text:
User talk:MIRROR

 Hello MIRROR, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 13:35, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:MIRROR


text:
User talk:Jheiv

 Hello Jheiv, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 13:35, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Jheiv


text:
Talk:Iranian Nuclear Crisis Timeline

Is this the source? --JWSchmidt 20:15, 22 December 2007 (UTC)

Yes, however, that timeline is no longer being updated. This includes new material, edits.

title: Talk:Iranian Nuclear Crisis Timeline


text:
User:Watchduck

This is the userpage of Tilman Piesk. Sister projects:

What I do here
Subpages: Logic Habits and terminology

title: User:Watchduck


text:
User:Jheiv

Please see my user page at Wikipedia

title: User:Jheiv


text:
User talk:Watchduck

Hi, do you have an email I could contact you by? --89.242.235.21 (discuss) 00:10, 12 March 2016 (UTC)
 * "Tools: Email this user" should work. Watchduck (quack) 00:59, 12 March 2016 (UTC)

Inversion (discrete mathematics)
Hi Watchduck!

The resource Inversion (discrete mathematics) appears to be ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 17:18, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

Likewise with Full octahedral group? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 17:24, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Inversion (discrete mathematics) is finished indeed. So is Permutation notation. Feel free to put them on the main page. Full octahedral group on the other hand will still need some work. Watchduck (quack) 17:32, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

Full octahedral group
Hi Watchduck!

Full octahedral group has come a long ways and is impressive! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 20:41, 28 May 2017 (UTC)

 * Hi, I have just finished some last adjustments, and consider the article finished for now. I would like to see it announced on the Main Page. Watchduck (quack) 21:03, 31 May 2017 (UTC)

Syllogisms
Hi Watchduck!

Your logic resource Syllogisms appears to be ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 02:07, 21 August 2017 (UTC)

 * Feel free to do so. I added a little introduction. This page is rather esoteric though. Watchduck (quack) 19:44, 21 August 2017 (UTC)

bin2svg (Python version) license
What is the license for the Python version of User:Watchduck/bin2svg? --Damian Yerrick (discuss • contribs) 15:59, 25 October 2017 (UTC)

Like everything here it is CC, but feel free to treat it as MIT. It's also part of a GitHub project, which is MIT. Greetings, Watchduck (quack) 16:35, 25 October 2017 (UTC)

Matrix multiplication examples
Hi Watchduck!

Your mathematics resource Matrix multiplication examples appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 16:13, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Hi! The page is heavily focussed on Walsh matrices, so I would rather suggest to add some other examples. I could still add some permutation stuff. Watchduck (quack) 17:43, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

Formulas in predicate logic
Hi Watchduck!

Your resource Formulas in predicate logic appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 14:47, 20 March 2018 (UTC)

I don't understand your reinsertion of obselete syntax..
https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=3-bit_Walsh_permutation&diff=prev&oldid=2345342

There shouldn't have been any difference between the version using span's vs the one using fonts. ShakespeareFan00 (discuss • contribs) 08:30, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Oh, there should be no difference? Maybe you should actually look at the results of your changes. Go to your version and search for the word "violet", and see if it is violet. It is not. The code you introduced looks like this:

 * Of course that does not work. What you wanted to do is:

 * Your removal of "obsolete syntax" is just as reckless as the "corrections" by and his . See e.g.here and here. --Watchduck (quack) 14:41, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Please fix your code according to current standards so others don't have to try to do it for you. Then it will be done correctly and the problems will be resolved. And no, this isn't our problem to ignore. It is your problem to fix. Just do it. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 17:45, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

speedy delete requests
Hi! On your deletion request for Template:Collapsible chapter START you requested a delete for Template:Collapsible chapter/style.css, but the latter has no speedy deletion request template. Do you wan't me to delete both of them? --Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 21:40, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, please. (How would I add a template to a CSS page?) --Watchduck (quack) 21:41, 21 January 2023 (UTC) IDKGuy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 22:33, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Watchduck


text:
Satisfaction

Satisfaction refers to a state of contentment in which one's perceived needs have been met. Satisfaction can be conceptualised as the congruence between a person and his/her social environment (Tessema, Ready & Yu, 2012). Satisfaction is a construct that has been widely researched in part due to its correlation with a work productivity (Edwards, 2009 ), quality of work life, contentment with one’s job or profession, and general life satisfaction (Zelenski, Murphy, & Jenkins, 2008 ).

title: Satisfaction


text:
Mapudungun language/Lesson 1: Mari mari

 * Note:
 * This lesson uses Mapudungun's Unified Alphabet.

Dialog
(On a street intersection, Rayén and Antonio are talking.)

 * Rayen: Mari mari lamngen!
 * Antonio: Mari mari lamngen!. Kümelkaleymi?.
 * Rayen: May, kümelkalen. Eymi kay?
 * Antonio: Iñche ka kümelkalen. Iñche ñi üy ta Antonio. Iney pingeymi am?
 * Rayen: Iñche ta Rayen pingen. Ngillamean waria mew.
 * Antonio: Amuayu may.
 * Rayen: Feley may.

Translation

 * Rayen: Good morning brother!
 * Antonio: Good morning sister!. How are you?.
 * Rayen: I'm fine. And you?
 * Antonio: I'm fine too. My name is Antonio, what's your name?
 * Rayen: My name is Rayén, I'm going to the town to go shopping.
 * Antonio: Let's go together then.
 * Rayen: All right.

Vocabulary

 * Mari mari lamngen: Manner to salute between women or men with the same age.
 * mari mari: Common way to salute on every time in the day.
 * lamngen: Used as a friendly way to say "brother" or "sister".
 * Kümelkaleymi? (synonym: kümelekaymi): How are you? (Lit.: Are you OK now?)
 * May: Yes
 * Kümelkalen: I'm OK.
 * Eymi kay: And you?
 * eymi: You.
 * kay: Interrogative form to ask about something already said.
 * Iñche: I.
 * Ka: also, and.
 * Iñche ñi üy ta...: My name is...
 * iñche ñi: Me
 * ñi: Me, their
 * üy: Name.
 * ta: Word to emphasize the meaning of a sentence.
 * Iney pingeymi am?: What's your name?
 * iney (syn. iñey): Who?
 * pingeymi: You're named (Lit.: you're called, it is said [to you])
 * am: Interrogative word. It is added at the end of the question to indicate there's interest in the question.

Alternative forms

 * Chumleymi?: How are you?
 * Kümelen: I'm fine.
 * Wedalen: I'm ill.
 * Kütrankülen: I'm sick.
 * Felen felen: So so.

title: Mapudungun language/Lesson 1: Mari mari


text: University student motivation

title: University student motivation


text:
User:Kv~enwikiversity

i am kaVeh...male...one of the Iranian nation that want to have better life,like the others... i am 25,i am mechanical engineer and working on wastewater treatment plant as my work! for now it's enough...

title: User:Kv~enwikiversity


text:
User:Steve Humphry

Welcome.

Steve Humphry

title: User:Steve Humphry


text:
Bash programming/Loops

Loops are an essential part to many programming languages, and this holds true for Bash scripting as well.

For Loop
A simple way to incorporate a loop into a Bash script would look like this:

This loop would take the input from the user and separate it by the IFS (Internal File Separator). It would then the variable i to each value, and execute the commands inside the loop. In this case, the only command inside the loop is the echo command.

By default, the IFS contains the space character and newline character, so if the user were to enter "Jim Joe John", the program would output: Hi there Jim, pleased to meet you. Hi there Joe, pleased to meet you. Hi there John, pleased to meet you.

Another example with a sequence of numbers using improved brace expansion operator, improved in Bash version 3.0 on July 2004 :

While Loop
On systems without support for brace expansion, sequential numbers may be printed out using the  command, but it creates new lines which may be undesirable. A while loop can be used to print a sequence of numbers in a single line:

For more information you can check:
 * Bash Guide for Beginners: The while loop
 * Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide: Chapter 11. Loops and Branches
 * POSIX standard

While Loop reading lines / Iterating on lines
See also how to embed newlines in a string: https://superuser.com/a/284226

title: Bash programming/Loops


text:
Bash programming/Conditional statements

if...elif...else...fi Example
The following will check the arguments passed and print the first argument.

This program demonstrates a few things of note. The first is the construction of the if, elif, else ladder. Note that it is terminated by "fi" (if spelled backwards), a command that serves as an "endif" if you will.

Also, this program demonstrates one way to get the number of parameters or arguments passed to the script when it was called. It is common to pass arguments or parameters to scripts as one often does with programs: ./script.sh arg1 "argument two" arg3 This demonstrates passing three arguments to the script, and the variable $# would be set to 3.

This script also demonstrates one way to test variables, within the [ ] construct and using the -gt (greater than) operator. Other options include -lt (less than), -ne (not equal to), -ge (greater than or equal to), and many others.

Though, the use of the [ ] construct is widely popular, the new  bash construct should be preferred as it is more resilient and less error-prone. The following is the same script as above but with the  construct.

if... check Null variable example
Both examples are equivalente and check for a null variable: Note that there must be a space on each side of the brackets, unless there is a non-word-constituent character like ";")

title: Bash programming/Conditional statements


text:
Bash programming/Variables

Variables in Bash Scripts are untyped and declared on definition. Bash also supports some basic type declaration using the  option, and bash variables are case sensitive.

Example declaration
The following example script defines and uses a variable named  to print "Hello world.": In this example the variable is referenced using brace expansion

As you can see, you do not need to declare the variable or its type before defining it. In fact, neither are supported in Bash Scripting.

