text:
User:Gulita

What is social psychology?

 * Human behaviour in social context

History & research in social psychology

 * Originated in Europe and North America (late 18th-19th century)
 * First social psychological experiment
 * Norman Triplett
 * in 1989
 * Social facilitation
 * people perform better when they are being watched by others

What is the “self”?

 * Many different theories
 * Psychology
 * collection of cognitively-held beliefs that a person possesses about themselves (Lecture 2, p. 2)

What is the “social self”?

 * part of self that interacts with others

Self-Constructs

 * Self-Esteem
 * Feelings of self-worth
 * Often based on social comparisons
 * Degree of which we like our self
 * High self-esteem = positive view of self
 * Positive aspects of high self esteem:
 * take more initiative
 * feels good
 * more likely to try harder/again if fail at something
 * Negative aspects of high self-esteem:
 * Narcissism
 * prejudice
 * Low self-esteem = negative/lack of positive view of self
 * Self-Concept
 * Cognitive representation of the self (Lecture 2, p. 7)
 * Can self concept change?
 * People expect you to stay the same
 * Change of social environment may change self
 * Self-Efficacy
 * Belief in one’s ability to succeed at a given task (Lecture 2, p.7)
 * Self-Congruence
 * Rogers believes that the self does not exist at birth but infants gradually differentiate self from non-self
 * Self-complexity
 * people generally think that they are more complex than others
 * individual variations
 * self-discrepancy
 * actual self does not match ideal self
 * self-monitoring
 * High = adjusts behaviour to situation / monitors situation
 * Low = principle attitude determines behaviour
 * Self-regulation
 * Regulate and control our behaviour
 * Self-awareness
 * Attention directed at the self (Lecture 2, p. 11)
 * People spend a lot of time thinking about self-presentation and self-preservation and less time actually thinking about themselves
 * Can improve behaviour
 * Become more socially desirable
 * Can cause us to notice self-discrepancies therefore reduce self-esteem
 * To cope we either adjust or withdraw

LECTURE 3 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

 * Social Thinking
 * Initially, social psychology was influence by behaviourism (1930’s-1950’s)
 * By 1970’s, cognitive psychology lead to greater interest in social thinking and feeling
 * Social perception
 * How people form impressions of one another and
 * Make assumptions about other people
 * Knowledge structures:
 * Schemas
 * Scripts
 * Stereo types
 * Priming
 * Activating a concept in the mind (Lecture 3, p. 4)
 * Framing
 * Context influences interpretation (Lecture 3, p.4)
 * Attribution Theory
 * People perceive behaviour as being caused (Lecture 3, p. 5)
 * Fritz Heider: “people are naive scientists who attempt to use rational processes to explain events.”
 * Both disposition and situation cause behaviour
 * Correspondent Inference Theory
 * Behaviour corresponds to a person’s internal beliefs
 * Fundamental Attribution Error
 * Tendency to attribute others’ behaviour to enduring dispositions (Lecture 3, p. 8)
 * Underestimate situational factors
 * Overestimate dispositional factors

LECTURE 4 – AGGRESSION
Aggression (Lecture 4, p. 1) Violence Anti-social Behaviour Types of aggression: Theories of, and factors contributing to, aggression Inner causes of aggression Cognitive theories of aggression Age and aggression Gender and aggression Other inner causes of aggression Interpersonal causes of aggression Domestic and relationship violence Displaced aggression Environmental or situational contributors to aggression Why does watching media violence contribute to aggression? Unpleasant environments (that contribute to aggression) Chemical influences (that contribute to aggression) Self and Culture Culture of honour Other anti-social behaviour Norms What makes us human? Crowd Behaviour Controlling and preventing aggression
 * Intentional behaviour
 * Intention is to harm
 * Aggression with goal of physical harm
 * Behaviour that damages interpersonal relationships (Lecture 4, p. 2)
 * Hostile (hot, impulsive)
 * Instrumental (cold, premeditated)
 * Passive (harming by withholding a behaviour)
 * Active (harming by performing a behaviour)
 * Studies of aggression in animals (Lorenz )
 * Ethological Perspective
 * Evolutionary Perspective
 * Lorenz
 * Studying animals in their natural environment
 * Natural history of aggression
 * Instinct Theories of Aggression
 * Freud = human motivation is based on instinct
 * Aggression is a learned behaviour (modelling)
 * Bandura and colleagues = children who see aggression are more likely to be aggressive
 * Nature and Nurture
 * Both learning and instinct are relevant
 * frustration-aggression hypothesis
 * drive theory
 * frustration ultimately leads to aggression
 * frustration creates anger which creates aggression
 * Relative deprivation theory
 * Deprivation relative not absolute
 * Sense of having less than one entitled to
 * Egoistic relative deprivation theory (compare self to others)
 * Fraternal relative deprivation theory (compare in-group to out-groups)
 * Personality (more prone to aggression)
 * Type A
 * Of “Big Five”: agreeableness and emotional stability
 * Hostile attribution bias – think others actions are stemmed from hostile intent
 * Excitation-transfer
 * Arousal in one situation is transferred to another situation
 * Mistaking arousal for aggression
 * Unpleasant moods
 * Increase aggression
 * But is not necessary for aggression
 * Anger
 * Does not directly or inevitably cause aggression
 * If one believes it will then more likely to get aggressive
 * Scripts
 * How to behave in particular situations
 * Attributions
 * Reasons for aggression
 * 25% of toddlers in day-care display physical aggression
 * Males = fight or flight
 * Females = tend and befriend
 * Men mostly commit violent acts
 * Females more indirect aggression
 * Men more instrumental
 * Hormones (testosterone)
 * Genes (XYY chromosome)
 * Direct provocation
 * Alcohol
 * Social learning theory (Bandura)
 * Aggression is not innate
 * Learned through experience
 * Modelling
 * Children more likely to imitate same-sex examples
 * If reinforced
 * Occurs within home
 * Aggression highest between siblings
 * Leading cause of injury toward women
 * Women actually attack their partners more than men but with less harm
 * Taking your aggression out on something not related (e.g. kicking the dog because you’re mad at your mum)
 * Relative deprivation
 * Not much hope in improving a situation legitimately so act aggressively
 * Aggressive ‘cues’
 * Trigger aggression
 * Weapons effect (just the sight of weapons triggers aggression)
 * Mass media
 * Being exposed to violent media increases aggression
 * (Strongly debated)
 * Aggression and the media
 * Children in U.S. witness 10,000+ acts of violence (on T.V.) per year
 * Desensitization
 * Excitation-transfer
 * Modelling
 * Priming
 * Hot temperature
 * Loud noise
 * Foul smell
 * Air pollution
 * Crowding
 * Testosterone
 * Serotonin (low levels)
 * Alcohol
 * Reduces inhibitions
 * Reduces attention levels
 * Decreases self-awareness
 * Disrupts executive function
 * Nutrition
 * Junk food
 * Vitamin supplements
 * Norms and values
 * Cultures can promote violence
 * people may believe aggression is uncontrollable but they’re wrong
 * Self-Control
 * poor self-control is a main cause and predictor of crime
 * Wounded pride
 * violent people are often narcissistic
 * Southern U.S.
 * Respond in violence if honour is threatened
 * Higher levels of violence
 * Humiliation
 * Cheating (highly related to self-control)
 * Stealing
 * Littering (males litter more than females ☺, young people more than older people)
 * Injunctive norms
 * Specify what most approve or disapprove of
 * Descriptive norms
 * Specify what most people do
 * In some ways we are more aggressive than animals
 * Attempt to restrain aggression
 * Deindividuation (lowered personal responsibility and self-awareness)
 * Emergent norm theory – no clear norms for behaviour in crowds
 * Imitate what others are doing in the crowd
 * Commonly provokes anti-social behaviour
 * Social identity theory – people don’t lose identity in crowds (Reicher)
 * Take on different identities (social identities)
 * Example of intergroup behaviour
 * Learning theories
 * Positive role models
 * Effective punishment
 * Violent punishment may be modelled
 * Catharsis
 * Express aggression in safe way (e.g. sport)
 * Effects appear to be temporary
 * Aggression may increase
 * Cognitive interventions
 * Changing attributions
 * Relearning scripts
 * Interpersonal interventions
 * Social skills training (i.e. anger management)
 * Non-aggressive models
 * Co-operation between groups
 * Superordinated goals
 * Re-categorisation

"Ghosts of Rwanda"

 * Documentary about the Rwandan genocide
 * Through interviews of people who were there (i.e. Tutsi survivors), explains genocide first-hand
 * 800,000 Rwandans killed by Hutu extremists
 * International community did/could not help
 * Follows politics of U.S.
 * Investigates relationship between Africa and the west
 * Shows how Hutu people made sure west would not intervene
 * Philippe Gaillard (from Red Cross) was only representative of major aid organisation to remain in Rwanda during the genocide – he was killed

Comments: hopefully the world has learned a lesson!

