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Foundations of Pure Mathematics

Syllabus
This is an introductory undergraduate course aimed at introducing the student to fundamental mathematical concepts such as sets, number systems and proofs.

The following topics will be covered: Sets. Integers, rational numbers, real numbers. Decimal expansions for rationals and reals. Inequalities, complex numbers. Induction; examples and applications.

The practice and language of mathematics
Throughout pre-university level education, mathematics focuses on arithmetic and on manual computation. This leads to the common misconception that mathematics is fundamentally about numbers and calculation. In reality, mathematics is a much vaster field which explores many concepts such as uncertainty, change, space and information, and whose boundaries blur with other subject areas such as philosophy, physics, and economics.

Mathematics is not characterised by the phenomenon (e.g. the stock market) or structure (e.g. a number system) we choose to analyse, but rather by the method with which we analyse them. Central to this method is the concept of a proof.

Proofs
In mathematics a proof is a logical argument used to demonstrate to the reader the validity of a given statement. For example, suppose I wanted to prove to you that there is an infinite number of primes. One approach would be to create a long list of primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, ... and show you that I can keep going. This would not be considered a mathematical proof. Perhaps I've persuaded you that there are a lot of primes, maybe even an infinite number of them, but it's not certain - after a few hours of listing prime numbers, I might run out! That would serve me right for making long lists of prime numbers.

The other approach would be to come up with a cunning argument that would eliminate any possibility that there were not an infinite number of primes - such as this one, invented by Euclid:

Suppose there are only 100 prime numbers, which we'll list as $$p_1$$, $$p_2$$, $$p_3$$, $$p_4$$, ..., $$p_{100}$$ to indicate the first, the second, the third, ..., up to the 100th prime number. Now consider the number $$N = p_1 \times p_2 \times \cdots \times p_{100} + 1$$. We cannot divide $$N$$ by $$p_1$$, because then we'd have a remainder of 1. The same applies to $$p_2$$ and $$p_3$$ and so on. Therefore, we have two possibilities: In either case, we have found a prime number which is not in our list of 100 prime numbers. This implies that there are at least 101 prime numbers.
 * $$N$$ is a prime number which is not in our list (since it's bigger than all the primes in our list).
 * $$N$$ is not a prime number, but in this case it must be divisible by a prime number. $$N$$ isn't divisible by any of the prime numbers in our list, therefore there must be a prime number which isn't in our list.

Now suppose there are only 101 prime numbers... but then we can repeat the same argument with a list of 101 prime numbers! But suppose there are only 102 prime numbers? And so on.

Hence we conclude there is an infinite number of primes.

Don't worry if at this stage you don't understand every step in the proof - the important thing is to understand that mathematics is not about being 'fairly sure' that something is true (by gathering evidence, like we do in other subjects), it's about coming up with an argument which shows that it must be true. That is the essence of a mathematical proof.

What is a set?
The concept of a set is central to university-level mathematics. Intuitively sets can be thought of as 'collections' of mathematical objects, which we call elements of the set. For example, the set

$$X = \{ 1, 2, 3 \}$$

contains the elements 1, 2 and 3. To say that 1 is an element of X (i.e. that X contains 1) we write

$$1 \in X$$

Similarly, we can write

$$1 \not\in \{ 4, 5 \}$$

to express that 1 is not an element of the set $$\{ 4, 5 \}$$.

Often it is not possible to write every element of a set - for example, the set may be infinite or even just very large. In this case we can write

$$\{ 1, 2, 3, ... \}$$

to describe the set containing all whole numbers from 1 onwards (this is an infinite set). Alternatively, we can write

$$\{ 1, 2, 3, ..., n \}$$

to describe the set of all whole numbers between 1 and $$n$$ inclusive. At other times, it may be desirable to describe a set by the properties of its elements.

$$\{ x : 10 \leq x \leq 100 \}$$

denotes the set containing the numbers 10 to 100. We can read this as 'the set of $$x$$ such that $$x$$ is between 10 and 100'.

Finally, it's important to realise that a set need not only contain numbers, as you might have assumed from reading the above section. A set can contain points on a plane, or geometrical shapes, or people or animals or vegetables. For example we can imagine the following sets:

$$\{ \mbox{points on the plane with a distance less than 1 from the origin} \}$$

$$\{ \mbox{people with brown eyes} \}$$

In fact sets can even contain other sets:

$$Y = \{ \{ 1 \}, \{ 1, 2 \}, \{ 1, 2, 3 \} \}$$

Note that in this last case it is not correct to write $$1 \in Y$$, since in fact $$Y$$ contains a set containing 1. Therefore instead we should write $$\{ 1 \} \in Y$$.

Subsets
We say that a set $$A$$ is a subset of another set $$B$$ if every element of $$A$$ is also an element of $$B$$. For example, the set of people with brown eyes is a subset of the set of all people. Also, the set $$\{ 1, 2 \}$$ is a subset of the set $$\{ 1, 2, 3, ... \}$$. To express this in mathematical notation we write

$$\{ 1, 2 \} \subset \{ 1, 2, 3, ... \}$$

Note that the subset does not need to be a finite set - it is correct to write

$$\{ 2, 4, 6, ... \} \subset \{ 1, 2, 3, ... \}$$

This is because every even number is a whole number.

Number systems
It's a common misconception that mathematics is only about numbers - it would be more accurate to say that mathematics is a method for analysing well-defined generalized structures. However, it's undeniable that 99% of the time these structures are of a numerical nature, so it makes sense to start studying mathematics by understanding the distinction between different types of numbers.

Natural numbers
Positive whole numbers (excluding zero) are known as natural numbers. The set of natural numbers is therefore denoted by the letter N.

$$\mathbb{N} = \{ 1, 2, 3, 4, ... \}$$

Integers
Integer is the correct mathematical term for 'whole number'. This includes all natural numbers, all negative integers and zero. We use the letter Z to denote the set of integers.

$$\mathbb{Z} = \{ ..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... \}$$

Rational numbers
The integers are closed under the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication. By this we mean that if $$a$$ and $$b$$ are both integers, then so is $$a + b$$, $$a - b$$ and $$ab$$ (mathematicians tend to leave out the $$\times$$ sign when writing the product of two numbers, so $$a \times b$$ becomes $$ab$$).