To set a variable, you simply write the name of the variable, in this case "HELLO", immediately follow it with an equal sign, and immediately follow that with whatever data you want to set it to. There cannot be a space between the variable name and the equal sign, nor can there be a space after the equal sign. That is, the following variable definitions will not set the variable correctly:

To use a variable, you simply preceed it with a dollar sign ($). For example, to use the variable FILENAME, you could write: which, after substitution, would simply run the command:

Another way to reference variables in Bash Scripts is by using the dollar sign and enclosing it in curly-braces ({}), called brace expansion. The preceeding example would then be:

This is the preferred way of referencing variables in Bash Scripts, since it explicitly defines the limit of the variable name. To see where these braces are crucial, consider the following example where you want to rename a file named "temp.log" to "temp.log2":

This script would not accomplish your goal of renaming the file, since the interpreter would not understand that the second argument to the cp command was intended to be $FILENAME followed by a 2. Instead, it would try to replace it with a variable named $FILENAME2.

Using the preferred method of referencing, this is not a problem. The preceeding example would now be:

Which would indeed accomplish your goal of renaming the file.

Also note that variable names do not have to be upper-case. Although this convention is quite popular, it is not necessary. Also remember that variables are, however, case-sensitive.

You can also read additional information about how to concatenate variables.

Readings

 * | Bash Guide for Beginners - 3.2 Variables
 * Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide: Chapter 4. Introduction to Variables and Parameters

title: Bash programming/Variables


text:
Bash programming/Introduction

Pre-requisites
Environment: Commands:
 * may need some facility with a text editor such as Gedit or vi/vim, emacs, nano, jed, Visual Studio Code, Atom, etc,
 * must have access to an operating system with a *nix terminal to enter commands. On Windows, there are a number of *nix emulators.  At this time  cygwin is popular.
 * echo
 * find
 * more
 * | -- the pipe

Objective
In this lesson, you will learn about:
 * Shebang #!
 * bash shell -- use at the terminal
 * bash function -- compose on the command line
 * bash script -- use the editor to create one
 * User Command -- move from the command line
 * Additional features: Bash command-line completion

When you complete this section you will be able to
 * write, display, and use shell aliases,
 * write, display, and use shell functions,
 * explain the distinction between a sell script and a function

Introduction
Bash is a Unix shell and command language written by Brian Fox for the GNU Project as a free software replacement for the Bourne shell. First released in 1989, it has been distributed widely as it is a default shell on the major Linux distributions and macOS (formerly OS X). In 2016 it was also made available by Microsoft for use in Windows 10 Anniversary Update, though it is not installed by default.

List of online Bash IDE:

 * Ideone
 * paiza.IO
 * repl.it (signed up requested)
 * TutorialsPoint

Shebang: #!
Shebang (#!) is the character sequence consisting of the characters number sign and exclamation mark (#!) at the beginning of a script and make program loader to parses the rest of the line as an interpreter directive. Your bash script will have to start with one of the following examples.

Examples:

Bash Shell
The Bash Shell is the command interface to many Unix operating system implementations. It is available as either an optional or default shell on most Unix variants. If you administer your system, you likely know your command terminal shell. If not, execute this command to see which shell you use:

If you see /bin/bash, then you are a bash shell user.

When writing programs for the Bash Shell, you are creating a file to be executed by the shell. Bash programs are similar in nature to Batch scripts (or BAT files) in Microsoft Windows. Any *nix operating system, and hence the shell program allows for much greater functionality.

Bash programs are only a series of command-line commands. That is, there is nothing that can be done in a bash program that cannot be done by individually entering the commands at the command line. In fact, if you were to take a Bash program (or script), print it out, and re-enter the commands, one by one at the Bash prompt, you would get the exact same result.

Another user command which we'll call the Programmer's Birth Announcement is:

There are two ways to write a shell program, traditionally as a single script, since early shells (/bin/sh) did not have functions, and more recently as a composition of functions, since the function became available in ksh, and is now readily used in bash.

Scripts have the advantage of putting all the commands in a single file, the disadvantage of needing a text editor to begin.

Functions have the advantage of working directly from the command line: you can write and test a function without having to edit a file. The disadvantage of using functions is still the text editor  To re-use a function for alter terminal sessions, you need to save it in a file, and recall it when you log in again. For now, that's a later lesson.

Bash Function
After typing a number of individually entered commands at the command prompt, your usage pattern begins to emerge. A collection of single commands can be collected in a function. Let's start with the single command: Later sessions will deal with the syntax of the function.

Bash Script
A sample bash script can be as simple as this: Alternatively, it can be as complex as script designed to install and configure whole operating systems or troubleshoot problematic servers. A typical Bash Script is used to automate monotonous tasks like scanning directories and deleting automatically backed up files, or setting permissions to new files.

To begin the coding of a Bash Script, use a text editor to start off the file with: This is called the "hash bang" or she bang line and specifies the location of the program to be used to interpret the rest of the contents. In this case, you are specifying location of the Bash shell. Note: this location varies by Unix variant, and depends on the placement of the bash binary. This hash-bang declaration that is present at the top of most Bash Files. It is standard practice to include this line in all your Bash Scripts, though careful reading of the reference shows it's not absolutely necessary. We'll resolve this later.

A User Command
Another example, this time of one of those user commands, which repeated typing at the command line may become tedious, if not error-prone.

This example uses the find command to find your TXT files, first using the alias feature, then as a function.

The Alias
Aliasing allows complex commands to be simplified by using another sequence. Next, you can call the alias to do work -- an alias is used like a constant from other programming languages, except it's used to execute programs.

Read this alias article on Wikipedia. Refer to the Unix paragraph.

Write the commands that need to be performed, such as: Create that alias, then Exercise the examples in the Viewing currently defined aliases section: Do your results agree with your expectations?
 * list all current aliases
 * list in a format to recreate the alias
 * display a single alias

Finally, note the alias article, Alternatives section. That section introduced one other feature of the shell: symbolic links, to be covered later. Importantly, that section compares the two other features of this current section: Shell scripts and Shell functions.

The Function
Again alternatively, the function provides similar functionality: If executing the alias and function in succession, then depending in which was first, you will have to

Refer again to the Wikipedia article on the shell alias, Alternatives. One important facet to take note of is the command built-in. Literally the word command protects a function name or alias, to use the fundamental command, neither an alias nor a function.

At this point, following the examples, you have two working functions. To display them, use this command: Execute that command. Does your output match your expectation?

In the next section of the course, we'll examine the notion of a function body more closely, and learn how to save and recall functions so we think of them as ordinary commands.

Assessment
{ What's the name of the function to display "Hello World!"? - Hello World - hello World! + helloWorld - helloWorld!
 * type=""}

{ The command to long-list files in the current directory is "ls -l" Fill in the blanks to write an alias named "ll" to do just that alias { ll _3 } =" { ls -l _6 } "
 * type="{}" }

Open for later sessions

 * Using a text editor to save files including scripts, functions, and alias
 * what about environment variables
 * complete function syntax
 * the symbolic link
 * the terminal shell (and the need or not for sh-bang)
 * how to reload functions, and access script.

title: Bash programming/Introduction


text:
Bash programming/Interactive input

Taking user input is invaluable when writing an application. Receiving and interpreting a user's input is a simple task in Bash scripting. All that is needed is to declare a variable to read, and use it for something. An easy way to explain this would be to ask for a user's name, and display it. We will use  built-in command : In this simple program, there is the command echo, which prints out a string (the part in quotes), as well as a newline. read gets user input (terminated by a newline), and stores this input into the variable NAME. In the final echo, the ${NAME} is used to tell bash that it's value should be inserted in the string at that location.

title: Bash programming/Interactive input


text:
Bash programming/Subshells

Subshells are one way for a programmer to capture (usually with the intent of processing) the output from a program or script. Commands to be run inside a subshell are enclosed inside single parentheses and preceeded by a dollar sign:

which is an unnecessary complication of simply typing "ls -l". However, this complication would be necessary if the programmer wanted to evaluate the output, or otherwise modify it, rather than simply presenting it to the user.

What is going on here is the script first takes the command or commands inside the subshell, in this case "ls -l" and runs it in it's own instance of the shell. The output (stdout) is not sent to the user, but rather, in this case, stored in the variable DIRCONTENTS.

Later, the programmer chooses to echo DIRCONTENTS but he could have checked it for the presence of a certain substring, ran a search and replace on it then displayed it, or extracted important information and discarded the rest.

In another example, a common way to loop through each file in a directory is to use the following for loop:

To understand what is going on here, one first needs to understand the output of the subshell. This find command returns a newline separated list of file location that match the criteria (in this case, files that are in that directory or it's subdirectories that end with ".sh"). Next, this return is used in the for loop such that for every matching file, the variable FILE is set to it's path, which is used in the body of the for loop. In this case, the path is passed as an argument to cat, which displays the contents of the file.cation that match the criteria (in this case, files that are in that directory or it's subdirectories that end with ".sh"). Next, this return is used in the for loop such that for every matching file, the variable FILE is set to it's path, which is used in the body of the for loop. In this case, the path is passed as an argument to cat, which displays the contents of the file.

title: Bash programming/Subshells


text:
Greek and Roman military traditions

This lesson will introduce you to the military terminology used in ancient Greece and Rome and will contain practical examples and scenarios so that if you happen to land in an ancient Roman or Greek battlefield, you'll know what to do.

The Greek Warfare
The Greeks are known to be the cradle of western civilization - they are the ones that gave us works such as Plato's the Republic, Homer's Odyssey and numerous other works. But they innovated a great deal in the subject of warfare as well, they created the phalanx formation; this was adapted to the Macedonian Phalanx which Alexander the Great used to conquer the previously superior Persian Empire.

