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School:Medicine

Welcome to the Wikiversity  School of !

Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, pathology, microbiology, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others.

كلية علوم الهندسة el:Σχολή:Πολυτεχνική Facultad de Ingeniería fr:Faculté:Sciences de l'ingénieur it:Facoltà:Ingegneria

Divisions and Departments
Anatomy

Physiology

Biochemistry

School Noticeboard
November 2013
 * Wikiversity medicine needs a unique identity, distinct from the role of Wikipedia and Wikibooks. What might that role be? What progress are we making? Share your ideas on the Talk page.

Educational Resources tools to make them
Learning medicine requires more than passive reading for understanding. Here is a growing list of resource types that can be useful in various contexts, as well as some especially good links to essential things you really should try (if you haven't already) either to find your own resources, or, hopefully to contribute here!

 * Crystal128-kanagram.svg Introductions / Explanations / Topic summaries / Blogs (non-technical language)
 * Report-edit.svg Research studies / published reviews / theories / summaries / clinical scenarios and case reports (including simulation scenarios)
 * Plan.png Curriculum documents, lesson plans, articles
 * Farm-Fresh slideshow.png Linear (normal) slideshow presentations, e.g. PowerPoint or the free Open Office Impress
 * Maket icon.svg Comparison or summary tables
 * Applications-internet.svg WebQuests, which guide the student through sequences of resources, preferably including a variety of other resource formats
 * Nuvola apps korganizer.png Assessment outlines / marking guides / quizzes / checklists (need to know about Atul Gawande and the Checklist Manifesto)
 * Nuvola apps kolourpaint.png Pictures / Photos (search Wikimedia Commons and CC-BY-SA Images at Flickr, or use a graphic editor)
 * Nuvola apps kcoloredit.svg Vector illustrations (try Inkscape - free software)
 * Nuvola apps tree.png Mindmaps (need to try Freeplane - free software)
 * My personal black cat.gif Animations (try Pencil for 2D, or Blender for 3D if you are ambitious!)
 * AdiumSoundset.png Podcasts / Vodcasts / Screencasts / Videos (Youtube, Khan Academy, TED Talks, and short-format presentation styles like Pecha Kucha)
 * Nuvola apps flashkard.png Flashcards (try Anki - free software, with spaced repetition for optimised revision and retention of information, or Evernote used with the Revunote app for android). These may vary the order and timing of repetitions, but the feedback response (the second side of the flashcard) is the same.
 * Nuvola apps kpresenter.png Non-linear Powerpoint presentations and medical information apps. The only interactivity is in the order or choice of available information topics presented.
 * Presa de decissions.png Games, Virtual patient apps and online flash/html interactive modules (try Prognosis- Your Diagnosis for Android). These can vary in quality. Low level interactions may have a series of trivial roadblocks ('click on the nose to continue') or disconnected stimulus-response feedback (see quizzes above). Variations include different visual ways of triggering the response, e.g. click or touch, drag/drop or mouse-over. Better examples may use more complex branching scenarios where each decision affects the next problem, and a range of responses is possible rather than just good or bad responses.

Educational approaches

 * Lectures / Tutorials / Clinical skills demonstrations / Labs
 * Bedside teaching
 * Ward rounds / Grand rounds
 * [[Image:Nuvola apps kopete.png|24px]] Join in the conversation on Twitter (try following #meded or #foamed) and TweetDeck
 * [[Image:Nuvola apps chat.png|24px]] Create and contribute to blogs and their comments / polls / discussion forum (need to know about Life in the Fast Lane)
 * [[Image:Nuvola apps kdmconfig.png|24px]] Collaboration through Wikiversity, Wikieducator etc.
 * [[Image:Multilingual Wikipedia logo.gif|24px]] Medical School Wikipedia Editathons
 * [[Image:Small cup gold.png|32px]] Pecha Kucha competitions
 * [[Image:Crystal Clear app Community Help.png|24px]] Simulation in teams (which benefits from high quality simulation scenarios and trained teachers to deliver them), including support with video games or ipad simulators. Importantly, the simulation scenario can be changed by the teacher to respond in realtime to individual student skill levels/deficits/areas of interest/teaching points, making it much more powerful. Some also include videos for 'just-in-time' learning.
 * [[Image:Crystal Clear app package games.svg|32px]] Serious games (e.g. Simulation with SonoWars and SimWars)

Other Links

 * The Wikipedia Open Textbook of Medicine - a book made up of a selection of very high quality wikipedia articles covering core concepts in medicine.
 * WikiDoc The Living Textbook of Medicine - another medical textbook / encyclopaedia, linking to google searches for further resources.
 * Content creation platforms (e.g. Pinterest or Learnist)
 * Meducation - Thousands of free resources for medical students. Meducation supports a community of 50,000 medics and has over 40,000 resources.
 * Medical books at Wikibooks
 * WikiJournal of Medicine - an academic medical journal that is integrated with Wikipedia

Current Learning Projects

 * Dominant group/Medicine
 * Gene project
 * Medicine
 * Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence
 * Life extension
 * Cryonics
 * Biotechnology

There are three active medical learning projects here. Why not start another one?

FAQ: What do you want to know?

You can get started curating medical resources on Wikiversity right now.

If you'd like, you can also register with Wikiversity. Please read the Wikiversity medical disclaimer before starting. Most importantly, completion of learning materials in this site does not confer any academically accredited degree or bestow any medicolegal professional status to practice medicine.

كلية علوم الطب Fachbereich Humanmedizin Departamento de Medicina fr:Faculté:Médecine it:Facoltà:Medicina e chirurgia pt:Portal:Ciências Médicas Факультет медицины

title: School:Medicine


license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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text: Category:Self-published work

title: Category:Self-published work


text: Category:Medicine

title: Category:Medicine


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Portal:Real analysis

Department description
The goal of the department of real analysis is to give rigorous backing to the machinery of calculus and the real number system. By the end of this course, a student should know the real numbers like the back of their hand, and be more than ready to learn the generalizations of topology.

Department news

 * Wednesday, August 23, 2006 - Department founded!

Courses on Real Analysis

 * Introduction to Real Analysis
 * Ordered Sets and Fields
 * Sequences
 * Series
 * Limits

Offsite Courses

 * Analysis 1
 * Analysis 2

Other Resources
Analysis is a highly technical topic and is full of pitfalls and subtle counterexamples. You will need to read and complete the exercises in at least one of the following books in addition to using this site as a supportive community of peers and teachers.

Online Textbooks

 * Real analysis (Work in progress)
 * Mathematical Analysis I
 * Mathematical Analysis II
 * Basic Analysis: Introduction to Real Analysis

Hard-copy Textbooks

 * Lay, Steven R. (2005). Analysis With an Introduction to Proof Pearson Prentice Hall ISBN 0131481010
 * Gelbaum & Olmsted. (2003). Counterexamples in Analysis Dover Publications. ISBN 0486428753
 * Rudin, Walter. (1976). Principles of Mathematical Analysis McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math. ISBN 007054235X

Wikipedia

 * Real analysis

Online courses
Might contain video lectures, course notes, homework, exam question papers and their solutions.

With video

 * 1) Real analysis, Francis Su, Harvey Mudd College, Spring 2010.
 * 2) Analysis Lectures, simpleMath, 2014.

Without video

 * 1) MA541 Real analysis, Bhaba K. Sarma, IIT Guwahati, 2014 – 2015.
 * 2) Analysis I, Oleg Zaboronski, University of Warwick, 2012-2013.
 * 3) Analysis II, Oleg Zaboronski, University of Warwick, 2008-2009.
 * 4) Analysis III, Oleg Zaboronski, University of Warwick, 2015-2016.
 * 5) MATH 6101-090: Foundations of Real Analysis, David C. Royster, University of Kentucky, Fall 2008.
 * 6) MATH 6101-090: Foundations of Real Analysis, David C. Royster, University of Kentucky, Fall 2006.
 * 7) Math 320 Analysis I, Huyi Hu, Michigan State University, Fall 2015.
 * 8) Math 320 Analysis I, Lawrence Roberts, Michigan State University, Spring 2009.
 * 9) Math 421 Analysis II, Richard Siefring, Michigan State University, Spring 2010.
 * 10) Math 140-Analysis, Lei Ni, University of California, San Diego, Winter 2010.
 * 11) Math 4111 Introduction to Analysis, Mohan Kumar, Washington University in St. Louis, Fall 2013.
 * 12) Math 140A Foundations of Real Analysis I, Todd Kemp, University of California, San Diego, Winter 2014.
 * 13) Math 320 (Real Analysis), Santiago Cañez, University of California, San Diego, Winter 2015.
 * 14) Math 401: Introduction to Real Analysis, Aissa Wade, Penn State University, Spring 2009.
 * 15) Math 401: Introduction to Analysis, Aissa Wade, Penn State University, Fall 2005.
 * 16) Math 125A: Real Analysis, John K. Hunter, University of California, Davis campus, Fall 2012.
 * 17) Math 171: Fundamental Concepts of Analysis, K. Soundararajan, Penn State University,  Spring 2010.

