tobacco Control, 12, iii1-iii3. Clark, E., McCann, T. V., Rowe, K., & Lazenbatt, A. (2004). Cognitive dissonance and undergraduate nursing students’ knowledge of, and attitudes about, smoking. Journal of Advanced Nursing 46, 586-594. Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care (2001). Review of health warnings on tobacco products in Australia. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/474DA5DAC70608F2CA2571A1001C7DFE/$File/tobacco.pdf Commonwealth of Australia (2004). Australia’s national tobacco campaign: Evaluation report volume three. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from, http://web.archive.org/web/20080726150242/http://health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/88ED1349FD03EB05CA257331000C3A17/$File/tobccamp3-cp.pdf Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Friedman, R. S., & Arndt, J. (2005). Re-exploring the connection between terror management theory and dissonance theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1217-1225. Gilbert, E. (2005). Contextualising the medical risks of cigarette smoking: Australian young women’s perceptions of anti-smoking campaigns. Health, Risk and Society, 7, 227-245. Gleicher, F., & Petty, R. E. (1992). Expectations of reassurance influence the nature of fear-stimulated attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 86-100. Harmon-Jones, E. (2000). Cognitive dissonance and experienced negative affect: Evidence that dissonance increases experienced negative affect even in the absence of aversive consequences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1490-1501. Kinsman, T. (2005). 2004 national tobacco campaign evaluation. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/ Content/A290E7F6AFAA3F1ACA257475001ADBEE/$File/2004report.pdf Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2005). National tobacco strategy, 2004–2009: The strategy. Retrieved October 12, 2008 from http://www.aodgp.gov.au /internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/E955EA2B5D178432CA256FD30017A522/$File/tobccstrat2.pdf Park, H S., Levine, T. R., Kingsley Westerman, C. Y., Orfgen, T., & Foregger, S. (2007). The effects of argument quality and involvement type on attitude formation and attitude change: A test of dual-process and social judgment predictions. Human Communication Research 33, 81-102. Petty, R. E., Brinol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (2007). The meta-cognitive model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement, change and strength. Social Cognition, 25, 657-686. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123-205. Romer, D., & Jamieson, P. (2001). Do adolescents appreciate the risks of smoking? Evidence from a national survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 12-21. Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., Strain, L. M., Claypool, H. M., & Hugenberg, K. (2007). Implicit and explicit attitudes respond differently to increasing amounts of counter-attitudinal information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 867-878. Shanahan, P. (2001). Evaluation of the health warnings and explanatory health messages on tobacco products. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20090908092409/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/474DA5DAC70608F2CA2571A1001C7DFE/$File/warnings.pdf Simmons, V. N., Webb, M. S., & Brandon, T. H. (2004). College-student smoking: An initial test of experiential dissonance-enhancing intervention. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1129-1136. Smith, K. H., & Stutts, M. A. (2003). Effects of short-term cosmetic versus long-term health fear appeals in anti-smoking advertisements on the smoking behaviour of adolescents. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 3, 157-177. Tangari, A. H., Burton, S., Andrews, J. C., & Netemeyer, R. G. (2007). How do anti-tobacco campaign advertising and smoking status affect beliefs and intentions? Some similarities and differences between adults and adolescents. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 26, 60-74. Van Overwalle, F., & Siebler, F. (2005). A connectionist model of attitude formation and change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 231-274. Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1992). A meta-analytic comparison of the effectiveness of smoking cessation methods. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 554-561. White, V., Tan, N., Wakefield, M., & Hill, D. (2003). Do adult focused anti-smoking campaigns have an impact on adolescents? The case of the Australian national tobacco campaign. Tobacco Control, 12, ii23-ii29. Wood, W. (2000). Attitude change: Persuasion and social influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 539-570. World Health Organisation (2008). WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic: The MPower package. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from http://www.who.int/ tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf Zimbardo, P. G., Ebbesen, E. B., & Maslach, C. (1977). Influencing attitudes and changing behaviour: An introduction to method, theory and applications of social control and personal power. (2nd ed.). USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.


text:
Theory of Equations/Functional Equations

Welcome to the Lesson of Functional Equations Part of the School of Olympiads

In mathematics or its applications, a functional equation is an equation expressing a relation between the value of a function (or functions) at a point with its values at other points. Properties of functions can for instance be determined by considering the types of functional equations they satisfy. The term functional equation is usually reserved for equations that are not in a simple sense reducible to algebraic equations, often because two or more known functions are substituted as arguments into another function.