However, if we divide one integer by another, we are not guaranteed that the result is also an integer. For example, dividing 6 by 10 we get the fraction $$\frac 3 5$$. The fractions are known rational numbers and the set of rational numbers is denoted by the letter Q. Using set notation, we can write

$$\mathbb{Q} = \left\{ \frac a b : a \in \mathbb{Z} \mbox{ and } b \in \mathbb{Z} \right\}$$

Note that a rational number $$q \in \mathbb{Q}$$ can have more than one representation as a fraction - for example $$\frac 4 7$$ and $$\frac 8 {14}$$ are the same number.

Real numbers
It is possible to construct numbers which are not rational numbers. For example, $$\sqrt{2} \not\in \mathbb{Q}$$. By this, we mean that it is impossible to represent $$\sqrt{2}$$ as a fraction - there does not exist a pair of integers $$a, b$$ such that $$\sqrt{2} = a/b$$. These numbers (in addition to rational numbers) are known as real numbers.

To come up with a rigorous description of the real numbers requires some higher level maths (in particular, the real numbers can be described as the completion of the rational numbers), however for now we will content ourselves to say that the real numbers are the numbers you can represent with a finite or infinite decimal representations. Some examples of real numbers are and we denote the real numbers with the symbol $$\mathbb{R}$$
 * $$1$$
 * $$0$$
 * $$0.25$$
 * $$3.3333333...$$
 * $$\sqrt{3}$$
 * $$\pi$$

Proof that the square root of two is irrational
Assume that the contrary is true, that is, that $$\sqrt{2}$$ can be expressed as a rational number. If so, then $$\exist p, q \in \mathbb{N}$$ such that $$q$$ and $$p$$ have no common factors and $$\frac{p}{q}\times\frac{p}{q} = 2$$. Then $$p^2 = 2q^2$$, so $$p^2$$ is even, so $$p$$ must be even, say $$p = 2r$$ where $$r \in \mathbb{N}$$. Substituting $$2r$$ in the previous equation, we get $$4r^2 = 2q^2$$, or $$2r^2 = q^2$$. Thus $$q$$ must be even. But if $$p$$ and $$q$$ are both even, then they have 2 as a common factor, which contradicts our assumption. Thus the assumption must be incorrect, and $$\sqrt{2}$$ cannot be expressed as a rational number.

title: Foundations of Pure Mathematics


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Wikiversity:Outreach

Please list here institutions that you think would be interested in collaborating with Wikiversity. Please try to be specific about what kinds of collaboration you think might be possible. For example, you might know of specific kinds of activities they do that Wikiversity could help with and vice versa.

Workspaces
Some groups have created workspaces within Wikiversity to facilitate learning, and also so that they could link to Wikiversity learning projects, thereby using resources in a more direct way. Some examples include, SchoolForge and UNIT-E. If your group would like a workspace at Wikiversity, please feel free to create a page in the main namespace using your organization's name as the page title. For the sake of keeping Wikiversity somewhat organized, it would be appreciated if you would add Category:Workspaces at the bottom and other appropriate categories at the bottom and include links on your page to relevant Schools, Divisions and Departments.

Meta Collab at Wikia
Meta Collab at Wikia now has a Wikiversity article, discussion area and Wikiversity update section. A local Wikiversity article, Wikia, in the main namespace includes an opt-in listing for Wikiversity projects that would like to be represented at their appropriate spots within the Wikia metacommunity. Please provide constructive feedback on the talk page here or at Talk:Wikia. Thanks in advance.

Ideas

 * Global Text Project - "The goal is to create a free library of 1,000 electronic textbooks for students in the developing world." The Global Text Project is managed by the Center for Information Systems Leadership, Terry College of Business, The University of Georgia. See also: Wikiversity and Wikibooks services.

 * Psychology Wikia- the psychology wikia group was interested in collaboration.

 * Wikimedia Youth Camp - suggested by Erik Moeller.

 * California Open Source Textbook Project

 * WikiEducator - WikiEducator is an evolving community intended for the collaborative planning of education projects linked with the development of free content.

 * Curriki

 * Qedoc - Qedoc specialises in creating highly interactive learning activities and does so on a primarily charitable basis for the open educational resources community. Our software is not yet appropriate for creating interactive learning activities for MediaWiki-driven sites like Wikiversity. However Qedoc is interested in developing such a technology. A discussion page for the proposal has been started here (page could be transferred to Wikiversity if this is adopted as a project). Wikiversity people are requested to express views and help steer planning.

 * Vietnam OpenCourseWare This is the result of the cooperation between Vietnam Education Foundation (VEF), Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), and VASC Software and Media Company (VASC) since 2005. Our aspiration is to make OCW/OER features rich, accessible, and reusable at no cost for Vietnamese faculty members, students and self-learners.

 * Center for Village Science - contains innovative simple and low cost/no cost science experiments and other teaching aids, which could be helpful to the teachers to improve the science teaching especially for the teachers in the villages (India).

 * Le web pédagogique - French OER blogging site; perhaps for consideration by the French Wikiversity.

Projects

 * /Wikipedia outreach/. Wikipedia generally prohibits discussion of topics on article talk pages, and that is often violated, with users being threatened, on occasion, with blocks. Wikiversity invites discussion as part of "learning by doing" that is core to our mission. This outreach project will organize the placement of sister wiki templates on Wikipedia articles, the development of a local discussion guideline that could be interwiki linked in a the generic w:Template:Not a forum talk page template, presenting Wikiversity as a place to discuss topics of interest, and then guidance as to how to do that nondisruptively. The project will then organize outreach activities, to ensure maximum visibility while minimizing duplication and disruption.