Active participants
The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this department, you can list your name here (this can help small departments grow and the participants communicate better; for large departments a list of active participants is not needed).

Основы математического анализа

title: Portal:Real analysis


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Talk:Sequences and series

I've decided to separate this page from the other, as that one is a blend of analysis and calculus and this one is primarily meant for calculus. The goal of this page is to introduce the 3 common series a student will be expected to recognize and sum and to briefly go over some common convergence tests. I never really took to this little area, but some people seem to love it! :D

Why is this page listed under Calculus? I thought calculus was just integration and differentiation. Sword-of-zorro 20:07, 23 July 2010 (UTC)

I put something on Wikibooks before I found this page.
As a Wikiversarian I try to place material on Wikiversity with the understnding that Wikibooks may freely copy it. I did not see this page, and therefore made a contribution to wikibooks. It needs to be copied and placced on this page.

0.999.../The geometric series formula

title: Talk:Sequences and series


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Portal:Cardiology

Cardiology is the branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart and blood vessels.

Following the introduction of various invasive radiological procedures, interventional cardiology has emerged as a sub-speciality dealing specifically with the catheter based treatment of structural heart diseases. Invasive procedures of the heart to treat arrhythmias are performed by specialists in clinical cardiac electrophysiology.

Anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system

 * Anatomy of the heart
 * The vascular system
 * Fluid dynamics
 * Cardiovascular physiology

Coronary heart disease (CHD)

 * Acute coronary syndrome (ACS): unstable angina, myocardial infarction

Valvular heart disease

 * Aortic valve disease
 * Mitral valve disease
 * Pulmonary valve disease
 * Tricuspid valve disease

Congenital heart disease

 * Ventricular septum defect (VSD)
 * Atrial septum defect (ASD)
 * Tetralogy of Fallot
 * Transposition of the great arteries
 * Hypoplastic left ventricle

Cardiomyopathies

 * Dilated cardiomyopathy
 * Restrictive cardiomyopathy
 * Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
 * Arrythmogenic right ventricle

Cardiac inflammatory disease

 * Endocarditis
 * Myocarditis
 * Pericarditis

Arrythmia

 * Supraventricular arrythmia
 * Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia
 * Atrial fibrillation
 * Atrial flutter
 * Ventricular arrythmia
 * Ventricular tachycardia
 * Ventricular fibrillation
 * Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

Diagnostic tools

 * Auscultation
 * Echocardiography
 * Electrocardiography(ECG/EKG)
 * Cardiac stress testing

Therapeutic procedures

 * Angioplasty (PTCA)
 * Intra-aortic baloon pump
 * Electrophysiological study
 * Pacemakers
 * Defibrillators

Related news
''
 * August 2008 Some obese individuals appear 'metabolically healthy,' without increased cardiovascular risk
 * August 2008 Treatment to cut cholesterol 'should begin in childhood'
 * May 2008 ''Quercetin Found to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease

Departamento de Cardiología fr:Département:Cardiologie et maladies vasculaires

title: Portal:Cardiology


text:
Obstetrics and Gynecology/Case 1

Case 1
25 years old, 38 weeks gestation, in her 2nd pregnancy, presented in spontaneous labour, cephalic, the cervix was 5 cm dilated, CTG was normal, molding grad "2" patient was severely distressed and unable to coop with pain>*What is the most likely diagnosis? malposition "OP" .... Malpreserntation ... CPD and obstructed labour reevaluation and assessment of maternal conditions reassessment of the presentation, fetal attitude, fetal size, pelvic configuration use of partogram senior obstetrician to be informed analgesia .... epidural!! continuous fetal monitoring be ready to do cesarean section ... necessary investigation CBC, X match... anti acid... inform the anesthesia, pediatrician, operation theater staff to be ready any time moral support
 * Presentation
 * What further evaluation and management are appropriate?

Normal Labor

 * Discussion
 * Phases
 * Latent Phase
 * Active Phase
 * Descent
 * Expulsion
 * Methods of Pain management
 * Questions
 * Answers

title: Obstetrics and Gynecology/Case 1


text: Portal:Anatomy

title: Portal:Anatomy


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Anatomy/Introduction

The term anatomy is derived from the Greek word temnein, meaning “to cut”. Anatomy is the study of the structures of organisms and their parts, here we are mainly going to discuss about Human anatomy. Human anatomy is mainly divided into two groups Macroscopic anatomy (Gross Anatomy) and Microscopic anatomy (Histology). Macroscopic anatomy or Gross Anatomy is the study of Human structures at the macroscopic level - everything that can be seen with the naked eye, and Microscopic anatomy or Histology is the study Human cells and tissues at microscopic level - which can be seen with a microscope.

Anatomy can be studied in mainly two ways of approach which are regional approach(each region of the body is studied separately and all aspects of that region are studied at the same time) and systemic approach(each system of the body is studied and followed throughout the entire body). Here we are only going to use the regional approach where we will study upper limb, lower limb, abdomen, thorax, back, head and neck separately.

A course in anatomy gives students several tools that are essential to the practice of medicine. The most apparent tool is the ability to describe the precise position of structures within the body, and to locate these structures quickly - an essential skill in medical communication. Furthermore, students learn the function of many of the body structures, aided by the study of Human Physiology. Bones, muscles, and the central nervous system all cause changes in the body on both the macroscopic and microscopic level.

In a traditional anatomy course at medical school, lectures are accompanied by laboratory time, in which cadavers are dissected, allowing the medical student to study anatomical structures in situ. This gives the student a more thorough and complete knowledge of structures in relation to one another, as well as an understanding of what these structures look and feel like - far more than any anatomical textbook could do. It also gives the student practical experience in identifying everything from bony landmarks to specific nerves and muscles.

The study of anatomy requires a significant amount of memorization, however this requirement is moderated by the use of systematic methods of learning, and various tricks - such as mnemonics - wherever possible.

To continue with the course, the student should begin by familiarizing themselves with the terminology used in anatomy.

1.1 Anatomical Terminology

title: Anatomy/Introduction


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Anatomy/Terminology

Anatomical Position
When discussing the anatomy of the human body, it is useful to first define a standard position in which the body will be presented. This standard allows the relative position of parts of the body to be described accurately and with less confusion. Anatomists use the anatomical position. A person in the anatomical position is standing up straight, with arms at the sides and palms facing forwards with the fingers extended. The feet are facing forward, as are the head and eyes (see the figure to the right).

Planes of the Body
Four planes through the body are used to describe the position and orientation of parts of the body. These are:

 * Median or Sagittal plane - This plane runs through the body from the head (cephalic end) to the feet (plantar end). A cut on the sagittal plane of humans creates a right and left bilaterally symmetrical half. Any plane parallel to this through the body is known as a para-sagittal plane.
 * Coronal plane/lateral/frontal - This plane runs through the body, also from the head to the feet, and divides the body into front and rear halves.
 * Transverse plane - This is any plane that runs left to right through the body and divides it into upper and lower sections.
 * Oblique plane - Any plane through the body that is not parallel to one of the former three.

Anatomical Terms
When discussing anatomy, the following terms are used to describe the relative positions of the parts of the body. When using these terms, it is assumed that the body is in the anatomical position.
 * Dorsal  - Location referring to the back or upper side of an organism or parts of an organism.
 * Ventral - On or relating to the underside of an animal or plant; abdominal.
 * Lateral - More distant to the body midline. In the anatomical position, the radius is lateral to the ulna. A simpler example is the "thumb" is lateral to the "pinky."
 * Medial  - Closer to the midline; on the inner side. The sternum (breast plate) is medial to the clavcle (shoulder bone).
 * Superior - Above, towards the cephalic (head) end. The cranial cavity (head cavity) is superior to the scapula (shoulder blade).
 * Inferior - Below, towards the plantar (foot) end. The patella (knee cap) is inferior to the femur (thigh bone).
 * Anterior - Towards the front of the body. The sternum is anterior to the spine. Also known as ventral, but this term is not as common in human anatomy.
 * Posterior - Towards the rear/backside of the body. The fibula is posterior to the tibia. Also known as dorsal, but this term is not as common.
 * "Oblique sections" - separates top from bottom at a diagonal. This term is common.