LECTURE 5 – PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES
Prejudice Racism Aversive racism Discrimination Stereotype Subtypes ABC’s of Intergroup Relations Prejudice and intergroup relations Common prejudices and targets Stigma Stigma by association ‘Modernisation’ of racism Why prejudice exists Us versus them: groups in competition Evolution and groups in competition Stereotypes and heuristics Accuracy of stereotypes '''Is bad stronger than good? Why aren’t there more good stereotypes?''' Inner processes Overcoming stereotypes, reducing prejudice Mental processes of non-prejudiced people Discrimination in reverse Motives for overcoming prejudice Impact of prejudice on targets Stereotype threat Stereotype maintenance Contact hypothesis Changing stereotypes and reducing prejudice Australian research
 * A negative feeling toward an individual based solely on his/her particular membership in a group
 * Categorisation
 * Human nature to group objects
 * Social categorisation
 * Sorting people in to groups based on common characteristics
 * Prejudice attitudes toward a particular race
 * Simultaneously having egalitarian values and negative feelings
 * Unequal treatment based on group membership
 * Beliefs that associate groups with traits
 * Categories for people who don’t fit a general stereotype
 * Affective component
 * Prejudice
 * Behavioural component
 * Discrimination
 * Cognitive component
 * Stereotyping
 * Out-group members (them)
 * In-group members (us)
 * Eye-witnesses are better at identifying people of their own race
 * Most prejudices are related to external characteristics
 * Most people claim that they are not prejudice
 * Arabs
 * especially after 9/11
 * People who are over-weight
 * Anti-fat attitudes begin as early as pre-school
 * Homosexuals (homophobia)
 * Both men and women are intolerant of homosexuality of their own gender
 * Individual’s characteristics considered socially unappealing
 * Discrimination toward people who associate with a stigmatized person
 * Reduction of anti-African American attitudes in U.S. over last 50 years
 * ‘aversive racism’
 * Desire to maintain non-prejudiced self-image
 * Prejudice expressed but justified on non-racial grounds
 * May be innate
 * In-group favouritism
 * Minimal group affect
 * Rationalisation for oppression
 * To maintain power
 * Self-esteem
 * Some may think that if others are inferior, it must make them superior
 * Intergroup relations at Robber’s Cave
 * After one week of competition between two groups, both groups became extremely hostile
 * Initiate co-operation = superordinate goals
 * Realistic conflict theory
 * Competition for limited resources leads to inter-group conflict and hostility
 * Some countries have little/no competition
 * Peaceful
 * Economically undeveloped
 * Competition (positive)
 * Progress
 * Advancement
 * Motivation
 * Competition (negative)
 * Prejudice
 * Hostility
 * Aggression
 * Groups that are based on prejudice and act on it are more likely to survive
 * For in-group members, doing good deeds helps them survive
 * Stereotypes as mental shortcuts
 * Law of least effort (Allport, 1954)
 * Simplify process of thinking about others
 * Conserve energy / effort
 * Use information from other people rather than our own experience
 * May be based on real differences but generalised
 * Accuracy may be based on roots
 * Heuristics
 * Exaggerated with little bias
 * Stereotypes can be positive or negative
 * most stereotypes are negative
 * More durable
 * Harder to disconfirm
 * Stereotypes can be made based on salience
 * Scapegoat theory
 * Blame all problems on out-group
 * Self-serving bias
 * People make internal attributions for success but refuse external attributions for failure
 * During difficult times people behave more aggressively toward out-groups
 * Conflict and stress can cause stereotypes
 * Modern Australians much better now than before
 * Have to consciously make an effort to overcome prejudice
 * Automatic
 * Implicit prejudices
 * People may act consciously to make themselves appear or actually overcome prejudices
 * Internal and external motivations
 * Internal = morally wrong
 * External = avoid social disapproval
 * mental processes that underlay prejudice
 * both groups had equal knowledge of stereotypes
 * non-prejudice people have to consciously look beyond the stereotype
 * People who are accused of being prejudice often act like they’re really not to prove otherwise
 * To overcome prejudice people must make a conscious effort
 * Plant & Devine’s measure
 * Internal motivation – based on inner belief that prejudice is wrong
 * External motivation – socially unacceptable
 * Self-fulfilling prophecy
 * People start acting like the stereotypes that are expected of them
 * Self-defeating prophecy
 * People avoid certain behaviours to make sure that they do not to become what is expected/the stereotype
 * Fear that your behaviour might actually fit the stereotype
 * Selective perception
 * Selective/bias attention
 * Direct contact between groups = reduced prejudice
 * Stereotype monitoring
 * People can avoid stereotyping if they make a conscious effort to think differently
 * Bookkeeping model
 * Stereotypes eventually change the more it is proved untrue
 * Conversion model
 * Stereotype changes because of one incident
 * Sub-typing model
 * Maintain original stereotype even after disconfirmed
 * One nation supports scored high on racism (especially modern racism)
 * Studies show that Sydney 2000 Olympics may have changed the way Australians view/categorise Aboriginal Australians

Indigenous Australians
 * Many Aboriginals removed from their home as children
 * Lost contact with their families
 * Abused both sexually and physically
 * Also cut off from their culture, land and language
 * Prejudiced Australian Aboriginals receive from mainstream Australians causes problems and difficulty for current and future generations

LECTURE 6 – RELATIONSHIPS
The need to belong (Affiliation) Marriage Integration Similarity Matching hypothesis
 * Desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships with other individuals
 * Human beings:
 * Need contact with other people
 * Have a powerful drive to form and maintain relationships
 * Usually form relationships easily
 * Reluctant to end relationships
 * Seek balance between social contacts and solitude
 * Not unique to humans
 * People don’t form too many close relationships
 * Typically 4-6
 * Most social circles = 6
 * People who marry are healthier and live longer
 * People who stay married live longer than those who divorce
 * Happy marriage is important factor
 * What people do to make others like them
 * common and significant cause of attraction
 * couples more similar in attractiveness more likely to have committed relationship
 * people are more attracted to others that look like them

Self-monitoring Reinforcement theory Reciprocity The gain loss hypothesis Playing hard to get Social exchange theory Equity/Balance theory Propinquity Beauty Not belonging is bad for you Social exclusion
 * people change to become more like those they interact with
 * behaviours reinforced tend to be repeated
 * people are generally attracted to those that reward them
 * we like those who like us
 * mimicking increases liking
 * we like people most if they initially dislike us and then later like us
 * we prefer people who are ‘moderately’ selective / difficult to obtain
 * turned off by people who are too eager/available
 * people like high benefits (e.g. love, companion, sex) and low costs (e.g. effort, conflict, compromise, sacrifice, risk) in their relationships
 * people are most satisfied when their relationship has equal benefits and contribution
 * prefer relationships that are psychologically balanced
 * Exposure/psychological proximity
 * Best predictor of relationship is proximity/nearness
 * Mere-exposure effect
 * The more time we spend with something the more we like it
 * Familiarity
 * Like familiar things more
 * Overexposure can reduce liking
 * People agree who is beautiful but not why
 * Evolutionary psychology:
 * Beauty in women = health, youth, fertility
 * Symmetry
 * Typicality (average/composite faces more attractive than individual faces)
 * Even babies show preference
 * Cultural and historical differences in perception
 * High death rates
 * Physical and mental health problems
 * Rejection
 * Ostracism = excluded, rejected, ignored
 * can create aggression
 * Loneliness
 * Painful wanting of human contact
 * Occurs in times of transition and disruption (e.g. moving, divorce, etc)
 * Unattached lonelier than attached
 * Loneliest group = 18-30 year olds
 * Widowed, divorced lonelier than never married
 * Bad for physical health
 * Social rejection
 * Children rejected because:
 * Aggressive
 * Unsocial
 * Different
 * Adults rejected because:
 * Different
 * Bad apple effect = one person breaks the rules, others may follow
 * Fear of rejection = good behaviour
 * Romantic rejection and unrequited love
 * Women reject more than men
 * Men stalk more than women

What is love?