Examples
3(x-2)=x+2 = 3x-6=x+2 = 3x-x-6=2 = 3x-x=2+6 = 2x=8 = 2x÷2=8÷2

Active participants
The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this division, you can list your name here (this can help small divisions grow and the participants communicate better; for large divisions a list of active participants is not needed).


text: Social self

title: Social self


text:
Anatomy/Upper Limb

The upper limb (upper extremity) is commonly referred to as the arm. Anatomically speaking, however, only the structures distal to the shoulder joint and proximal to the elbow are referred to as the arm. The structures distal to the elbow and proximal to the wrist are called the forearm (antebrachium), and the structures distal to the wrist are called the hand.

Outline

 * Upper limb
 * Skeletal structure
 * Scapula
 * Clavicle
 * Humerus
 * Radius
 * Ulna
 * Carpal Bones
 * Metacarpal Bones
 * Phalanges
 * Articulations
 * Muscles
 * Vascular and nerves
 * Radiology from the upper limb

Resources

 * 2.1 ../Bones of the Upper Limb/

title: Anatomy/Upper Limb


text:
Anatomy/Unit 4

Unit IV

 * 1) Abdomen and its content
 * 2) Pelvis and its content
 * 3) Radiology from pelvis and gastric system
 * 4) Lower limb
 * 5) Skeletal structure
 * 6) Articulations
 * 7) Muscles
 * 8) Vessels and nerves
 * 9) Radiology from the lower limb.

title: Anatomy/Unit 4


text:
Anatomy/Bibliography

Most of the bibliography described here is in Spanish, however there should be the corresponding edition in English.

Anatomy

 * Gray for Students . Ed. Elsevier. 2006.
 * Human AnatomyLatarjet Ruiz.L.4ª. Ed. México Editorial Médica Panamericana 2005
 * Moore L.K. Anatomy with clinic orientation 4ª. Ed. Editorial Médica Panamericana 2002
 * Snell Richard Clinic Anatomy 6. ed. México Interamericana 2002.46.
 * García Porrero Human Anatomy.México MacGraw-Hill Interamericana Editores.2005

English: (Editions are constantly updated)
 * Moore K.L. Clinically Oriented Anatomy
 * Chung K.W. BRS Gross Anatomy (Board Review Series)
 * Netter F.H. Atlas of Human Anatomy

Neuroanatomy

 * Kiernan Barr.The human nervous system with anatomical view.MacGraw-Hill 2004
 * Snell R. Clinical Neuroanatomy 5ª. Ed. Editorial Médica Panamericana 2005
 * Carpenter M. Text of Neuroanatomy Baltimore & London William & Wilkins 1994.
 * López Antunez Fuctional Anatomy of the Nervous systemreimpresión México Limusa 1996
 * Nava Segura Clinical Neurology4ª. Ed. México Unión Gráfica 1981.

Complementary
Panamericana 1999,
 * Atlas Rohen Yocoshi Photographic atlas of human anatomy 3ª. Ed. Barcelona. Doyma 2002
 * Sobota Boucher, Fernar Staubesand Atlas of human anatomy 20a. Ed. México Ed. Médica
 * Netter Atlas de Anatomía Humana Elsevierre 2006
 * Fuentes De Lara Corpus General Human anatomy Ed. Trillas 1997

title: Anatomy/Bibliography


text:
User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW6

 * Hey, so once again I find that I've done a poor job with keeping everyone up to date with my progress and what I think still needs to be done, so I apologize for this. Jose and I have just been swamped by the Matlab assignment so it's been hard to also keep track of everything else that needs to be done. The good news is that Jose and I have finished the Matlab code for the Electric Pylon and I think we did a good job with it. The bad news is none of it has been uploaded to the wiki which will no doubt take a while. Also, I have been unable to do the two HW probs I never finished for my day of notes and I have to work tomorrow all day before class. If anyone could help me get these done I would really appreciate it. If not, I might be able to take a look at them during my lunch break or something. See you all tomorrow. --Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ.vitt 05:05, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