 * Superficial - Closer to the skin, nearer the body surface. Skin is superficial to the organs.
 * Deep - Further from the body surface.

In the limbs, the following terms are also used:

 * Distal - Further from the limb's attachment to the trunk (where 'trunk' refers to the 'torso' of the body: the body minus the head, kneck, and limbs).
 * proximal - Nearer to the limb's attachment to the trunk. The humerous is proximal to the radius.

Terms may also be combined to describe more complicated relative positions, for example anterolateral, meaning in front of and more lateral to something.

Examples

 * The thumbs are lateral to the index fingers.
 * The shoulder is superior to the hip.
 * The vertebrae of the spine are posterior to the abdominal muscles.
 * The wrist is distal to the elbow.
 * The nose is inferior to the eyes
 * The shoulder blade is posterolateral to the spine.

Movement terms
All acts of movement are considered to be a mixture or a single contribution of the following movement terms:

 * Flexion - where there is a reduction in the angle between bones or parts of the body. This term applies only to movement along the sagittal or median plane. An example of arms flexing is lifting a dinner plate. When applied to the trunk of the body, this term means bowing forwards.
 * Extension - is the opposite of flexion, and there is an increase in the angle. This term applies only to movement along the sagittal or median plane. With the trunk of the body, this movement is bowing backwards.

 * Adduction - where there is a reduction in the angle between bones or parts of the body. This only applies to movement along the coronal plane.
 * Abduction - the exact opposite, with an increase in the angle. Also only applies to movement along the coronal plane.An example of this is where extending arms outwards as if to fly.

 * Rotation - is rotation of an entire limb laterally (away from the body) or medially (towards the midline of the body).

 * Pronation - this is the rotation of the hand so that the palm faces posteriorly. This is not medial rotation as this must be performed when the arm is half flexed. Prone means the hand is facing posteriorly.
 * Supination - the rotation of the hand so that the palm faces anteriorly. The hand is supine (facing anteriorly) in the anatomical position.

 * Protrusion - is the anterior movement of an object. This term is often applied to the jaw.
 * Retrusion - the opposite of protrusion.

 * Elevation - superior movement. This term is often applied to the shoulders (eg shrugging shoulders is elevation)
 * Depression - inferior movement, opposite of elevation.

 * Circumduction - is a special case of movement involving adduction, flexion, extension and abduction. The resulting movement creates a circular path of movement. Circumduction can be done in the hip, shoulder, thumb and fingers.

Special cases
There are several cases where the meaning of the anatomical planes and terms are slightly different. Hence new definitions for movement applies. This is apparent in the foot, the tongue, the hand, the penis, the eyes, and the brain.

Foot and hand
The palm (adj palmar) of the hand corresponds to the sole (adj plantar) of the foot, and the dorsum (back) of the hand corresponds to the dorsum (top) of the foot.

From this, the term dorsiflexion means to flex upwards (true extension) and the term plantarflexion, meaning to extend downwards (true flexion) are derived.

The term volar, used mainly in orthopaedics, is synonymous with palmar and plantar.

The foot is also capable of movement along another axis due to the flexibility of the ankle joint. These movements are

 * Eversion - the movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane.
 * Inversion - the movement of the sole towards the median plane. (same as when an ankle is twisted).

The position of the hand in anatomical position is considered supine, such that rotation of the hand so that the palm faces backwards is called pronation and the reverse action, supination.

Others
In the anatomical position, the penis is considered to be erect and pointing upwards, i.e. the dorsal side of the penis is what one would normally call its top side (meaning the side that would touch the belly).

The tongue has a dorsal side which is facing upwards (the side that tastes).

1.2 Introduction to Bones

title: Anatomy/Terminology


text:
User talk:Stevenfruitsmaak

HappyCamper 00:19, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

Import?
Hmm...You mean from Wikibooks to here? If so, it's best to add a note to Import, because cutting and pasting breaks up the edit history, which is essential for bookkeeping. --HappyCamper 00:24, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Hey there, just trying to get back to you regarding this. I wish I had a better answer for you, but I don't. See whether User:JWSchmidt can help you out. He's more familiar with this than I am. --HappyCamper 02:48, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

"Shouldn't the template change? No I put in redirects like Wikiversity:Bones of the upper limb => Bones of the upper limb. It's very unlikely for a page moved to begin with Wikiversity: here, no? Or there should be 2 templates."

Thanks for being bold and getting to work on the Medical School pages. I think the general policy is that it is nice to use the import function to bring over pages from Wikibooks. When pages are copied over by cut and paste the histories are lost. However, if there is only one or a few authors of a page at Wikibooks, it is possible to just make a note of the original authors on the talk page for the new copy of the article at Wikiversity. I would favor a second template to mark pages at Wikibooks that have been copied over by cut and paste. That template should indicate if import should be done later (because of a large amount of author information in the history) or that the authors were copied over manually and no import is needed. --JWSchmidt 03:17, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

moved to wv tamplate (wikibooks)
Hi Steven,

I'll work with you on the template on the WB side... what do you think it should say? (I'm an admin there, and noticed your work yesterday while patrolling RCs). Probably best to only move modules like that if there are relatively few contributors. SB_Johnny | talk 14:14, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

where and how should I begin
I think that the first rule for a Wikiversity participant should be: edit Wikiversity pages that are about topics that you are most interested in. Wikiversity is about "learning projects" that stimulate participants and learning will happen when participants get involved with learning projects. I started a few learning projects at Cell Biology because they are of interest to me. What are your special interests? --JWSchmidt 18:57, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Main page redesign
Hello! You commented on the proposed main page design, so I'm inviting you to view a modified version that I created. If you have the time, please post your opinion at Wikiversity talk:Main Page. Thank you! —David Levy 08:38, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

Medicine
Hi, I'm joining you. Oh ja, Nederlands mag ook. --Daniel575 15:41, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Clinical Cases
"start with a section on Clinical Cases? It could be a place for people to test their knowledge and go looking for answers, e.g. on Wikipedia" <-- "we should run small experiments, tests, see what works, what doesn't" (source). "have more interactive features, like the ones you get when taking interactive courses for CME credit, but I'm not a programmer" <-- We can start with Test and Quiz and move on to Interactive learning resources; we need to figure out how to get programmers to work on software features that are needed. We need to try setting up all kinds of ways for people to interact, ask questions, explore ideas. --JWSchmidt 04:00, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

You should be very careful. Usually I itch at once when I hear "clinical case" in an armchair context. Patients aren't files. Clinical cases must be very well prepared.

On tests and quizzes, you might get into legal things. Of course you can ask show stuff like "The oesophagus: "

1. Is continued by the intestine

2. Contacts with the heart

3. Is part of the nerve system

4. etc.

You can, of course, never provide a correct answer. That's correct and that's cool and open-ended. HolyZarkon 23:17, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Curriculum
Do the active participants wish to collaborate on an overall curriculum? Welcome back. I see you have been working flat out today. I would like to work closely with you on the school of medicine in regards to quick addition of content. Go raibh mile maith agaibh 23:08, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

Welcome to the board!
Welcome to the editorial board of Wikiversity Journal of Medicine! Please email me at with the address you want to use for email correspondence. Also, please update your entry at the board's page as you prefer. If it's ok for you, your real name will be linked to this Wikimedia account. Mikael Häggström (discuss • contribs) 11:59, 16 August 2016 (UTC)

email
thank you for your email, I'm caught up in regular work and have put in even more time at Wikipedia this month, ...thank you again --Ozzie10aaaa (discuss • contribs) 12:18, 25 July 2017 (UTC)

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Wikiversity supports both Title Case and Sentence case naming conventions. Academics tend to prefer Title Case. You are welcome to use either one, but please don't move / change case on resources other than those you create yourself. Thanks! -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 2 August 2019 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Stevenfruitsmaak


text:
Anatomy/Muscles

Muscles are comprised of fascicles, which are bundles of muscle fibers. Perimysium, a layer of connective tissue, surrounds each fascicle, and holds it together. Endomysium surrounds each muscle fiber, and epimysium surrounds the muscle itself.

Penetrating the muscle, are arteries, veins, and nerve fibers.