Institutions

 * Phoenix Union Cyber High School - internet-based curriculum, computer studios not classrooms, self-paced learning, opened 2006. See also: Wikihigh.
 * NASA education programs - U.S. government based, so all public domain.
 * Florida virtual school - 20,000 students learning online
 * Cranbrook Educational Community
 * SchoolForge - a "foundry" ...for information, tools and materials needed to "forge" or make a school and all its parts... Local: SchoolForge
 * Science Online - science education wiki
 * FreeCulture.org - an international student movement for free culture wiki site, Local: FreeCulture.org
 * The "Shtooka Project" is a cooperative project with the goal of creating audio material and software tools needed to learn foreign languages. Local: Shtooka Project
 * OmegaWiki (previous names: Ultimate Wiktionary, WiktionaryZ) is a new multilingual version of Wiktionary. It runs on an extension of MediaWiki.
 * OER Commons - an index of educational resources (website) - wants to work with Wikiversity on idexing, tagging, ...
 * MIT OpenCourseWare
 * Virtual Seminar University - a free online university sponsored by Sam's Club

Case studies

 * Call for Participation of Linguists - at Wikipedia.

External resources

 * outreach.wikimedia.org

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikiversity:Outreach


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Category:Research collaboration

Pages in this category are concerned with collaborative research projects that allow Wikiversity to interact with other institutions. See: Research collaboration.

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User:Sainte-Rose

fr:Utilisateur:Sainte-Rose

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User talk:Sainte-Rose

Welcome to Wikiversity. I just wanted to be sure that you know about this and this. --JWSchmidt 13:51, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sainte-Rose


text: User talk:Groovebass

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User talk:Acmarko~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Acmarko. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Acmarko~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:26, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:01, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Acmarko~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Dr.alf

title: User talk:Dr.alf


text: User talk:Ca03051

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Wikiversity:Glossary

This is a glossary of terms commonly used on Wikiversity. For more help, see Help:Contents, Questions, and Help desk.

A

 * Administrator
 * At Wikipedia, sysops are called administrators, but at Wikiversity, they are called custodians. The various others are known as Bureaucrats and others are authorized to use bots to clean up our foundation.

 * AGF
 * Abbreviation for "assume good faith", a guideline whereby one should not assume that a bad edit was done maliciously. See Assume Good Faith.

 * Anon
 * Abbreviation for "anonymous user". This is what you are if you have not logged in.
 * Also used: IP user.

 * Archive
 * A subpage of a Talk page to which some parts of the discussion are transferred, to reduce the size of the Talk page. Rarely, the term may refer to the Archive page, for obsolete historical material.
 * See also: How to archive a talk page.

B

 * Ban
 * Banning is the extreme, last resort action by which someone is prevented from editing Wikiversity for a prolonged or indeterminate length of time. Reasons for banning are usually a long history of biased edits, persistent adding of incorrect or doubtful material, refusal to cooperate with others, or extreme incivility and threats. If someone is banned, their username is blocked, and any username or IP that is with great likelihood identified as being the same person can be blocked without any further reason. See also: Block.

 * Barnstar
 * Barnstars are a light-hearted system of awards given to Wikiversity editors by other editors to acknowledge good work or other positive contributions to Wikiversity. They take the form of an image posted to an editor's talk page, usually in the form of a five-pointed star. There are a wide variety of different types of barnstar, each indicating a different reason for the award having been given.

 * Be Bold
 * The exhortation that users should try to fix mistakes in articles themselves, rather than complain about them. See Be bold.

 * Blanking
 * Removing all content from a page. Newcomers often do this accidentally.  On the other hand, if blanking an article is done in bad faith, it is vandalism.  If blanking is done to a vandalised brand-new page, it is maintenance, and the page will be deleted by a Custodian within a few hours if no dispute arises. Delete should be added to the blanked page to draw attention to it, rather than just blanking it.  Newcomers often mistake blanking for deletion.

 * Block
 * Action by a Custodian, removing from a certain IP-number or username the ability to edit Wikiversity. Usually done against addresses that have done vandalism or against users who have been banned. See also: Ban.

 * Boilerplate text
 * A standard message which can be added to an article using a template. For example, stub is expanded to the following:

''This article is a stub. You can help Wikiversity by [ expanding it]''.

 * Bot
 * A program that automatically or semi-automatically adds or edits Wikipedia-pages.
 * See also Bots.

 * Broken link
 * Also used: edit link, red link.
 * A link to a nonexistent page, usually colored . Template: may display this way depending on your settings.

 * Broken redirect
 * Redirect to a non-existing page. Common opinion is that these should be removed.

 * Bureaucrat
 * A Wikiversity custodian who has been entrusted with promoting users to Custodian.
 * See also Bureaucrats.
 * Also used: Crat.

C

 * Category
 * Also used: cat
 * A category is a collection of pages automatically formed by the Wikiversity servers by analysing category tags in articles. Category tags are in the form  .  The part after the ":" is the name of the Category.    Adding a category tag causes a link to the category and any super-categories to go to the bottom of the page.  As stated, it also results in the page being added to the category listing.  A list of basic categories to browse through can be found at Category:Wikiversity. A user-friendly way to find a category for academic topics is to start at Category:Wikiversity portals.

 * Checkuser
 * An access level that lets users with it see the IP addresses of logged-in users, usually to determine if someone is using sockpuppets to violate policy. Currently only granted to certain members of the Arbitration Committee and other trusted users.
 * See also checkuser.

 * Cleanup
 * The process of repairing articles that are ungrammatical, are poorly formatted, etc. Cleanup generally requires only editing skills, as opposed to the specialized knowledge that is more often called for by pages needing attention.
 * See also: Wikipedia:Cleanup process.

 * Comment out
 * To hide from normal display whilst retaining the material for editors to see. This is done by inserting the characters at the end. These character strings are used to delimit comments in HTML code.

 * Community Portal
 * One of Wikiversity's main pages. It can often be found on the quickbar (on the left side in most skins), and is a page that lists the collaboration of the week, outstanding tasks that need to be addressed, and several other useful bits of information and resources. The Community Portal is useful for picking an article or topic to work on or read.

 * Content development
 * The Wikiversity project exists as a website devoted to the creation and hosting of educational content. A general term for the intended Wikiversity content is learning resources. Wikiversity has many content development projects where participants collaborate to create, organize and develop particular types of learning resources. See: Content development.

 * Contribs
 * Short for contributions. These are the edits that a user has made.

 * Copyedit
 * A change to an article that only affects formatting, grammar, and other presentational aspects.

 * Copyvio
 * Also used: copyviol, and occasionally CV.
 * Copyright violation. Usually used in an edit summary when some copyrighted material has been added to Wikipedia.
 * See also Copyrights.

 * Crat
 * Short for Bureaucrat.

