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Researching with Wikipedia

''The following article was originally a copy of the Wikipedia project page Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia. In this new context, we will probably want to evolve it toward being a more general discussion on encyclopedias as research tools.''

Wikipedia can be a great tool for learning and researching information. However, like all sources, not everything in Wikipedia is accurate, comprehensive, or unbiased. Many of the general rules of thumb for conducting research apply to Wikipedia, including:
 * Always be wary of any one single source, or of multiple works that derive from a single source.
 * Where articles have references to external sources (whether online or not) read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says.
 * Many times, an encyclopedia may not constitute an acceptable source for a research paper.

However, because of Wikipedia's unique nature, there are also some rules for conducting research that are special to Wikipedia, and some general rules that do not apply to Wikipedia.

Notable strengths of Wikipedia

 * Main Wikipedia article: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great

Wikipedia has certain advantages over other reference works. Being web-based and having a very large number of active writers and editors, it provides fast coverage of many topics and provides hyperlinking, unavailable in slower media.

Also, it often provides access to subject matter that is otherwise inaccessible in non-native languages. Since English Wikipedia editors come from all around the world, the relative lack of non-Western topics found in many Western publications is significantly less noticeable on Wikipedia.

Wikipedia often produces excellent articles about newsworthy events within days of their occurrence, such as 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks, 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, Hurricane Katrina or the 2005 civil unrest in France. Similarly, it is one of the few sites on the web even attempting neutral, objective, encyclopedic coverage of popular culture, including television series or science fiction. It is also developing across-the-board global coverage of subject areas where for one reason or another existing sources are highly fragmented, including sports such as football (soccer) and golf.

In comparison with most other web-based resources, Wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be promptly corrected. As Wikipedia is a collaborative, ongoing project, one may also ask questions of an article's authors. And thanks to its extensive hyperlinks usage Wikipedia can be an excellent guide to other related material, both on and off wiki.

Notable weaknesses of Wikipedia

 * Main Wikipedia article: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great

Wikipedia's most dramatic weaknesses are closely associated with its greatest strengths. Wikipedia's radical openness means that any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state: for example it could be in the middle of a large edit or it could have been recently vandalized. While blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, Wikipedia is certainly more subject to subtle vandalism than a typical reference work.

Also, much as Wikipedia can rapidly produce articles on timely topics, it is also subject to remarkable oversights and omissions. There is no systematic process to make sure that "obviously important" topics are written about, so at any given time Wikipedia may be wildly out of balance in the relative attention paid to two different topics. For example, it is far more likely that the English-language Wikipedia will have at least some material about any given small U.S. village than about a given moderately sized city in sub-Saharan Africa.

Another closely related issue is that particular Wikipedia articles (or series of related articles) are liable to be incomplete in ways that would be unusual in a more tightly controlled reference work. Sometimes this is obvious (as with a stub article) but other times it may be subtle: one side of a controversial issue may be excellently presented, while the other is barely mentioned; a portion of someone's life (not always the most notable portion) may be covered in detail, while other aspects may be presented only sketchily or not at all; coverage of a country's history may focus on the incidents that drew international attention, or may simply reflect the interest and expertise of some individual writer.

Another problem with a lot of content on Wikipedia is that many contributors do not cite their sources, something that makes it hard for the reader to judge the credibility of what is written.

Article quality in Wikipedia

 * Main Wikipedia article: Reliability of Wikipedia

Wikipedia is a wiki—a collaborative, open-source medium. Articles are never "complete and final". Just as human knowledge evolves, so does our wiki coverage of it. Wiki articles are continually edited and improved over time, and in general this results in an upward trend of quality, and a growing consensus over a fair balanced representation of information. It will tend to gain citations, new sections, and so forth. Dubious statements tend to be removed over time, but they may have a long life before they are removed.

However, few articles are of encyclopaedic quality from the start. Indeed, many articles commence their lives as partisan drafts, and it may take a long process of discussion, debate and argument, to yield a consensus form. Other articles may, for a while, become caught up in a heavily unbalanced viewpoint, and it can take some time—months, perhaps—to restore a balanced consensus. Wikipedia has various processes to reach consensus about an article, including mechanisms to bring in broader participation to controversial articles.

The ideal Wikipedia article is neutral, referenced and encyclopaedic, containing notable, verifiable knowledge. An increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. Because this is an open wiki, there is no guarantee that a featured article retains its quality over time, and of course an older featured article does not magically improve as Wikipedia's standards generally rise. As of August 2006, 19% of onetime feature articles either degraded (or failed to rise with the general standards) to the point of losing their featured status.

Keep in mind that an encyclopedia is intended to be a starting point for serious research, not an endpoint. Though many casual inquiries will be satisfied merely by referring to Wikipedia, you will learn more by accessing the print and online resources we reference. Wikipedia encourages you to verify its content by using independent sources. Wikipedia also invites you to contribute back by fixing any errors you may find, and adding relevant material that will be of interest to future researchers.

Use multiple independent sources
Because Wikipedia is licensed under the GFDL, its content is often reproduced, especially online. Researchers should be especially careful of the FUTON bias and ensure that a second article appearing to confirm a Wikipedia article is not (for example) simply a copy of an earlier version.

Examine an article's history

 * Main Wikipedia article: Wikipedia:How to read an article history

The process of creating Wikipedia is radically open. As a result, unlike most reference works it is possible that even for a generally excellent and stable article, the latest version at any given moment may be the subject of recent edits which are not of the same quality as the rest of the article.

However, unlike most reference works, you can access the history of the article (previous versions and change comments) and the discussion between the editors who created it. Often, if you have questions about an article or are looking to do in-depth research on a subject, reading the history and talk pages gives you further insight into why the article says what it says and which points of the article (if any) are in dispute and may particularly merit further research.

Internal links
Wikipedia breathes new life into one of the initial dreams of the World Wide Web: hyperlinks. Hyperlinks allow Wikipedia authors to link any word or phrase to another Wikipedia article, often providing annotations of great value. Background information to an article no longer needs to be limited or even produced by the author of the article. This method has proved to have major limitations on the Internet, because for a variety of reasons links are prone to quickly become obsolete. However, internal links within Wikipedia can be made with confidence, and so Wikipedia serves a web of mutually supporting information.

Some articles are probably over-linked with important links liable to be lost like needles in a haystack. Also, someone may have linked a word without looking to see whether it leads to anything useful: you may follow up a link and find nothing more than what you just read, or even find an article on an unrelated meaning of the same word. In general, this problem is less common in the English-language Wikipedia than in Wikipedias in some other languages.

Categories
Wikipedia has had its own user defined category system (folksonomy) since the beginning of 2004. The category system is a collaborative categorization system using freely chosen keywords by all contributors to Wikipedia. This feature allows researchers to navigate Wikipedia via categories which can be very useful. However, the current quality of the category system is highly variable. In some topic areas contributors have created detailed and well organised categorisation; in other topic areas categorisation either has not occurred or has been poorly done.

In all categorized articles, you should be able to find a list of its categories at the very bottom.

Take advantage of "what links here"
One of the lesser known, but extremely useful techniques for researching with Wikipedia is the effective use of the "What links here" link which appears on the left side of the screen, as the first item in the box marked "toolbox". This will give you a complete list of other Wikipedia articles which link to the current article. Even if the article you are looking at is a stub — or, more remarkably, if it is a blank article that has not yet been started — numerous related articles may be easily accessible through this feature. Sometimes these backward links will show you ways in which the article you started from is incomplete in one area or another.

Understand Wikipedia's biases
No good scholar expects any given reference work to be truly unbiased. Instead, one comes to understand the expected bias of a particular work. For example, in looking at the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, one expects to find some Anglocentric perspectives and attitudes about race, ethnicity, sex, and sexuality that by today's standards seem prudish and perhaps bigoted. In using Collier's Encyclopedia, one should expect a rather Americentric perspective (and probably a lesser degree of scholarship than in Britannica, but a more easily readable style).

Unlike some reference works, Wikipedia's biases are inconsistent. Wikipedians come from all over the world and all walks of life. While we strive to have articles fit a neutral point of view, many articles are not yet there. In fact, two articles on related subjects may have been written by different people and reflect different biases. Even within a single article radically different or conflicting biases may be found. It is also a matter of contention whether certain views are described in a neutral manner.

In this respect, Wikipedia is more like a library (or like the World Wide Web itself) than like a typical reference work. The mere fact that a book is in the library is no guarantee against bias or misinformation. The same can be said of Wikipedia articles. This does not make libraries (or Wikipedia) useless, it just means that they should be approached differently than one approaches a typical reference work.

Use Wikipedia's social process

 * Main Wikipedia article: Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia, Wikipedia:A researcher's guide to discussion pages

Wikipedia is not just an encyclopedia; it is also an immense community of active contributors, or Wikipedians. In the history section of each article, you can find out which users contributed what material to an article. In addition, each article has a talk page. If you have questions about the article, asking on its talk page or the talk page of the users who contributed the text will often get your question answered. Then, you and the contributor may update the article to make it clearer for the next researcher.

Probably the most general approach to this is to first put your question on the talk page of the appropriate article, then put a note on the talk page of the relevant contributor or contributors calling their attention to your question.