The Hoplite Phalanx
The classical phalanx formation is composed of usually 8 ranks of varying numbers of men, some phalanxes were even deeper - up to 50 ranks in a exceptional battle. The phalanx formation was designed the following way: the soldiers were held closely together each holding the shield before him and slightly to the left.The result was a heavy juggernaut, a mass of tightly packed soldiers all marching, totally shielded from their opponents by both their shields and their fellow soldiers shields. Each were equipped with long spears protruding 2-7 yards before them. In addition, not only the first line projected its spears forward, but the next ones as well, each in a slightly bigger angle which made the formation even more formidable. And yet, there were two great disadvantages, first; such a formation could crush anything that it met with straight ahead of it, but not anything that attacked it from the flank, or rear. When they marched on an unstable terrain --everything that isn't a dry flat plain on a sunny day-- the close formation exercised during battle and the cumbersome spears that made it practically impossible to change the direction the formation faced, even if one soldier lost his footing on a stone the whole formation would be out of order and most likely fail. The second disadvantage was that the Greek city-states who used the phalanx loved to fight between themselves, so in almost all cases, the phalanx might be fearsome, but the enemy had the exact same ideas as well as training.

The Roman Warfare
The Romans grew from a village in rural Italy to an Empire, that we owe to as much as we owe the Greek, and perhaps even more. They grew for one reason - their military. And this will be examined in the coming sections. Remember though - the Gauls sacked Rome in 400 BC, and so we have no preliminary sources for anything before that time, which is the Roman kingdom and the early Roman, and even so the earliest "reliable" preliminary source is Livy - who was born in 59 BC. This does not apply to Greeks before 59 BC.

The First (and Second) Legion
Romulus - the founder of Rome, instituted the first legion in the Roman history - a legion composed of exactly 3,301 men - 3,000 infantrymen and 300 cavalry each third from each of the founding tribes of Rome. We are almost totally positive that this estimate is wrong. And yet we know that the first Roman legion had a few of the strategic qualities of the latter legions.

The Pre-Marian Legion
After the sack of Rome by the Gauls, who was preceeded by a distarous defeat of the entire Roman army against the Gauls in Allia, led to the creation of what I will reffer to as the pre-Marian legion, a legion composed of three lines of soldeirs with varying quality and of support troops, called a maniple. The maniple was layed out in a checkerboard formation designed to easily traverse the hilly landscape of Samnia.

The Marian reforms
Gaius Marius was a Roman stateman in the 1st century BC, he was the one who as a consul (there were two consuls, each elected for a term of a year who were the highest authority in Rome)totally changed the face of the Roman army - before him, a soldier had to own alot of property, be of a high class and supply his own weapons and armor, only to qualify for a soldier. Marius allowed the landless masses to become soldeirs, and as this option offered them a permanent pay and a modest living, many joined the army. In addition and accordence to this he eliminated the previous system of a three line battlion, instead he instituted ten cohorts composing each legion with additional nonc-combatent troops, each cohort was composed of six centurias of 80 men each,with each centuria being a unit in itself, with its own supplies and arms. Each centuria was further divided into eight units of contubernia whos only function was that each contubernia slept in the same tent. The first line in the Marian legion was made up of Hastati. Hastati were the youngest men in the army and therefore having the most stamina, which was perfect for a front line. Hastati carried two throwing spears or Hasta, a Gladius, a dagger, and a heavy shield or Scutum. The second line in the Marian legion was made of Principes. Principes were essentially Hastati, except they were the veterans of the battlefield. The third line in the Marian legion consisted of Triarii. Triarii were the closest Rome would come to a Phalanx. Triarii carried long spears used effectively against all enemy units. The fourth line in the Marian legion was made up of Velites. Velites carried many small throwing spears and would rain volleys of spears down on the enemy. The last line of Marius' legion was the cavalry. They were called Equites because of Romulus' original army. In Romulus' time, Equite was the name for the richest people in Rome. Only the rich could afford horses because back then, everyone had to buy their own weapons and armor.

The Qualities of the pre-Marian Roman Legion
The early Roman army was composed entirely of citizens, some without any experience and almost no equipment and some soldiers with the best equipment in Rome and years and years of fighting behind them. The citizens were organized at first into six tribunes who served under the general, usually the king. Most soldiers were javlin-throwers, others were archers. The legionaries were arranged into three lines, with the addition of cavalry companies (equites, coming from the Latin word for horse - equus) and velites - light troops who were used to skirmish the enemy and screen the main line. The three main lines of the legion were (from youngest to most experienced)- Hastati, principes and Triarii. The Hastati would be the first line, advancing after the velites attached to them harassed the enemy and retreated, they would engage the enemy and if they failed to break it they would retreat behind the principes line who would then advance on the enemy, if it failed the triarii would advance forward, as the last resort. Behind the triarii the rorarii and accensi stood, the poorest troops, armed only with slings who were used in a support role mainly and probably either never saw battle or were used as one-time cannon fodder. The most obvious question about this tactic is - "why should the Roman general use his greatst resource - the trairii only as the last resort and not as the first line who would probably crush the enemy?" the answer is that first, the triarii, if used, would face an enemy which no matter how superior it was has by now faced two waves of javlines, two waves of charging sufficiently armed and armoured soldiers, one of which is experienced, and constantly being flanked by units of cavalry, any force would then fall to a vetren force using the best equipment Rome had to offer. Second, if the trairii would always fight as the first line then the other soldeirs would never become expirenced enough to be the next generation of the trairii.

The Post-Marian Legion
The military is now compromised of professional soldiers training everyday and building camps at night.

The infantry classes now have similar equipment with equal quality.

The infantry is trained to fight in formations and not as individual fighters.

The Romans feared the forest as the Romans needed time to deploy into formations and a sudden attack on the Romans could potentiality lead to a massacre.

They were very vulnerable on the march and so relied on allied cavalry to scout the surroundings and spies to get knowledge of the villages in the surroundings on the public opinion of the Romans.

Auxiliary troops archers slingers light infantry cavalry would come from non romans from people that specialised in other traditions than the roman infantry core this made the roman war machine extremely formidable as it had almost no weakness.

The romans knew how to siege cities they had taken greed artillery pieces and improved them.

one key character the romans had was that they didnt care about casualties as long as they won the war.

they didn't send soldiers to die unnecessarily but if 1 soldiers trows 2 pila kills 2 enemy soldiers and remember that the pila went tru shield and armour meaning even veteran soldiers of the enemy would be just as vulnerable as a raw recruit.

the soldier then draws his sword and puts his shield in front of him the gauls attack in the last moment the romans in the first line strikes the enemy with his shield he then raises his shield goes under the shield and stabs the enemy in the stomach he then goes to the side the soldiers in the 2 row steps in the enemy retreats then soldiers in the first row rotates and places themselves in the last line this meant that the enemy would always figth rested soldiers.

The Roman Military Tradition
but it was fun

title: Greek and Roman military traditions


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User:Virtualmv

My professional role

 * I am a Principal Lecturer in Information Technology at the Eastern Institute of Technology, in Hawke's Bay (EIT Hawke's Bay), New Zealand

About me

 * In 2009 completed my PhD (with Massey University, New Zealand)
 * I have an interest in using Web based technology to support my teaching, particularly in the area of personal support - as I believe that we share ourselves in our teaching - not just content, so what we deliver is peculiar to us.

 * To find out more go to my profile.
 * or on wikiEductor

History using WikiVersity
I was reviewing WikiVersity to find good pedagogical examples, as I am researching wikis in blended teaching and learning and came across a page that had been defaced. I grabbed a screen shot for my research, but felt I should remove the offending graffiti, so created an account and fixed the page. I have been aware of WikiVersity after Leigh Blackhall suggested I look at is an an alternative to WikiEducator. I have looked at WikiEducator for a few years and have dipped in from time to time to try and understand what the goals and aims were before thinking of getting involved (plus I needed to complete a PhD). Along side to help understand the technology - and because I wanted to have a web based system to support my teaching - I installed on my Web Host MediaWiki and proceeded to put my personal content online ( http://www.virtualmv.com/wiki )

title: User:Virtualmv


text:
User:SurfUni

please nominate this account so i can use files

title: User:SurfUni


text:
User:JPLeRouzic/Icelandic stream/Page2

 * Icelandic retains many grammatical features of other ancient Germanic languages, and resembles Old Norwegian before much of its fusional inflection was lost.
 * Íslensk halda margir málfræði lögun annarra forn tungumál germönskum og líkist Old Norwegian áður mikið af þess fusional beyging var glataður.
 * Icelandic
 * keep
 * many
 * grammar
 * features
 * other
 * ancient
 * language
 * Germanic
 * and
 * resembling
 * Old
 * Norwegian
 * before
 * much
 * of
 * its
 * fusional
 * morphological
 * was
 * lost

 * Modern Icelandic is still a heavily inflected language with four cases : nominative, accusative , dative and genitive.
 * Nútíma Íslensk er enn þungt inflected tungumál með fjórum tilvikum : nefnifalli, þolfall , þágufall nafnorða og Eignarfall.
 * Modern
 * Icelandic
 * is
 * still
 * heavy
 * inflected
 * language
 * with
 * four
 * cases
 * dates
 * accusative
 * dative
 * name words
 * and
 * Minori
 * Minori

 * Icelandic nouns can have one of three grammatical genders —masculine, feminine or neuter.
 * Íslenska haft einn af þremur málfræði kynja -karlkyn, kvenkyni eða hvorugkyn.
 * Icelandic
 * be
 * one
 * of
 * three
 * grammar
 * Gender
 * -Male
 * feminine
 * or
 * neuter

 * There are two main declension paradigms for each gender: strong and weak nouns, which are furthermore divided in sub-classes of nouns, based primarily on the genitive singular and nominative plural ending of a particular noun.
 * Það eru tveir helstu málin beyging hvers kyns: sterk og veik nafnorð, sem eru ennfremur skipt í staðinn fyrir einhvern-flokka nafnorð, byggt aðallega á Eignarfall eintölu og nefnifalli fleirtölu endar á tilteknu nafnorð.
 * It
 * are
 * two
 * main
 * issues
 * morphological
 * each
 * gender:
 * strong
 * and
 * sick
 * noun