Skeletal muscle
The study of anatomy focuses primarily on skeletal muscles, muscles that are under voluntary nervous control. The five primary functions of skeletal muscle are maintaining body temperature, regulation of material entering or leaving the body, supporting soft tissue, aiding in the maintenance of posture, and aid in movement. There are three types of skeletal muscle fibers - fast, slow and intermediate skeletal muscle fibers. Fast fibers are powerful and can remain contracted for only about 0.01 seconds. These contractions generate more force than other fibers and use a significant amount of ATP. These fibers are also known as white fibers (associated with white meat). Weight training increases the size of fast fibers. Slow fibers, also known as red fibers (associated with red meat), react slowly to stimuli but can remain contracted for a long time. Slow fibers have a larger capillary network, aiding in the oxygenation of these fibers so that they can remain contracted for longer periods. Intermediate fibers are just that, fibers with properties in the spectrum between fast and slow fibers. Many fast fibers are slowly converted to intermediate fibers in endurance athletes, in relation to the extensiveness of their training.

Types of muscle
There are three types of muscle:
 * Skeletal

 * Cardiac: Muscle that are found only in the heart. They are specialised and autonomous, with intercalated discs between each cell. The nervous system has the ability to effect changes globally.

 * Smooth or visceral: Smooth or visceral muscels are not under voluntary nervous control. These muscles are found in blood vessels, the digestive system, etc. Smooth muscles are responsible for peristalsis, the slow movement of food along the gastrointestinal tract towards the anus.

Origin and Insertion
Muscles are usually partly described by their origin at one end and insertion at the other. These are points of muscle attachment to bones: the origin being the point that moves least under contraction and the insertion being the end that moves most. The origin is usually more proximal and the insertion more distal. Also, the connection at the origin is typically to a stronger/thicker bone. If a muscle arises from more than one place (as in the biceps or triceps), we say that it has two (or possibly more) heads.

2.0 Upper Limb

Additional resources

 * Sternocleidomastoid muscle

title: Anatomy/Muscles


text:
Anatomy/Bones of the Upper Limb

Bones of the Shoulder
The shoulder is comprised of the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collar bone).

Bones of the Arm
The bone in the arm is the humerus.

Bones of the Forearm
The forearm is comprised of the radius and the ulna, which run parallel to each other. The radius is lateral to the ulna.

Bones of the Hand
The wrist is comprised of the carpal bones, a number of relatively small bones roughly arranged in two rows of four, which are known collectively as the carpus. The proximal row is the first row, and is comprised of (in order from lateral to medial side):

 * Scaphoid (navicular) bone
 * Lunate bone
 * Triquetral (triangular) bone
 * Pisiform bone: Anterior to the triquetral bone.

The distal row is comprised of:

 * Trapezial (greater multangular) bone
 * Trapezoid (lesser multangular) bone
 * Capitate bone
 * Hamate bone

The carpal bones can be remembered using the following (somewhat humerous - no pun intended) rhymes: "So long to pinky, here comes the thumb."
 * Sometimes lovers try positions that they cannot handle. or
 * She looks too pretty. Try to catch her. or
 * Sam Likes To Push The Toy Car Hard.

Distal to the carpal bones is the metacarpus, comprised of the metacarpal bones. These run through the palm of the hand, and connect the fingers to the carpus. There are five metacarpals, and they are numbered starting with the lateral side from one to five, the first metacarpal running to the thumb.

Distal to the metacarpus are phalanx bones, or the phalanges. These are the digital bones, consisting of three in each finger, except for the thumb which contains only two. As the phalanges are arranged in rows, they are referred to by their row number, and finger number. Each finger is numbered similarly to the metacarpals, from one to five beginning with the lateral thumb. The first row of phalanges are called the proximal phalanges, the second row as the middle phalanges, and the third row as the distal phalanges. For example, the second middle phalanx is the middle bone of the index finger. As the thumb contains only two phalanges, these are referred to as the first proximal and first distal phalanges.

 * 2.2 Muscles of the Upper Limb

title: Anatomy/Bones of the Upper Limb


text:
Talk:The Human Body

Merge
I suggest we merge this into Topic:Anatomy.--Steven Fruitsmaak (Talk) 00:24, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I think rather than a merge, some links back and forth as appropriate might be better. As I currently understand it the "topic" namespace or prefix is for gathering links to a category of information while the "resource" namespace or prefix is for specific learning sessions or knowledge chunks. Mirwin 04:45, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Human Body


text:
Acid–base chemistry

Acid/Base chemistry began with the Arrhenius model of acids and bases. This model states molecules in water that release hydrogen ions (H+) are acids, while molecules in water that release hydroxide (OH-) are bases. This is not complete. The current common definition of an acid and a base is based upon how the substance releases or attracts hydrogen ions (H+). Acids release H+ ions that can turn neutral molecules into positively charged ions, while bases can attract H+ ions from neutral molecules to produce negatively charged ions. This definition allows for bases such as ammonia which does not contain a hydroxide ion.

In water solutions, acids affect water molecules, producing hydronium (H3O+) and bases also affect water molecules, producing hydroxide (OH-) ions. The relative strength of acids and bases is measured by their respective ion concentrations once dissolved. The product of the hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration in water times the hydroxide ion concentration equals 1*10 to the -14th power. When water is not the solvent, the product of the concentrations of the positive and negative ions produced by acids and bases also has a constant value, but the value is different for each solvent.

In water solutions, the pH is equal to the negative log of the hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration. The pOH is equal to the negative log of the hydroxide ion (OH-) concentration. For typical solutions, pH varies between 0 and 14, with 7 (the pH of water) as neutral. Each "step" below 7 is ten times more acidic (since it was derived from a power of ten). For concentrated solutions (> 1 M) of strong acids or bases, solutions can have pH below 0 or above 14 respectively. However, considering the water system at 25 °C, the pH plus pOH of a substance is equal to 14.

The notion of pH in fact depends on the considered solvent and can be extended to other non aqueous polar solvent systems with different autoprotolysis constant. In this case, the sum of pH and pOH is equal to the value of -log of this constant.

For acids and bases that fit the Arrhenius model, a reaction between them always produce water and a salt. Reactions between acids and metal always produce a salt and hydrogen gas.

An electrolyte is a substance, that forms solutions capable to carry electric current.

Operational and Conceptual definitions

 * Operational definition deals with observable things.
 * Conceptual definition deals with interpretation.

Operational definition of bases
The fact that water dissociates to form H+ and OH- ions in a reversible reaction is the basis for an operational definition of acids and bases that is more powerful than the definitions proposed by Arrhenius. In an operational sense, an acid is any substance that increases the concentration of the H+ ion when it dissolves in water. A base is any substance that increases the concentration of the OH- ion when it dissolves in water.

These definitions tie the theory of acids and bases to a simple laboratory test for acids and bases. To decide whether a compound is an acid or a base we dissolve it in water and test the solution to see whether the H+ or OH- ion concentration has increased.

Conceptual definition of acids and bases.
Arrhenius theory

Svante Arrhenius concocted the first successful concept of acids and bases. He did this by defining acids and bases according to the effect these substances have on water. The Arrhenius concept of acids and bases is as follows: an acid is a substance that when dissolved in water increases the concentration of the hydrogen ion, H+. A base is a substance that when dissolved in water increases the concentration of the hydroxide ion, OH-. The hydrogen ion, is not just a bare proton, it is a proton bonded to a water molecule, H2O. This results in a hydronium ion, H3O+. In Arrhenius's theory, something that is a strong acid is a substance that completely ionizes in aqueous solution to give a hydronium ion, H3O+, and an anion. An anion is a negatively charged ion. An example of a strong acid is perchloric acid:

HClO4(aq) + H2O(l) -> H3O+(aq) + ClO4-(aq)

What is going on above is that we have perchloric acid in an aqueous solution. This perchloric acid ionizes entirely and results in a hydronium ion and a perchlorate anion. Some other examples of strong acids would be: HI, HBr, HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4.

Now on to bases...A strong base is something that completely ionizes in aqueous solution to give a hydroxide ion and a cation. A cation is a positively charged ion. Strong bases are most of the hydroxides of Group IA elements and Group IIA elements including LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2.

Many of the acids and bases that we encounter in our everyday lives are not strong acids, they are considered weak. Weak acids and bases do not completely ionize in solution, but exist in equilibrium.

Bronsted-Lowery Theory

The Bronsted-Lowery concept of acids and bases is that acid-base reactions can be seen as proton-transfer reactions. This results in acids and bases being able to be defined in terms of this proton (H+) transfer. According to the Bronsted-Lowery concept, acids donate a proton in a proton-transfer reactions. Bases accept the proton in a proton-transfer equation. As an example, lets look at the reaction of hydrochloric acid with ammonia. When we write it as an ionic equation we get:

H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + NH3(aq) --> H2O(l) + NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

which reduces to: H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq) --> H2O(l) + NH4+(aq)

because there are two Cl-(aq) (one each side). We now have the net ionic equation after we cancel out the "spectator ions"(Cl-).