Stark 20:59, 20 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Hey there, If there is extra work that needs to be done for this, let me know by tomorrow morning. I won't be able to work on this at all tonight (Thurs 11/20). Anyways give me a call if we are desperate and I'll wake up early tomorrow and do the work.

 * Hey guys i'll try to meet, but I just found out that my next group meeting is at a house in the boondocks of Gainesville. So let me know what time you guys are going to meet. And Ill try to split early to catch up with yall.

 * hey everybody I will be out of town for this weekend, if you need anything please email me. Esmail
 * I got my stuff done too ... Esmail
 * I got bored last night so my notes are done and up. We can start dishing out the matlab stuff as we get it. -Grant

 * Don't worry about it, no one took it all that seriously. It was a terribly busy week for everyone.  Enjoy your weekend and go to the ART FESTIVAL!!!!! Jose Jayma 00:31, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

 * hey everybody, I am SO SORRY for being angry today, its just another bad day and on top of that some more FEA. so I am really sorry I was not mad at any of you, its just the situation. so lets manege and do better on the time for this homework, if anyone needs help on their parts shold ask right away and we all will try to help... FEA4500.f08.FEABBQ.Hamdan 22:29, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW6


text:
User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW7

 * My notes days are done... wow it looks like everything is done now... Andy Koby 19:28, 9 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Nothing to do with this HW, but I thought some of you might find this page interesting. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_in_Iraq --Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ.vitt 19:16, 9 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Someone has posted notes with the heading notes for Nov. 17 (my day) but I'm guessing it's just a mistake in the title since my notes for the 17th aren't very similar to what's been posted. Anyways, whoever put these up let me know what the deal is. Thanks. --Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ.vitt 23:55, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Ok, so according to VQ's latest email, this HW assignment not only takes more time than the others, but will also count for twice as much as the other HW's. Not much has been done for this HW so far, so I thought I should try and get everyone motivated to not leave it to the last minute like we have for some of the HWs. Only one more, lets do it right and get it over with.--Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ.vitt 23:10, 7 December 2008 (UTC)

 * As VQ aside in the last email, the three days in this week and next week should be included in HWK-7 !! I will do Monday Dec. 01, so all we have left is two more days of notes. Thank God for that... Esmail
 * Esmail and I are writing up a table of the pros/cons... you can view our draft on Esmail's HW 7 page The Wiki Factor. -Andy, Esmail

of your team to come up with a consensus on the pros and cons of Mediawiki vs. E-Learning for collaborating (remotely) on the type of HW reports that you have been doing. This section should represent the consensus of the team, and not of an individual. -Grant
 * Email from the V-Qouc : In preparation for HW7 (yes, HW7), I ask you to discuss among members

title: User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW7


text: User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW8

title: User talk:Eml4500.f08.FEABBQ/HW8


text:
User:Perogies

Perogies
My name is Kris.

What I do?
I am currently a Video Productions Director, but ultimately I would like to program.