Questions like this are often very useful to the refinement of articles. If you have a relevant question that was not answered by the article, there is a fair chance that others will need this information also, and it should be added to the article.

In general, you should not expect Wikipedians to contact you by email. Instead, check back to the talk page periodically to see if your question has been answered.

We strongly recommend that if you want to participate in the Wikipedia community you create a Wikipedia account (it's free, you don't need to provide any personal or contact information, and there won't be any spam). If you log in, and if you sign your posts on talk pages with ~, that will be saved on the talk page as an account signature and a timestamp. Posting to talk pages with an account is not only a local social norm, but it makes it possible for you to retain your identity across multiple editing sessions, and avoid being confused with others.

Look for comprehensive review
A small number of English-language Wikipedia articles — most notably, featured articles — have had broad, systematic review. These articles usually remain at a high level of quality, but it is possible (although unlikely) that a previously reviewed article may have deteriorated since the time it received that level of attention.

WikiReader discusses one of the more ambitious schemes to bring a comparable level of scrutiny to a large number of articles. As of August 2006, there have been no English-language WikiReaders published, although several have been issued in German, and a number of English-language WikiReaders are in progress.

Another proposed approach to formally reviewing more articles can be found at Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check; however, this project is still in its infancy, as is Wikipedia:Forum for Encyclopedic Standards.

Despite this shortage of formal review, many articles have had enormous scrutiny. Again, this can often be identified informally by browsing the history and discussion associated with the article.

Citing Wikipedia
Main Wikipedia article: Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia

First you should question the appropriateness of citing any encyclopedia as a source or reference. This is not simply a Wikipedia-specific issue, as most secondary schools and institutions of higher learning do not consider encyclopedias, in general, a proper citable source. Citation of Wikipedia in research papers has been known to result in a grade of F.

This does not mean Wikipedia is not useful: Wikipedia articles contain many links to newspaper articles, books with ISBN numbers, radio programming, television shows, Web-based sources, and the like. It will usually be more acceptable to cite those original sources rather than Wikipedia since it is by nature, a secondary source. At the same time, simple academic ethics means that you should actually read the work that you cite: if you do not actually have your hands on a book, you should not misleadingly cite it as your source.

There are cases where contributions to Wikipedia are considered original and important enough on topics not covered in other works, so as to be considered a primary source. (For example, the article "fuck" was used in a Colorado court of law to illustrate the vernacular use of that term.)

Owing to the radical openness of Wikipedia, decisions about referencing articles must be made on an article-by-article basis. If one does choose to cite a Wikipedia article, references should identify a specific version of an article by providing the date and time it was created. This can be found in the edit history of the article.

If you decide to cite Wikipedia, remember that its articles are constantly changing: cite exact time, date and version of the article version you are using. Page history and toolbox "permanent link" features are very useful for finding that information.

Wikipedia:Wikipedia as an academic source pages contains examples of academic publications that used Wikipedia as a source.

title: Researching with Wikipedia


text:
OCaml/Introduction

Basic Types
Every element OCaml has is associated with a specific type. The concept of types is a very powerful feature of OCaml, but for now we will just mention some predefined types: The formal names are what we call the types when we are talking with the OCaml system.
 * Strings (formal name:  example:  )
 * Integers (formal name:  example:  )
 * Floats (formal name:  example:  )
 * Booleans / Truth values (formal name:  example:  )

Hello World
Ok, let's see some action:

This will print the text "Hello World" on the screen.

Why do we write  and not just print? Well, actually there is no thing called just "print" in OCaml, but there is something called  (there are   and   too). The difference is most obvious when we print several things: If we do  followed by , the output will be: heyyou While if we do the same thing using  the output would be: hey you So when we use  every string is printed on the same line right next to each other, while with   every string gets its own line. could be read as "print this string and then end the line", so what this really means is that the next thing we print (regardless of how) will be on a new line, while the current string might or might not be on its own line depending on if there already is anything there.

Yeah, but how do I make that text actually print something on my screen?
So you're not satisfied with just reading what's happening? Want to see it for yourself? :-) You will have to install the OCaml development environment from here: official page, exactly what you install and how you use it depends on your computer and operating system. At the moment there are two components of interest to us - there's the compiler and the interactive environment. The compiler takes a text file and makes an executable of it that you can run just like any other program, and the interactive environment lets you communicate directly with the system. We will focus at the later as it is more suited for learning and experimenting.

Assignment

 * Install the OCaml development environment
 * Find out how to get the interactive system up and running

Got it running now? Inside the interactive system you will be presented with a prompt that looks like this: #. You communicate with the system by typing things after the prompt followed by  as well as enter. Hitting enter without the semicolons will let you continue on a new line without "sending" your message to the system. When the system receives the message it will parse and evaluate it and answer you with its version of the message. Let's try something, computers are quite mathematical beings so maybe it would like to talk about maths? Personally I like the number 5 so let's see what OCaml has to say about it:

A bit strange looking answer maybe? means that the type of our message was integer, and whats after the  means that the value of our message was. Not very useful, no? Lets try something else:

So, it can do something useful after all :-).

So is this some kind of interactive calculator or what?
It is a very powerful calculator mind you :-). And it is a lot more, but let's look at the calculator side of things a bit. Assume we want to now the answer of: "32 - (8 - 7 * 23) + 2 * (8 - 7 * 23)" (don't ask me why '^^). Notice how "8 - 7 * 23" appears two times? Feel lazy? I do, it is such a bother to type the same thing twice I'd do anything to avoid it. Fortunately I don't need to find my own typing-slave, because OCaml will come to my aid:

Nifty, isn't it? The important part is:  This will let us name an expression for use inside an other expression. We can also save something for later use:

This will let me use the name "my_favorite_number" to refer to 5 anytime.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: OCaml/Introduction


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Great Debates in Media Literacy

Agenda of Media Literacy: Empowerment or Activist?
Media literacy has developed from two theoretical views: inoculation theory and cultural studies theory. These two views originate from different assumptions about subject matter, how audience is impacted, and how the subject matter is taught (Christ & Potter, 1998). One camp of scholars see the agenda of media literacy as empowering individuals to explore and to control the effects of media on themselves. Another camp sees the agenda of media literacy as transforming society through activist work where individuals are motivated to change institutions to make them more democratic (Christ & Potter, 1998).

"Teachers need to consider where they are comfortable on the spectrum of activism…we need to consider what we want action to mean…Teachers might also make a distinction between how they are personally involved and how they might more safely channel their students’ activities” (Anderson, quoted in Schwarz, p. 236). Renee: I wonder what "safely" means in this context. Safe for whom? One of the most wonderful and maddening professors I had as an undergraduate was an English teacher who urged us to engage politically with the world. As in intellectual leadership to urge students to step into activist work or is it essentially coercive?  There is a split within media literacy organizations which further illustrate this conflict between empowerment and activism. [The Alliance for a Media Literate America] (AMLA) situates critical thinking, analysis and creative production at the fore of its mission. Although the [Action Coalition for Media Education] [](ACME), supports a similar mission, they remain driven by an underlying critique of commercial media and corporate involvement in media literacy. Through their work and project materials, ACME further investigates how the media is shaped by advertising, censorship and communication regulations.

Critics fear that media literacy education can become a substitute for social and political action. One concept that deserves further exploration is the question of what constitutes action. Among media reform groups, there is often an implicit (and sometimes explicit)hierarchy of what constitutes the most important issues on the reform agenda and what forms of action are more significant. Drawing upon the work of scholarship on service learning, there is a need for research that examines how students interpret educational experiences which invite them to take various forms of political and social action.

Conceptual Issues
Scholars conceptualize and debate over media literacy differently according to a variety of reference points. Christ and Potter (1998) offer a summary of the different approaches to defining the media literacy field and its boundaries. “Media literacy” can be regarded as a public policy issue; a critical cultural issue; a set of pedagogical tools for school teachers; suggestions for parents; a McLuhanesque speculation; or a topic of scholarly inquiry from a physiological, cognitive or anthropological standpoint. Media literacy has also been defined as the study of textual interpretation; of context and ideology; or of the audience. The terms “media” and “literacy” acquire yet additional connotations when considered separately. Studies with a focus on a specific “medium” may favor oral and written language; still and moving images; computers; television; or multimedia. “Literacy”, on the other hand, can be regarded as a skill; as an accumulation of knowledge; or as a perspective on the world (Christ and Potter, 1998).

'Applications of media literacy'

Media literacy practioners often disagree on media literacy's role within the school curriculum. For example, some practitioners of media literacy in higher education aim to train students in a specific skill they will need to acquire a job. This approach to media literacy is challenged by practioners who believe this focus is too narrow. The latter approach focuses on the importance of educating students in a broad manner to participate in a complex society (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Practioner Coalitions for Media Education Progression

History has proven that a people are stronger and make more progress when united for a common goal. In the case of media education the same lesson applies. According to media literacy strategist Kathleen Tyner, ‘by emphasizing the central goal of teaching about the media in order to develop democratic citizenship skills, successful coalitions can be formed to overcome barriers to media education in the United States.’