What happens in this reaction in aqueous solution is a proton transfer. According to the Bronsted-Lowery concept, acids donate a proton in a proton-transfer reactions. Bases accept the proton in a proton-transfer equation. As an example, let's look at the reaction of hydrochloric acid with ammonia shown above. What happens in this reaction in aqueous solution is that a proton is transferred from H3O+ to NH3. This results in H3O+ losing a (H+), resulting in H2O. The NH3 gains the transferred proton, resulting in NH4+. We call H3O+ the proton donor, or acid. We call NH3 the proton acceptor, or base.

The Bronsted-Lowery concept defines something as either an acid or base depending on its function in the acid-base (proton transfer) reaction. Some things can act as either an acid or a base. These are called amphoteric species, they can either lose or gain a proton, depending on the other reactant. An example of an amphoteric species would be HCO3-. In the presence of OH-, it acts as an acid. In the presence of HF it acts as a base. Water is also amphoteric, as are most anions with ionizable hydrogens and certain solvents. Water as an amphoteric species is very important to the acid-base reactions.

In the Bronsted-Lowery concept we have found that:

1. A base is a species that accepts protons, while an acid is a species that donates protons.

2. Acids and bases can be ions as well as molecular substances.

3. Some species can act as either acids or bases, depending on what the other reactant is.

Acid - Base reactions
by acid - base indicators.
 * Neutralization reaction occurs, when equal quantities of acids and bases occurs. For example: H+ ions react with OH- ions, to make the H2O molecule.
 * Acid - base titration is the process of adding known molarity of acid or base to unknown molarity, until the neutralization will occur. The acid or base of known molarity called standard solution. The endpoint of the reaction can be determined

Comolarity calculation
The unknown molarity can be calculated from used volumes and molarity of known standard solution. To do this, we have to balance the equation, and determine the ratio between the Acid and Base.
 * Moles of acids = molarity × liters of acid.
 * Moles of base = molarity × liters of base.
 * If the ratio of this two equations is 1, then
 * Liters of acids × Moles of acid = Liters of base × Moles of base.
 * The unknown molarity can be calculated, from this relationship.

1) 23.45 mL of 0.275 M sodium hydroxide was used to titrate against mL of acetic acid. What was the concentration in M of acetic acid?

2) 17.05 mL of 0.247 M barium hydroxide was used to titrate against 10 mL of nitric acid. What was the concentration in M of nitric acid?

3) 35.79 mL of 0.275 M sodium hydroxide was used to titrate against 15 mL of sulfuric acid. What was the concentration in M of sulfuric acid?

4) 24.92 mL of 0.00199 M silver nitrate was used to titrate against 5 mL of sodium chloride solution. What was the concentration of NaCl?

(a) 1.29 M 	(b) 0.842 M	(c) 0.328 M	(d) 9.92 M

Normality of the solution
Normality of the solution is the number of moles of (H+) or (OH-) ions per solution. In general volumes and normality of reacting acids and bases are in inverse proportion.
 * Volume of Acids = Normality of bases.
 * Volume of solution = Normality of acids.

Conjugate acid - base pairs
have chemical formula that differ by one H+ (they differ by both one H atom and by a +1 charge). They typically appear in a chemical equation for an acid-base reaction, where one is a reactant and the other is a product. Stronger acids have weaker conjugate bases, while stronger bases have weaker conjugate acids. The strongest acids have conjugate bases that are so weak as to be non-basic. The strongest bases have conjugate acids that are so weak as to be non-acidic.

Ionization constant of acids
Ionization constant (Ka) is used to characterize the strength of acids. It is calculated like the constant of the following reaction.

$$K_a = {[H^+] [B^-] \over [HB]}$$.

In language, the equilibrium expression reads; "The dissociation constant of an acid is equal to the concentration of hydrogen ions times the concentration of the conjugate base of the acid divided by the concentration of un-ionized acid.                              $$K_B = {[X^+] [OH^-] \over [XOH]}$$.

Similarly, the equilibrium expression for a weak base reads: "The dissociation constant of a base equals concentration of hydroxide ions times concentration of conjugate acid divided by the concentration of un-ionized base.

$$K_W = {[H^+] [OH^-]}$$.

Where Kw is the equilibrium constant for water (unitless)

[H+] is the molar concentration of hydrogen

[OH-] is the molar concentration of hydroxide

Ka x Kb = Kw = 1.00x10-14

Hydrogen ion concentration.
pH is defined as the negative value of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. In acidic solutions H+ concentration is larger than 10-7. For example it can be 10-3, which means pH = 3. Solutions with pH values less than 7 are acidic; solutions with pH values greater than 7 are basic (alkaline). The range of pH is typically from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly basic); more extreme values sometimes occur.

The acidity or basicity of a substance is defined most typically by the pH value, defined as below: At equilibrium, the concentration of H+ is 10-7, so we can calculate the pH of water at equilibrium as:

pH = -log[H+]= -log[10-7] = 7

Solutions with a pH of seven (7) are said to be neutral, while those with pH values below seven (7) are defined as acidic and those above pH of seven (7) as being basic.

pOH gives us another way to measure the acidity of a solution. It is just the opposite of pH. A high pOH means the solution is acidic while a low pOH means the solution is basic.

pOH = -log[OH-]

 Strong Acids:  These acids completely ionize in solution so they are always represented in chemical equations in their ionized form. There are only seven (7) strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4 To calculate a pH value, it is easiest to follow the standard "Start, Change, Equilibrium" process. Example Problem: Determine the pH of a 0.25 M solution of HBr.

 Weak Acids : These are the most common type of acids. They follow the equation:

HA(aq) <---> H+(aq) + A-(aq)

The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid is known as Ka. The larger the value of Ka, the stronger the acid.  Example Problem: Determine the pH of .30 M acetic acid (HC2H3O2) with the Ka of 1.8x10-5.

 Strong Bases:  Like strong acids, these bases completely ionize in solution and are always represented in their ionized form in chemical equations. There are only eight (8) strong bases: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

 Example Problem: Determine the pH of a 0.010 M solution of Ba(OH)2.

 Weak Bases:  They follow the equation:

Weak Base + H2O <---> conjugate acid + OH-

example: NH3 + H2O <---> NH4+ + OH+

Kb is the base-dissociation constant: Ka x Kb = Kw = 1.00x10-14

To calculate the pH of a weak base, we must follow a very similar "Start, Change, Equilibrium" process as we did with the weak acid, however we must add a few steps.

 Example Problem:  Determine the pH of 0.15 M ammonia (NH3) with a Kb=1.8x10-5.

When dealing with weak acids and weak bases, you also might have to deal with the "common ion effect". This is when you add a salt to a weak acid or base that contains one of the ions present in the acid or base. To be able to use the same process to solve for pH when this occurs, all you need to change are your "start" numbers. Add the molarity of the ion, which comes from the salt, and then solve the Ka or Kb equation as you did earlier.

 Example Problem: Find the pH of a solution formed by dissolving 0.100 mol of HC2H3O2 with a Ka of 1.8x10-8 and 0.200 mol of NaC2H3O2 in a total volume of 1.00 L.

Salts
Salt is one of the products of a neutralization. It is a compound containing at least one positive and one negative ion. All salts are strong electrolytes completely ionized by water. Some salts form acidic or basic solution. When it occurs this process is called hydrolysis.

title: Acid–base chemistry


text:
Chemistry/Reduction and oxidation reactions

Reduction is the loss of oxygen atom from a molecule or the gaining of one or more electrons. A reduction reaction is seen from the point of view of the molecule being reduced, as when one molecule gets reduced another gets oxidised. The full reaction is known as a Redox reaction. This is a good way of remembering it.

This can be remembered with the term OIL RIG when speaking about electrons.
 * Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
 * Reduction Is Gain of electrons

In the case of Organic Chemistry it is usually the case of the gaining/loss of Oxygen/Hydrogen

In Inorganic Chemistry the term refers to the change in oxidation state of the metal center.

 * Oxidation is a process where a substance:

 * Loses one or more electrons
 * Gains an oxygen atom or Electronegative atoms
 * Loses a hydrogen atom or Electropositive atoms
 * Gains an increase in its oxidation number
 * Reduction is a process where a substance:

 * Gains one or more electrons
 * Loses an oxygen atom or Electronegative atoms
 * Gains a hydrogen atom or Electropositive atoms
 * Loses an increase in its oxidation number

Introduction
Electrochemistry plays an important part in our everyday lives. It is responsible for the rusting of iron, it allows us to purify many metals or plate common metals with silver or gold, it explains how batteries power iPods (and also how we can recharge the batteries), and is used in countless other technologies.