 * Cut and paste move
 * Moving a page by taking the text of the page, and put it into the edit window for the second page. Generally considered worse than the 'move page' option, because it causes the page and its edit history to be in different places. Cut and paste moves can be fixed by Custodians.

 * CV
 * See Copyvio.

 * Colloquium
 * The Colloquium is a general Wikiversity community discussion page.

 * Course
 * Courses are one type of learning project. The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees rejected the first Wikiversity project proposal and instructed the Wikiversity community to modify the proposal to "exclude online-courses". See the Wikiversity e-learning model for thoughts on how wiki technology can be used to assist learning without using conventional courses. See also: Courses.

 * Custodian
 * Wikiversity sysops are called "custodians".

D

 * Department
 * A Wikiversity Department is a content development project for organizing learning materials for a narrow topic of study. Example: the Department of Cell Biology. Pages for Departments are placed in the "Topic:" namespace.

 * Dif
 * Within wiki projects, a "dif" is the "difference" between a wiki webpage's contents from before an edit to after an edit. The "dif" for any edit can be obtained from the history page of the edited page. Use the "compare selected versions" button. (example)

E

 * EOD
 * EOD means "End of Discussion" or "End of Day" - mainly used in business communication (other definitions).

F

 * Faculty
 * The term "faculty" is used at some Universities to refer to very large fields of study. Within Wikiversity, such large academic subject areas are organized by Portals.

 * Foo
 * Foo - "foo" is often used as a place-holder term. See Foo at Wikpedia.

G

 * GFDL
 * GFDL stands for "GNU Free Documentation License" and is the license that is applied to all the text added by editors to Wikiversity pages. See: The GFDL and you.

 * Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 * The Graphical User Interface (GUI) is the portion of the computer program that is seen by a user with graphics and text, as opposed to just text. The simplest way to explain it is to look at the windows you see on your desktop that are part of your Operating System (OS).  By using these windows, task bars, buttons, sliders, your keyboard and your mouse, you are interacting with the OS and all the other programs installed into your computer.  Without the graphics, you would be using a command line, like in MS-DOS or the terminal of a Linux OS.

I

 * IAR
 * Ignore A Rule. In all cases, Wikiversity rules, guidelines and policies exist to facilitate the goals of the Wikiversity project. If a rule, guideline or policy is being used to defeat the goals of the Wikiversity project, then Wikiversity participants should ignore that rule and work to replace it with a rule that serves the needs of the project.

L

 * Learning project
 * Learning projects at Wikiversity are usually collaborative webpage editing projects for Wikiversity participants. By participating in learning projects, Wikiversity editors "learn by doing" in the wiki way.

 * Learning resource
 * Learning resources are the intended content of Wikiversity.

 * Lesson
 * Lessons are one type of learning project. Conventional lessons can be downloaded and used outside of Wikiversity or read by Wikiversity browsers. Other Wikiversity lessons include activities that require collaborative editing of Wikiversity webpages.

N

 * Namespace
 * Wikimedia Foundation wiki projects like Wikiversity use a standard set of namespaces. Each namespace holds pages that serve a specific function. See Namespaces.

 * NPOV
 * Neutral Point Of View. Most Wikimedia Foundation projects follow a conventional NPOV policy in order to limit bias in wiki webpages. Wikiversity has the Disclosures policy in order to allow some pages to express a bias.

O

 * Outing
 * At Wikimedia projects, "outing" is a term used to refer to unwelcome disclosure of an editor's personal information such as legal name, date of birth, identification numbers, home or workplace address, job title and work organization, telephone number, email address, or other contact information. See: Privacy policy.

P

 * Page Section
 * Wikiversity webpages that have a large amount of content usually divide that content into page sections, often just called "sections". See Section headings.

 * Policy
 * Many Wikiversity policies are similar to those for Wikipedia. Other Wikiversity policies are specific for the educational mission of Wikiversity. In all cases, Wikiversity policy exists to facilitate the goals of the Wikiversity project.

 * Portal
 * Wikiversity portals are user-friendly webpages that guide Wikiversity browsers to webpages related to a particular subject area. Wikiversity portal pages exist in the "Portal:" namespace. See: Portal.

 * POV
 * Point of view. Wikiversity pages that explore a topic from the perspective of a biased point of view explicitly describe that perspective according to the Disclosures policy.

 * Prefix
 * Some page names at Wikiversity have a prefix such as "Topic:" or "School:". Such pages with prefixes are in namespaces, special collections of pages that all serve a related function. For example, pages that start with the "Topic:" prefix are content development projects where Wikiversity participants collaborate to create learning resources for a narrow topic area. See Namespaces for details.

 * Project
 * Project - Wikiversity is a place for collaborative learning projects. Wikiversity has many collaborative content development projects where participants create, organize and develop learning resources for particular subject areas (See Schools and Topics). Wikiversity also has community development projects that concern the general function of Wikiversity as a wiki (example: Introduction Overhaul Taskforce). Within the set of Wikiversity namespaces, the "project namespace" is the "Wikiversity namspace" where all pages start with the "Wikiversity:" prefix. The "Wikiversity namspace" is for policy pages and other pages concerned with the entire Wikiversity project.

R
Revert
 * "Reverting a page" means returning a page to a previous version of its history.

Rollback
 * custodians have access to a rollback tool for rapidly reverting the edits of vandals, see: Rollback.

S

 * section
 * See page section, above.

 * side bar
 * The side bar holds a collection of links and the search tool and is displayed at the upper left edge of Wikiversity pages.

 * School
 * Within Wikiversity there is a "School:" namespace. A Wikiversity school functions as a special content development project that can organize the efforts of Wikiversity participants who create learning resources for a set of related academic topics. See: Schools.

 * Stub
 * a stub page is a short page that needs further development. See Stub.

T

 * Template
 * The contents of a Wikiversity page can be easily transcluded (copied) into other Wikiversity pages. See Help:Template and Templates.

 * Topic
 * Wikiversity has a special "Topic:" namespace for content development projects. See Topics.

W

 * WikiProject
 * At the Wikipedia website there is a "WikiProject" psuedonamespace that places all content development projects inside the "Wikipedia:" namespace. At Wikipedia, all content development projects have page names that start with "Wikipedia:WikiProject". Rather than use a pseudonamespace for content development projects, Wikiversity uses the "School:" and "Topic:" namespaces. See w:Wikipedia:WikiProject and WikiProject.