It is with this premise in mind that Tyner identifies 4 categories to which media education currently falls under in The Tale of the Elephant: Media Education in the United States. Tyner gives both the traditional problems with each stance and shares the changes that educators are making to improve curriculum.

Protectionism This view states that educators act as the ‘gatekeepers’ and ‘arbitrators’ of taste. Tyner points out that because protectionist are always on the defense to popular culture, they approach change through a ‘knee-jerk political response to educational reform’ that reaps ‘disjointed funding and confused teaching practices in the United States.’ As media becomes more and more entertaining and pleasurable, and as students grow in their skepticism to educators being the vessels of truth, this conservative view leaves little room for effective teaching of what quality culture is or is not.

Technology Education Tyner notes that much of what is considered media education currently in America falls in this category and is favored for its perpetuation of job readiness through student acquisition of technology skills. Problems arise in its computer-centered approach which discounts other needed media skills, its avoidance of technology’s influence on content, as well as its partnerships with communications corporations whose motivations are typically self-serving.

Media Arts Education This category focuses on the self-expression and creativity of students. The funding and participation of educators, media professionals, and out-of-school programs is growing in this area. The problem lies in the risk that as students gain confidence and positive self-esteem through their creations, they misinterpret empowerment. According to Tyner, ‘true self-esteem that enables students to give back to their communities grows out of a mastery of skills, and also out of identifying, analyzing and overcoming the daily erosion of human dignity in an unjust society.’

Democracy Education The development of citizenship skills is critical for educators of this stance. The problem is the lack of good examples in the daily operations of American schools. It’s hard to teach citizenship when the very institution they teach in contradicts what they say. Furthermore, as classrooms become more culturally diverse the lack of diversity in textbooks reflects the challenge of teaching critical analysis of media representation.

Despite theses problems and other barriers identified, there is hope. Tyner states, ‘they are beginning to see past their blinkers in order to forge common goals and objectives, long-range planning and practical ideas for implanting media education in the United States.’ For the sake of the future of media education, I hope she is right.

Media Literacy as a Special Subject or Integrated Across the Curriculum
Whether media literacy should be taught as its own specialist subject or integrated throughout the curriculum of science, social studies, history, the arts, and literature depends on a school's context of educational policy, funding, administration, and teachers. Media literacy can be integrated into classrooms most easily by teachers discussing the media texts they use in the classroom. Hobbs (1998) gives the example of a ninth-grade science teacher who had students visually analyze two different documentaries about the Exxon-Valdez oil spill disaster--one produced by Jacques cousteau and the other by Exxon. Buckingham (2003) argues for media education across the curriculum in all subjects. Media education can work with a wide range of subject areas and address learning objectives, as "many media education activities involve competencies such as literacy and numeracy, as well as skills in areas such as technology, problem-solving and research" (Buckingham, 2003, p. 89). Buckingham (2003) explains how media education can be studied in history, science, foreign languages, and music (pp. 90-91). On the other hand, media literacy as a separate subject usually happens as a "pragmatic option" yet it can be successful. For instance, the University of Maryland offers a popular Media Literacy course to undergraduates as part of their core courses. Integrating media literacy across the curriculum may enhance each subject, however the downfall is that teachers may be untrained in media literacy and incoherently include key media literacy concepts. Teaching media literacy as a separate course would provide a coherent coverage of media analysis and production, but the course may be marginalized as a "soft option" that is seen as less rigorous than traditional subjects (Buckingham, 2003).

Focus on Popular Culture
As Hobbs (1998) points out in the "Great Debates" article, some teachers worry that the texts of popular culture are not rich enough, not substantial enough, to warrant significant levels of attention in the classroom. English teachers, at both the high school and college levels, often use texts that speak about the human condition in ways that reflect the deeply humanistic orientation of their field.

This idea is often dismissed by those approaching the field from the perspective of cultural studies. Some, like John Fiske, claim that the texts of mass media and popular culture are just as rich and nuanced as classic works of literature, but that they reflect different values than those found in the literary canon. Others, like Robert Scholes, acknowledge that the texts of mass media and popular culture may often be more simplistic than literary texts, but that the reading process can be made more complex in responding to these texts. While most educators agree that the inclusion of mass media and popular culture connects to students' lived experience and increased perceived relevance, some media literacy educators prefer to focus on those classic works of film and visual media that have "stood the test of time."

Financing Media Literacy Efforts: Accept Funding from Media Corporations?
A rift in the field exists between those that believe media literacy efforts should not accept any corporate sponsorship or funding from media corporations (Heins & Cho, 2003), and those that believe that accepting funding from media organizations is an opportunity to advance the field and carry out projects that might otherwise go unfunded. For instance, The Alliance for a Media Literate America (AMLA) accepts funds from a variety of sources including media corporations, but the AMLA includes several restrictions in its operational policies, such as not being fully dependent on corporate funders, not allowing them to vote on issues related to AMLA, and not accepting direction or policy from the corporate interests (Alliance For a Media Literate America, 2005). Conversely, others believe that accepting funding for media literacy initiatives from media corporations is like sleeping with the enemy. Citizens for Media Literacy, for example, does not accept any funding from media corporations because they believe it is a conflict of interest and they stand a philosophical ground against Big Media (Heins & Cho, 2003). Thus, the issue of accepting funding from media corporations has created divisions between those in the media literacy movement.

The Role of the "Practitioner" in Media Literacy
While the ultimate goals of media literacy are being debated, so are the approaches. This is not only debated in the k-12 setting, but also in higher education. The question remains - is it more helpful to bring in a person representing the current hierarchical media system or is it more beneficial to bring in a representative that will explain new advancements in technology? Advancements that will progress the future of media – challenge the current the media systems (Christ and Potter, 1998)? Which option is a media educator to choose? Being as that two levels( K-12 and higher education) intertwine (both levels are encouraging/creating practitioners), following and implementing the current media systems would ultimately defeat the premise behind media literacy.

This leads to Blanchard and Christ’s idea that there are two different types of learning experiences – media workshops and laboratories. The former is based on the current systems of management and content. While the latter challenges all of the current ideals and make recommendations for the future (Christ and Potter, 1998). The latter is favored by Blanchard and Christ as these laboratories will most likely encourage students who want to become practitioners, to improve these media industry outlets (Christ and Potter, 1998).

The Role of the Teacher in Media Literacy
The role of the teacher is questioned by many media literacy scholars. Some scholars advocate that media literacy can contribute to a nonhierarchical classroom environment. The teacher student relationship becomes based on "reflection and dialogue" (Christ & Potter, 1998). Other scholars insist this method is contradictory; a teacher cannot be the bearer of truth and an "equal partner in dialogue"(Christ & Potter, 1998, p. 11).

Traditional v. Nonhierarchical Teaching Methods
Effective media literacy programs create an environment for students to find questions in need of answering. A non-traditional method of teaching is needed to foster this kind learning where student-teacher interaction creates a democratic learning environment. The teacher becomes an equal in the inquiry of the media, contrary to his or her traditional hierarchical role as the all-knowing mentor. Many see this as an opportunity for students to learn how to learn independently of the traditional system but others see it as jeopardizing the teacher’s authority and professionalism (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Application Issues
Curriculum

Among the many aspects of the on-going discussion, scholars are grappling with the issue of whether or not to include the teaching of the aesthetics and the language of media production in Media Literacy curricula. Those in favor claim that that learning the techniques of production leads to an increased awareness of the construction of media messages and their underlying meanings, which in turn could potentially foster the much desired attitude of skepticism. In opposition, others argue that this inclusion could, instead of developing a critical attitude, lead to the students being 'seduced' into mindless imitation of such media constructions. Still others encourage training students in media production for the purpose of instilling in them a proactive attitude and will to 'better' the 'status quo' of the industry (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Besides the purpose and content of curriculum, scholars have also found varying approaches to the structure of Media Literacy programs. In some, media studies is a distinct discipline; in others media education is an element within a curriculum or across the entire curriculum; and for others, it is incorporated as a topic within an intergrated, interdisciplinary curriculum. Each has their objectives and governing ideologies, but is ultimately determined by 'resources and will' (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Hobbs and Frost through a study in 1995, demonstrated that Media Literacy was most effective when integrated across disciplines. Project Look Sharp also advocates (through its various publications) the incorporating of media education into existing curricula as opposed to having it as a distinct course, claiming that this approach is not just more effective, but also less burdensome on the teachers (Heins & Cho, 2003).

Instead of defining media literacy with a certain set of skill or knowledge, it can be looked at in terms of the key concepts of production, language, representation and audience. This is advantageous because “it does not specify particular objects of study (a ‘canon’ of prescribed texts, for example); and this enables media education to remain responsive to students’ interests and enthusiasms” (Buckingham, 2003, p. 53). The production of media texts is important to study in order to make connections between media, better know the industry structure, technologies and regulations and how media texts are accessed and made. The language of media looks at meanings, conventions and codes found in texts as well as recognizing genres, decisions of language choices and how technology can change its meaning. When students investigate bias, stereotyping, authenticity and realism in texts they are learning how influences manipulate representations of reality in the media. Who the media address, how and why they address them, and how receivers of media make sense and use it is all explored under the key concept of audience. Students interactively address these concepts through exercises in which they research and produce media, log and reflect on diaries of their own media use, and critically compare and analyze media texts (Buckingham, 2003).