 * Two types of love:
 * Passionate love
 * Intense
 * Physiological arousal
 * Important for starting a relationship
 * Companionate love
 * Caring and affection
 * High levels of self-disclosure
 * Lasting marriage/relationship

 * Schacter’s 2-factor theory of emotion:
 * 1. Physical arousal
 * 2. Cognitive appraisal

Attachment
 * Bowlby:
 * Influenced by Freud and learning theory
 * Childhood attachment predicts adult relationship
 * Shaver:
 * Attachment styles (in adult relationships):
 * Anxious/ambivalent
 * Secure
 * Avoidant

Attachment and sex Self-esteem and love Sex and gender Homosexuality Extradyadic sex Reasons for straying Ending relationships
 * Secure
 * generally have good sex lives
 * Preoccupied
 * may use sex to get people close to them
 * Avoidant
 * Have a desire for connection
 * May avoid sex, or use it to avoid intimacy
 * Popular belief that you need to love yourself before you can love others
 * Men have higher sex drive than women
 * Coolidge affect
 * More sexually aroused when with someone new than someone familiar
 * Separating sex and love
 * Men get more out of sex than love
 * Women get more out of love than sex
 * Challenges theories of sexuality
 * Most cultures condemn it
 * Natural selection does not support it
 * Infidelity is rare in modern western marriages
 * Tolerance for cheating is low
 * Monogamous relationships more common amongst humans
 * Men like novelty
 * Women’s reasons more related to emotion
 * 4 stages once relationship has started to fail (Rusult & Zembrodt, 1983):
 * 1) Loyalty – wait for improvement
 * 2) Neglect – allow deterioration
 * 3) Voice behaviour – work on improving
 * 4) Exit behaviour – end

LECTURE 7- GROUPS & LEADERSHIP
What is a group? Advantages of (human) groups Social loafing Transactive memory Groupthink Risky shift Persuasive arguments theory Social comparison/value theory Self-categorisation theory Realistic Conflict Theory Conclusions Power and Leadership Modern thought on leadership Leadership roles Power
 * 2 or more people
 * “doing or being something together” (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, p. 480)
 * Accumulation of knowledge
 * Economic exchange
 * In human evolution:
 * Safety
 * Helps find food
 * Accomplish harder tasks
 * People put in less effort when in a group
 * Members of small group remember different things
 * when group members think alike
 * stems from desire to get along
 * Groups make more risky decisions than individuals
 * Become more convinced of initial argument
 * Competition between group members to represent valued position
 * Prototype
 * What group has in common compared to out-group
 * Mutually exclusive goals = intergroup conflict and ethnocentrism
 * Shared goals requiring intergroup interdependence for achievement= less conflict
 * Conflict will not occur in group when there is no personal gain for individual
 * Groups influence behaviour of individuals
 * Group decisions = different to individual decisions
 * Leadership in social psychology
 * relationship
 * group phenomenon
 * form of social influence
 * process of getting cooperation from others to achieve goal
 * After WW1 = loss of “hereditary leadership”
 * After WW2 = observable behaviours
 * 1960s = situational leadership
 * Recently = transactional to transformational leadership
 * Early studies identified 3 different styles:
 * 1) Autocratic
 * 2) Democratic
 * 3) Laissez-faire
 * What is power?
 * Ability to get people to do what you want / the way you want
 * Effect of power on leaders
 * Feel good
 * Reward-orientated
 * Changes relationship with other people
 * Rely more on automatic processing
 * Take more action
 * Effect of power on followers
 * pay more attention to leaders
 * foster peace
 * adapt to expectations of people with power
 * Bad bosses
 * most people do not like their boss
 * Bad bosses: Four types
 * 1) Promoted above ability (Peter Principle)
 * 2) Fails to build a good team (poor hiring choices)
 * 3) Poor interpersonal skills (arrogant, etc.)leading to conflicts
 * 4) Undermines the group (e.g., betrays trust)

LECTURE 8 – PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
What is pro-social behaviour? What is anti-social behaviour? What is altruism? Reciprocity Fairness Rule of law Learning theory Obedience Conformity Forgiveness Empathy-altruism hypothesis Personal determinants of helping Mood Attraction and helping Bystander effect What processes underlie bystander apathy?
 * Doing something good for people/society
 * Doing something bad to someone/society
 * Helping others just for the sake of helping others (no self interest)
 * Returning what another has done for us
 * Norms that promote fairness
 * Equity
 * Equality
 * Everyone in society is obliged to obtain the law
 * Boosts quality of life
 * Classical and operant conditioning
 * Observational learning = modelling behaviour (parents, media)
 * Following the rules
 * Can be pro-social
 * Going along with everyone else
 * Both positive and negative
 * Ceasing to feel anger or seek revenge on someone who has wronged you
 * Helps repair relationships
 * Who is more likely to forgive?
 * Religious people
 * people in a relationship
 * Not self-centred/narcissistic people
 * Empathy motivates people to reduce others stress
 * Personality
 * Competence
 * Attribution
 * Self and personal norm
 * Values
 * Good mood = likely to help
 * Bad mood = less likely to help
 * People are more likely to help attractive people
 * Men help women more than men
 * People are less likely to help when they are in a group (or presence of others) than when they are alone
 * Diffusion of responsibility
 * Assumption because more people around they’ll do something so you don’t have to
 * Audience inhibition
 * fear negative judgement/embarrassment from others if intervene and situation is not an emergency
 * Social influence
 * look to others as a model for action - normative and informational influence

LECTURE 9 – ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
What is environmental psychology? Environmental psychology (general) Negative environmental influences
 * "Environmental psychology studies the interactions and relations between people and their environments" (Oskamp & Schultz, 1998, p. 206)
 * Relatively new discipline
 * Grew out of social psychology
 * Evolved in its own direction
 * Interdisciplinary
 * Human spatial behaviour
 * Density (# of people in a space)
 * Crowding
 * Environmental stressors
 * Crowding
 * Daily hassles
 * Noise
 * Temperature
 * Environmental Risks
 * Natural disasters
 * Diseases
 * Pollution
 * Food contamination
 * Accidents
 * Nuclear power
 * Terrorism
 * Environmental design
 * Assessing and planning
 * Architectural psychology
 * Consumer psychology
 * Permaculture
 * Wayfinding

“We shape our buildings and our buildings shape us” – Churchill

 * Natural Environment
 * Preference
 * Evolutionary Psychology
 * Biophilia Hypothesis
 * Nature's Psychological Effects
 * Nature-Deficit Disorder
 * Evolutionary psychology
 * "If today I had a young mind to direct, to start on the journey of life, and I was faced with the duty of choosing between the natural way of my forefathers and that of the... present way of civilization, I would, for its welfare, unhesitatingly set that child's feet in the path of my forefathers. I would raise him to be an Indian!“ (Tom Brown)
 * Biophilia hypothesis
 * Human beings have a genetic predisposition towards “life-like” or “nature” processes
 * Humans evolved as creatures deeply enmeshed with the intricacies of nature, and that we still have this affinity with nature ingrained in our genotype

LECTURE 10 – REVIEW/ goodbye!! ☺
I’ve said it all in the last 9 lectures!!! ☺

So I’m just going to babble on for a bit...

I really enjoyed this course!! (Thanks James!)

Really nervous about the exam!! But doing this e-journal has really helped me keep up to date with what we’ve learned throughout the semester.

I particularly enjoyed learning about relationships and aggression.. they were my favourite topics!

Hope everyone has an awesome summer!!!

Remember: LIFE’S TOO SHORT SO BE HAPPYYYYYYYYYYYYYY!!!!!!!!! ☺☺☺

Sincerely,

Gulita xx

title: User:Gulita


text:
User:MandaG/Lecture Week 11

What is a Group and Why do we Care?
So I guess when talking about groups it is probably best to define what it is. Most define a group as being two or more. I find that two people is more a partnership than a group, but hey I'm just a student so we'll go with the experts on that one. Next, why do we have groups. Well it has be reiterated in social psych that we as humans are social creatures thus it is logical to assume being social involves more thaqn just ourselves, and as it only takes two to constitute a group, one might argue it is human nature to form groups. There are also demonstrable advantages to group nature as well.In animals it means survival, if one spots danger, unless they are particularly evil they can warn everyone else. The ability to work together increases power, a sharing of numbers and safety in numbers. While I probably wouldn't attack a lone wolf, you can bet your bottom dollar if I saw a pack of them I would be running for the hills. In humans there are very practical reasons for group work. As a group there is role differentiation and division of labour, this allows for more to get done in a shorter period of time. We can also pool our resources to improve on things and pass it onto our next generation, who in turn will do the same hopefully in a perpetuating cycle.

Group Theories
Social Facilitation Triplett (1897) found that children will wind a fishing reel faster when there are others present. This is one theory that has one hell of a life span as there are still countless examples of social facilitation every minute of every hour of every day. Most records held have been made at public events, most play better than they practise and almost everyone will behave better when company is present. Though there is the odd occassion where the opposite is true and the presence of someone else completely messes up the performance (eg. public speaking, stage fright) for the most part we will do better as arousal enhances the dominant response. While social facilitation is cross speciel it appears that it is unique to humans that loafing may also occur. Social loafing is when a person is not held responsible they will not contribute to the group. This was demonstrated in a tug of war (of all things) experiment which found that when in a team an individual pulled about 61-65kg but when on their own pulled about 85kg. I hate social loafers because I find it very salient when doing group assignments. Because the overall grade given is a group grade its not like those who are doing the work can just not do the loafers part, and the loafer takes full advantage of that. Luckily I don't have too many group assignments in my degree!
 * The tendency to perform well when others are present.