Z
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Topic talk:Marine biology

Ideas for learning and research projects
I've already posted some of my thoughts on the school of marine sciences page http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School_talk:Marine_Sciences, so here are just a few suggestions specific to marine biology-

 * Secondary research project on the impact of global climate change on plankton - there is a growing body of research that the impact could be greater than expected - perhaps some scope for primary research into the extended effects of this - e.g. on distribution and ecology of consumers of plankton

 * Courses in 'Plankton and Microbial Life', 'Energy in the seas', 'Coral Reefs and Primary Productivity', 'Fisheries and Exploiting The Seas' and 'Introduction to Marine Chemistry and Physics'.

Jimbobalina2005 16:12 (GMT) 2 September 2006

title: Topic talk:Marine biology


text: User talk:Mjchavda

title: User talk:Mjchavda


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Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing/Edit summary

When editing a learning resource with the wikicode editor, there is a small field labeled "Summary" under the main edit-box. It looks like this:

It is highly recommended that one fill in the edit summary field, as it makes it easier for you and your fellow contributors to understand what has changed, and is helpful when going through the history of the page.

Writing edit summaries
Always fill in the summary field. This is considered an important guideline. Even a short summary is better than no summary. An edit summary is even more important if you delete any text; otherwise, people may think you're being sneaky. Also, mentioning one change but not another one can be misleading to someone who finds the other one more important; add "and misc." to cover the other change(s).

Accurate summaries help people decide whether it is worthwhile for them to check a change. We've found that summaries often pique the interest of contributors with expertise in the area. This may not be as necessary for "minor changes", but "fixed spelling" would be nice even then.

The edit summary box can hold one line of 200 characters. If you attempt to type or paste more than this only the first 200 characters will be displayed - the rest will be disregarded. Also, for example attempting to add 10 new characters (at the end or in between) to a summary already containing 195 characters will result in the first 5 new characters being inserted and the second 5 being disregarded.

In the case of a small addition to an article, it is highly recommended to copy the full text of this addition to the summary field, giving a maximum of information with a minimum of effort. Put ft in front, as an abbreviation of "full text" (see the Abbreviations section for other abbreviations). This way, readers of the summary will be unlikely to check the page itself as they already know the extent of the edit. These kinds of edits allow users to check Recent changes, Page history and User contributions (see below) very efficiently - this also reduces the load on the servers.

If the addition is more than 200 characters, so it does not fit fully in the edit summary box, you should write a short summary of the changes you have introduced into the article. For an addition of, say, 400 characters you can also save time by simply copying that into the summary field. The excess will fall off, and the first 200 characters will usually be acceptable as a crude "summary".

Unfortunately you can copy only one line of text from the edit box into the edit summary box. The contents of further lines can be pasted at the end of the line. Thus, for example, a bulleted "see also" list is cumbersome to put in the edit summary box. One possible workaround for a new list is putting the list on one line, separated by the asterisks for the bullets, copying it to the edit summary box, and then, in the main edit box, putting the new lines before the asterisks.

In addition to a summary of the change itself, the summary field may also contain an explanation of the change; note that if the reason for an edit is not clear, it is more likely to be reverted, especially in the case that some text is deleted. To give a longer explanation, use the Talk page and put in the edit summary "see Talk".

After saving the page, the summary can not be edited--another reason to avoid spelling errors.

In the case of important omissions or errors in the edit summary, you can make a dummy edit just to put the correction in the edit summary.

If you find it hard to remember to fill in the edit summary (it is an acquired habit), then try switching on the option which alerts you whenever you try to save an edit without an edit summary: Go to Preferences (top-right), choose the Edit tab (top-right), then click this box:, then Save.

Places where the edit summary appears
The edit summary appears in black italics in the following places:

 * Page history - list of changes to the page you edited
 * User contributions - list of all your edits
 * Watchlist *  - list of recent changes to watched pages (logged-in users only)
 * Diff page - shows the difference between two edits
 * Recent changes - list of all recent edits
 * Wikipedia IRC channels - real time list of all edits
 * Related changes - list of recent changes to pages linked to the page you edited
 * List of new pages: shows the edit summary of the creation.

 *  Use the enhanced watchlist to see all recent changes in the watched pages, not just the last change in each page.

Abbreviations
See Edit summary legend for a list of commonly used abbreviations in edit summaries.

Searching
The Wikimedia search function can not search edit summaries, and they are not indexed by external search engines.

File upload summary
When uploading an image one can supply an upload summary. This serves multiple purposes:
 * as second part of the automatically created edit summary of the upload log (the first part giving the file name)
 * as text in the entry of the image history
 * in the case that the file name of the image is new:
 * as edit summary for the creation of the image page
 * as wikitext for the editable part of the image page, which includes the following possibilities:
 * briefly describe the image
 * provide internal or external links
 * call templates
 * specify one or more categories the image is in

The capacity of the upload summary is one line of 250 characters; in the upload log the last part may fall off, because this can contain 255 characters, including "uploaded "filename"".

Note that there is no preview function to check the code for the links, template calls and category tags, but of course, if needed one can edit the image page after uploading, to correct errors and also to extend the text.

See also Help:Image page.

Section editing
When applying the section editing feature the section title is automatically inserted as initial version or first part of the edit summary. Put more details after this text. In the case that you provide a long summary yourself you can delete the section title in order to stay within the limit of 200 characters. The automatic text appears by default in grey, with the manually typed text being black. If you create a new section before or after an existing section by clicking a section "edit" link, please delete the automatic edit summary to avoid confusion.

Prior to May 2004, the automatic part of the summary was surrounded by "="-signs. The old style remains in edits from that time.

Multiple sections in edit summary
From Dec 2004, the section title that forms the automatic part of the edit summary is preceded by a right arrow which links to the section. For this purpose the section title appears within the marks /* and */ in the edit summary box. This code can be manually inserted, and by using the /* and */ syntax, it is possible to include links to multiple sections. This may be useful when editing a section which contains many sub-sections (to list changes made to each section), or when editing an existing section and also adding a new (sub-)section after it.