This allows students to draw on their own experiences with media, keeping them interested and utilizing texts that are relevant to the child’s social experiences. This can help lessen the dilemma of the student’s social background affecting the teacher’s ability to assess and create curricula. Renee: I'm not sure what is meant by the 'dilemma of the student's background.' It is important to talk about how social class affects media discourse and taste.It is also important to not only look critically at mainstream texts, but to think about how "alternative" media function.

Teaching

Assessment

Since institutional support for media literacy in K-12 programs translates into funding, assessment and outcomes are central elements of a politicized debate over media literacy assessment standards and methods (Christ and Potter, 1998). There are arguments on whether assessment should focus on knowledge, skills, behavior, attitudes, affect, values or other concepts. Christ and Potter (1998) point to the two (out of 23) most relevant to media literacy standards developed by the National Communication Association as the closest approximation to "certified" national guidelines, which measure an understanding of media's impact and media use.

How “media literate” a child is does not depend specifically on their age, grade level, or level of literacy in general, but depends more on the child’s social background and experience with media. The child’s level of media literacy should not be accessed by a set of vocabulary or notions of media theory at certain ages. Children are empowered by questioning media texts and their reality or meaning. These critical reflections of media are related to a socializing function in which children can demonstrate their critical competence. Therefore, their social background is important in observing their level of literacy. This “suggests that making sense of the media is not simply a matter of what goes on inside children’s heads: it is an interpersonal phenomenon, in which social interests and identities are unavoidably at stake” (Buckingham, 2003, p. 48).

This can create a great deal of difficulty for the media literacy instructor who may have students from a variety of different social backgrounds. The more diverse the student body, the more difficulty the teacher will probably have in not only assessing the student but creating curricula to benefit everyone.

Media Literacy for What Ends? Creativity, Vocationalism, Critical Thinking
When addressing the application of media literacy in the higher education classroom setting, many media education programs in the United States look at the purpose of their curriculum as a way to prepare students to work in media industry after they graduate. They focus only on their task to make their pupils technically efficient and competent in writing for media. But this often overlooks the need to make their students literate in reading media texts critically and not just producing them. The practitioner oriented approach can be problematic if you have professional newscasters speak to students about how to create the “status quo” news broadcast unless you can counter it by reviewing the presentation through a critical lens afterwards (Christ & Potter, 1998).

Media education for Vocation

Because media literacy debates often relate k-12, vocational purpose is rarely discussed. However, in the US, the mission of media education programs in higher education is to train students to have the competitive ability to get a job in a media industry. Such a limited focus has been questioned by works in the media literacy field. The consequences for not having courses of production and writing skills for employment but educating students to be media literate citizens need to be further discussed. (Christ & Potter, 1998)

Media literacy for Critical Thinking

Developing critical thinking has been one of the major educational goals for media literacy because it is believed to enhance people’s intellectual development. Being media literate includes adopting critical stance toward popular culture. During the early stage of media literacy, critical viewing skills were encouraged to counteract the presumed negative effects of media violence. However, critical thinking skills in this more media embedded society are advocated for young people to be able to deconstruct the messages, to see producers and senders of the message and to analyze the purpose of the message. Young people’s critical stance toward popular culture can help them to fully acknowledge and appreciate the complexity, creativity and potential of the mass media. (Heins & Cho, 2003)

Protectionism vs. Empowerment
Many media literacy educators oppose the "protectionist" approach to media literacy, which focuses on preventing children from consuming "objectionable" media messages. These educators feel that by labeling certain media messages as "bad" and others as "good", there is a strong possibility of alienating students. Bob McCannon, head of the New Mexico Media Literacy Project, insists that protectionist media literacy helps students to analyze and criticize mass media. Critics assert that this philosophy merely teaches students to pass value judgments on popular media instead of employing critical analysis skills (The Free Expression Policy Project).

One critic of the protectionist method is Goodman, who advocates that after school programs "move beyond models of prevention and protection" (Goodman, 2003, p. 104) to the learner-centered, youth empowerment model. The former, instead of encouraging decision-making, ownership, and actively engaging students in community problem-solving, often treats students as "passive recipients of knowledge" (p. 104), focusing more on the problems that need fixing, and failing to initiate the involvement that is required to tackle these issues.

Media literacy is especially important to students from disadvantaged backgrounds as a means of empowerment over their environment. Many students from low-income families also have poor vocabularies and writing skills. Other forms of media that they can identify with and are literate in like music, television and film, allow them to express themselves where writing would not. “As producers, authors, and artists fluent in multuple literacies, inner-city youth can frame their own place in society” (Goodman, 2003, p. 31).

Media Literacy and Media Advocacy
Goodman (2003) through his work with the youth at the Educational Video Center, has demonstrated the power of both the 'process' and the 'product' of the students' work in procuring both social and political capital. The development of vital relationships with community leaders, the building of social networks, the creation of work that serves as leverage for disseminating information and stimulating action in the community, are a few reflections of how his "media production students find a unity of purpose in their learning as students, their work as artists, and their engagement as citizens" (p.107).

Buckingham (2003) makes a firm stance on the Protectionism-Empowerment continuum, strongly advocating for a shift in the curricular paradigm towards goals of 'preparation'. From this same perspective, he acknowledges the importance of harnessing the 'participatory potential' of the newer technologies for the development of students' creativity through conscious incoporation of media production in the classrooms; one of the benefits of which is the "enabling [of] their voices to be heard" (p.14). Although he vocalizes his support for the much-debated practical aspects of media literacy, he seems cautious in awarding it the status of a potential tool in the hands of youth for garnering social capital. He dismisses the positions of technological or 'media' determinists - Postman and Tapscott - who in viewing the relationship between childhood and media technologies, propound a more direct link between technology and social change. He claims that "technologies do not produce social changes irrespective of how they are used" (p. 23) but yet recognizes youth as 'cultural producers' given their increased access to and participation in new technologies. He is careful to discern "consumer sovereignty masquerading as... cultural rights" (p. 31) in the larger discourse of 'childrens' rights' and is hesitant to accept claims of children as 'independent social and political actors'. Yet in spite of Buckingham's insistent disunion between media production and social currency, he places media literacy in the larger social theory of literacies - a theory that implies that "acquiring literacy (in whatever form) makes possible social action" (p. 39). It seems that Buckingham recognizes the possible theoretical links between media literacy, media production and social action but is yet to be convinced of these practically playing out. Although he declares some of these claims 'exaggerated', it would be problematic to entirely dismiss the potential of media production as a catalyst to not only general literacy, possible cognitive and psychological change, but also social change.

Consider and discuss the following quote:

 * "For media production in order to become really emancipatory, it is necessary that the means of  production, the media infrastructure, is controlled by the public" (Ebersbach & Glaser, 2004, p. 74)

Role of Media Corporations
There has been much debate over the role of media corporations in the media literacy movement. Some scholars believe that media corporations should not be part of the media literacy movement, since their main goal is monetary profit, not an educated audience. Others believe that since media corporations provide access to mass audiences, it is beneficial to have media literacy experts working within these structures as well as outside of them. Some media corporations have created their own media literacy programs and/or offered corporate funding to media educators. Many media literacy experts view this as a conflict of interest.

According to The Free Expression Policy Project: "The conflict over corporate sponsorship also highlights a philosophical rift between those who focus on analysis of media content and those who view the structure of the media industry as an equally important concern."

Channel One

One example of the controversy involves Channel One, which "had been widely criticized as a cynical and educationally dubious marketing scheme that sold a captive audience of schoolchildren to advertisers" (The Free Expression Policy Project, 2003). The school district of Billerica, Massachusetts took advantage of Channel One's offer to provide schools with media equipment in exchange for broadcasting 12 minutes of news and two minutes of advertising to students daily. The school district received much criticism for this decision, and in 1992 they hired Renee Hobbs to create a comprehensive program to train teachers to teach media literacy using Channel One. Hobbs later became a paid consultant to Channel One.

In 1999, Channel One was a sponsor of The National Media Education Conference. Due to this sponsorship, several media literacy experts refused to attend. In addition, conference organizers were pressured to create a special meeting to discuss the controversy over Channel One's sponsorship. The debate over Channel One continued long after the conference. According to The Free Expression Policy Project:

"In one post-conference note to a media literacy listserv, Renee Hobbs recounted how she had been 'deeply troubled' by Channel One's presence in classrooms when first approached by the Billerica School District, but eventually found that it provided 'regular daily opportunity for a media literacy lesson.' In particular, she said, Channel One's teen-directed advertising made teachers acutely aware of the need to teach media literacy skills. Hobbs accused 'ivory tower' colleagues of demonizing Channel One, which, she pointed out, was now received by 40% of U.S. secondary schools (Renee Hobbs, e-mail communication to media-l@nmsu.edu, Dec. 22, 1999). Bob McCannon of the New Mexico Media Literacy Project responded to Hobbs: 'You, for better or worse and, undoubtedly, with the sincerest motives, are now a paid part of the PR process' (Bob McCannon, e-mail communication to media-l@nmsu.edu, Dec. 22, 1999). McCannon told journalist Manning that 'media literacy is being hijacked by corporate interests who are using the movement to buy legitimacy and deflect criticism of their products.' Hobbs responded: 'If I gave workshops every day for the rest of my life, I could never reach the eight million children Channel One reaches every day.' (Manning, 'Channel One Enters the Media Literacy Movement' as cited in The Free Expression Policy Project)"

title: Great Debates in Media Literacy


text:
Media literacy

What is Media Literacy?
Media Literacy Defined

In the United States, the most widely used definition of media literacy is "the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and communicate messages in a wide variety of forms." This definition was a collaborative result of participants who attended the 1992 Aspen Media Literacy Leadership Institute. The Center for Media Literacy, however, suggests a more expanded definition of media literacy that emphasizes citizenship and democracy in addition to skills: "Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education.  It provides a framework to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages in a variety of forms--from print to video to the Internet.  Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy"  (Thoman and Jolls, 2005, p. 190).