The Hawthorne Effect
 * People who know they are being observed modify their behaviour not only conciously but unconciously. What an interesting bit of knowledge! I can't quite remember where I read and now can't find the reference so do not under any circumstances take this as bible but I(think) read an article about how they used this effect in a prison setting. A watch tower was set up where the inmates could not be sure whether they were being watched or not and just in case were much better behaved, which I guess also taps into Allport's theory on what social psychology is anyway with the idea of implied or imagined presence.

Diverse Groups I love diverse groups because I think the positives far outweigh the negatives. Sure you could find it harder to cooperate and work together but as adults we should be able to work around that in most cases. And the advantages of having a diverse group are of great value. There is a better chance of being more flexible and creative which in turn generates more knowledge and a better chance at bringing in different information. That advantage can achieve the goal in a way similar minded people could never have even imagined. In my own experience I have also found a diverse group to be much more fun, no psychological reason forthcoming, just because.

Deindividuation This idea to be honest, scares me just a little. The concept of deindividuation is that the group allows a person to lose self-awareness and evaluation ability and may lead to antisocial behaviour. Zimbardo (1970) found that when deindividuation occurs people were willing to cause greater harm and I think that can be seen in today's socity but is called "mob mentality" and in some cases has been accepted as diminished responsibility in cases of violence, which also scares me.

Leadership
Leadership: The process of getting cooperation of others in accomplishing a desired goal. But how does this happen? A leader must have certain characteristics to achieve their status. They must be goal directed and charismatic, ambitious and energetic, honest and of integrity, be intelligent and confident. They should be able to inspire non-coersive influence and they need followers. That is a long list! However there is also an exhaustive list of good leaders. Now even if one were to have all those traits they may still not be a good leader. There are also different leadership style that lead to different responses and outcomes of the followers. Autocratic- is job centred in approach and centralises power and decision making. An autocratic leader is in effect a dictator, like Fidel Castro. Democratic- encourages followers to be a part of the decision making process. Laissez Faire- a hands off approach allowing the followers as much freedom as possible. This kind of approach is taken in the university setting. Students have the choice whether to turn up to lectures or not, nobody tells us when to start our assignments, we basically need to motivate ourselves to reach our goals while at the same time having help available if necessary.

Power Power is the ability to get someone to do something you want them to do. A good leader should have this ability and thus power. This has the effect of making that leader feel good and might change the relationship between people. "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men." It is important to note the almost in that quote. I think the end is a bit overboard though people like Suddaam Huessein, Fidel Castro and Adolf HItler certaintly give rise to that comment. History has seen many great men such as Luther King Jr and Gahndi who had much power and used it for good. In social psych terms I think power and its use will be determined not only by the person holding it but the situation they are in.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:MandaG/Lecture Week 11


text: User talk:Eml4500.f08.gravy.JMT

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User:Intransient

My Social Psychology Blog
I have decided for my blog that I will publish it in the style of a true blogger. The thoughts and opinions of an opinionated person who can’t get the time and day from people face-to-face and so therefore publishes it online for the world to view and comment upon. :-)

Week 1 – Introduction to Social Psychology
Social psychology as a field is one of the more interesting it seems within the school of psychology.

The study of human behaviour in group settings it seems is a fascinating concept to work with. My previous knowledge of the field is limited however concepts like critical mass – the point in which enough individuals begin to affect the behaviour of the group and aggression within social groups are some key concepts that I look forward to finding more out about as my engagement in this subject continues. My initial thoughts on the subject however continue to remain positive. My first concerns are really about this blog. It is a deceptively easy piece of assessment. What seems like a straight forward analysis of your ideas towards the subject and its content is actually a good measure of your understanding of the unit and the materials used. So far I remain positive the first week is always laid back with a lecture and tutorial aimed at engaging the student in the broader overview of the subject and its history. One thing I like about psychology units is regardless of the subject the first lecture is always about the history of the field being presented. To know where one is from is to know where one is going.

Week 2 – Social Self
What is the social self?

An interesting topic but the title is rather more complex than just a social self. My understanding of the social self is the multiple identities that compose the individual themselves. I thought for this week I would share with you blog reading persons just some of the identities that make me the person I am.
 * I am Australian
 * I am a Commonwealth Officer (a Public Servant :-p)
 * I am a University of Canberra student
 * I am a member of Generation Y
 * I am a White Anglo-Saxon Protestant(WASP)[]
 * I am Agnostic borderline Atheist
 * I am a UC Ressie

I stress these are just a few of the social identities I have, I have more but I fear that I might end up in a spot of bother if someone decides to steal my identity.

Final thoughts of the subject...

People it seems as individuals are bound by their identities to broader groups. As a personal observation I have noticed that people bond more closely with groups that they strongly indentify with. A good example would be a full-time employee compared to a part-time currently studying employee. The full-time employee is more likely to have stronger social ties to their colleagues compared to their part-time equivalent for many reasons – one of which would be that their social identity does not include participation in an educational institution. For this reasons they may be more likely to have more friends in the workplace because it is the only (for lack of a better word) world that they can socially engage in form 9 – 5 every day. Whereas the student employee has that whole other sphere of social interaction – the educational institution to engage in and make other friends and connections etc. Ok so my example isn’t awesome but it demonstrates my point.

Week 3 – Social Thinking
Social thinking is really a very broad term so in order to convey my thoughts better I thought of breaking down the concept of social thinking into more specific categories. Firstly however...

Social thinking, the concept that people engage in recognition, processing and conscious thought about our interactions and thoughts between each other.

This week’s materials breakdown the social cognition into more specific categories for knowledge storage: Very cool psychology going on right here! Schemas are basically a tool that we use to recognise our environment. A good example of a schema is a stereotype. We develop stereotypes based on our perceptions on certain groups within society eg. The dress and language of an uncouth individual which we are instructed by our peers to refer to as “bogans” may lead us to label all individuals who talk slang and dress in flannel as “bogans” Basically rehearsed social protocols. Such as etiquette in restaurants. A great one I can think of which according to an American work colleague is an Australian exclusive is the tendency to ask people how they are going when casually encountering them on the way to another destination. The old walk past and the curt “how are you going?” is typically expected to elicit the response “good thanks” and the exchange concludes. To say anything more or different is of course to violate the script and honestly when caught off guard with this one you aren’t likely to say more than just “good thanks”... This refers to how individuals develop their thinking towards certain events and triggers. Uh not much more to add really... Refers to our perception of events in our world and our understanding of the series of events leading to our perception. Very culturally biased and within social groups. An example would be the perception of the Nazi Flag; some may see a symbol of fascism and a dark period within human history. Others may see it and think of the Hindu symbol for the god Brahma, others still may see the Buddhist symbol for Dharma meaning universal harmony.
 * Schemas
 * Scripts
 * Priming
 * Framing

Week 4 – Aggression
I like this subject!

There are so many fascinating applications of this topic within the field of psychology. I am particularly hoping to find some research in social aggression for my essay and our perceptions of immigrants to Australia. Given our tolerant democratic society on a whole I am often baffled by the frank and well racist attitudes everyday people have towards refugees and immigrants coming to Australia. Aggression is the social psychological concept that relates to interactions between groups that intend to harm one and the other. Aggression however does not represent anti-social behaviour and is a bit more complex than my first sentence on the issue. Aggression is not necessarily physical it can be emotional, verbal and written as well. Propaganda by the Nazis in the 1930’s represents aggression in the written form. An interesting concept explored within the textbook is whether Aggression is developed by our environment or by our genetic construct. Aggression it seems can have a loose genetic connection. Surely our ancestors were a lot more aggressive than modern humans. Being the uncivilised mob they most likely were, cavemen would have used aggression to defend their territory, expand their territory and generally influence their actions towards food collection, reproduction and shelter. However aggression is for better or worse an environmentally influenced behaviour. Usually created when there are environmental factors that interplay into the situation such as poverty, lack of resources, even lack of education.

Week 5 – Prejudice
The word itself literally means to pre-judge or to have a pre-judgement towards someone or something. Prejudice however has a negative connotation and should be treated as such, a negative opinion of someone based solely on an identifying feature (or lack of).

Prejudice can occur on many levels. A great example of a prejudice is the organisation known as the Ku Klux Klan. This organisation is basically a social reaction to time of great social tension within the United States. As a result of increased immigration, the conclusion of the civil war or the depression of the 1930’s this group increases in number a following of people who follow the white supremacist line of thinking. As a result they develop a prejudice towards ethnically different groups to that of whites (generally) and white Americans.

Prejudice is a concept which goes hand-in-hand with other subjects such as racism which in itself is a unique but mostly common form of prejudice. Prejudice is normally a result of a human being’s natural tendancy to group information and to therefore treat information and concepts of a similar nature with a similar attitude. Prejudice is a largely environmentally learned behaviour and is closely related to behaviours relating to ethnocentrism.

Week 6 – Relationships
Relationships are a complex thing. Anyone who has ever been in a romantic relationship or knows of someone in a romantic relationship can testify to the complexities of this social interaction. In popular culture the word relationship signifies more often than not a romantic relationship, however the word itself is meant to convey a broader sense of human-to-human interaction, one which I will attempt to explain.