In order to understand electrochemistry, we must first examine Reduction/Oxidation reactions (also known as REDOX reactions).

Some elements have a higher affinity for electrons than others. When a material comes into contact with a material with a lower electron affinity, it will remove electrons from the other material. The process in which a substance loses an electron in a chemical reaction is called oxidation. The lost electron cannot exist on its own and must be gained by a second substance. The substance that gains the electron is said to be reduced (a simple trick to help remember this is the acronym "LEO (lose electrons - oxidized) went GER (gain electrons - reduced)" Or an alternative way of remembering oxidation and reduction in a substance is to remember "OILRIG"- ( OIL = Oxidation Is Loss of electrons and RIG= Reduction Is Gain of electrons).

Redox and electrochemistry When electrons are lost by one atom, they must be gained by another element. Therefore oxidation and reduction cannot occur alone. If one occurs, the other must occur also. Reactions involving oxidation and reduction are called redox reactions.
 * Oxidation is a combination of elements with oxygen. It's also a reaction of losing electrons and gaining positive charge. The atoms that lost electrons are said to be oxidized. Atoms can be oxidized by nonmetals.
 * Reduction is gain of electrons and thus gaining of negative charge. The atom that acquired electrons is said to be reduced.
 * The oxidation number (step) of an element is a convenient way to keep track of electron transfer. It defines the number of electrons that are lost or gained by an element.

Example
2-When vegetable oil is reduced, we get hydrogenated oil.
 * The metals of group 1 (1A) always have oxidation number +1.
 * The metals of group 2 (2A) always have oxidation number +2.
 * Fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1.
 * The rest of the halogens (Cl, Br, I) usually have oxidation numbers of -1, except in their compounds with fluorine and oxygen, where they will be positive.
 * Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2, unless paired with fluorine (where it will be positive).
 * Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 in all its compounds except hydrides of active metals. Its oxidation number in metal hydrides is -1.

Changes in oxidation number
Redox reactions can be recognized, as the change of the oxidation number of some of the atoms. If the oxidation number of an element increases, then the element is oxidized. If it is decreased, then the element is reduced.
 * The oxidation number is in the range between -7 and +7. It shows the number of electrons lost with regards to the neutral atom.
 * The reducing agent is an element or compound that can lose an electron (undergo oxidation).
 * The oxidizing agent is an element or compound that can gain an electron (undergo reduction).

Electrochemistry
Every redox reaction consists of two parts, the oxidation and the reduction. Each one separately is called a half - reaction.
 * During the redox reaction there is a transfer of electrons from the substance being oxidized to the substance being reduced. In a voltaic cell, these reactions happen in separate vessels.
 * The vessels are connected by a salt bridge, which allows ions to move from one solution to another. The salt bridge does NOT transfer electrons. The electrons are transferred through a wire connecting the two vessels. This flow constitutes an electric current. The flow of charge continues due to the migration of the ions through the salt bridge.  The complete system is called an electrochemical cell, or simply a chemical cell. Each vessel in which half reaction takes place is called a half cell.
 * The flow of electrons through the wire is caused by differences in electric potential between the electrodes. This potential, measured in volts, is proportional to the free energy change. The flow of current carries electrical energy, which is used to do work. A voltaic or galvanic cell is a device that directly converts chemical energy to electrical energy.  Cells that convert electrical energy into chemical energy are called electrolytic cells.Using ecs we can predict which oxidising agent can oxidise other reducing agent excellent approach

Electrode potential
It's not possible to measure the potential of a half reaction by itself. Instead, it is necessary to measure the difference in potentials between two half reactions, when they are paired in a chemical cell. The voltage developed between any given half reaction, is called standard electrode potential ( E 0 ) of a half reaction. the measure of ( E 0 ) made under 1 atm pressure with 1 molar (M) solutions at 25 degrees C.

Oxidation and Redox Potentials
For a half-reaction with a given oxidation potential, its reduction potential will be opposite in sign. The overall potential of a redox reaction is the sum of the reduction and oxidation half-reaction potentials.
 * The potential of a chemical cell is a sum of the potentials of the half reactions.
 * When adding the half-cell potentials, make sure that there is a reduction and an oxidation taking place.
 * The positive electrode is called the cathode, and the negative electrode is called the anode.

Balancing the redox reactions

 * 1) Assign the oxidation numbers to the elements.
 * 2) Write half reactions for the oxidation and reduction.
 * 3) Multiply the half reaction numbers by a number, that will equalize

The number of electrons
The oxidation number in reactants and products must be balanced to zero. After this step we will define which element is oxidized and which element is reduced.


text:
Portal talk:Computer engineering

As this school appears not to exist yet, I am changing the link back to the School of Computer Science, which somehow got wiped out from the school of engineering. --jlguinn 01:12, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I prefer to see this exist outside of computer science...but whatever works now, go for it! --HappyCamper 02:45, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

link for later, perhaps...

 * August 2008 A 'Frankenrobot' with a biological brain Emesee 20:24, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Computer engineering


text:
School:Computer Science/School News Archive

 * August 16, 2006 - School founded!
 * August 18, 2006 - jlguinn, joins! - I am working on.....
 * August 18, 2006 - Codebunnie, joins! - I am working on.....
 * August 18, 2006 - Somefilename, joins! - I am working on.....
 * August 18, 2006 - Tastymangojuice, joins! - I am working on.....
 * August 18, 2006 - Spacey, joins! - I am working on.....
 * August 18, 2006 - Digitalme will be helping out where he can, but probably not taking a main teaching role.
 * August 18, 2006 - Ade1982, joins- I am working on.....
 * August 19, 2006 - Three lessons and two two project proposals have been started.
 * August 29, 2006 - Magus, joins- I am working on.....
 * September 26, 2006 - Draicone joins - I'm working on Topic:Computer Programming
 * October 9, 2006 - bakert joins - I am working on Topic:The Art of Computer Programming
 * October 10, 2006 - ArrowStomper - I am working on Topic:Python
 * October 10, 2006 - CQ joins - Kicking off Topic:Perl ...wouldn't mind helping with Topic:Computer Programming au generale
 * October 11, 2006 - KJ joins- I am working on PHP
 * October 28, 2006 - Object-Oriented Programming subdivision starts
 * October 30, 2006 - SJ teaches Mako how to ruffle feathers
 * November 9, 2006 - Linux_Server_Administration Proposed - discuss
 * November 13, 2006 - Database division expands - details
 * November 14, 2006 - Geoinformatics Department founded - Film at 11
 * December 18, 2011 - Efforts Restarted to complete the school.
 * August 8, 2012 - Please familiarize yourself with the naming conventions if you haven't already.


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Random number

A number selected by chance (or in the case of a computer program, as near to simulating chance as possible).

Typically, a programming language has a built in command or function to generate a number for you. In most cases, the number will be delivered as a random floating point decimal value between 0 and 1. It is up to the programmer to apply arithmetic to this number to convert it to a number in the desired range.

For example, if you want to simulate the roll of a six-sided die, you would multiply this original random result (which starts out between zero and one) by six, add one and then remove any portion after the decimal.

Let DieRoll = Integer(RandomResult * 6 + 1)

In the most extreme cases, where RandomResult is 0 (multiplying by six yields zero, and then add one) our die roll is a one, and when RandomResult is 0.999999... (multiplying by six yeilds 5.9999..., adding one yeields 6.9999..., but taking only Integer portion) we get six.

title: Random number


text:
Integer

 * This may need some disambiguation information to deal with the computer programming data type.

The integers are a very fundamental mathematical set on which arithmetic is based. They are the familiar "whole numbers"; that is, they do not include fractional quantities. They include zero and negative whole numbers—the natural numbers are the set that includes only positive whole numbers. That is, the integers are the set $$\dots -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, \dots$$.