Media Literacy Defined (Canadian perspective). "Media literacy is concerned with helping students develop an informed and critical understanding of the nature of mass media, the techniques used by them, and the impact of these techniques. More specifically, it is education that aims to increase the students' understanding and enjoyment of how the media work, how they produce meaning, how they are organized, and how they construct reality. Media literacy also aims to provide students with the ability to create media products." (Media Literacy Resource Guide, Ministry of Education Ontario, 1997) Media Literacy is Not...

Thoman and Jolls (2005) note that, because the definition of media literacy can be so vast, it is almost easier to define what is not media literacy. For instance, they state that media literacy is not media bashing, but involves critically analyzing media messages and institutions. It is not just producing media, although production skills should be included. Media literacy is not simply teaching with videos, the Internet, or other technologies, but it is teaching about the media in society. It is not just looking for stereotypes or negative representations, but exploring how these representations are normalized in society. It's not just based on one perspective, rather, it encourages multiple perspectives and various viewpoints. Finally, media literacy is not an effort to restrict media use, but to encourage mindful and critical media consumption.

Thoman and Jolls (2005) also cite media literacy consultant Faith Rogow who cautions teachers against conveying pre-ordained denouncements of the media and challenges them to reflect on the analytical skills they teach. Are they encouraging critical environments that allow for the expression of substantiated interpretations that may differ with their own or are they inadvertently "preaching" only the "right" answers? She posits this negative approach as "fatally flawed," often resulting in the creation of a "cynical" rather than an "intellectually skeptical" attitude among students.

Why Is Mass Media So Important?

When considering the importance of media education, Buckingham (2003) first defines the central role of the mass media in social, economic and political processes today:

"“The media are major industries, generating profit and employment; they provide us with most of our information about the political process; and they offer us ideas, images and representations (both factual and fictional) that inevitably shape our view of reality. The media are undoubtedly the major contemporary means of cultural expression and communication: to become an active participant in public life necessarily involves making use of the modern media. The media, it is often argued, have now taken the place of the family, the church and the school as the major socializing influence in contemporary society” (Buckingham, 2003, p. 5)."

Buckingham posits that people increasingly define themselves and interact through the mass media, which serve as a cultural ‘glue’. Consequently, without clearly understanding and effectively using the media, individuals are unable to participate in public life and contribute to the public discourse. Tanya: This seems to have a narrow view of what public life and discourse consists of, I wonder if Buckingham would additionally acknowledge the active public lives of rural communities, for example, that may more often have public meetings than they would refer to blogs for community public discourse. Therefore, Buckingham concludes, traditional social institutions, which previously served as socialization venues, have ceded power to the media. Buckingham makes a nuanced and valid comment on the nature and prominence of mass media. First, we can only agree that industrialization, urban living, and more recently globalization and digital technologies, have converted mass communication into the primary means of learning about the world and society, leaving one’s print on them, and building one’s identity. The mass media, therefore, provide both the material and the channels for the construction, transmission and maintenance of culture. Buckingham, however, underlines the nature of media content as a representation and not as “transparent windows on the world”, and also stresses the indirect communication and selective versions of the world provided by the media (2003, p. 3). This inevitably raises concerns over the ability not only of young people, but of any member of society, to understand the characteristics, content and role of the mass media on one hand, and the capacity to access and use the media as an arena to voice their own opinions and to conduct a meaningful dialogue with others. Separating the understanding and the use of the media would be a misguided step.

Another question regarding Buckingham’s position concerns the extent to which people are aware of the broad implications of the media’s influence on their lives and how the public is reflecting on them. Since the views of protectionists or the ‘moral majority’ often take the front seat, the public debate may fail to address critical aspects of the mass media in modern society.

Traditional social institutions like the family, the church and the school may refuse to recognize the mass media’s growing influence and attempt to restore traditional relations of power, to denigrate the mass media, instead of adapting to the new conditions. The ordeals of media education initiatives and activists indicate that the predominant response is one of opposition and reluctant acceptance rather than openness, cooperation and accommodation, and this signals not just a reactionary response by traditional bastions of social order, but also further setbacks for media education. Tanya: for readers of this, it may be important to add Buckingham's optimism in his views towards 'a new paradigm.' I think his discussion about the move 'beyond protectionism' that outlines the changing views on youth's relationships with media will garner supporters for the media education movement.

Key Themes and Ideas
Media literacy draws on the concepts of the larger critical literacy movement, begun in the latter half of the twentieth century, which stresses the expansion of the term literacy beyond just the interpretation and construction of meaning. Critical literacy emphasizes the socio-cultural, political and historical contexts within which the process of meaning-making is embedded and hence influenced. Media literacy teachers help students understand and explore various themes such as race, gender, class, power and identity, situated in popular culture texts.

Examining Media Representations
Media literacy is a valuable way to explore issues of representation in K-12 classrooms. Students explore representation by examining and deconstructing media portrayals of gender, race, class, sexuality, and disability. Lessons in representation serve to examine how roles are socially constructed and how personal identity is shaped in political, historical, and cultural contexts which include an examination of issues of power and hegemony. Representation can be explored in meaningful ways by: using examples from various historical periods and making connections to their socio-historical context; investigating the economics behind representations, recognizing that different people have different readings of the same text; scrutinizing what is missing from a representation; and inviting students to express their own identities.

General themes discussed in a typical media literacy curriculum may include: journalism and information; advertising, propaganda, and persuasion; representation of race, gender, and social class; and narrative and visual structures and conventions in storytelling for fiction and non-fiction (Hobbs, 2007). The topic of representation explores the relationship between media portrayals and the complex social realities that people like.

Five Core Concepts of Media Literacy
The Center for Media Literacy in Santa Monica, California, created the five core concepts of media literacy, using the Canada's eight "Key Concepts" for media literacy (Pungente, 1989) as a guide. The Five Core Concepts are:

 * All media messages are constructed.
 * Media messages are constructed using creative language with its own rules.
 * Different people experience the same media message differently.
 * Media have embedded values and points of view.
 * Most media messages are constructed to gain profit and/or power. (Thoman & Jolls, 2005, p. 186)

After discovering that many teachers had trouble incorporating the Five Core Concepts into their curriculum, the Center for Media Literacy developed Five Key Questions in 2002 to use alongside the Five Core Concepts. These five questions can be adapted for various age levels.

''Core Concept/Key Question 1: All media messages are constructed. [Who created this message?]''

This concept acknowledges that media texts are constructed by authors. The final product is not a natural or objective text, rather, it is made up of various elements that was created by authors (writers, photographers, directors, producers, etc.). Many decisions go into the creation of a text, and the audience sees the end result. The audience does not, however, get to see the ideas that were rejected along the way, which could have produced endless variations on the media text. By asking who created the message, students are able to conceptualize both the human element behind the media text and the process of actually piecing a text together (Thoman & Jolls, 2005, p. 192).

''Core Concept/Key Question 2: Media messages are constructed using creative language with its own rules. [What creative techniques are used to attract my attention?]''

Each media text has its own language, which can be understood through careful consideration of the sounds and visuals that are employed to convey meaning. One of the ways in which students can learn to analyze the language of media texts is by creating their own.

''Core Concept/Key Question 3: Different people experience the same media message differently. [How might different people understand this message differently from me?]''

Because audience members all differ in backgrounds and life experiences, we are positioned to interpret media texts in different ways. Two people who consume the exact same media text may come away with completely different meanings.

''Core Concept/Key Question 4: Media have embedded values and points of view. [What lifestyles, values, and points of view are represented in, or omitted from, this message?]''

Media texts are not objective, they all contain values that tell us who or what is important. By virtue of what is omitted, they tell us who and what is not important as well.

''Core Concept/Key Question 5: Most media messages are constructed to gain profit and/or power. [Why is this message being sent?]'' Most media messages are made in order to create an audience so advertisers can market their products. It is important for students to understand this financial motivation in order to discern whose interests are actually being served.

How Media Should Not be Used in Education
In Teaching the Media (1985), Masterman writes a provocative chapter, discusses and critiques four schools of thought regarding the media: media as agents of cultural decline, media as popular art forms, media as aids to learning, and media as agents of communication. Clarifying what media literacy is NOT, he claims that media literacy is distinct (and better) than these traditional approaches to the use of media in the classroom. Masterman's claims are still contested among media literacy educators.