 * as
 * are
 * also
 * divided
 * in
 * instead
 * for
 * sub-categories
 * noun
 * based
 * mainly
 * on
 * Minori
 * singular
 * and
 * dates
 * plural
 * ends
 * on
 * given
 * noun

 * For example, within the masculine nouns that have a strong declension, there is a sub-class (class 1) that declines with an -s (Hests) in the genitive singular and -ar (Hestar) in the nominative plural.
 * Til dæmis innan karlkyns nafnorð sem hafa sterk beyging er undir-flokki (flokkur 1) að hafnar með-s (Hests) í Eignarfall eintölu og-ar (Hestar) í nefnifalli fleirtölu.
 * To
 * example
 * within
 * Male
 * noun
 * as
 * have
 * strong
 * morphological
 * is
 * sub-category
 * (Category
 * 1)
 * to
 * port
 * with-s
 * (Horse)
 * in
 * Minori
 * singular
 * and ar-
 * (Horses)
 * in
 * dates
 * plural

 * However there is another sub-class (class 3) that with strong masculine nouns that always declines with -ar (Hlutar) in the genitive singular and -ir (Hlutir) in the nominative plural.
 * Hins vegar er annað í staðinn fyrir einhvern-flokki (flokkur 3), sem með sterkum karlkyns nafnorð sem alltaf minnkar með-ar (Hlutar) í Eignarfall eintölu og-ir (Hlutir) í nefnifalli fleirtölu.

On the other hand is other in instead for sub-category (Category 3) as with strong Male noun as always decreases with ar- (Parts) in Minori singular and ir- (Shares) in dates plural On the other hand is other in instead for sub-category (Category 3) as with strong Male noun as always decreases with ar- (Parts) in Minori singular and ir- (Shares) in dates plural

 * Additionally, Icelandic permits a quirky subject, which is a phenomenon whereby certain verbs specify that their subjects are to be in a case other than the nominative.
 * Til viðbótar, íslenskt atvinnuleyfi a quirky efni, sem er fyrirbæri þar sem ákveðnar sagnir tilgreina þessi viðfangsefni þeirra eru að vera í máli annarra en nefnifalli.

To additional Icelandic permit a quirky content as is phenomenon where as certain particles specify that challenge their are to be in case other but dates.

 * Nouns, adjectives and pronouns are declined in the four cases, and for number in the singular and plural. TV distinction ("þérun") in modern Icelandic seems on the verge of extinction, yet can still be found, especially in structured official address and traditional phrases.
 * Nafnorð, lýsingarorð og fornöfn eru hafnað í fjórum tilvikum, og tala í eintölu og fleirtölu. TV greinarmun ("þérun") í nútíma íslensku virðist á mörkum útdauða, en enn er hægt að finna, sérstaklega í skipulögðum heimilisfang opinbera og hefðbundin orðasambönd.

Noun adjectives and pronouns are rejected in four cases and number in singular and plural TV distinction ("You") in modern Icelandic seems on threshold extinction but yet is can to find especially in organized Address public and Traditional phrases.

 * Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood , person , number and voice.
 * Sagnir eru samtengd fyrir spenntur, skap , manneskja , tala og rödd.

Particles are conjugated for uptime mood person number and voice

 * There are three voices: active, passive and middle (or medial); but it may be debated whether the middle voice is a voice or simply an independent class of verbs of its own (owing to the fact that every middle-voice verb has an active ancestor but concomitant are sometimes drastic changes in meaning, and the fact that the middle-voice verbs form a conjugation group of their own).
 * Það eru þrjár raddir: virkur, óvirkur og miðja (eða miðlægur), en mega vera það rætt hvort miðja rödd er rödd eða einfaldlega sjálfstætt flokki sagna eigin (vegna þess að hvert mitt-rödd sögn hefur Virka forfaðir en samhliða eru stundum róttækar breytingar á merkingu, og sú staðreynd að á miðjum rödd sagnir mynda samtengingu hópi þeirra eigin).

It are three Voices: active killed and middle (Or centric) but may be it discuss whether middle voice is voice or simply independent Class stories own (Due its to each my-voice verb has Function ancestor but parallel are sometimes radical changes on meaning and the fact to on middle voice particles Pictures interconnection group their own)

 * Examples might be koma ( come ) vs. komast ( get there ), drepa ( kill ) vs. drepast ( perish ignominiously ) and taka ( take ) vs. takast ( manage to ).
 * Dæmi gæti verið koma (kominn) vs komast (að komast þangað), drepa (myrða) vs drepast (farast ignominiously) og taka (taka) vs takast (stjórna til).

Example could been come (Back) vs get (To get there) kill (Murder) vs die (Go ignominiously) and take (Taken) vs deal (Control to)

 * In every case mentioned the meaning has been so altered, that one can hardly see them as the same verb in different voices.
 * Í öllum tilvikum sem nefnd eru í skilningi hefur verið svo breytt, að maður geti varla sjá þær eins og sama sögnin í mismunandi raddir.

In all cases as Committee are in understanding has been so modified to man can hardly see the as and same verb in different Voices

 * They have up to ten tenses, but Icelandic, like English, forms most of these with auxiliary verbs.
 * Þeir hafa allt að tíu tenses, en íslensku, eins og ensku, form af þessir með tengd sögnum.

They have all to ten tenses but Icelandic as and English form of these with connected verbs

 * There are three or four main groups of weak verbs in Icelandic, depending on whether one takes a historical or formalistic view.: -a, -i , and -ur , referring to the endings that these verbs take when conjugated in the first person singular present.
 * Það eru þrír eða fjórir helstu hópar veikt sagnorð í íslensku, allt eftir því hvort einn tekur sögulegu eða formalistic útsýni.:-A,-i, og-ur, sem vísar til endingar sem þessar sagnir taka þegar samtengd í fyrsta manneskjan eintölu staðar.

It are three or four main Groups weak verbs in Icelandic all by the whether one takes historical or formalistic view.:-A,-i and ur- as refers to endings as these particles take when conjugated in first person singular supplied

 * Some Icelandic infinitives end with the -ja suffix, some with á , two with u ( munu , skulu ) one with o ( þvo - wash ) and one with e (the Danish borrowing ske which is probably withdrawing its presence).
 * Sumir íslensku infinitives enda með-ja viðskeyti, sumir með, tvær u (munu, skulu) eitt með o (þvo - þvo) og einn með e (danska lántökur Ske sem er líklega að draga nærveru sinni).

Some Icelandic infinitives end a-ja suffix some with two u (Will shall) one with o (Wash - wash) and one with e (Danish borrowing Ske as is probably to draw presence time)

 * For many verbs that require an object, a reflexive pronoun can be used instead.
 * Fyrir marga sagnir sem krefjast þess að mótmæla, a Afturbeygt fornafn er hægt að nota í staðinn.

For many particles as require its to protest a Reflexive pronoun is can to use in instead

 * The case of the pronoun depends on the case that the verb governs.
 * Um er að ræða fornafn veltur á tilfelli að sögn stjórnar.

About is to discuss pronoun depends on case to verb Board

title: User:JPLeRouzic/Icelandic stream/Page2


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User:JPLeRouzic/Icelandic stream/Page3

 * As for further classification of verbs, Icelandic behaves much like other Germanic languages, with a main division between weak verbs and strong, and the class of strong verbs, few as they may be (ca. 150-200) is divided into six plus reduplicative verbs.
 * Eins og fyrir frekari flokkun sagna, íslensku haga sér líkt og önnur tungumál, með helstu skiptingar milli veikt sagnorð og sterkur, og the tegund af sterkum sögnum, fáir sem þeir kunna að vera (ca. 150-200) er skipt í sex plús reduplicative sagnir.

As and for more taxonomy stories Icelandic pasture a as and other language with main division between weak verbs and strong and the type of strong verbs few as they may to be (Ca 150-200) is divided in six Plus reduplicative particles

 * They still make up some of the most frequently used verbs.
 * Þeir gera enn upp sum oftast notuð sagnir.

They do still up some usually used particles

 * Að vera, to be is the example par excellence, possessing two subjunctives and two imperatives in addition to being made up of different stems. There is also a class of auxiliary verbs, a class called the -ri verbs (4-5 depending who is counting) and then the oddity að valda ( to cause ), called the only totally irregular verb in Icelandic, although each and every form of it is caused by common and regular sound changes.
 * Ad vera, að vera er að jöfnuður td ágæti, sem hlotið hafa tvær subjunctives og tveir imperatives auk þess að vera byggt upp af mismunandi stilkur. There is a tegund af tengd sögnum, flokk sem heitir the-ri sagnir (4-5 eftir hver er að telja) og þá undarlegheit auglýsingar valda (til valda), sem heitir bara algjörlega óreglulega sögnin í íslensku, þó að hvert og eitt form það er vegna almennrar og regluleg hljóð breytingar.

Ad be to be is to par eg excellence as received have two subjunctives and two imperatives plus its to be based up of different stems There is a type of connected verbs category as called the ri- particles (4-5 by which is to count) and then oddity ad cause (To cause) as called just completely irregular verb in Icelandic However, to each and one form it is due general and regular sound changes.

 * The basic word order in Icelandic is subject-verb-object.
 * The undirstöðu orð til í íslensku er með fyrirvara-sögn-hlutnum.

The basic words to in Icelandic is with subject-verb-object

 * However, as words are heavily inflected, the word order is fairly flexible and every combination may occur in poetry, ie SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV and OVS are all allowed for metrical purposes.
 * En þar sem orðin eru mjög inflected orðið til þess er nokkuð sveigjanlegt og sérhver blanda getur komið fram í kveðskap, þ.e. SVO, SOV, VSÓ, þú, OSV og OVS eru leyfðar fyrir metrical tilgangi.