Relationships are a person-to-person interaction that develops out of a need for people to belong within our own social groups. There are many kinds of relationships such as the relationship between two friends or the relationship between two work colleagues. Relationships are often defined by similar attractions or belonging to certain groups (you are more likely to develop a relationship with people in your world who have more in common with you) and are motivated by a fear of social exclusion and a motivation for social inclusion (you fear you will be a loner and so therefore seek out the company of people like yourself).

For Blogging sake I will use a romantic relationship as a further example on my spiel on the subject. Romantic relationships form for many reasons but all are motivated by an underlying need for people to be together. Some may argue that there is also a biological need to procreate however I must point out that there are a lot of couples out there who a. can’t have children or b. don’t want them. Romantic relationships are also usually categorised into two groups: Relationships based more on feelings of desire, lust. A relationship based more on the physical attraction of one person to another etc Usually longer term, more affectionate and the basis for a more stable relationship The complexity of romantic relationships is such that I don’t have time to write in great depth about them, they are however bound by the same fundamental rules that govern all relationships such as finding a partner who is similar to you, someone who espouses the ideal qualities of a partner and someone who is in your proximity.
 * Passionate Relationships
 * Compassionate Relationships

Week 7 – Groups and Leadership
Ah Alpha male talk! We all know a leader, whether it is in our little (or big if you’re really popular) group of friends right up to the leader of our nation (Prime Minister or Governor-General). And groups! We all have been in a group at some stage (remember that a group is considered to be two or more people together). Groups can be characterised as a collection of people behaving with often a single purpose (goal seeking behaviour in other words). This week’s materials however expand more on my initial views on what it means to be in a group. Groups are characterised more by their interactions than by their behaviour. They share a common identity, they fit, eg. In the schoolyard you can characterise groups based on their predominantly well known school activity being either academic (nerds or geeks), sport (jocks, or footy heads) or non-conformal (stoners, Goths or skaters). They also seem to develop their own set of rules, obligations, hierarchy and even language.

What interested me most on this subject was however the history and thinking behind why we group as humans. When it comes down to it, you stand a better chance to survive as a caveman if you cooperate and work with other people than you do if you go at it alone. The fact that animals or all type group together suggests that this is not a uniquely human behaviour and is in-fact a product of evolution of species; a behaviour that benefits the individual and the group itself.

Week 8 – Prosocial Behaviour
What is prosocial behaviour?

Put simply this is behaviour that is characterised by actions that benefit other people or your own society. Prosocial behaviour is actually quite a common occurrence; it is conformity to social obligations, rules and expectations. By paying your taxes on time, doing the speed limit when you are driving and even taking the downward escalator when you need to go down a floor in a shopping centre is to acting in a prosocial manner.

The opposite of prosocial behaviour is of course anti-social behaviour. This is a topic which again interests me so I thought for this week’s blog I would give it a bit more detailed explanation than what was said in the unit materials. Anti-social behaviour is different to the psychopathological concept of anti-social in that it describes behaviour that is opposite to helping society on a whole. Anti-social behaviour in social psychological terms is behaviour such as disobeying rules (speeding in your car, murder) or that harms individuals or society on a whole.

Anti-social behaviour however is only strictly considered anti-social within a single society. Terrorism is a good example of this. What is anti-social in our society – the bombing and killing of people is in another group (I dare not say society because no society on a whole could possibly condone terrorism as an acceptable prosocial behaviour) an acceptable behaviour. This kind of behaviour is not however without its own rules and obligations. Killing infidels by extremist Muslims may be acceptable practise but this does not mean that they can they go out and kill fellow Muslims by the same method or beliefs it would be a violations of their prosocial normal behaviours.

Week 9 – Environmental Psychology
Being the usually smart guy I am I instantly thought when I read about this topic that we were going to look at how the trees and the grass feel about people! To my justification I was really tired and stressed out over assessment...

Environmental psychology is slightly more interesting and well different to my initial thoughts. It is the study between how people behave compared to the environment they live in. A great example of this (and I’m sorry to say I couldn’t find it referenced anywhere) was a story I saw a while back on A Current Affair (eye roll) that compared the reaction times of rural and city people honking their car horns and stalled vehicles at traffic lights. I conservatively report to you that the report found that rural people were more impatient compared to city folk when it came to stalled vehicles at traffic lights. Environmental psychology can be used to explain these findings on the grounds that given drivers in rural areas are used to more free flowing traffic, less congestion on the roads and greater ease of access on the roads they would be more intolerant and impatient towards slower and even stalled vehicles. This is compared to city people who deal with traffic on a daily basis, have probably experienced more stalled vehicles at traffic lights and who are more familiar with traffic congestion leading up to the assumption that they are more tolerant of stalled cars at traffic lights. It has been noted that crowding, life events, noise and temperature all have an effect on the overall happiness and stress levels of individuals. There was also mention of the fact that these stressors can be reduced if people feel they have some control over their environment.

Week 10 – Review
I thought for the review I would give my opinions on the subject so far and my thoughts for the future of social psychology here at the University of Canberra. I have found this unit very interesting! Every subject we discovered every week contained a plethora of information that was absorbing both to read and to talk about.

The unique engagement of the unit online demonstrates quite nicely the evolving way in which we as people engage and interact with each other. 50 years ago if you wanted to court a lady you would write her letters, today you can sms or email. The engagement of people by blogging demonstrates how we as a society have evolved to be more engaged within the digital media. The irony of it is that by bringing us closer, the digital media has removed so many traditional forms of human communication and has even introduced a new pop language into society (for example the word lol and how it is increasingly being used by young people as an expression in face-to-face interactions).

This concludes my blog on Social Psychology, I can only hope you enjoyed reading it as much as I enjoyed learning and writing about it.

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User talk:Beatricia~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Renamed
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User:MandaG/Lecture Week 13

Environmental Psychology I think environmental psychology is now becoming a big issue because of its relevence to the longevity of the survival of the human race. It looks at ecological issues such as our contribution to global warming and pollution and at density and crowding. Density is the number of people per a space and there is an alarming increase in this number as the world becomes denser and denser. This over crowding impedes on optimal human functioning as does the increasing temperature, too much noise and daily hassles and life events (although it could be argued that is essentially life). The risks that we percieve in our environment however, are largely not related to those factors. We tend to percieve our greatest risks as things that cannot be controlled (which in itself would be my guess as to why we view them as risker) such as natural disasters and disease, area's where study is going in to.
 * The study of interaction and relation between people and their environment.
 * The natural Environment: Human beings have a preference for natural over built environments and experience positive physical and psychological reactions to exposure to the natural envvironment. Real estate with a view goes for big money and art work with landscapes are often also sought after. Hiking and picnicing are highly enjoyable as is camping and getting in touch with nature (as long as there are showers). Nature-Deficit disorder argues that too much time indoors is creating problems such as ADHD which in turn creates parental fear and restricts further access to nature. I am not all that familiar with this idea but I sincerely hope that is not the case as I think it would be a great shame to deprive children of being outdoors a lot and may start a cylce.

 * Environmental Concerns: Well there are lots of these! Top of the list is the populations consumption rate. When Mars was first mentioned as an alternate to earth to live on in the future it was a strange concept, but if we keep consuming at this rate we're going to have to go somewhere as all our resources will be depleated. One of the ways we can alleviate some of the preassure is quite simple; Recycle. Its not hard and will allow for th reuse of materials and make for a more sustainable environment.

title: User:MandaG/Lecture Week 13


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User talk:Gulita

Well done
Good job on setting up your account,. Let me know if I can do anything as you go along. 'Official' Wikiversity welcome below. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 22:03, 2 November 2008 (UTC)

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Copyright violation
You can't upload a no free image in wikiversity and especially not say that document is under a free licence while it's false.Crochet.david 21:57, 2 November 2008 (UTC)

Images
Hi Gulita, to start with, the best image sources are those available via e.g., at commons:Category:Social psychology, since you can't use non-free images unless you have permssion. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 22:01, 2 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Just letting you know that I've deleted your image uploads since 7 days went past without indication that the images were available under free licenses. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:43, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

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User:MandaG/Lecture Week 12

Prosocial Behaviour I love looking at this area of psychology it tends to restore faith in humanity for a while. Prosocial behaviour is the act of doing something good for an individual or society, philanthropy, adding to shared resources, helping in any way possible those in need. It is importnat becuase as discussed all semester, humans are social beings and prosocial behaviour promotes and builds positive relarionships.