Interests?
Gnu/Linux

Video Productions, particularly software

Philosophy and such

Perogies

Why Wikiversity?
I have come to wikiversity hoping to learn some programming, particularly python. Open community driven projects like this are intriguing.

title: User:Perogies


text:
User:Eml4500.f08/HW report table/The best of HW4

 Under construction; not final (but close to being stable after a couple of weeks). The intention here is to document the best features in any HW report for the readers (including you); if you see excellent features in any HW report (including your team's) that I may have missed noticing, don't hesitate to let me know. (I don't have time to read all HW reports in detail.) Eml4500.f08 13:46, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

 * classnotes graded over 100%
 * 2-bar truss model problem
 * assembly of element stiffness matrices into global stiffness matrix: connectivity (conn) array and location matrix master (lmm) array
 * method 2 to derive element stiffness matrix $$\displaystyle \mathbf k ^{(e)} _{4 \times 4}$$ in global coordinates: transformation of element dofs $$\displaystyle \mathbf d ^{(e)} _{4 \times 1}$$ in global coordinates $$\displaystyle (x,y)$$ to expanded element dofs $$\displaystyle \tilde{\mathbf d} ^{(e)} _{4 \times 1}$$ in axial and transversal coordinates, square transformation matrix $$\displaystyle \tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)} _{4 \times 4}$$. Best overall explanation for method 2: Team Gravy (with an error on general inversion of block diagonal matrices; should not write the inverse of a matrix as $$\displaystyle \frac{1}{\underline{D}} = \underline{D}^{-1}$$) Team Echo
 * transformation of force components. Best explanation: Team Gravy
 * force-displacement relation for dofs $$\displaystyle \tilde{\mathbf d} ^{(e)} _{4 \times 1}$$, stiffness matrix $$\displaystyle \tilde{\mathbf k} ^{(e)} _{4 \times 4}$$.
 * inversion of $$\displaystyle \tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)} _{4 \times 4}$$, orthogonal matrix: $$\displaystyle {\tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)^{-1}}} = {\tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)^{T}}}$$. Best explanation: Team Echo
 * derivation of $$\displaystyle \mathbf k ^{(e)} _{4 \times 4} = {\tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)^{T}}} \tilde{\mathbf k} ^{(e)} \tilde{\mathbf T} ^{(e)}$$; verification of this expression as HW. Best explanation: Team Echo
 * eigenvectors corresponding to zero eigenvalues as obtained from matlab are not pure, i.e., they may not appear as pure rigid-body modes or mechanisms, but as linear combinations of these pure modes.
 * justification of the assembly process; equilibrium of global node 2; assembly operation $$\displaystyle \mathbf K = \overset{e=nel}{\underset{e=1}{\mathbb A}} \mathbf k^{(e)}$$ where $$\displaystyle {\mathbb A}$$ is the assembly operator. Best explanation: Team Jamama
 * principle of virtual work (PVW), the scalar case.

EAS 4200C, The best of HW4
 * matlab problem graded over 100%
 * 5-bar truss system
 * problem and matlab-code description. Best description: Team Bike. See also the matlab-code description of Team Ramrod
 * plot of underformed and deformed shapes with node numbers and element numbers. See Team Bike
 * 3-bar truss system
 * problem and matlab-code description. Best description: Team Bike. See also the matlab-code description of Team Ramrod
 * plot of underformed and deformed shapes with node numbers and element numbers. See Team Bike
 * detection of mechanisms: Eigenvalue problem, zero eigenvalues, eigenvectors as deformed shapes
 * 2-bar truss system
 * rerun the eigenvalue problem to show 4 zero eigenvalues (if not done in HW3)
 * matlab code description and results
 * plot the eigenvectors as deformed shapes to exhibit 3 rigid body modes and 1 mechanism. Best figures: Team Echo (better plot of 2nd eigenmode; 3rd mode is pure mechanism) Team Delta_6 (plot of 2nd eigenmode may need small magnification factor) Team FEABBQ (plot of 2nd eigenmode may need small magnification factor)
 * rectangular truss system
 * problem description, matlab code description and results. See Team Bike, but this team did not plot the eigenmodes the right way (like deformed shapes). See Team Delta_6 for the 2-bar truss system above.
 * case with mechanism: Plot of underformed and deformed shapes (eigenvector with zero eigenvalue) showing the mechanism
 * case without mechanism: Plot of underformed and deformed shapes (eigenvector with lowest non-zero eigenvalue) showing NO mechanism


text:
Wiki Campus Radio/Active audio stream/11-11

Playlist for material to air around Armistice/Veterans Day
 Important Owing to the complexities that have arisen in confirming the status of works in relation to this, it is unlikely that the planned play-list will air this year, development work can however continue.