But where as words are very inflected word to its is anything flexible and every mix can come the in poetry ie SO SOV Configuration you OSV and OVS are allowed for m iCal purpose

 * However like German, the conjugated verb in Icelandic usually appears second in the sentence, preceded by the word or phrase being emphasized.
 * Hins vegar eins og þýsku, sem samtengd sögn í íslensku yfirleitt birtist annað í setninguna á undan með orð eða orðasamband sem lagði áherslu á. For example: Til dæmis:

On the other hand as and German as conjugated verb in Icelandic usually appears other in statement on previous with words or phrase as put focus on For example: To For example:

 * Ég veit það ekki. Eg veit Thad ekki. ( I don't know that.) (Ég veit það ekki.)
 * Ekki veit ég það. Ekki veit td Thad. (I do not know that.) (Ég veit það ekki.)
 * Það veit ég ekki. Thad veit eg ekki. ( That I don't know.) (Sem ég veit það ekki.)

 * Ég fór til Bandaríkjanna þegar ég var eins árs. Td fyrir Til Bandaríkjanna þegar td var eins ARS. (I went to the US when I was one year old.) (Ég fór til Bandaríkjanna þegar ég var eins árs gamall.)
 * Til Bandaríkjanna fór ég þegar ég var eins árs. Til Bandaríkjanna fyrir td þegar td var eins ARS. (To the US I went, when I was one year old.) (Til að Bandaríkjunum fór ég, þegar ég var eins árs gamall.)
 * Þegar ég var eins árs fór ég til Bandaríkjanna. Þegar td var eins Ars fyrir td Til Bandaríkjanna. (When I was one year old, I went to the US.) (Þegar ég var eins árs gamall, fór ég til Bandaríkjanna.)

 * In the above examples, the conjugated verbs veit and fór are always the second element in their respective sentences.
 * Í ofangreindum dæmum, samtengdum sagnir veit og fyrir eru alltaf annað frumefni í setningar um þau.

In above examples Combined particles know and for are always other element in sentences of them.

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User:JPLeRouzic/Icelandic stream/Page4

 * Iceland is a European island country located in the North Atlantic Ocean on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
 * íslenska er evrópskt eyja landsins staðsett í Norður-Atlantshafi [6] á Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Icelandic is European island country located in North Atlantic [6] on Mid-Atlantic Ridge

 * It has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km2 (39,769 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding area being home to some two-thirds of the national population.
 * Það búa um 320.000 og heildar flatarmál 103.000 km 2 (39769 sq míl). The höfuðborg og stærsta borg er Reykjavík með nærliggjandi svæði að vera heim í sumar til tveggja þriðju hluta þeirra innlendu einstaklinga.

It create of 320,000 and total area 103,000 km 2 (39,769 sq mi) The capital and largest City is Reykjavík with surrounding area to be home in summer to two third part their national individuals

 * Iceland is volcanically and geologically active on a large scale.
 * Ísland er volcanically og jarðfræðilega virkt á stórum mælikvarða.

Iceland is Volcanic Ally and geologically enabled on large scale

Space consists mainly of plateau as characterized of areas sand mountains and glaciers but many glacial rivers slide to Marine in through lowland
 * The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterised by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Rýmið samanstendur aðallega af hálendi sem einkennist af sviðum sandur, fjöll og jökla, en margir jökulár renna til sjávar í gegnum láglendi.

 * Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite its high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle.
 * Ísland er hlýja í Gulf Stream og hefur tempraða loftslag þrátt breiddar hans hár rétt utan við heimskautsbaug.

Iceland is warm in Gulf Stream and has temperate Climate despite latitude his high right outside with Arctic Circle

 * According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norwegian settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter.
 * Samkvæmt Landnámabók, the landnám Íslands hófst í AD 874 þegar norska höfðingi Ingólfur Arnarson varð fyrsta varanlegt norska landnámsmaðurinn á eyjunni. Aðrir höfðu heimsótt eyjuna fyrr og gisti yfir veturinn.

According Landnámabók the settlement Iceland began in AD 874 when Norwegian chief Ingolf Arnarson was first permanent Norwegian settler on island [8] [9] Other had visited island until and host over winter

 * Over the following centuries, people of Norse and Gaelic origin settled in Iceland, from 1262 to 1918 it was part of the Norwegian, and later the Danish monarchies.
 * Næstu aldirnar fólk af norrænum og Gaelic uppruna settist að á Íslandi, 1262-1918 það var hluti af norska og síðar danska monarchies.

Next ages people of Nordic and Gaelic origin sat to on Iceland 1262-1918 it was part of Norwegian and later Danish monarchies

 * Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fisheries and agriculture.
 * Fram til 20. aldar, íslensku þjóðarinnar treysti að miklu leyti á sjávarútvegi og landbúnaði.

Fram to 20 century Icelandic nation trust to much extent on fisheries and agriculture

 * In 1994, the nation became party to an agreement that established the European Economic Area, thus allowing it to diversify from fishing to economic and financial services.
 * Árið 1994, þjóðin varð aðili að samningi sem stofnaði Evrópska efnahagssvæðisins, svona leyfa henni að auka fjölbreytni frá veiðum til efnahags-og fjármálaþjónustu.

In 1994 nation was Party to Convention as founded European Economic thus allow it to increase Diversity from fishing to Economic and financial services.

 * One hypothesis suggests the first people to have visited Iceland were members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission or hermits, also known as Papar, who came in the 8th century, though no archaeological discoveries support this hypothesis.
 * Ein tilgáta bendir þeim fyrstu sem hafa heimsótt Ísland voru aðilar að Hiberno-Scottish verkefni eða hermits, einnig þekktur sem Papar, sem kom í 8. öld, þó ekki fornleifar uppgötvanir styðja þessa kenningu.

One speculation suggests the first as have visited Iceland were Parties to Hiberno-Scottish project or hermits also known as Papar as was in 8 century However, not archaeological discoveries support this theory

 * The monks are supposed to have left with the arrival of Norsemen, who systematically settled in the period circa AD 870–930.
 * Venusvagn eiga að hafa skilið við komu Norðmenn, sem markvisst byggð á árunum circa AD 870-930.

Monks own to have understand with were Norway as systematically based on Between circa AD 870-930

 * The results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal Skírnir, suggests that the country may have been settled as early as the second half of the 7th century.
 * Niðurstöður nýlegra kolefni deita vinna, sem birt var í tímaritinu Skírnir, bendir til að landið gæti hafa verið leyst eins fljótt og seinni hluta 7. aldar.

Results recent C dating work as published was in Magazine Baptisms suggests to to land could have been resolved as soon and second part 7 century

 * The first known permanent Norse settler was Ingólfur Arnarson, who built his homestead in Reykjavík in the year 874.
 * Fyrsta þekkta varanleg norræn landnámsmaðurinn var Ingólfur Arnarson, sem byggði bæ sinn í Reykjavík árið 874.

 * Ingólfur was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their Irish slaves. Ingólfur var á eftir mörgum öðrum Emigrant landnema mestu víkingar og írskum þrælum sínum.

 * By 930, most arable land had been claimed and the Althing, a legislative and judiciary parliament, was founded as the political hub of the Icelandic Commonwealth . Christianity was adopted circa 999–1000.

 * Eftir 930, flest ræktanlegu hafði landið verið haldið fram og á Alþingi, laga og dómskerfi Alþingi var stofnað sem pólitísk þungamiðja í íslenskum Commonwealth . kristni var samþykkt circa 999-1000.

 * The internal struggles and civil strife of the Sturlung Era led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown.
 * Innri barátta og borgaralegs deilur um Sturlung Era leiddi til undirritunar Gamli sáttmáli árið 1262, sem leiddi Ísland undir norsku krúnunni.

 * Possession of Iceland passed to Denmark-Norway in the late 14th century, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united in the Kalmar Union.
 * Eignar Íslands framhjá til Danmörk-Noreg í lok 14. aldar, þegar ríki í Noregi, Danmörku og Svíþjóð voru sameinuð í Kalmar Union.

 * In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe.
 * Í ensuing aldir, Ísland varð eitt fátækasta ríki í Evrópu.

 * Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society whose subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture.
 * Ófrjór jarðvegur, eldgos, og langrækinn loftslag gert fyrir harða líf í þjóðfélagi þar sem stunda sjálfsþurftarbúskap að reiða nánast eingöngu á landbúnaði.

 * The Black Death swept Iceland in 1402–04 and 1494–95, each time killing about half the population.
 * The Black Death hrífast Íslands 1402-1404 og 1494-1495, í hvert skipti sem drepur um það bil helmingur þjóðarinnar.

 * Around the middle of the 16th century, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects.
 * Um miðja 16. öld, King Christian III Danakonungur tók að leggja Lutheranism á öllum greinum hans.

 * The last Catholic bishop in Iceland was beheaded in 1550, along with two of his sons.
 * Síðustu kaþólsku biskup á Íslandi var höggvinn í 1550, ásamt tveimur sonum sínum.

 * The country subsequently became fully Lutheran.
 * Landið varð síðan að fullu Lutheran.

 * Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.
 * Lutheranism hefur síðan verið ríkjandi trú.

 * In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland, while pirates from England, Spain and Algeria ( Turkish Abductions ) raided its coasts. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around a third of the population.
 * Í 17. og 18. öld, Danmörku sem lagðir eru sterk hömlur á viðskipti á Íslandi á meðan sjóræningjar frá Englandi, Spáni og Alsír ( Tyrkjaránið ) raided strendur þess. Frábært Bólusótt faraldur í 18. aldar drap um þriðjung þjóðarinnar.