Altruism Altruism is helping behaviours focused only on the well being of others and often at a personal cost. There has been much debate as to whether true altruism exists as the individual performing the alleged altruistic act will feel good for doing that which means they are getting something out of it to. Well for those who think that is the only reason to help someone, I feel kind of bad for you. I think that the feeling of good though a by product of the act itself is not usually a motivater in the first place and even if they do feel good the act may have cost them something else. Oskar Schindler was a great figure to come out of WWII. His altruism saved thousands of jewish peoples lives and cost him all his money and his security given what his punishment would be if caught. Hopefully he did get a good feeling from doing this, Lord know's he deserves it, but really are we going to say "Hey sure you risked all you had for other people but you got a warm feeling from it therefore you are just as selfish as the rest of us", surely not. Surely this is altruism. On a smaller scale I am a regular blood and plasma donor and yes I feel good about it, are people going to tell me my motivations for my actions are selfish? I understand where the arguement comes from but I like to believe that people occasionally do good to do good.

Recprocity It appears we are unwilling to accept that people just help people. Another theory on why people help others is this idea of reciprocity, that there is an obligation to return in kind what others have done for us. Again in some ways this may be true but I refuse, no matter how many studies demonstrate it, to believe that there are reasons for any form of helping (I might refer to the confirmation bias if one comes up to support my belief though). Reciprocity is found across cultures and even in animals! How the heck did they measure that? The idea of reciprocity also is decided through social norms, it is expected we should help those who have helped us. There is a social responsibility to help others who are dependent and in need, though many don't like it most will still do it.

Experiments The lecture and the text talks about Milgrams obedience experiment and Asch's conformity experimentI am at a bit of a loss as to how they fall under prosocial behaviour. Both experiment exhibit distinct antisocial behaviours with one having ordinary people "shock" people and one having someone preassured into making a bad decision. In some circumstances I guess either behaviour could be seen as a pro or a con though...

What Effects Whether We Will Help or Not
 * Mood- We are much more likely to help if we are feeling in a good mood, come on we're on top of the world why not help someone? We will be more likely to have a desire to maintain the good mood and focus on positive things and are more likely to have positive expectations about our helping behaviour. Conversely if it is too hard to help someone or we have other things to attend to we may not help someone. If we are in a bad mood you better hope you don't need or want anything from us. We tend to be very self focussed and already angry with people in general as it is others we will probably blame for our bad mood in the first place.
 * Attraction- If your car breaks down and you need a hand you better hope you look your best. I say this not to be superficial but because it has been shown that we are more likely to help attractive people than unattractive people.

 * Bystander effect- People are less likely to help if there are others around. I did psychology in college and my teacher had a strange love of this theory and sent us out in groups to test the theory. The idea was to form groups of three with one person as the poor sod who would fall over and scatter books etc, one to sit out of view and observe reactions, and one to casually blend into the crowd and see what people were saying. Now if you know me it wouldn't take much guessing to work out I was the [[Image:D-W015 Warnung vor Absturzgefahr ty.svg|200px|right|thumb|Helped once out of fourteen!]]poor soul who had to fall a number of times. I was very disheartned in the results. I don't do things by halves let me assure you. When I fell, boy did I fall and most of the time I genuinly did not mean to. Unlucky for me at the end of the experiment I was left with a number of scrapes cuts and bruises and the knowledge that of the 14 times I fell in a public area I was helped once, just once by a lovely old man I nearly took down with me. It was the bystander effect at its finest.

title: User:MandaG/Lecture Week 12


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User:Eml4500.f08.qwiki.bishop/HW5

 Comment:The change made for this new revision is that there are now labels on the plots. A comparison between the newly updated version of HW5 and our original submission can be found here

Eric GatchEml4500.f08.qwiki.gatch 18:23, 14 November 2008 (UTC)

=Lecture 24 - Monday, October 20, 2008=

=Lecture 25 - Wednesday, October 22, 2008= Test Day, No Lecture Notes

=Lecture 26 - Monday, October 27, 2008=

2-Bar Truss MATLAB Code
The 2-Bar Truss System shown below was previously analyzed via MATLAB and verified by statics calculations in Homework 2. However, Dr. Vu-Quoc pointed out during lecture that there was a bug in the author's code pertaining to the treatment of each element's modulus and cross-sectional area. The steps needed to fix the problem will be shown in this section, along with an explanation of the results. The following properties are given in the MATLAB code.

Debugging the 2-Bar Truss Code
The two-bar truss MATLAB code given by the author of Fundamental Finite Element Analysis and Applications does not take into account the differences in modulus and cross-sectional area when utilizing the  function to create a   array. One can see that the code below will cause  to use the same values of   and   for each element 1 and 2, even though they should not be equivalent.

i=1:elems results = [results; PlaneTrussResults(e, A , ...           nodes(conn(i,:),:), d(lmm(i,:)))]; end

A simple fix to this problem is to replace  and   with   and. Doing so will yield a  array that is calculated from the true values of modulus and cross-sectional area for element 1 and 2.

i=1:elems results = [results; PlaneTrussResults(e(i), A(i) , ...           nodes(conn(i,:),:), d(lmm(i,:)))]; end

The overall MATLAB code that correctly calculates the  array for a 2-bar truss system shown below:

% Two bar truss example provided by Wiley Pushishing % This code calculates axial stress and displacement of each element in a 2-bar truss system % Note: Code was modified on Nov. 4, 2008 to fix bug in calculating results clear all; e = [3 5]; A = [1 2]; P = 7; L=[4 2]; alpha = pi/3; beta = pi/4; nodes = [0, 0; L(1)*cos(pi/2-alpha), L(1)*sin(pi/2-alpha); L(1)*cos(pi/2-alpha)+L(2)*sin(beta),L(1)*sin(pi/2-alpha)-L(2)*cos(beta)]; dof = 2*length(nodes); conn = [1,2; 2,3]; lmm = [1, 2, 3, 4; 3, 4, 5, 6]; elems=size(lmm,1); K=zeros(dof); R = zeros(dof,1); debc = [1, 2, 5, 6]; ebcVals = zeros(length(debc),1); %load vector R = zeros(dof,1); R(4) = P; % Assemble global stiffness matrix K=zeros(dof); for i=1:elems lm=lmm(i,:); con=conn(i,:); k_local=e(i)*A(i)/L(i)*[1 -1; -1 1] k=PlaneTrussElement(e(i), A(i), nodes(con,:)) K(lm, lm) = K(lm, lm) + k; end K R % Nodal solution and reactions [d, reactions] = NodalSoln(K, R, debc, ebcVals) results=[]; for i=1:elems results = [results; PlaneTrussResults(e(i), A(i), ...           nodes(conn(i,:),:), d(lmm(i,:)))]; end format short g results

After running the corrected code in MATLAB, the following results are obtained:

k_local = 0.75       -0.75        -0.75         0.75  k = 0.5625     0.32476      -0.5625     -0.32476      0.32476       0.1875     -0.32476      -0.1875      -0.5625     -0.32476       0.5625      0.32476     -0.32476      -0.1875      0.32476       0.1875  k_local = 5   -5    -5     5  k = 2.5        -2.5         -2.5          2.5         -2.5          2.5          2.5         -2.5         -2.5          2.5          2.5         -2.5          2.5         -2.5         -2.5          2.5  K = Columns 1 through 5 0.5625     0.32476      -0.5625     -0.32476            0      0.32476       0.1875     -0.32476      -0.1875            0      -0.5625     -0.32476       3.0625      -2.1752         -2.5     -0.32476      -0.1875      -2.1752       2.6875          2.5            0            0         -2.5          2.5          2.5            0            0          2.5         -2.5         -2.5   Column 6 0           0          2.5         -2.5         -2.5          2.5  R = 0    0     0     7     0     0  d = 0          0       4.352      6.1271           0           0   reactions = -4.4378       -2.5622         4.4378        -4.4378  results = 1.7081      5.1244       5.1244       0.6276        3.138        6.276

Analyzing MATLAB Results
The last section of code displays the  array for element one and two. Row 1 represents the results for element 1 and row 2 represents element 2. Each row provides values of axial strain, stress and force of its respective element. The values are summarized in the table below.