Media and Cultural Decline
First, Masterman discusses the impact of Leavis and Thompson’s book Culture and Environment (1933). This book, which was essentially the first serious discussion of media in regards to education, was essentially an elitist argument suggesting that English educators needed to take on the role of a “bastion of cultural values” (qtd. Masterman, p. 39). The arguments set forward in this book had a powerful effect on the development of English teaching, and the adoption of an academic perspective of cultural resistance. This philosophy towards English education continued, and had a profound effect on America and Britain, and led to both countries long-standing aversion to the types of media educational practices long engaged in by other European countries. Masterman contends that this elitist perspective which Leavis and Thompson put forward was in part due to the economic interests of professors whose career was based on the supremacy of “high culture” and the perpetuation of traditional class and power systems.

Discrimination Skills
Second, Masterman discusses the rise of the view of media as a popular art form. This school of thought took shape among a new generation of educators who liked popular culture forms and did not feel that media was necessarily culturally corrupting. However, this view of thought did not embrace media as acceptable culture; rather, it sought to discriminate between media. This school of thought rose largely from the Newsom Report (1963) which stated, “We need to train children to look critically and discriminate between what is good and bad in what they see” (qtd. Masterman, p. 52). Accordingly, as contended by Hall and Whannel’s The Popular Arts, teachers should endeavor to discriminate between high and low media forms. Further, while this school of thought encouraged greater inclusion of media into classrooms, teachers continued to primarily focus on the idea of defending against the influence of media. Overall, this popular arts movement led to the separation of film from other media and the founding of film as a specialized course of study, and to the subsequent neglect of television and press from academic studies. Finally, this movement failed to produce a philosophy for studying or understanding the media.

Media as Transmission Tool
A third perspective viewed media as aids to learning and disseminators of knowledge and experience. This perspective holds that media can be used in an educational setting as an aid to learning, and that media can be used to link the isolated world of the classroom to out-of-school influences which present diversity of culture and environment. As such, this perspective calls for integrating media with teaching, and the inclusion of media in all subjects. This use of media can serve to draw on students’ own media experiences, and also present a “livelier and more interesting classroom environment” (p. 65). '''Renee: This perspective is certainly made more complex by the use of certain media literacy videos, whose purpose is to transmit key theoretical ideas from media and cultural studies (i.e., video from the Media Education Foundation). Based on the arguments offered by Eco, I wonder about the design and instructional characteristics of 'media about media.' Perhaps they model analytic skills that help people develop their own capacity to analyze. Or perhaps they supplant critical thinking by replacing it with another type of persuasion?'''

Communications as an Academic Field
A fourth perspective presented by Masterman suggests that media are agents of communication. Masterman argues against this perspective and the inclusion of media in general Communication Studies programs of study for several reasons. Masterman argues that Communication as an academic field lacks discipline, fails to acknowledge the differences between communication forms in interpersonal and mediated settings, seeks to develop a top-down model of communications, is ideologically driven, and lacks any important findings. In some respects, Masterman’s argument seems to indicate that this perspective is flawed because it is too limited in scope and fails to take into account broader issues.

While such a point is accurate, this position does not take into account developments and growth within the field of Communication Studies nor do they consider the fact that much of modern Communication theory has continued the process of democratization which originally helped to bring media into the educational setting in the first place. Masterman’s consideration of Communication Studies as a quasi-vocational field demonstrates a very limited view which is not representative of the academic field as a whole. Further, his critique of this perspective as ideologically driven seems odd; ideology seems to be a crucial part of all cultural studies. Thus, overall, Masterman provides an overview of several ways of thinking about the media. Masterman’s discussion is not, however, without a perspective of his own.

Political Economy of Media as Necessary Content for Media Education
In Teaching about Television (1980), Masterman positions the teacher as responsible for demystifying (for and with students) the process by which media deliver ideology. However, in his critique of this seminal media education text, Alvarado (1981) points out that the medium itself is a part of ideology rather than a disseminator of ideologies. Furthermore, ideology is only part of the media education project for Alvarado, “it is not enough to analyze the superstructural levels of the media—TV ideology—for it is also necessary to teach about the material and economic bases of the television institutions as it is necessary to teach about the bases of other state apparatuses” (p. 199). According to Alvarado, Masterman devalues teaching the political economy of media because of an assumption that students will find it boring or too hard. Alvarado takes issue with this rationale, suggesting that it proceeds from a disrespect of the student's capacity for interest, from a lack of creativity on the part of teachers (or an assumption of such a lack) in finding ways to connect student interests/discourses with the study of political economy, and, most forcefully, from a pedagogical ideology normalizing a false conceptual split between knowledge and methodology (see below, Teaching Methods as Media as Ideology).

Implicitly, Alvarado’s critique of Masterman calls for media educators to acquire some expertise in political economy of media and to assume the responsibility for leading students to acquire and use knowledge of political economy in their own thinking about media. At the very least, media educators must lead students to pursue questions that necessarily lead to research and facts that allow them to consider the determining influences of the economic base (terrain) on the ideological field.

Teaching Methods as Media as Ideology
Alvarado (1981) warns that the common sense wisdom of everyday teaching practice must be critically analyzed as ideology. The legacy of progressive discourse (e.g. positioning the teacher as facilitator, privileging the learner’s expertise and interests, focusing on experiential learning, etc.) should not be assumed as naturally better than traditional teaching methods. “Political and ideological shifts undertaken by ‘progressivists’ have emphasized questions of method at the expense of a concern with what was being taught” (201). One of the casualties of this retreat from content driven curriculum in media education is the possible exclusion or peripheral placement of political economy content, such as broadcast structure and media ownership (see above, Political Economy as Nescessary Content). Alvarado claims that the separation of method from content is a false distinction of conceptual convenience. Methods should not be chosen on their own merit because their merit does not exist apart from the content they use and the ideology they operate within as they are practiced through particular content. In other words, content and methodology must work in harmony with an awareness of the ideologies they may serve.

This fair warning follows from a critique of Masterman’s seminal text for media education, Teaching about Television (1980). Masterman positions the teacher as responsible for demystifying (for and with students) the process by which media deliver ideology, but Alvarado points out that the medium itself is a part of ideology rather than a disseminator of ideologies. Similarly, teaching methods should be thought of as media with ideological implications. If we always follow student interest and build from student experience, will we encounter key concepts and knowledge necessary for understanding how media operate and produce culture? Is it realistic or even respectful to always subordinate the knowledge and expertise of the teacher? Do we have a responsibility, in addition to facilitating critical and creative faculties, to train students to participate and compete in the current social formation?

Media Literacy and Childhood
Buckingham discusses the debate on the relationship between children and media. He states that there are two very prominent, but contrasting views on the topic. Writes Buckingham (2003), “On one hand, there is the idea that childhood as we know it is dying or disappearing, and that media are primarily to blame for this. On the other, there is the idea that media are now a force of liberation for children – that they are creating a new ‘electronic generation’ that is more open, more democratic, more socially aware than their parent’s generation” (p.19). This difference of opinion is nothing new; media scholars debated the role of media long before it was associated with media literacy.

Is this really killing childhood? The debate rages. On one side, the argument can be made that media is not ending childhood early. This could be equated back to the “Which came first? The chicken or the egg? argument. The argument in this case however, is: do media reflect society or does society reflect media? To be totally cliché – it is true that times have changed and people are indeed exposed to certain elements of life sooner, but when was the last a ten year old was asked to file taxes, pay bills, write TPS reports, or anything of the like? Children are still able to enjoy childhood. As using media does not necessarily make a person media literate, it is the child’s environment that contributes to their awareness level of the media’s role. (Hans: Isn't the concept of "childhood" a creation of the industrial modern age? The idea of having an extended, protected childhood is a relatively new idea - in times past, children 'grew up fast' as well, worked at young ages, etc.  Maybe what we are seeing in the media isn't really so new after all.)

However, an alternate argument could also be made, specifically, that the media are showing images, writing lyrics, and posting content that previous generation were not exposed to until much later in life.

Related to this is Buckingham's assertion that media literacy is creating a new generation of media savvy entrepreneurs. While being “children” by viewing channels such as Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., Disney, and Nogn, children are also realizing that not only are shows for them, but so are the commercials. Children are beginning to see the difference in the programming they watch alone and the programming they watch with their parents. This has changed the nature of progrmming and advertising as well; as children as viewed increasingly as "sophisticated, demanding, 'media-wise' consumers" (Buckingman, p. 31), media has adapted as well. (Hans: In what ways has the media adjusted programming or advertising to treat children as "media-wise" kids?)

Still, and argument can be made that this is not a bad thing that will lead to the demise of society because children are beginning to be aware of their surroundings. Creating this ’electronic” generation is making children more socially aware, which will inevitably lead to more sound decisions – involving media or not. Children will be able to understand why certain are portrayed in certain product commercials. They will start to pay attention to the products they buy, channels they watch, and sites they visit. This awareness is not leading children down the path to crime and early pregnancy as critics of media suggest.