 * In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. The years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin ), saw the death of over half of all livestock in the country, with ensuing famine in which around a quarter of the population died.
 * Í 1783 the Laka eldfjall gosið, með hræðileg áhrif. Á árunum eftir gosið, þekktur sem Mist hrakningum (íslenska: Móðuharðindin), sá dauða yfir helmingur allra búfé í landinu, með ensuing hungursneyð þar sem um fjórðungur íbúanna létust.

 * In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel.
 * Í 1814, eftir að Napóleon stríðin, Danmörk-Noregur var brotinn upp í tvö aðskilin ríki um sáttmálann Kiel.

 * Iceland, however, remained a Danish dependency.
 * Íslandi, en enn er danskur ánauðar.

 * Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow worse, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly Manitoba in Canada.
 * Í gegnum 19. öldina, landsins loftslag áframhaldandi að vaxa verri, sem leiðir í massa Berklar til New World, sérstaklega Manitoba í Kanada.

 * About 15,000 out of a total population of 70,000 left. However, a new national consciousness was revived, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from Continental Europe, and an Icelandic independence movement arose under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson.
 * Um 15.000 af alls íbúafjöldi 70.000 vinstri. Hins vegar nýjum meðvitund var endurvakin, innblásið af rómantískri og þjóðernissinnaða hugmyndir frá meginlandi Evrópu, og íslensku sjálfstæði för stóð undir forystu Jón Sigurðsson.

 * In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule, which was expanded in 1904.
 * Árið 1874, Danmörk veitt Íslandi stjórnarskrá og takmarkaða heimastjórn, sem var stækkað árið 1904.

 * The Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918, valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign state in a personal union with the King of Denmark.
 * Lögum um Evrópusambandið, samningi við Danmörku undirritaður 1. desember 1918, gildir fyrir 25 árum, þekkt sem Ísland er fullkomlega fullvalda ríki í eigin stéttarfélagi með konungur Danmerkur.

 * Iceland's status became comparable with that of countries that belong to the Commonwealth Realms —members of the Commonwealth of Nations whose sovereign is the Queen of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
 * Staða Íslands varð sambærilegt við að lönd sem tilheyra Commonwealth Realms -félagsaðiid af the Commonwealth of Nations sem fullvalda er drottning Stóra-Bretlands og Norður-Írland.

 * The Government of Iceland took control of its foreign affairs and established an embassy in Copenhagen.
 * Ríkisstjórn Íslands tók stjórn mála þess erlenda og stofnað sendiráð í Kaupmannahöfn.

 * However, it requested that Denmark implement Icelandic foreign policy toward countries other than Denmark.
 * Hins vegar fram það sem Danir innleiða íslenska utanríkisstefnu gagnvart löndum öðrum en Danmörku.

 * Danish embassies around the world then displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and Kingdom of Iceland.
 * Danska sendiráðum um allan heim sýna þá tvo yfirhafnir af höndum og tveir fánar: skoðanir Konungsríkið Danmörk og Bretland Íslands.

 * During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality.
 * Á World War II, Ísland gekk til liðs við Danmörku árið asserting hlutleysi.

 * After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, Althingi (Parliament) declared that the Icelandic Government should assume the Danish king's duties and take over implementation of foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark at Iceland's request.
 * Eftir að þýska hernámi Danmerkur 9. apríl 1940, Alþingis (Parliament) lýst því yfir að íslensk stjórnvöld ættu að gera ráð fyrir danska konungsins skyldur the og taka yfir framkvæmd utanríkismála og önnur málefni sem áður meðhöndluð með Danmörku í's beiðni Íslands.

 * A month later, British Armed Forces occupied Iceland, violating Icelandic neutrality.
 * Mánuði síðar, British hersins uppteknum Íslands, sem brjóta Íslensk hlutleysi.

 * In 1941, the defence of Iceland was taken over by the United States at the invitation of the Government of Iceland.
 * Árið 1941, varnir Íslands var tekið yfir af United States í boði ríkisstjórnar Íslands.

 * On 31 December 1943, the Act of Union Agreement expired after 25 years.
 * 31. desember 1943 á lögum sambandsins samningi falla úr gildi eftir 25 ár. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with the King of Denmark and establish a republic. [ 24 ] The vote was 97% in favour of ending the union and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution.
 * Byrjun á maí 20, 1944, Íslendingar kusu í fjóra daga Þjóðaratkvæðagreiðsla um hvort að segja upp persónulegar stéttarfélags með konungur Danmerkur og koma á lýðveldi. [24] Atkvæði var 97% í hag að binda enda á sambandið og 95% í hag nýju lýðveldi stjórnarskrá.

 * Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as the first President.
 * Ísland varð formlega lýðveldi þann 17. júní 1944 með Sveinn Björnsson og fyrsta forseta.

 * The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialisation of the fishing industry and the Marshall aid programme. Strax eftir stríðið tímabili var fylgt eftir með verulegum hagvexti , knúin áfram af iðnvæðingu í sjávarútvegi og Marshall aðstoð program.

 * The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars —several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits.
 * The 1970 voru merkt með Cod Wars -nokkrar deilur við Breta yfir í framlengingu Íslandi marka veiðum þess.

 * The economy was greatly diversified and liberalised when Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994.
 * Atvinnulíf var mjög fjölbreytt og frjálsum þegar Ísland gekk í Evrópska efnahagssvæðið árið 1994.

 * Geologically, Iceland is a part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new oceanic crust.
 * Jarðfræðilega er Ísland hluti af Mið-Atlantshafs-hryggnum, hálsinum eftir sem úthafsflugstjórnarsvæðið skorpu dreifist og myndar nýja úthafsflugstjórnarsvæðið skorpu.

 * In addition to this, this part of the mid-ocean ridge is located atop a mantle plume causing Iceland to be subaerial . Í
 * viðbót við þetta, hluti af því um miðjan sjó hryggur er þetta staðsett á topp a möttul Plume valda Íslandi til að subaerial.

 * Iceland marks the boundary between both the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate since it has been created by rifting, and accretion through volcanism, along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge—where the two plates meet.
 * Ísland markar landamærin á milli bæði Eurasian Plate og Norður-Ameríku Plate síðan það hefur verið búið til með því að rifting og accretion gegnum eldvirkni, meðfram Mid-Atlantic Ridge-sem tveir diskar að hittast. [29]

 * Many fjords punctuate its 4,970 km-long coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated.
 * Margir firðir punctuate 4.970 þess km löng strandlengja, sem einnig er hvar byggðir eru staðsett.

 * The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, are a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand and mountains.
 * Eyjan er innri The, the Highlands Íslands eru með kvef og uninhabitable blöndu af sandi og fjöllum.

 * The major towns are the capital of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur , Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær , Reykjanesbær , where the international airport is located, and Akureyri , in northern Iceland.
 * Helstu borgir eru höfuðborg Reykjavík, ásamt borgum þeirra Outlying af Kópavogi , Hafnarfirði og Garðabæ , Reykjanesbæ , þar sem alþjóðleg flugvöllurinn er staðsettur, og Akureyri , í norðurhluta landsins.

 * The island of Grímsey just south of the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park , and Þingvellir National Park.
 * Eyjuna Grímsey rétt suður af heimskautsbaug eru nyrsti búsetu á Íslandi. Ísland hefur þrjá þjóðgarða: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park , og Þingvellir National Park.

 * Dettifoss, located in northeast Iceland.
 * Dettifoss, sem er staðsett í norðausturhluta landsins.

 * It is the largest waterfall in Europe in terms of volume discharge, with an average water flow of 200 m 3 /second.
 * Það er stærsti foss í Evrópu hvað varðar losun bindi, að meðaltali vatn renna af 200 m 3 á sekúndu.

 * There are also many geysers in Iceland, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, as well as the famous Strokkur , which erupts every 5–10 minutes.
 * Það eru einnig margir hverir á Íslandi, ma Geysir, þaðan sem enska orðið er dregið, eins og heilbrigður eins og the frægur Strokkur , sem gýs á hverjum 5-10 mínútur.

 * After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000.
 * Eftir stig af óvirkni, Geysi hóf erupting aftur eftir nokkrar jarðskjálfta árið 2000.

 * With the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity , most residents have inexpensive hot water and home heat.
 * Með víðtækri Upplýsingar um jarðhita og nýtingu margra ám og fossum fyrir hydroelectricity, íbúar hafa flest ódýrt heitt vatn og heimili hita.

 * Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland.
 * Surtsey, ein yngsta eyja í heimi, er hluti af Íslandi.
 * Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968.

 * Few plants and animals have migrated to the island or evolved locally since the last ice age, 10,000 years ago.
 * Fáar plöntur og dýr hafa flytja til eyja eða þróast á staðnum frá síðustu ísaldar, 10.000 árum síðan.

 * The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic Fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea.
 * Eina innfæddur landið spendýr þegar menn komum var Refur, sem kom til eyjarinnar í lok ísaldar, ganga yfir frosnum sjó.

 * There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island. Það eru engin innfæddur skriðdýr eða amphibians á eyjunni.
 * An Icelandic sheep An íslensku sauðfé

 * The territory of Iceland belongs to the ecoregion of Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra . Approximately three-quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland which is regularly grazed by livestock.
 * Landsvæði Íslands tilheyrir vistkerfis Íslands Boreal skógur birki og Freðmýri . Um þrír fjórðu af eynni eru hrjóstrugt gróðurs; planta líf samanstendur aðallega af graslendi sem er reglulega beitt við áhöfn.