To verify that the above solutions are correct, it is wise to compare them using statics. Element 1 Thus, the MATLAB solution for element 1 is consistent with static solutions of material properties. Element 2 The MATLAB solutions for element 2 also agree with material property equations relating stress, modulus, strain, and force. Equilibrium of Element 1 and 2 To verify equilibrium, take the sum of the forces in the x- and y-direction $$F_x = (5.1244)(0.866) - (6.276)(0.707) = 4.437 - 4.437 = 0 $$ $$ F_y = 7 - (5.1244)(0.5) - (6.276)(0.707) = 0 $$
 * $$ \sigma_1 = \epsilon_1 E_1 = 1.7081 * 3 = 5.1244$$
 * $$ F_1 = \sigma_1 A_1 = 5.1244 * 1 = 5.1244 $$
 * $$ \sigma_2 = \epsilon_2 E_2 = 0.6276 * 5 = 3.138$$
 * $$ F_2 = \sigma_2 A_2 = 3.138 * 2 = 6.276 $$
 * $$ F_x = F_1 \cos 30^{\circ} - F_2 \cos -45^{\circ} $$
 * $$ F_y = P - F_1 \sin 30^{\circ} - F_2 \sin -45^{\circ} $$

Principle of Virtual Work
To help us understand the Principle of Virtual Work, consider the following situation: Note that $$\alpha_0$$ and $$\alpha_i$$ are weighting factors. By choosing different weighting factors $$(\alpha_0, \alpha_i)$$, etc. you can "filter" out influences. For example, if you let $$\alpha_0 = 0$$, the total grade at the end of the semester will only be based on the sum of each exam grade multiplied by its respective weighting factor, $$\sum^N_{i=1}{\alpha_i G_{Exam,i}}$$. Similarly, when we discuss the Principle of Virtual Work, we will make use of a weighting factor $$\mathbf{w}$$.
 * Suppose your course grade, GTotal, is based on the equation $$G_{Total}=\alpha_0G_{Homework} + \sum^N_{i=1}{\alpha_iG_{Exam, i}}$$

Our overall goal is to derive $$\mathbf{k}_{4x4}^{(e)} = \mathbf{T}_{4x2}^{(e)T} \hat\mathbf{k}_{2x2}^{(e)} \mathbf{T}_{2x4}^{(e)}$$ via the Principle of Virtual Work Recall: $$\hat\mathbf{k}_{2x2}^{(e)} \mathbf{q}_{2x2}^{(e)} = \mathbf{p}_{2x1}^{(e)}$$ $$ \Rightarrow \hat\mathbf{k}^{(e)}_{2x2} \mathbf{q}^{(e)}_{2x1} - \mathbf{p}^{(e)}_{2x1} = \mathbf{0}_{2x1} \qquad \rightarrow \qquad (1) $$ By the Principle of Virtual Work (PVW): $$\mathbf{w}_{2x1} * ( \hat\mathbf{k}^{(e)} \mathbf{q}^{(e)} - \mathbf{p}^{(e)} )_{2x1} = 0_{1x1} \quad $$ for all $$\; \mathbf{w}_{2x1}\qquad \rightarrow \qquad (2) $$ $$\therefore \;$$ We showed that $$ (1) \longleftrightarrow (2)$$ Recall: $$\mathbf{q}{(e)} = \mathbf{T}^{(e)} \mathbf{d}^{(e)} \qquad \rightarrow \qquad (3)$$ Similarly, $$ \; \hat\mathbf{w}_{2x1} = \mathbf{T}_{2x4}^{(e)} \mathbf{w}_{4x1}^{(e)} \qquad \rightarrow \qquad (4)$$
 * $$\mathbf{q}^{(e)} \;$$ is the real displacement matrix defined in the axial coordinate system
 * $$\mathbf{d}^{(e)} \;$$ is the real displacement matrix defined in the global coordinate system
 * $$\hat\mathbf{w}_{2x1} \;$$ is the virtual displacement matrix defined in the axial coordinate system
 * $$\mathbf{w}_{4x1} \;$$ is the virtual displacement matrix defined in the global coordinate system

=Lecture 27 - Wednesday, October 29, 2008=

Read Chapter 2: 2.1, 2.2, 2.6, 2.7

Continuing The Principal of Virtual Work
$$\mathbf{\hat{w}}_{(2x1)}$$ is the virtual displacement, corresponds to $$\mathbf{q}_{(2x1)}^{(e)}$$

$$\mathbf{w}_{(4x1)}$$ is the virtual displacement in the global coordinate system, corresponds to $$\mathbf{d}_{(4x1)}^{(e)}$$

Now, replace Equations (3) and (4) from the previous lectures into Equation (2). Doing so yields:

Equation (5) $$(\mathbf{T}^{(e)}\mathbf{W})[\mathbf{\hat{k}}^{(e)}(\mathbf{T}^{(e)}\mathbf{d}^{(e)})-\mathbf{p}^{(e)}]=0$$

for all $$\mathbf{w}_{(4x1)}$$

Recall the following relation:

Equation (6) $$(\mathbf{A}_{(pxq)}\mathbf{B}_{(qxr)})^{T}=\mathbf{B}^{T}\mathbf{A}^{T}$$

Also recall this following equation:

Equation (7) $$\mathbf{a}_{(nx1)}\mathbf{b}_{(nx1)}=\mathbf{a}_{(1xn)}^{T}\mathbf{b}_{(nx1)}$$

Now apply (7) and (6) into equation (5). Doing so yields the following:

 * $$(\mathbf{T}^{(e)}\mathbf{w})^T[\mathbf{\hat{k}}^{(e)}(\mathbf{T}^{(e)}\mathbf{d}^{(e)})-\mathbf{p}^{(e)}]=0$$

for all $$\mathbf{w}_{(4x1)}$$

 * $$\mathbf{W}^{T}\mathbf{T}^{(e)T}[\mathbf{\hat{k}}^{(e)}(\mathbf{T}^{(e)}\mathbf{d}^{(e)})-\mathbf{p}^{(e)}]=0$$

 * $$\mathbf{W}[(\mathbf{T}^{(e)T}\mathbf{\hat{k}}^{(e)}\mathbf{T}^{(e)})\mathbf{d}^{(e)}-(\mathbf{T}^{(e)T}\mathbf{p}^{(e)})]=0$$

for all $$\mathbf{w}_{(4x1)}$$

 * $$\mathbf{K}_{(4x4)}^{(e)}=\mathbf{T}^{(e)T}\mathbf{\hat{k}}^{(e)}\mathbf{T}^{(e)}$$

 * $$\mathbf{f}_{(4x1)}^{(e)}=\mathbf{T}^{(e)T}\mathbf{p}^{(e)}$$

 * $$\mathbf{W}[\mathbf{K}^{(e)}\mathbf{d}^{(e)}-\mathbf{f}^{(e)}]=0$$

Continuous Case (PDE's)
So far, only discrete cases have been dealt with (non continuous, matrices). Now, an elastic bar with varying properties with respect to x will be considered. The varying properties are:

 * Cross-sectional area, A(x)
 * Modulus of Elasticity, E(x)
 * Axial (distributed) and concentrated loads, f(x,t)
 * Mass density, $$\rho$$(x)

Note that the axial and concentrated loads are also time dependent.

The following figure illustrates the elastic bar to be examined with the varying properties.

=Lecture 28 - Friday, October 31, 2008=

Free Body Diagram
The following diagram is of an infinitely small element of the composite shown above.

Note: Time is involved because it is a dynamic problem. Also m(x) is the mass per unit length.

Now, using the useful equation $$\Sigma F_{x}=0$$ yields:

$$\Sigma F_{x}=-N(x,t)+N(x+dx,t)+f(x,t)dx-m(x)\ddot{u}=0$$

Expanding $$-N(x,t)+N(x+dx,t)$$ to $$-N(x,t)+N(x,t)+N(dx,t)=N(dx,t)$$

Equation 1

$$0=\frac{\partial N}{\partial x}(x,t)dx+h.o.t.+f(x,t)dx-m(x)\ddot{u}dx$$

Where H.O.T. stands for higher order terms which can be neglected by recalling the Taylor series expansion:

$$f(x+dx)=f(x)+\frac{df(x)}{dx}dx+1/2\frac{d^{2}f(x)}{dx^{2}}dx^{2}+...$$

Therefore Equation 1 can be re-written as Equation 2- The Equation of Motion for an Elastic Bar

$$\frac{\partial N}{\partial x}+f=m\ddot{u}$$

The N force can also be broken down to the following constitutive relationship, naming it Equation 3.

Replacing Equation 3 in Equation 2 yields Equation 4- The Partial Differential Equation of Motion

$$\frac{\partial }{\partial x}[A(x)E(x)\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}]+f(x,t)=m(x)\ddot{u}$$

Boundary Conditions
If there is a 2nd order partial differential equation, 2 conditions are needed. One constant arises after the first integral, and the second comes after the second integral.

 * Need 2 boundary conditions (2nd order derivative with respect to x)
 * Need 2 initial conditions (2nd derivative with respect to t) - initial displacement, initial velocity

Examples

The boundary conditions for the above fixed bar are u(0,t)= 0 = u(L,t).