For example, the edit summary: /* Foo */ test /* Bar */ test

Is rendered as:

→Foo test →Bar test

"Post a comment" feature
When starting a new thread on a Talk page, the "Post a comment" feature can be used. Click the plus sign next to the Edit link. A box labelled "Subject/headline" appears before the main editing box. Text typed here becomes both a new heading and the edit summary.

Redirect
When creating a redirect, an edit summary is automatically provided, with the text according to MediaWiki:Autoredircomment, but only if no edit summary is supplied (as opposed to the automatic edit summary in section editing, which can be supplemented by the user).

Rendering of wikitext; URLs
Text in edit summaries renders internal links, including piped links, and interwiki links, even when enclosed within and. Therefore, copying wikitext in the edit summary box may be preferable to copying text from the preview, except when one wants to save space.

Other wikitext coding is not interpreted.

When copying an external link from the preview into the edit summary box then, depending on the operating system, the "printable version" is copied, i.e. how it is normally rendered, and in addition, between parentheses, the URL; hence the same information as in the wikitext, but in a different format, as well as a possible sequential number.

title: Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing/Edit summary


text: User talk:Adamf999

title: User talk:Adamf999


text: User talk:Nebula218

title: User talk:Nebula218


text:
Wikiversity:A Letter to globaltext.org

The website http://globaltext.org/ is working to help create free course materials using wikibooks textbooks, but using networking through the "brick-and-mortar" university community to get this done. If wikiversity and globaltext.org work together, we could get some serious stuff going.

Seems to me that the best way for us to approach this organisation is to do it as a wiki-community, and write the letter together, the wiki way. As an arbitrary deadline, perhaps we could try to get a finished copy out by Monday, September 18. --SB_Johnny | talk 17:06, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Great idea - thanks for this, Johnny. We'll also need to detail a bit here what exactly Globaltext is doing, in order to make it easier for us to tailor our letter. Cormaggio 17:12, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

Details of Globaltext's project
(see http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/uog-gtp083106.php for more on the project)

 * Does this article indicate that Globaltext have heard of Wikiversity (I'm sure they have anyway), and would like to collaborate, or that the author found this page through Google? :-) Cormaggio 07:29, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

= Letter = Text of letter below

What is Wikiversity?

 * Free, multilingual, multimedia learning materials
 * Learning communities

How Wikiversity could help Globaltext reach its goals

 * Massive, global, networked community

How Globaltext could help Wikiversity reach its goals

 * Peer reviews for courses and textbooks used by courses

title: Wikiversity:A Letter to globaltext.org


text: Category:Wikiversity networking drafts

title: Category:Wikiversity networking drafts


text:
User:Cormaggio/Visions of Wikiversity

I'm going to work here on my own personal visions for Wikiversity, as well as various other people's visions of the project. Nothing much to see here at the moment, though - try again later :-)

Quotes
From Ray: "When we start labelling pages with "pseudoscience" or other pejorative terms we compromise our neutrality. When we silence the creationist or expect him to explain himself from the confines of the coffin to which we have relegated his ideas we give the lie to our own principles. It is not the function of NPOV to put chains on free speech; it is sufficient that it support an asymptotic approach to consensus. Thus faced with the thesis of "Arguments for creationism" we must allow for a (presumably articulate) guest lecturer to put forth his point of view as a proponent fairly and unmolested. Another guest lecturer in opposition should be able to present his case under the same circumstances. Both of these POVs should be protected. The "students" would then discuss the matter and strive to bring the matter closer to NPOV. Most importantly, part of their discussions should be focused on what do these two guests have in common. The role of the teacher in all this is not to disburse knowledge, but to facilitate its acquisition by the students, perhaps by repeatedly asking the questions that bring a subject to a new synthesis of NPOV." Eclecticology 20:17, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

diff

Soundbyte from Jimbo: "We want to provide a free encyclopaedia to every single person in the planet. We also want to provide all the tools to become literate"

title: User:Cormaggio/Visions of Wikiversity


text:
User:Michael gb

Estoy matriculado en el curso de Español de Wikiversity. Agredezco cualquier ayuda para corregir mis articulos traducidos de ingles a castellano. Soy consultor de marketing en Barcelona, España. Mike.

title: User:Michael gb


text:
Portal:Wiki Scholar/About the movie

About the Wiki Scholar movie
The word “scholar” can be applied to anyone who is a learner, although I would reserve its use for someone who consciously tries to find better ways to learn. The movie is meant to provide some images that concern Wikiversity as a place for scholars. The movie starts with a baby reaching towards an object. This act of reaching is part of an instinctive human drive to explore the world. The phrase, “reach for the stars” and the similar phrase, “follow your star” are applicable to Wikiversity. Conventional educational institutions are typically restricted by the demands of their expensive infrastructure and students are forced to adapt themselves to the factory-like educational apparatus. In contrast, the Wikiversity infrastructure is cheap and of a type (the wiki user interface) that can adapt so as to support the needs of students. The baby is reaching towards a star. From the perspective of biology, human behavior is fundamentally dependent on social learning. Even small children learn to use cultural artifacts, “tools”, that amplify one’s ability to explore the world. Wiki technology in general and Wikiversity in particular are tools that scholars can use as learning aids. The baby’s hand (which looks like the letter “w”) is shown grasping the wiki tool. Wikiversity becomes a tool that a scholar can use to explore the world.

I like the phrase “learning the wiki way” because it is an example of a phrase that has two good meanings. 1) A good topic for Wikiversity scholars is: “the nature of wiki-style online collaboration”. We need to learn about "the wiki way". 2) Wikiversity should be a place that strives to support learning in the wiki style of learning projects that involve collaborative webpage editing. At Wikiversity we adopt the practice of learning in the wiki way.

“Wikiversity” is a strange word. For banners, I like the approach of putting the “wiki” part of “Wikiversity” above the “versity” part. I also like keeping the “star” and using the “hand” of a “w” to reach for the star. This leads to a logo that only uses the star and the "w" and "v" from "Wikiversity".

title: Portal:Wiki Scholar/About the movie


text: User talk:Jimfinch

title: User talk:Jimfinch


text:
User talk:Michael gb

hola Michael
Hola Michael, he visto que estás en un curso de español en la Wikiversidad. Sin embargo, la wikiversidad en español todavía no cuenta con dominio propio. Se requiere el voto favorable de 10 usuarios que depositen su apoyo para que aprueben crear el dominio en español es.wikiversity.org. Por ahora todo el contenido de la wikiversidad en español sigue estando en wikilibros. Y, lamentablemente, la incertidumbre sobre el futuro de este proyecto hizo que se paralizase.