 * The most common tree native to Iceland is the Northern Birch ( Betula pubescens ), which formerly formed forest over much of Iceland along with Aspen ( Populus tremula ), Rowan ( Sorbus aucuparia ) and Common Juniper ( Juniperus communis ) and other smaller trees.
 * Algengustu tré innfæddur maður til Íslands er Northern Birki ( Betula pubescens ), sem áður myndaði skógur yfir miklu af Íslandi ásamt Aspen ( Populus tremula ), Rowan ( Sorbus aucuparia ) og Common Juniper ( Juniperus communis ) og annarra smærri tré.

 * Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity.
 * Varanleg manna byggð raskast stórlega á einstök vistkerfi þunnt, eldgos jarðvegi og takmarkaða tegunda fjölbreytileika.

 * The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion, greatly reducing the ability of birches to grow back.
 * Skógum voru mjög hagnýtt í aldanna rás fyrir viðinn og timbri. deforestation valdið tjóni á mikilvægum jarðvegi vegna rof, stórlega úr getu birches að vaxa aftur.
 * Today, only a few small birch stands exist in isolated reserves.
 * Í dag eru aðeins fáeinir lítill stendur birki í einangruðum áskilur.

 * The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but does not compare to the original forests.
 * Gróðursetningu nýrra skóga hefur fjölgað trén, en ekki að bera saman við upphaflegu skóga.

 * The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle , chicken , goat , the sturdy Icelandic horse , and the Icelandic sheepdog.
 * Dýrin á Íslandi eru meðal annars íslensku sauðfé, nautgripum , kjúklingur , geitum , the traustur íslenska hestinum , og Íslenskur fjárhundur.

 * Many varieties of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a main contributor to Iceland's economy, accounting for more than half of the country's total exports.
 * Margir fjölbreytni af fiski lifandi í sjónum vötn í kringum Ísland, og sjávarútvegur er helsta framlag til þess hagkerfi landsins, gert grein fyrir meira en helmingur þess alls útflutnings um landið.

 * Wild mammals include the Arctic Fox, mink , mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer . Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling on icebergs from Greenland. Wild spendýra fela í sér the Arctic Fox , mink , mýs, rottur, kanínur og hreindýr . Ísbirnir stundum heimsækja eyjuna, ferðast á ísjaka frá Grænlandi.

 * Birds, especially seabirds, are a very important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas , and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.
 * Í júní 2008, tveimur ísbirnir koma í sama mánuði. Fuglar, einkum sjófuglar, eru mjög mikilvægur hluti af dýralífi í landinu. Lundar, skuas og kittiwakes hreiður á klettum landhelgi þess.

 * Commercial whaling is practised intermittently. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.
 * Auglýsing hvalveiðar eru stundaðar með hléum ásamt vísindalegri hvala hunts. Hvalaskoðun er orðin mikilvægur hluti af er efnahagslífið á Íslandi frá árinu 1997.

 * Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, counties, and municipalities.
 * Íslandi er skipt í svæði, kjördæmi, sýslur og sveitarfélög.

 * Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:
 * Það eru átta svæðum sem eru fyrst og fremst notaður í tölfræðilegum tilgangi, að dómi umdæmi lögsögu einnig nota eldri útgáfu af þessari skiptingu. [6] Fram 2003, kjördæmi fyrir þingkosningar voru þau sömu og á svæðunum, en með breytingu á stjórnarskrárinnar, voru þeir breytt í núverandi sex kjördæmi:

 * Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions); Reykjavík North og Reykjavík Suður (borg svæði);
 * Southwest (four geographically separate suburban areas around Reykjavík); Southwest (fjórar landfræðilega aðskilið úthverfum svæði í kringum Reykjavík);
 * Northwest and Northeast (north half of Iceland, split); and, Northwest og Norðaustur (norður hluta landsins, hættu), og,
 * South (south half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs). Suður (suður hluta Íslands, að undanskildum Reykjavíkur og úthverfum).

 * Iceland's 23 counties are, for the most part, historical divisions.
 * 23 sýslum landsins eru að mestu leyti sögulegt svið.

 * Currently, Iceland is split up among 26 magistrates ( sýslumenn, singular sýslumaður ) who represent government in various capacities.
 * Eins og er, Ísland er skipt upp á meðal 26 magistrates (sýslumenn, eintölu sýslumaður ) sem koma fram fyrir hönd ríkisstjórnarinnar í ýmsum færni.

 * Among their duties are tax collection, administering bankruptcy declarations, and performing civil marriages.
 * Meðal skyldustarfa þeirra eru skatt innheimtu, gefið gjaldþrot yfirlýsingar, og að skila borgaraleg hjónabönd. A

 * There are 79 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning.
 * Það eru 79 sveitarfélög á Íslandi sem ráða staðbundnum málum eins og skóla, samgangna og skipulags.

 * Due to their small founding population and considerable history of relative isolation, Icelanders have often been considered highly genetically homogeneous as compared to other European populations.
 * Vegna litlu stofnun þjóðarinnar og mikil saga af miðað einangrun, hafa Íslendingar oft verið talin mjög erfðafræðilega einsleitt í samanburði við önnur Evrópulönd íbúa.

 * For this reason, along with the extensive genealogical records for much of the population that reach back to the settlement of Iceland, Icelanders have been the focus of considerable genomics research by both biotechnology companies and academic and medical researchers.
 * Af þessum sökum, ásamt mikilli genealogical færslur fyrir mikið af íbúunum sem ná allt aftur til landnám Íslands, hafa Íslendingar verið í brennidepli í töluvert genomics rannsóknir bæði líftækni fyrirtæki og háskóla og læknisfræði vísindamenn.

 * However, one study of mitochondrial DNA, blood groups , and isozymes revealed a more variable population than expected from these genetic standpoints, comparable to the diversity of some other Europeans.
 * Hvernig sem, einn rannsókn hvatberagenum DNA, blóð hópa og ísóensímum leitt í ljós að meira breyta íbúa en vænta má af þessum erfðafræðilega standpoints, sambærilegt við fjölbreytileika einhverjum öðrum Evrópubúum.

 * Icelandic literature can be divided into three categories; Eddic poetry, skaldic poetry , and saga literature.
 * Íslenskum bókmenntum má skipta í þrjá flokka; Eddic ljóð, skáldamál ljóð og sögu bókmennta.

 * Eddic poetry are heroic and mythological poems. Eddic ljóð eru hetjulegur og goðsögulegum ljóð. Poetry that praises someone is considered skaldic poetry or court poetry.
 * Ljóð að lofa einhverjum þykir skáldamál ljóð eða dómstólum ljóð.

 * Finally Saga literature is prose that covers pure fiction to fairly factual history. Að lokum Saga bókmenntum er prósa sem nær hreinum skáldskap að sæmilega staðreyndir sögunnar.

 * The elder or Poetic Edda, the younger or Prose Edda , and the sagas are the major pieces of Icelandic literature.
 * The Elder eða Poetic Edda, the ungur eða Snorra-Eddu og Íslendingasögurnar eru meiriháttar stykki af íslenskum bókmenntum.

 * The Poetic Edda is a collection of poems and stories from the late 10th century, whereas the younger or Prose Edda is a manual of poetics that contains many stories of Norse mythology.
 * The Poetic Edda er safn af ljóðum og sögum frá því seint á 10. öld, en yngri eða Snorra-Edda er handbók um poetics sem inniheldur margar sögur af norrænni goðafræði.

 * Icelandic cuisine consists mainly of fish, lamb , and dairy.
 * Íslensk matargerð samanstendur aðallega af fiski, lambakjöti og mjólkurafurðum.

 * Fish was once the main part of an Icelander's diet but has recently given way to meats such as lamb, pork, and poultry.
 * Fiskur var einu sinni aðal hluti af Icelander's mataræði en hefur nýlega gefið leið til kjöt ss lambakjöt, svínakjöt, og alifugla.

 * Iceland has many traditional foods, called Þorramatur.
 * Ísland hefur mörg hefðbundin matvæli, gestur Þorramatur.

 * These foods include smoked and salted lamb, singed sheep heads, dried fish, smoked and pickled salmon , and cured shark.
 * Þessi matvæli eru reykt og saltað lambakjöt, singed sauðfé höfuð, harðfiskur, reyktur og pickled lax og grafinn hákarl.

 * The earliest indigenous Icelandic music was the rímur, epic tales from the Viking era that were often performed a cappella.
 * Elstu frumbyggja Íslensk tónlist var rímur, Epic sögur frá Viking tímabil sem voru oft gerðar með Cappella.

 * Christianity played a major role in the development of Icelandic music, with many hymns being written in the local idiom. Hallgrímur Pétursson, a poet and priest, is noted for writing many of these hymns in the seventeenth century.
 * Kristni spilaði stórt hlutverk í þróun íslenska tónlist með mörgum sálma vera skrifaður í the heimamaður idiom. Hallgrímur Pétursson, skáld og prestur er þekktur fyrir að skrifa marga af þessum sálma á sautjándu öld.

 * The island's relative isolation ensured that the music maintained its regional flavor.
 * ættingi einangrun eyjarinnar úr skugga um að tónlist haldið á svæðinu bragðefni þess.

 * It was only in the nineteenth century that the first pipe organs, prevalent in European religious music, first appeared on the island.
 * Það var aðeins í nítjándu öld að fyrstu líffæri pípa, tíður í Evrópu trúarlegt tónlist, birtist fyrst í eynni.

 * Many singers, groups, and forms of music have come from Iceland.
 * Margir söngvarar, hópar, og form tónlist hafa komið frá Íslandi.

 * Most Icelandic music contains vibrant folk and pop traditions.

 * Mest íslensk tónlist inniheldur lifandi fólk og popp hefðir.

 * Some more recent groups and singers are Voces Thules, The Sugarcubes , Björk , Sigur Rós , and Silvía Night.
 * Sumir nýlegri hópa og söngvara eru Voces Thules, The Örn , Björk , Sigur Rós , og Silvía Nótt.