Left Side Boundary: u(0,t)=0

Right Side Boundary: N(L,t)=F(t) which yields  $$A(L)E(L)\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}(L,t)= F(t)$$

Rearranging results in: $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}(L,t)= \frac{F(t)}{A(L)E(L)}$$

=Additional Assignment: Space Trusses=

FD Relation Derivations

 * The concepts of FEA for a plane (2-D) truss can be applied to a space (3-D) truss.
 * The axial FD relation remains the same for each element.
 * $$\begin{Bmatrix}

F_{1}\\ F_{2} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} k & -k\\ -k & k \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} d_{1}\\ d_{2} \end{Bmatrix}$$
 * The elemental degrees of freedom and elemental forces are transformed to global xyz coordinates by a elemental stiffness matrix that now includes a factor "n".
 * $$k^{(e)}\begin{bmatrix}

l^{(e)2} & m^{(e)}l^{(e)} & n^{(e)}l^{(e)} & -l^{(e)2} & -l^{(e)}m^{(e)} & -l^{(e)}n^{(e)}\\ l^{(e)}m^{(e)}& m^{(e)2} & n^{(e)}m^{(e)} & -l^{(e)}m^{(e)} & -m^{(e)2} & -n^{(e)}m^{(e)}\\ l^{(e)}n^{(e)} & m^{(e)}n^{(e)} & n^{(e)2} & -l^{(e)}n^{(e)}& -m^{(e)}n^{(e)} & -n^{(e)2}\\ -l^{(e)2} & -l^{(e)}m^{(e)} & -l^{(e)}n^{(e)} & l^{(e)2}& l^{(e)}m^{(e)} & l^{(e)}n^{(e)}\\ -l^{(e)}m^{(e)} & -m^{(e)2} & -n^{(e)}m^{(e)} & l^{(e)}m^{(e)}& m^{(e)2} & n^{(e)}m^{(e)}\\ -l^{(e)}n^{(e)} & - m^{(e)}n^{(e)}& -n^{(e)2} & l^{(e)}n^{(e)}& n^{(e)}m^{(e)} & n^{(e)2} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} d^{(e)}_{1}\\ d^{(e)}_{2}\\ d^{(e)}_{3}\\ d^{(e)}_{4}\\ d^{(e)}_{5}\\ d^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{Bmatrix} f^{(e)}_{1}\\ f^{(e)}_{2}\\ f^{(e)}_{3}\\ f^{(e)}_{4}\\ f^{(e)}_{5}\\ f^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}\Rightarrow \mathbf{K^{(e)}}\mathbf{d^{(e)}}=\mathbf{f^{(e)}}$$
 * The derivation for the Transformation matrix, T (2x6), is similar to that of a plane truss and is as follows:
 * $$q^{(e)}_{1}=(\vec{i}*\tilde{i})d^{(e)}_{1}+(\vec{j}*\tilde{i})d^{(e)}_{2}+(\vec{k}*\tilde{i})d^{(e)}_{3}=l^{(e)}d^{(e)}_{1}+m^{(e)}d^{(e)}_{2}+n^{(e)}d^{(e)}_{3}$$

 * Which applied to the other axial displacement and then put into matrix form is (below is also the relation for element forces:
 * $$\begin{Bmatrix}

q^{(e)}_{1}\\ q^{(e)}_{2} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} l^{(e)} & m^{(e)} & n^{(e)} & 0 & 0 & 0\\ 0& 0 & 0 & l^{(e)} & m^{(e)} & n^{(e)} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} d^{(e)}_{1}\\ d^{(e)}_{2}\\ d^{(e)}_{3}\\ d^{(e)}_{4}\\ d^{(e)}_{5}\\ d^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}=\mathbf{T^{(e)}}\begin{Bmatrix} d^{(e)}_{1}\\ d^{(e)}_{2}\\ d^{(e)}_{3}\\ d^{(e)}_{4}\\ d^{(e)}_{5}\\ d^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}$$
 * $$\begin{Bmatrix}

p^{(e)}_{1}\\ p^{(e)}_{2} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} l^{(e)} & m^{(e)} & n^{(e)} & 0 & 0 & 0\\ 0& 0 & 0 & l^{(e)} & m^{(e)} & n^{(e)} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} f^{(e)}_{1}\\ f^{(e)}_{2}\\ f^{(e)}_{3}\\ f^{(e)}_{4}\\ f^{(e)}_{5}\\ f^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}=\mathbf{T^{(e)}}\begin{Bmatrix} f^{(e)}_{1}\\ f^{(e)}_{2}\\ f^{(e)}_{3}\\ f^{(e)}_{4}\\ f^{(e)}_{5}\\ f^{(e)}_{6} \end{Bmatrix}$$ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{1}\\ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{2}\\ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{3} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} l^{(e)} & m^{(e)} & n^{(e)} \\ -m_{(e)}&l^{(e)} \\ n^{(e)} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} {f}^{(e)}_{1}\\ {f}^{e}_{2}\\ \end{Bmatrix}=\textbf{R}^{(e)}\begin{Bmatrix} {f}^{(e)}_{1}\\ {f}^{(e)}_{2}\\ \end{Bmatrix}$$ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{1}\\ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{2}\\ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{3}\\ \tilde{f}^{(e)}_{4} \end{Bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{R}^{(e)}_{2x2} & \mathbf{0}_{2x2}\\ \mathbf{0}_{2x2} & \mathbf{R}^{(e)}_{2x2} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} {f}^{(e)}_{1}\\ {f}^{(e)}_{2}\\ {f}^{(e)}_{3}\\ {f}^{(e)}_{4} \end{Bmatrix}\Rightarrow \tilde{\mathbf{f}}^{(e)}_{4x1}=\tilde{\mathbf{T}}^{(e)}_{4x4}\mathbf{f}^{(e)}_{4x1}$$
 * $$\mathbf{\tilde{d}^{(e)}}=\mathbf{\tilde{T}^{(e)}d^{(e)}}$$
 * Similarly, $$\mathbf{\tilde{f}^{(e)}}=\mathbf{\tilde{T}^{(e)}f^{(e)}}$$
 * $$\begin{Bmatrix}
 * $$\begin{Bmatrix}
 * The set of R and zero matrices can be represented by the T matrix.
 * Applying the Principal of Virtual Work (PVW):
 * $$\mathbf{W}_{12x1}(\mathbf{k}_{12x12}\mathbf{d}_{12x1}-\mathbf{F}_{12x1})=0$$, for all W's.

 * The boundary conditions of this problem shows that:
 * $$d_1=d_2=d_3=d_4=d_5=d_6=d_7=d_8=d_9=0$$

 * Since, the weighting coefficients must be kinematically admissible, they cannot violate the boundary conditions, therefore:
 * $$W_1=W_2=W_3=W_4=W_5=W_6=W_7=W_8=W_9=0$$

 * In plugging these values for d and W into the force-displacement equation, the equation reduces to:
 * $$\bar{\mathbf{K}}_{3x3}\bar{\mathbf{d}}_{3x1}-\bar{\mathbf{F}}_{3x1}=\begin{bmatrix}

K_{10,10} & K_{10,11} & K_{10,12}\\ K_{11,10}& K_{11,11} &K_{10,12} \\ K_{12,12}& K_{12,11} & K_{10,12} \end{bmatrix}\begin{Bmatrix} d_{10}\\ d_{11}\\ d_{12} \end{Bmatrix}-\begin{Bmatrix} F_{10}\\ F_{11}\\ F_{12} \end{Bmatrix}=0$$
 * And typically the forces, F10, F11, F12 are known.
 * If we look at the force-displacement relationship, we can apply the T matrix conversion between global and axial coordiantes.
 * $$\tilde{\mathbf{k}}^{(e)}\tilde{\mathbf{d}}^{(e)}=\tilde{\mathbf{f}}^{(e)}\Rightarrow \tilde{\mathbf{k}}^{(e)}\tilde{\mathbf{T}}^{(e)}\mathbf{d}^{(e)}=\tilde{\mathbf{T}}^{(e)}\mathbf{f}^{(e)}$$
 * But if the T matrix can be inverted, then:
 * $$[\tilde{\mathbf{T}}^{(e) -1}\tilde{\mathbf{k}}^{(e)}\tilde{\mathbf{T}}^{(e)}]\mathbf{d}^{(e)}=\mathbf{f}^{(e)}$$

Results for Matlab Code

 * The global stiffnes matrix, K (12x12)

 * The global displacement matrix, d (12x1)

 * The global reactions, f (9x1), excluding the known forces from given force P

 * The results
 * The conn and lmm arrays
 * This problem is statically indeterminate because there are 3 bars, and therefore too many unknowns for the amount of equations available to solve for them.
 * Here are the plots in plane view down the x axis, down the y axis, down the z axis, and from the point (-2,-2,3).

=Six Bar Truss Homework Problem=

Equivalent Modulus and Cross-Sectional Area for all Elements
Case 1

Plot for Case 1
The graph below shows the undeformed and deformed shaped of the 6-bar truss system for case 1:

Case 2 Plot
=Contributing Team Members= The following students contributed to this report

 * Andrea Booher EML4500.f08.qwiki.booher 17:27, 3 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Mike Berry Eml4500.f08.qwiki.berry 12:32, 4 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Chris Bishop Eml4500.f08.qwiki.bishop 19:56, 4 November 2008 (UTC)
 * David Nobles Eml4500.f08.qwiki.nobles 15:12, 7 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Lee Harris Eml4500.f08.qwiki.harris 01:14, 13 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Eric Gatch Eml4500.f08.qwiki.gatch 21:55, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Eml4500.f08.qwiki.bishop/HW5