(For sensitivity reasons this cannot actually air on  Armistice/Vetrans Day Nov 11th(Tuesday) or Nov 16th (Sunday) but at some time during that period..)

Rotational (General idea)
"*  : " The material presented in the playlist, is an attempt by Wiki Campus Radio, in conjunction with other projects and contributors, to present a collection of material, representative and respectful of content and issues surrounding The Great War of 1914-1918 (and other military conflicts more generally).

Because the issue of The Great War and military conflicts remain a sensitive issue for many (including contributors), care was taken in trying to present an appropriate collection of material respectfully. For this reason, the choice of content presented may appear to have an unintended bias or prove controversial to some.

It should also be noted that some material commonly associated with similar programming by other broadcasters could not be included for copyright reasons. In presenting the material included, WikiCast hopes that the material presented, as well as contextually appropriate.  "

anything provided it remains respectful.
 * A general summary of the relevant History (ideally this should be presented in an NPOV manner) but should not nessacrily downplay

(NB At some point suitable National Anthems may be included... If they can be found)
 * A selection of War Poets - (If needed some semi religous works could be used to intersperse these)
 * Appropriate music of the period.(This can include patriotic tunes if relevant).

To Network
raised in the programming
 * The playout to network, ideally should be a respectful one, encouraging listeners to pause for thought about the issues


text:
Electronics Fundamentals/Lecture Capacitors and Analysis

To do
this page


text:
Electronics Fundamentals/Lecture Inductors and Analysis

definition
An inductor resists a change in current. At rest or 0 current flow, if voltage is applied, the applied voltage on an ideal inductor will not matter only the current available from the supply. The current will ramp up from 0 amps to infinity or whatever limit the power supply has. The point at which the current flow can no longer increase is called saturation and may be at a point defined by the parasitics of a non ideal inductor. If the circuit loop is closed cutting off the power supply, using an ideal inductor, the same current flow will be maintained forever. If the loop is opened the voltage available on the ends of the loop will be whatever is required to maintain the same current flow in the gap or load. The higher the voltage required to maintain the current the quicker the inductor will empty. A real inductor has Rseries or series resistance of the coil's wire therefore applied voltage matters. A dynamic element that involves variation of an electric field produced by voltage In its simples from it is constructed by two parallel metal plates and a dielectric material in between the plates.Parameter L is called inductance of the coil and its unit is henry (H)

Inductor charge at X time with Y voltage
$$Amps = \left ( \frac{Vsource}{Rseries} \right ) * \left ( 1.0 - e ^\left ( -Time * \frac{Rseries}{Inductance} \right ) \right )$$ $$e$$ is inverse natural log or normally $$e^x$$ on most calculators.

Inductor Impedance
2*pi*Frequency*Inductance=Zl

Inductor shape inductance calculations

 * round single layer
 * round multilayer
 * torroidal multilayer
 * single flat wire
 * permiablty related info

To do
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Talk:Electronics Fundamentals/Lecture Capacitors and Analysis

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Talk:Electronics Fundamentals/Lecture Inductors and Analysis

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Talk:Wiki Campus Radio/Active audio stream/11-11

Actual playlist is here : Wiki Campus Radio/Active audio stream/11-11 Please discuss Wiki Campus Radio's programming for Armistice/Vetrans day here :) ShakespeareFan00 15:19, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

 * In Flanders Field will be the song of the day on Wikisource, and we are trying to convert the sheet music into audio, but we need a good pianist to do it. John Vandenberg (chat) 22:56, 1 November 2008 (UTC)

 * What is the status of the sheet music copyright wise? ShakespeareFan00 11:44, 3 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Checked - Sheet Music on Wikisource would still be in copyright in EU it would seem. ShakespeareFan00 14:54, 3 November 2008 (UTC)