Por eso me atrevo a animarte a que votes en http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages#Spanish_Wikiversity y por otro, por supuesto, sería genial contar con tus propuestas para que el proyecto en castellano comience a andar.

Atentamente, User:Javier Carro

title: User talk:Michael gb


text: User talk:MoRsE

title: User talk:MoRsE


text:
School:Mathematics/Course Catalog

Welcome to the School of Mathematics Course Catalog!

This is a list of all courses that the School of Mathematics has to offer.

''Please note that this list is probably not complete. Please feel free to add to it''

Preparatory Courses

 * High School Mathematics
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Arithmetic

 * Euclidean Geometry
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Arithmetic, Elementary Proofs and Logic

General Mathematics

Courses that were filed under more than one subdivision
 * Foundation of mathematical concepts
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preperation: Please add

Applied Mathematics

 * Introduction to Calculus
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: High School Mathematics
 * Cryptography
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: High School Mathematics

Pure Mathematics
 * Introduction to Proofs
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: High School Mathematics
 * Introductory Real Analysis
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: High School Mathematics
 * Introduction to Abstract Algebra
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Linear Algebra, Introduction to Proofs
 * Introduction to Graph Theory
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Introduction to Probability
 * Introduction to Set Theory
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Introduction to Proofs
 * Precalculus
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: High School Mathematics
 * Calculus and Introduction to Calculus
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Precalculus
 * Calculus II
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Calculus or Introduction to Calculus
 * Measure Theory
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Introductory Real Analysis
 * Probability Measures
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Measure Theory
 * Complex Analysis
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Calculus, Introduction to Proofs
 * Relevant Topics on Euclidean Geometry and Euclids Elements

Probability and Statistics
 * Introduction to Likelihood Theory
 * Prerequisites/Recommended Preparation: Probability Measures

Please see this page for a undergraduate Probability and Statistics course list and course progression.

title: School:Mathematics/Course Catalog


text:
Template:Welcome and expand

 Learn how you can [ develop this resource] to teach participants about .. You may learn more about the topic to help you develop the resource from:

title: Template:Welcome and expand


text: Category:Fashion

title: Category:Fashion


text:
User:Icey

If you would like to contact me, please use my page on the English Wikipedia.

- Icey

title: User:Icey


text:
User talk:Icey

If you would like to contact me, please use my page on the English Wikipedia.

- Icey

title: User talk:Icey


text:
Molecular Biology

Welcome to the Exploring Molecular Biology learning project.

Content summary
Independent study with group collaboration projects for exploration of the molecular basis of life.

Learning materials
Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the lesson (lessons are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing!
 * Primary Structure - participants explore the relation between gene sequence and protein sequence.
 * How to access the genome databases

Lessons

 * Lesson 1:
 * Chemical structure of DNA
 * Phosphodiester bonds are formed 5' to 3'
 * A pairs with T
 * G pairs with C
 * Chemical structure of RNA
 * Understand the difference between DNA and RNA
 * Uracil pairs with Adenine
 * Hydroxy group on the 2' carbon

Activities
-Draw Ribose label the 5' (5 prime) carbon and 3' carbon and 2' carbon. -Draw Deoxyribose. label the 5' carbon and 3' carbon -Draw adenine and guanine -Draw cytosine and thymine -Draw Uracil -Draw adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) -Draw
 * etc.

Readings
Each activity has a suggested associated background reading selection:
 * Molecular biology
 * DNA
 * Purine
 * Adenine
 * Guanine
 * Pyrimidine
 * Thymine
 * Cytosine
 * RNA
 * Uracil

/External resources/
Please place links to external learning resources on this subpage.
 * hawaii.edu/~dserghi/BIOL407 (Original link was dead, present link is to archive copy)
 * molecular biology (Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica)

title: Molecular Biology


text:
Portal:Philosophy of art

Welcome to the Philosophy of Art portal.

Description
The Philosophy of Art portal promotes exploration of this ancient branch of philosophy from Plato and Aristotle through the philosophy of the Enlightenment and on through contemporary Anglo-American and Continental philosophy.

Learning projects

 * Aesthetics
 * See: Learning Projects and the Learning model.

Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the learning project (learning projects are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing! We suggest the use of the learning project template, by doing on the new page.

fr:Département:Philosophie de l'art

title: Portal:Philosophy of art


text:
User:FrankB~enwikiversity

=Welcome= Hi!

 * Reach me at M:User talk:Fabartus or W:User Talk:Fabartus...

 * The former lets me know by email that the page's been changed. Use when hot!

 * Or just email: Fabartus--at--Comcast.net. Thanks! // FrankB 03:45, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User:FrankB~enwikiversity


text:
Category:Cold fusion

Research on the topic of Cold fusion is currently banned from Wikiversity. Any future work on this topic is subject to pre-approval by our research review process. Please submit a request at Community Review/Fringe research before creating any new topics in this category.

title: Category:Cold fusion


text:
User:Fabartus/Header

  Welcome, but... Hi! My Wiki-home is en.Wikipedia, but right now I'm hopping constantly between most Sister projects providing tools for productivity to all and sundry from Meta, the Commons, and en.wp.

See
 * 1) W:Category:Interwiki utility templates,
 * 2) W:Category:Interwiki link templates,
 * 3) W:Category:Miscellaneous templates, and
 * 4) W:Category:Uncategorized templates

for some of what 'Productivity enhancing tools' I'll be porting over.

 * Reach me at M:User talk:Fabartus or W:User Talk:Fabartus...

 * The former lets me know by email that the page's been changed. Use when hot!

 * Or just email direct: Fabartus--at--Comcast.net. Thanks! // FrankB 04:46, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

If your message can wait... (Praise is nice!) you can leave it here... I'll be bye sooner or later, RL permitting! Cheers! // The management.

title: User:Fabartus/Header


text:
Stem cells

Welcome to the Stem Cells Study Project.