 * Iceland's national football team has yet to participate in the FIFA World Cup.
 * Iceland's National Football Team hefur enn ekki tekið þátt í FIFA World Cup.

 * Their first Olympic participation was in the 1912 Summer Olympics ; however, they did not participate again until the 1936 Summer Olympics.
 * þátttöku þeirra fyrstu Ólympíuleikunum var í 1912 Summer Olympics, hins vegar, að þeir tóku ekki þátt aftur fyrr en 1936 Summer Olympics.

 * Iceland is a stunningly beautiful place if you enjoy strange and desolate landscapes.
 * Ísland er ótrúlega fallegur staður ef þú njótir skrýtinn og eyði landslagi.

 * Because it is so close to the Arctic Circle, the amount of daylight varies dramatically by season.
 * Því það er svo nálægt heimskautsbaug, upphæð dagsins er mismunandi mikil eftir árstíma.

 * The sun sets briefly each night in June, but it doesn't get fully dark before it comes back up again.
 * Sólin setur í stutta stund á hverri nóttu í júní, en það þýðir ekki að fá fullan dimma áður en hún kemur upp aftur.

 * In the March and September equinoxes, days and nights are of about equal length, as elsewhere in the world.
 * Í mars og september equinoxes, daga og nætur eru um jöfn lengd, eins og annars staðar í heiminum.

 * If you go in December, it's almost 20 hours of gloom and darkness.
 * Ef þú ferð í desember, það er næstum 20 klst af dimma og myrkur.

 * Summer is definitely the best time to go, and even then the tourist traffic is still mild.
 * Sumarið er ákveðið the bestur tími til að fara, og jafnvel þá ferðamaðurinn umferð er enn væg.

 * The midnight sun is a beautiful sight and one definitely not to be missed.
 * The miðnætti sólin er falleg sjón og einn ákveðið að vera ekki misst af.

 * It is easy to lose track of time when the sun is still high in the sky at 11PM.
 * Það er auðvelt að missa rekja spor einhvers af tími þegar sólin er enn hátt á himni á 11:00.

 * Early or late winter, however, can be surprisingly good times to visit.
 * Snemma eða síðla vetrar, þó má furðu vel sinnum í heimsókn.

 * In late January, daylight is from about 10AM to 5PM, prices are lower than in the high season, and the snow-blanketed landscape is eerily beautiful.
 * Í lok janúar, dagsbirta er frá um 10:00-17:00, verð er lægra en í háannatíma, og snjó-blanketed Landslagið er eerily fallegt.

 * Some sites are, however, inaccessible in the winter.
 * Sumar síður eru þó náðist ekki í vetur.

 * Iceland has received a great number of immigrants over the last 10 years.
 * Ísland hefur borist mikill fjöldi innflytjenda á síðustu 10 árum.

 * In the last 5 years the population of immigrants has doubled.
 * Á síðustu 5 árum hefur íbúum innflytjenda hefur tvöfaldast.

 * Most of these people (from Eastern Europe and South East Asia) come for employment.
 * Flest af þessu fólki (frá Austur-Evrópu og Suðaustur-Asíu) koma að vinnu.

 * Immigrants in Iceland are now well over 10% of the population, giving Iceland a larger proportion of immigration than Norway, Sweden etc.
 * Innflytjendur á Íslandi eru nú vel yfir 10% af íbúunum, sem gerir Ísland að stærra hlutfall af innflutningi fólks en Noregi, Svíþjóð osfrv

 * Despite its name, Iceland has surprisingly mild winters for a country at that latitude owing to the warming effect of the Atlantic Gulf Stream.
 * Þrátt fyrir nafn sitt, Ísland hefur furðu mildur vetur fyrir land þar að auki breidd miðað við hlýnun áhrif Atlantshafsins Gulf Stream.

 * Iceland enjoys a maritime temperate climate and the winters are often compared with those of New England (though the winds in winter can be bitter).
 * Ísland nýtur að sjó tempraða loftslag og vetur eru oft borin saman við New England (þótt vindar í vetur getur verið bitur).

 * However the rapidly changing weather has given rise to the local saying: 'If you don't like the weather, wait fifteen minutes!'
 * Hins vegar breytist hratt Veðrið hefur gefið tilefni til á hverjum stað og sagði: "Ef þér líkar ekki veðrið, bíddu fimmtán mínútur!

 * It's the kind of place where it's not unusual to get rained on and sunburnt at the same time - some Icelandic people also believe that if the winter is hard and long then the summer will be good and warm. The summers are usually colder and windier than elsewhere at the same latitude (the effect of the ocean again) and 20 to 25°C is considered quite warm.
 * Það er góður af stað þar sem það er ekki óvenjulegt að fá rigndi á og sunburnt á sama tíma - sumir Íslendingar líka trúa því að ef vetur er harður og langur svo sumarið verður gott og hlýtt. Sumrin eru venjulega kaldara og windier en annars staðar á sama breiddar (áhrif hafs á ný) og 20 að 25 ° C er talinn mjög heitt.

 * There are many excursions offered by tour companies, readily available from any of the main centres such as Reykjavík and Akureyri.
 * There ert margir skoðunarferðir í boði hjá fyrirtækjum ferð til staðar frá öllum helstu miðstöðvar eins og í Reykjavík og á Akureyri.

 * They will fly you around and take you out to the glaciers and to the big volcanoes for a reasonable price.
 * Þeir vilja fljúga þú í kring og taka þig út fyrir jökla og stóru eldfjalla fyrir sanngjarnt verð.

 * However, the cheapest option is to drive around with a rented car since none of these sites have entry fees.
 * Hins vegar er ódýrasta valkosturinn er að keyra um með útleigu bíl síðan ekkert af þessum síðum hefur innganga fees.

 * Most mountain roads are closed until the end of June, or even longer because of wet and muddy conditions which make them totally impassable.
 * Flest fjöll vegir eru lokaðir þar til í lok júní, eða jafnvel lengur vegna blautt og forugur aðstæður sem gera þá algerlega ófær.

 * When these roads are opened for traffic many of them can only be negotiated by four wheel drive vehicles.
 * Þegar þessir vegir eru opnaðir fyrir umferð marga af þeim er aðeins hægt að semja við fjórhjóladrifsbifreiða ökutækja.

 * The roads requiring four wheel drive (and possibly snow tires) are route numbers with an "F" prefix, eg F128.
 * Vegir þurfa fjórhjóladrifsbifreiða (og hugsanlega snjó dekk) er leið númer með "F" forskeyti, td F128.

 * The general speed limit on Icelandic rural roads is 90 km/h on paved surface and 80 km/h on gravel, in urban areas the general speed limit is 50 km/h.
 * Almenna hraði takmörk á íslensku sveita vegir eru 90 km / h á malbikaður yfirborðinu og 80 km / h á möl í þéttbýli almennt hraða takmörk er 50 km / klst.

 * There are some exceptions from the general limits that are specifically signed as such (the limit is never higher than 90 though) but be aware that the general speed limit is usually not indicated by signs.
 * Það eru nokkrar undantekningar frá almennum takmörkunum sem eru sérstaklega innsigli sem slíkur (hámark er aldrei hærri en 90 þó) en að vera meðvitaðir um að almennur hraði takmörk er yfirleitt ekki gefið til kynna með merki.

 * Drivers in Iceland should familiarize themselves with road signs and be prepared for Iceland's unique driving conditions.
 * Ökumenn á Íslandi ber að kynna sér merki á vegum og vera tilbúinn fyrir einstaka akstur á Íslandi skilyrði.

 * South-central Iceland, easily accessible by car or tour from Reykjavík, has a number of sights;
 * Suður-Mið-Ísland, auðvelt að komast á bíl eða ferð frá Reykjavík, hefur a tala af undrum;

 * The Gullfoss waterfall is quite spectacular.
 * The Gullfoss foss er alveg stórkostlegt.
 * Geysir, the namesake of all geysers, and its neighbour Strokkur which erupts every five minutes or so.
 * Geysir, the nafna allra hvera og Strokkur þess náunga sem gýs á fimm mínútna fresti eða svo.
 * Þingvellir National Park, a beautiful landscape of water-cut lava fields, which is historically important as the site of Iceland's parliament from 930 AD.
 * Þingvellir National Park, fallegt landslag skera hraun-vatn, sem er sögulega mikilvægur eins og the staður af er þingi Íslands frá 930 AD.

 * The rest of Iceland also has amazing sights;
 * The hvíla af Íslandi eru einnig ótrúlega margt;

 * Vatnajökull glacier is in Southeast Iceland and is Europe's largest glacier.
 * Vatnajökul er í Suðaustur-Íslandi og er stærsti jökull Evrópu.

 * Jökulsárlón, the largest glacier lake in Iceland, is located off Route 1 and part of Vatnajökull glacier.
 * Jökulsárlón, stærsta jökli stöðuvatn á Íslandi, er staðsett á Route 1 og hluta Vatnajökuls.

 * In the colder months, one may frequently get stunning views of the Aurora Borealis, aka Northern Lights anywhere away from city lights.
 * Í kaldara mánuði, einn mega oft fá töfrandi útsýni af the norðurljósin, aka Northern Lights einhvers staðar í burtu frá ljósum borgarinnar.

 * The Iceland Saga Trail Association [24] is an association for those involved in history- and saga-related tourism in Iceland.
 * The Iceland Saga Trail Association [24] er félag fyrir þá sem taka þátt í sögu-og saga tengd ferðaþjónustu á Íslandi.
 * The members offer museums, exhibitions, heritage sites, festivals and the sites of certain sagas.
 * Fulltrúar bjóða söfn, sýningar, arfleifð staður, hátíðir og síðum ákveðinna sagna.

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User talk:Virtualmv

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