Mathematicians denote the set of integers with an ornate capital letter: $$\mathbb{I}$$. They are the 2nd item in this hierarchy of types of numbers:

 * The "natural numbers"—$$\mathbb{N}$$, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
 * The "integers"—$$\mathbb{I}$$, positive, negative, and zero
 * The "rational numbers"—$$\mathbb{Q}$$, or fractions, like 355/113
 * The "real numbers"—$$\mathbb{R}$$, including irrational numbers
 * The "complex numbers"—$$\mathbb{C}$$, which give solutions to polynomial equations

Definition of the integers
Integer represents a set of signed numbers namely Negative numbers, Zero and Positive numbers. Integer is denoted as I. So Negative number is -I and Positive number is +I

 * $$I = {-I,0,+I}$$

Where
 * $$I$$ . Integer
 * $$-I$$ . Negative integer
 * $$+I$$ . Positive integer

Negative number is defined as a number has value less than zero
 * $$-I < 0$$

Positive number is defined as a number has value greater zero
 * $$+I > 0$$

Example Integers of octal base
 * $$I = {-9,-8,-7,-6,-5,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3,+4,+5,+6,+7,+8,+9}$$

Differfent integers

 * $$(-I) + 0 = -I$$
 * $$(+I) + 0 = +I$$
 * $$(+I) + (-I) = 0$$
 * $$(-I) + (+I) = 0$$

Like positive integer

 * $$(+I) + (+I) = +2I$$
 * $$(+I) - (+I) = 0$$
 * $$(+I) \times (+I) = I^2$$
 * $$(+I) / (+I) = 1$$

Like negative integer

 * $$(-I) + (-I) = -2I$$
 * $$(-I) - (-I) = 0$$
 * $$(-I) \times (-I) = I^2$$
 * $$(-I) / (-I) = 1$$

Addition
For all positive x and y, we extend addition to all integers as follows. The value of x+(-y) depends on which is larger, x or y.
 * If $$x > y$$, $$x+(-y) = x-y$$
 * If $$x < y$$, $$x+(-y) = -(y-x)$$
 * Also, $$(-y)+x$$ = $$x+(-y)$$, and $$(-x)+(-y) = -(x+y)$$
 * Finally, $$x+0 = 0+x = x$$ for all x, positive, negative, or zero.

Negation
This operator, written "-x", has already been defined for positive numbers. For negative numbers, we define
 * $$ -(-x) = x$$. Also, $$-0 = 0$$.

Subtraction
We define subtraction for all numbers, positive, negative, or zero, in terms of negation and addition
 * $$x-y = x+(-y)$$

Multiplication
For negative numbers, we define
 * $$x \times (-y) = -(x \times y)$$
 * $$(-x)\times y = -(x \times y)$$
 * $$0 \times x = x \times 0 = 0$$

 * Ordering: If x and y are both positive numbers:
 * $$-x < -y$$ if and only if $$x > y$$
 * $$-x < 0$$, $$-x < y$$
 * $$0 > -y$$, $$x > -y$$
 * In all cases,
 * $$x x

From these definitions, we can then prove all the various commutativity, associativity, and distributivity properties, and the trichotomy law. This is left as an exercise.

Group and ring properties
The integers, with their property of addition, constitute a group. Groups are extremely important objects in mathematics. A group requires a set (the integers), an operation (addition), an "inverse" operation (negation—the natural numbers don't have this, so they are not a group), and an "identity" operation (zero). To be a group, the operation must be associative, a property which the integers satisfy. Also, since addition

Furthermore, the integers have a multiplication operator, satisfying the distributive law, and having a multiplicative identity (1). This makes the integers a ring.

title: Integer


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Template:ABCD

This template creates a test question with four choices and answers. The choices will automatically be bolded, but the answers will not be.

Usage

which produces:

de:Vorlage:ABCD

title: Template:ABCD


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Infrastructure Project

Do others agree that such a project category should exist? Does such a category exist and I missed it? Does anyone agree that Wikiversity Infrastructure would be a good place for the School of Computer Science to devote its attention? Is it possible to create such an infrastructure in a contribution-based Wiki environment?
 * Currently our infrastructure is handled by the Wikimedia Foundation. They have a mailing list  dedicated to supporting the Wikimedia software which runs under a standard html web server.  There were about 50 developers active on the list last I heard.  This might be a good place to start. How_to_become_a_MediaWiki_hacker  It makes some people nervous to talk about infrastructure elsewhere, they see it as leading inevitably to a fork.  Personally I think some distributed technologies will be useful in the near future whether it is operated by the Wikimedia Foundation or the Wikiversity Project or some other large free wiki.  A lot of people donate processing time, hard drive space, and bandwidth to various projects that enable it.  It currently seems like the Wikimedia servers go through a cycle of being overloaded while waiting for frustrated users to donate cash to upgrade the centralized server farm.  Mirwin 05:34, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Infrastructure Project


text:
History of artificial intelligence

Introduction
The intellectual roots of AI, and the concept of intelligent machines, may be found in Greek mythology. Intelligent artefacts appear in literature since then, with real (and fraudulent) mechanical devices actually demonstrated to behave with some degree of intelligence. Some of these conceptual achievements are listed below under "Ancient History."

After modern computers became available, following World War II, it has become possible to create programs that perform difficult intellectual tasks. From these programs, general tools are constructed which have applications in a wide variety of everyday problems. Some of these computational milestones are listed below under "Modern History."

Ancient History

 * Greek myths of Hephaestus and Pygmalion incorporate the idea of intelligent robots. Many other myths in antiquity involve human-like artefacts. Many mechanical toys and models were actually constructed, e.g., by Hero, Daedalus and other real persons.

 * 5th century B.C.
 * Aristotle invented syllogistic logic, the first formal deductive reasoning system.

 * 13th century
 * Talking heads were said to have been created, Roger Bacon and Albert the Great reputedly among the owners.

 * Ramon Llull, Spanish theologian, invented machines for discovering non mathematical truths through combinatories.

 * 15th century
 * Invention of printing using moveable type. Gutenberg Bible printed (1456).

 * 15th-16th century
 * Clocks, the first modern measuring machines, were first produced using lathes.

 * 16th century
 * Clockmakers extended their craft to creating mechanical animals and other novelties.

 * Rabbi Loew of Prague is said to have invented the Golem, a clay man brought to life (1580).

 * 17th century
 * Early in the century, Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines. Many other 17th century thinkers offered variations and elaborations of Cartesian mechanism.

 * Hobbes published The Leviathan, containing a material and combinatorial theory of thinking.

 * Pascal created the first mechanical digital calculating machine (1642).

 * Leibniz improved Pascal's machine to do multiplication & division (1673) and evisioned a universal calculus of reasoning by which arguments could be decided mechanically.

 * 18th century
 * The 18th century saw a profusion of mechanical toys, including the celebrated mechanical duck of Vaucanson and von Kempelen's phony mechanical chess player, The Turk (1769).

 * 19th century
 * Luddites (led by Ned Ludd) destroyed machinery in England (1811-1816).

 * Mary Shelley published the story of Frankenstein's monster (1818).

 * George Boole developed a binary algebra representing (some) "laws of thought."

 * Charles Babbage & Ada Byron (Lady Lovelace) worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.

 * 20th century - First Half
 * Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica, which revolutionaized formal logic. Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Rudolf Carnap lead philosophy into logical analysis of knowledge.

 * Karel Capek's play "R.U.R." (Rossum's Universal Robots) opens in London (1923). - First use of the word 'robot' in English.

 * Warren McCulloch & Walter Pitts publish "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943), laying foundations for neural networks.

 * Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener & Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics" in a 1943 paper. Wiener's popular book by that name published in 1948.

 * Vannevar Bush published As We May Think (Atlantic Monthly, July 1945) a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities.

 * A.M. Turing published "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (1950). - Introduction of Turing Test as a way of operationalizing a test of intelligent behavior.

 * Claude Shannon published detailed analysis of chess playing as search (1950).

 * Isaac Asimov published his three laws of robotics (1950).

Modern History

 * 1956
 * John McCarthy coined the term "artificial intelligence" as the topic of the Dartmouth Conference, the first conference devoted to the subject.
 * Demonstration of the first running AI program, the Logic Theorist (LT) written by Allen Newell, J.C. Shaw and Herbert Simon (Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University).

 * 1957
 * The General Problem Solver (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw & Simon.

 * 1952-62
 * Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers, to achieve sufficient skill to challenge a world champion. Samuel's machine learning programs were responsible for the high performance of the checkers player.

 * 1958
 * John McCarthy (MIT) invented the Lisp language.
 * Herb Gelernter & Nathan Rochester (IBM) described a theorem prover in geometry that exploits a semantic model of the domain in the form of diagrams of "typical" cases.
 * Teddington Conference on the Mechanization of Thought Processes was held in the UK and among the papers presented were John McCarthy's "Programs with Common Sense," Oliver Selfridge's "Pandemonium," and Marvin Minsky's "Some Methods of Heuristic Programming and Artificial Intelligence."

 * Late 50's & Early 60's
 * Margaret Masterman & colleagues at Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation.

 * 1961
 * James Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote (in Lisp) the first symbolic integration program, SAINT, which solved calculus problems at the college freshman level.