Media Literacy in the Home
Buckingham also makes the clarification that one cannot classify children as a homogeneous group. There are many other factors, social factors that influence this classification. One salient point that he makes is that “At least in the UK, research suggests that children are now much more likely to be confined to their homes, and much less independently mobile, than they were twenty years ago; and while parents now spend much less time with their children, they are attempting to compensate for this by devoting increasing economic resources to child-rearing” (Buckingham, 2003, pg, 21).

In this instance, the media are just another outlet for these children to learn. Due to unfortunate home circumstances, they are left alone and feel alienated. The media are not teaching them to be socially defunct or encouraging bad behavior, but they are providing an outlet to children with no other communication at home.

Online Resources for Learning More

 * PODCASTS: Learn about Reel Vision, the Boston filmmaking group that works with young people (Episode 15)
 * ORGANIZATIONS: Understand Media  European Centre for Media Literacy  Alliance for a Media Literate America
 * WEBSITES: Media Literacy Clearinghouse   MediaLiteracy.com

title: Media literacy


text:
Talk:Media literacy

Course instructor's notes
This project was developed by students enrolled in a course offered by Renee Hobbs, Professor at Temple University School of Communications and Theater, in the Fall of 2007 entitled Theory and Practice of Media Literacy Education.

Dear BTMM 5310 Students:

Here are some comments on your initial work:

1. Please be sure to add your scholar's citation to the list at the bottom of the top page of the wiki. We'll keep using reference lists at the botton of each page. Some of the scholars you read and summarized are not on the list. Please fix this.

2. Let's carefully distinguish between the chapters in Masterman we read (Teaching the Media, 1985) and Masterman's earlier 1980 book (as critiqued by Alvarado). This is not clear in some of the new writing posted. Please fix.

3. I've moved around the pages to take better advantage of hyperlinking this semester, and also to solve the problem of length (many shorter pages are less intimidating.) You'll see now there are a number of smaller pages. Let's try to take advantage of shorter pages and hyperlinking, where it makes sense.

4. If you would like to create new pages (or hyperlinks to existing pages), just put two brackets in front of and in back of the name for the new page, like this Intellectual Traditions in Media Literacy. When you save the page, you will see the new page name in red. Clicking on it takes to you that page, to add content.

5. Also, let's practice using the "summary" line at the bottom. (I forget to do this all the time, but it's useful when doing collaborative writing.) You don't have to use it for small changes, but if you use it when you add content, it will help us keep track of our contributions...and make it clear where we have disagreements, points of contention, etc.

Wikiversity notes

 * Note also: Media Literacy. --McCormack 09:22, 31 May 2008 (UTC)
 * The above resource now appears here as Media literacy/notes. --CQ 14:44, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

Rights of the Child and access to the mass media
Hi,

As far as mass media and education are concerned, shouldn't it be mentioned that the Convention on the Rights of the Child is promoting children access to the mass media in these words : Article 17

States Parties recognize the important function performed by the mass media and shall ensure that the child has access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources, especially those aimed at the promotion of his or her social, spiritual and moral well-being and physical and mental health. To this end, States Parties shall: (a) Encourage the mass media to disseminate information and material of social and cultural benefit to the child and in accordance with the spirit of article 29; (b) Encourage international co-operation in the production, exchange and dissemination of such information and material from a diversity of cultural, national and international sources; (c) Encourage the production and dissemination of children's books; (d) Encourage the mass media to have particular regard to the linguistic needs of the child who belongs to a minority group or who is indigenous; (e) Encourage the development of appropriate guidelines for the protection of the child from information and material injurious to his or her well-being, bearing in mind the provisions of articles 13 and 18. This may also balance the view of media as just something inevitable we have to cope with and at best educate about. Astirmays (discuss • contribs) 05:33, 11 September 2013 (UTC)

Additional resources on this topic
Additional resources on this topic are on-line at: https://www.redbanklibrary.org/program-resource-pages/fake-news It may be useful to scan these materials searching for additional resources or viewpoints that can improve this (already excellent) resource. Thanks! --Lbeaumont (discuss • contribs) 13:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

Free Speech and Personal Responsibility
Freedom of speech is broadly protected by the US supreme court. The right to free speech must be balanced by our personal responsibility to know how we know. While it is true that media communications are constructed, it is also true that objective reality exists. Furthermore, reality is our common ground. Media consumers benefit by being able to discern more and less accurate portrayals of our shared reality. I contend that this principle is fundamental to media literacy and encourage highlighting this principle in the course. Thanks! --Lbeaumont (discuss • contribs) 14:56, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Media literacy


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Why 10 dimensions

This Wikiversity learning project allows participants to explore why some physicists have speculated that our universe might have 10 dimensions.

Source
This project started at Wikipedia. It needs to be adapted to wikipedia.

In our personal human experiences, we seem to exist in a universe with three spatial dimensions. Some theories in physics, including string theory, include the idea that there are additional spatial dimensions. Such theories suggest that there may be a specific number of spatial dimensions such as 10. The question, "Why 10 dimensions?" arises from these theories.

Why 10, 11, or 26 physical dimensions in string theory?
This is one of the questions discussed by Michio Kaku in his book Hyperspace. That book is an attempt to translate the mathematics of hyperspace theory into ordinary language that can be understood by a wide audience. This article is devoted to the same goal, leaving the details of the mathematics to the hyperspace theory article.

Kaku traces the number of dimensions to Srinivasa Ramanujan's modular functions, but this article will start with some fundamentals and work its way into the mathematics. The goal here is to use ordinary language when possible and be careful to clearly define jargonistic terms that come to us from the mathematics and physics of hyperspace.

Foundation: let's be clear what we are talking about
All in one place: short definitions
 * what are spatial dimensions?
 * what is string theory?
 * what is hyperspace?
 * what is a string?
 * what is a modular function?
 * Modular functions and string theory
 * Ramanujan modular functions

Spatial dimensions
Macroscopic physical objects such as people are free to move in three independent directions, so we conclude that there are three spatial dimensions. Theoretical physicists have speculated that there might be additional spatial dimensions that escape our notice because they are too small. Some theoretical objects like strings are small enough that they would be able to vibrate in the compact dimensions while moving through the familiar three extended dimensions.

String theory
String theory is a proposed physical theory. There are several versions or types of string theory. Attempts are being made to discover which version of the theory (if any) is in agreement with observations of the physical universe. All string theories include the idea of a hyperspace of more than three spatial dimensions. The "extra" spatial dimensions are theoretically "compact" or "collapsed" dimensions. This means that they are not as extended in space as the three familiar spatial dimensions. The collapsed dimensions are too small to observe directly. It is not clear how many collapsed dimensions are required for a string theory that is in best agreement with observations of the physical universe, but mathematical constraints currently favor string theories with 10, 11, or 26 dimensions.

Hyperspace
What explanatory power comes from including "extra" compact dimensions in a physical theory? Since the time of the first written speculations about the possible existence of an atom, a goal of physics has been to understand the fundamental physical components of the universe. Unfortunately, many subatomic particles (each subject to some combination of the four fundamental forces) have been observed and so attention has turned to theoretical attempts to describe the diversity of subatomic particles in an elegant physical theory. Why are there so many different particles? Why do they have the physical properties that they are observed to have? Have things always been this way or have the properties of subatomic particle changed since the formation of our universe? Do they continue to change? Some theoretical physicists are exploring the idea that the diversity of subatomic particle can be accounted for in terms of symmetry breaking. Maybe under the high energy conditions of the early universe all particles were initially indistinguishable, a condition called supersymmetry. As the universe cooled, some spatial dimensions compactified and particles distributed themselves among the available stable energy states provided by four extended space-time dimensions and six or more compact dimensions. This line of reasoning suggests that it might be possible to explain the diversity of subatomic particles and fundamental forces in terms of a theory of how an original hyperspace "broke" into two "parts"; our extended 4 dimensional space-time and several "invisible" additional compact spatial dimensions. String theory is popular partly because it is a quantum field theory which accommodates gravity in terms of a spin=2 graviton.

Strings
Within string theory, a string is an object with one spatial dimension. These hypothetical one-dimensional strings are very small, on the order of the Planck length (about 1.6 × 10-35 meters). String theory explores the behaviours of open strings (with free ends) or closed strings (loops with no free ends). Within string theory, the stable vibrational states of strings are taken to correspond to physical particles like the graviton. When a string moves through spacetime it sweeps out a 2-dimensional surface called the worldsheet. One of the features of string theory that has appeal to physicists is that, when particle interactions are thought of in terms of worldsheets, it is possible to overcome some of the mathematical problems confronted when considering particles as points.

Recap before getting to the mathematics
String theory grew out of attempts to find a simple and elegant way to account for the diversity of particles and forces observed in our universe. The starting point was to assume that there might be a way to account for that diversity in terms of a single fundamental physical entity (string) that can exist in many "vibrational" states. The various allowed vibrational states of string could theoretically account for all the observed particles and forces. Unfortunately, there are many potential string theories and no simple way of finding the one that accounts for the way things are in our universe. One way to make progress is to assume that our universe arose through a process involving an initial hyperspace with supersymmetry that, upon cooling, underwent a unique process of symmetry breaking. The symmetry breaking process resulted in conventional 4 dimensional extended space-time AND some combination of additional compact dimensions. What can mathematics tell us about how many additional compact dimensions might exist?

Modular functions
Modular functions are a subclass of the more general modular forms. An example of a modular function is the Dedekind eta function, given by the infinite product

 * $$e^{\pi iz/12}\prod_{m=1}^\infty \left(1-e^{2\pi imz}\right).$$

Like other modular forms, this function is defined over the domain of complex numbers z = x + iy where x and y are real and y > 0.

Remember that for complex numbers i is the square root of −1. In the function, e is Euler's number (2.71828....) and $$\pi$$ is pi (3.14159....).

What is the connection between modular functions and string theory?
Modular functions are used in the mathematical analysis of Riemann surfaces. Riemann surface theory is relevant to describing the behavior of strings as they move through space-time. When strings move they maintain a kind of symmetry called "conformal invariance"

Conformal invariance (including "scale invariance") is related to the fact that points on the surface of a string's world sheet need not be evaluated in a particular order. As long as all points on the surface are taken into account in any consistent way, the physics should not change. Equations of how strings must behave when moving involve the Ramanujan function.

Ramanujan modular functions

1968 "Veneziano model" Euler beta function describes the strong nuclear force.

When a string moves in space-time by splitting and recombining (see worldsheet diagram at right), a large number of mathematical identities must be satisfied. These are the identities of Ramanujan's modular function.

The KSV loop diagrams of interacting strings can be described using modular functions.

The "Ramanujan function" (an elliptic modular function? satisfies the need for "conformal symmetry") has 24 "modes" that correspond to the physical vibrations of a bosonic string.

When the Ramanujan function is generalized, 24 is replaced by 8 (8 + 2 = 10)[where does the 2 come from?] for fermion strings.

title: Why 10 dimensions


text:
Wikiversity:Wikiversity the Movie

This is a community-wide project to produce a promotional movie that illustrates and describes Wikiversity.

Project description
Time frame: 7th October, 2010 (ready for a Wikiversity Day)

format: downloadable video
 * if you do not like the late date, change + subscribe below :-)

Content:
 * 1) Communicate What is Wikiversity? / Mission
 * 2) Feature examples of original (only possible on) Wikiversity content
 * 3) Collaborative nature: Appealling to potential learners. Illustration of how the Wikiversity community functions to produce learning resources and activities.

Project news

 * 23 August, 2006 - Project founded!
 * 3 January, 2007 - proposed name for the video: "Wikiversity: Education in the new millennium"
 * 30 December, 2007 - the goal to create a video until this date was not achieved
 * 21 August 2008 - new time frame for movie proposed: 15th August 2009 (the next Wikiversity Day)
 * 23 August 2008 - contacted users interested in creating music/soundtrack: see here
 * 24 August 2008
 * introducing a motivational slogan for the preparations on the Wikiversity movie: "Coming soon to a wiki theater near you !" (credits to User:Darklama)
 * searching for additional participants (announcing at several places)
 * 25 March 2010 - marketing on Wikiversity Day/2010

Learning materials and learning projects
Wikiversity has adopted the "learning by doing" model for education. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple departments. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.

Appetizer
These are not the real, final videos - just use them for your imagination what it could look like:
 * Wikiversity shorts - participants create short (15 to 60 seconds) promotional videos for Wikiversity
 * /already existing movies about Wikiversity (for reusage or generating ideas ?)

Now the details
Partially developed:
 * /Tasks
 * /Script - participants create the script for the movie
 * /Interviews - participants film interviews with students at real universities after telling them about Wikiversity (giving a handout perhaps) and inform them it is free. Shock, disbelief, scepticism will ensue, but the reactions ought to be interesting. These could be made over time until the interviewees are all from Wikipedia and/or a mix or "bricks (and mortar)" students (we could just call them "bricks" for short).
 * /music - participants help make the sound track, including original music
 * /multi-lingual - participants make the voice track and any text elements for all the Wikiversity project languages.

Searching for initiator:
 * /Movie production
 * Machinima movies - tutorial - participants make a movie using Machinima

Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the lesson (lessons are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing!

Related Content Development Projects
These divisions and departments have project interests and labs involving Wikiversity the Movie:
 * Topic:Internet Audio and Video
 * Topic:Multilingual Studies
 * Topic:Multilingual Studies

Participants
If you want to participate please sign up + list your skills/interests:  Participants
 * User:JWSchmidt - also interested in a version for podcasting (info about Wikinews podcasts)
 * Cormaggio - this is a fantastic idea - there's so much potential..
 * User:Eliza haran caplan wonderful, yes!
 * HappyCamper - yes!!
 * guillom - I have (co-)written several theatre plays (some of which I have also directed and/or played in), so I'd be glad to take part in this project.
 * jlguinn
 * Mr Music play a note I can help with the soundtrack.
 * personaljesus - Can help with writing, maybe some editing somehow.
 * CQ Enrolled in this, this, this, this, and this.. started this, starting this... proposing this.
 * Alex43223 Just getting started.
 * Mac_Davis. Sweet, Wikiversity looks awesome. I've got the skills and software for the soundtrack for sure, and know people that could help me. I'm quite proficient in Garageband, have worked with ProTools, and am getting into Logic Pro. I am a frequent video and text blogger as well, so I might be able to help where video or video software is needed. I've got iMovie HD and Final Cut. Glad to help anywhere were needed!
 * Symode09. I've won various media awards and am a media student at school. I use sony vegas, sometime iMivie HD and, know all the major Adobe packages (ie. photoshop, fireworks, flash, dreamweaver) I'm really good at image manipulation, writing script and editing

 * MusicWeaver. I may be available to help with the soundtrack and sound effects. I am a pianist/composer with a bachelor's in music and have produced several CD's of original music. I have all the resources to produce professional-sounding music and sound effects in common audio formats (MP3, .wav, etc.) synchronized with the video. I have a small recording studio at home, plus programs like Finale, MusicTime, Reason, Studio 8, and CoolEdit Pro. I have some experience with video editing, but audio is my area of expertise.
 * Erkan Yilmaz — my motivation: When do people realize that Wikiversity is not like other Wikimedia projects ?
 * Moulton — Theory of StoryCraft. "Whereof we cannot make a theory, we must tell a story instead."  —Umberto Eco
 * Percy - I am taking part in the Mascot contest. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. I really want to participate in this project, --Percy 19:27, 27 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Vicky and Verity - Since we sleep a lot we could also just be supernumeraries
 * Nkav1 - I am interested in this project and can help by gathering open orchestral music for a soundtrack. I also am moderately experienced with the viola and, if anyone is interested, could participate in an online orchestra. Also, if we do a machinima movie, I can be a voice actor.
 * Rlin06 - I make lots of youtube videos and I have professional video editing and producing software (Sony Vegas Pro 8.0, Camtasia Studio 6, Photoshop cs4 extended and others). I can edit and put together the video.
 * Thompson I'm a film student and have access to professional video camera (both HD and non HD cameras) as well as professional video editing software (Final Cut Pro 7).
 * --JulesMattsson 16:34, 30 December 2009 (UTC) Is this still going on? Well i'm a lighting camera + editor, can help if needed.
 * -- Jtneill - Talk - c 23:06, 21 March 2010 (UTC) - I am a beginner with video & WV - I am trying just now to find good ways to make screencasts in ogv.
 * -- Abd. We may organize under a resource a description of the history of that resource and of its success (or failure, except that failed resources may have been deleted!) This, then, could guide collection of content for a movie, including interviews with participants. Such descriptions should be linked by a category or by listing here or both. --Abd 15:47, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

Gaon Abhinava: I am Experimenting with Thinking Ideas of geniuses who lived in the past and present, so That I may Think like a Genius, I Want to Avoid being unrealistic or egotistical at all costs... I am A Scientist of Psychology, and other Sciences/Arts, all my work is a result of Practicing...Thinking like a Genius, As for my Practical Contribution to the film, I could offer, for example, insightfull ideas or visionary imagination, as realistic perspectives, as to the direction of the film and the Emotional conveyances of scripted scenes, etc...--Gaon Abhinava 17:35, 31 August 2011 (UTC) User:Tumziix:I'm in love in what your doing here on wiki.I WOULD kindly appreciate if I can create a new Movie cover that will bring interest and attraction.;)

Dormant participants

 * CyclePat: "Baccalauréat ès arts spécialisé approfondi en musique avec mineure en administration des affaire". I've studied in french. Je suis aussi connaissant des logiciels MIDI tel que Finale 2008, Garitan, EWQL choirs, symphony, etc. I will help out only upon direct request on my Wikipedia user page. (p.s.: Good luck with the coordination)(I Hope you give us more than 15 days to make the final music scores!)

title: Wikiversity:Wikiversity the Movie


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Category:Wikiversity the Movie

This category is for all the pages related to Wikiversity the Movie.

title: Category:Wikiversity the Movie


text:
Category:Wikiversity community projects

This category is for projects of interest to the entire Wikiversity community.

title: Category:Wikiversity community projects


text:
User:IlyaHaykinson

See my page on English Wikinews

title: User:IlyaHaykinson