 * 1962
 * First industrial robot company, Unimation, founded.

 * 1963
 * Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests.
 * Ivan Sutherland's MIT dissertation on Sketchpad introduced the idea of interactive graphics into computing.
 * Edward A. Feigenbaum & Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence.
 * 1964
 * Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (tech.report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.
 * Bert Raphael's MIT dissertation on the SIR program demonstrates the power of a logical representation of knowledge for question-answering systems

 * 1965
 * J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof procedure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language.
 * Joseph Weizenbaum (MIT) built ELIZA, an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English on any topic. It was a popular toy at AI centers on the ARPA-net when a version that "simulated" the dialogue of a psychotherapist was programmed.

 * 1966
 * Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology; now CMU) demonstrated semantic nets.
 * First Machine Intelligence workshop at Edinburgh - the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie and others.
 * Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural Language Processing (NLP) for many years.

 * 1967
 * Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning.
 * Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics.
 * Richard Greenblatt at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play.

 * Late 1960s
 * Doug Engelbart invented the mouse at SRI.

 * 1968
 * Marvin Minsky & Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons, demonstrating limits of simple neural nets.

 * 1969
 * SRI robot, Shakey, demonstrated combining locomotion, perception and problem solving.
 * Roger Schank (Stanford) defined conceptual dependency model for natural language understanding. Later developed (in PhD dissertations at Yale) for use in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert, and for use in understanding memory by Janet Kolodner.
 * First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held in Washington, D.C.

 * 1970
 * Jaime Carbonell (Sr.) developed SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer-aided instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge.
 * Bill Woods described Augmented Transition Networks (ATN's) as a representation for natural language understanding.
 * Patrick Winston's PhD program, ARCH, at MIT learned concepts from examples in the world of children's blocks.

 * Early 1970's
 * Jane Robinson & Don Walker established influential Natural Language Processing group at SRI.

 * 1971
 * Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English.

 * 1972
 * Prolog developed by Alain Colmerauer.

 * 1973
 * The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University builds Freddy, the Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble models.

 * 1974
 * Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on MYCIN (Stanford) demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for knowledge representation and inference in the domain of medical diagnosis and therapy. Sometimes called the first expert system.
 * Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first planning programs, ABSTRIPS, and developed techniques of hierarchical planning.

 * 1975
 * Marvin Minsky published his widely-read and influential article on Frames as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas and semantic links are brought together.
 * The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a peer-reviewed journal.
 * Mid 1970's
 * Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in NLP.
 * Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg (Xerox PARC) developed the Smalltalk language, establishing the power of object-oriented programming and of icon-oriented interfaces.
 * David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role in visual perception.

 * 1976
 * Doug Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely-guided search for interesting conjectures).
 * Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford.

 * Late 1970's
 * Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration.

 * 1978
 * Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version Spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program.
 * Herb Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality, one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing".
 * The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented representation of knowledge can be used to plan gene-cloning experiments.

 * 1979
 * Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells".
 * Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr.Myers' clinical knowledge.
 * Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming.
 * The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec, becomes the first computer-controlled, autonomous vehicle when it successfully traverses a chair-filled room and circumnavigates the Stanford AI Lab.
 * Drew McDermott & Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logics and formal aspects of truth maintenance.

 * 1980'
 * Lisp Machines developed and marketed.
 * First expert system shells and commercial applications.

 * 1980
 * Lee Erman, Rick Hayes-Roth, Victor Lesser and Raj Reddy published the first description of the blackboard model, as the framework for the HEARSAY-II speech understanding system.
 * First National Conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford.

 * 1981
 * Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, a massively parallel architecture that brings new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines, Inc.)

 * 1983
 * John Laird & Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on SOAR.
 * James Allen invents the Interval Calculus, the first widely used formalization of temporal events.

 * Mid 1980's
 * Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation algorithm (first described by Werbos in 1974).

 * 1985
 * The autonomous drawing program, Aaron, created by Harold Cohen, is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments).

 * 1987
 * Marvin Minsky publishes The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents.

 * 1989
 * Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network), which grew into the system that drove a car coast-to-coast under computer control for all but about 50 of the 2850 miles.

 * 1990's
 * Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multi-agent planning, scheduling, uncertain reasoning, data mining, natural language understanding and translation, vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics.
 * Rod Brooks' COG Project at MIT, with numerous collaborators, makes significant progress in building a humanoid robot

 * Early 1990's
 * TD-Gammon, a backgammon program written by Gerry Tesauro, demonstrates that reinforcement learning is powerful enough to create a championship-level game-playing program by competing favorably with world-class players.

 * 1997
 * The Deep Blue chess program beats the current world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, in a widely followed match.
 * First official Robo-Cup soccer match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of interacting robots and over 5000 spectators.

 * Late 1990's
 * Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the world-wide-web.
 * Demonstration of an Intelligent Room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. Initiation of work on the Oxygen Architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network.

 * 2000
 * Interactive robot pets (a.k.a. "smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th cen. novelty toy makers.
 * Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable Machines, describing KISMET, a robot with a face that expresses emotions.
 * The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for meteorite samples.

 * Today See AI in the news for history in the making!

Selected References

 * Buchanan, Bruce G. A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence. AI Magazine 26(4): Winter 2005, 53–60.
 * Cohen, Jonathan. Human Robots in Myth and Science. NY: A.S.Barnes, 1967.
 * Feigenbaum, E.A. & Feldman, J. (eds.) Computers and Thought. NY: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
 * Gardner, Martin. Logic Machines & Diagrams. NY: McGraw-Hill, 1958.
 * McCorduck, Pamela. Machines Who Think. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1979.
 * AAAI. AI Topics: History of AI at www.aaai.org/aitopics/html/history.html

 * NOTE
 * A version of this timeline appears in Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia, Ninth Edition. Glenn D. Considine (ed.). New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2002.

title: History of artificial intelligence


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Category:Wikiversity cleanup

Pages in this category need to be cleaned up. Get to work!

title: Category:Wikiversity cleanup


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Category:Pages needing to be renamed

These pages need to be renamed to comply with naming conventions and our namespaces guidelines.

title: Category:Pages needing to be renamed


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User:Roadrunner~enwikiversity/Whiteboard

Here is my virtual office white board.

Research interests
Right now I'm focusing on doing research on pricing Shanghai warrants.

Travel schedule
I will be in the Boston area for the Chinese Financial Association in mid-October, and may stay for the FEA '2006 conference afterward.

I may be attending the Darden conference on Emerging Markets if I can get a paper written by then.

Journals to read/submit to

 * * Pacific-Basin Finance Journal
 * * Review of Pacific Basin Financial Markets and Policies
 * * Journal of Emerging Markets Finance


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Template:Uncategorized

Usage
Type {{uncategorized}} or.

title: Template:Uncategorized


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Category:Uncategorized

Pages in this category have no categories (except this one). Please find at least one category for these pages. If it is a lesson, give it the category of its associated department.

See:.

See also: Special:Uncategorized pages and Special:Uncategorized categories.

title: Category:Uncategorized


text: Portal:Sociology

title: Portal:Sociology


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Category talk:Wikiversity the Movie

wheres all the politics subjects?

title: Category talk:Wikiversity the Movie


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Brazilian Portuguese

Introduction
The Portuguese language is the 6th most spoken in the world, with over 200,000,000 native speakers in Brazil alone. (Another estimated 11 million in Portugal.) It's a Category I language, meaning that it is relatively easy for a native English speaker to learn. How easy is it? And how hard does it get?

Things you'll find easy about learning Brazilian Portuguese:
 * Sentence structure is close to English
 * Very similar to Spanish vocabulary-wise
 * Phonetic (every word follows a pronunciation pattern)

The hard part? And finally, this course isn't designed to be a chore! It's designed to be fun! Don't feel you have to drag yourself through bits you don't like or find boring. No one's looking if you skip a lesson. But at the same time, don't give up when it gets tough!
 * Producing nasal sounds
 * Open and closed vowels (sounds intimidating but I'm sure you can master it in less than 30 minutes)
 * Complex conjugation system
 * The many verb tenses

Contents
This section is currently under construction, so information on the contents page may differ from content in each lesson

WATCH THIS SPACE- Intermediate level lessons coming soon

More useful resources

 * /Irregular verbs- Some common, irregular verbs conjugated in the present tense
 * /Useful words- Some basic, yet important words that you should know
 * /Portuguese-speaking countries- Information about Portuguese speaking countries, to help bolster your cultural knowledge
 * /Verb conjugation table- The 3 regular verb conjugations and most-used irregular conjugations

title: Brazilian Portuguese