Content summary
Stem cells are undifferenciated cells that can be found in bone marrow, aborted fetuses, menstrual blood, exc. They have shown potential to replace damaged body tissue and repair spinal cord injuries. Parkinson's Disease is also a subject in stem cell research and has show some progress. Some countries have banned stem cell research since the embryonic stem cell type involves the disposal of fertilized female embryo (Zygote) in order to retrieve a mass of 30 stem cells the eighth day of life.

Scientists have recently developed a method to transform normal human somatic cells into pluripotent cells via the introduction of four different factors. The converted cells are called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).

Goals
Help Wikiversity participants understand what stem cells are and how they can be used in medical treatments. This interdisciplinary project also investigates why and how some governments regulate stem cell research.

Learning materials
Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the lesson (lessons are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing!

You should also read about the Learning model. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple projects. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.

Texts

 * __Textbook Name___

Lessons

 * Lesson 1: ...

Activities

 * Activity 1.
 * etc.

Readings
Each activity has a suggested associated background reading selection.
 * Reading 1:
 * Study guide:
 * Wikipedia article: Stem Cells

 * Reading 2 (howto example):
 * Study guide:
 * Wikipedia article: __Article Name__

 * etc.

Active participants
Active participants in this Learning Group

Learning Project Summary

 * Project code:
 * Suggested Prerequisites:
 * Time investment:
 * Assessment suggestions:
 * Portal:
 * School:
 * Department:
 * Stream
 * Level:
 * Level:

title: Stem cells


text: User talk:Alifazal

title: User talk:Alifazal


text:
User talk:Wvaughan~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Wvaughan. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Wvaughan~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:12, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:25, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wvaughan~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Cortezdelobao

title: User talk:Cortezdelobao


text:
User talk:Supertik1010~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Supertik1010. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Supertik1010~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:04, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:23, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Supertik1010~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Rickliv

title: User talk:Rickliv


text: User talk:Ckpkowshik

title: User talk:Ckpkowshik


text: User talk:KruusCosko

title: User talk:KruusCosko


text:
User talk:Rosefivefold~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rosefivefold. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rosefivefold~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:20, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rosefivefold~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Leekuichong

title: User talk:Leekuichong


text:
User:JoeBlakesley

w:User:Joeblakesley

title: User:JoeBlakesley


text: User talk:JoeBlakesley

title: User talk:JoeBlakesley


text:
Template:No license

Usage
Usage:  or simply.

Files are placed in Category:Pending deletions until expiration, and then Category:Candidates for speedy deletion.

title: Template:No license


text:
Template:Nld

This template should only be used as

it:Template:Unverified

title: Template:Nld


text:
Template:File copyright

What is the copyright of ?
it:Template:Avvisoimmagine

title: Template:File copyright


text: User talk:Tmothyh

title: User talk:Tmothyh


text: User talk:Amoore14

title: User talk:Amoore14


text: User talk:Legendaryman

title: User talk:Legendaryman


text: User talk:Conny

title: User talk:Conny


text: User talk:Irisrc

title: User talk:Irisrc


text: User talk:Atomaton

title: User talk:Atomaton


text: User talk:Brianhujung

title: User talk:Brianhujung


text: User talk:Okcash

title: User talk:Okcash


text: User talk:Tecdiva@hotmail.com

title: User talk:Tecdiva@hotmail.com


text: User talk:Fredrik

title: User talk:Fredrik


text: User talk:Nemesis 961

title: User talk:Nemesis 961


text:
User talk:Muaz~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Muaz. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Muaz~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:44, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Muaz~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Zumruduanka

title: User talk:Zumruduanka


text: User talk:Kalki

title: User talk:Kalki


text:
User talk:Underexpose~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Underexpose. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Underexpose~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:09, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Underexpose~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Chingjun~enwikiversity

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Chingjun. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Chingjun~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chingjun~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Jimmy~enwikiversity

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jimmy. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jimmy~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:39, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:12, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jimmy~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Sandycx

title: User talk:Sandycx


text: User talk:Mos87

title: User talk:Mos87


text:
User talk:Murthy~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Murthy. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Murthy~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:39, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Murthy~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Ocean~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ocean. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ocean~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ocean~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Murat~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Murat. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Murat~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:39, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Murat~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:OS~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called OS. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name OS~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:OS~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Stonegiant~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Stonegiant. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Stonegiant~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:44, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:23, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Stonegiant~enwikiversity


text: User talk:8q67n4tqr5

title: User talk:8q67n4tqr5


text: User talk:Rjhatl

title: User talk:Rjhatl


text: User talk:S kr pradeep@yahoo.com

title: User talk:S kr pradeep@yahoo.com


text: User talk:Dvortygirl

title: User talk:Dvortygirl


text: Category:Practical Human Life

title: Category:Practical Human Life


text: Category:Politics of the European Union

title: Category:Politics of the European Union


text:
Portal:Music/Voice

See: Voice

title: Portal:Music/Voice


text:
Portal:Music/TC1

See: Fundamentals of Music

title: Portal:Music/TC1


text:
Portal:Music/Beginner

 * Introduction to Music
 * Understanding music
 * Introduction to Chords
 * The Physics of Music
 * Triads
 * Beginners Music Theory
 * Key Signatures
 * Scales
 * Intervals
 * Aural Training

title: Portal:Music/Beginner


text:
Introduction to music

Introduction to The Course
The main purpose of this course is to explore basic music theory so thoroughly that the student-musician will be able to extend that knowledge to the more comprehensive concepts that will follow. Thus, it will be easier to understand music and the physics that accompany it up to whatever level suits your needs. Music history and the physics of sound are included for students who wish to expand their knowledge beyond that of learning a single instrument. Anyone wishing to write music using music notation software is well-advised to understand what we humans hear and why we hear it the way we do. Students who find the section on acoustics -- the physical basis for sound -- initially uninteresting may even skip it at first, but eventually, the serious student/musician will need to understand what causes musical sounds and why we hear those sounds. That's what makes this a course, rather than simply "A How to Play the Ukulele" handbook.

Music theory is a lot like grammar. Languages are invented for the purpose of communicating. Most of the time we communicate with others, while there are times when we communicate with ourselves. Mozart and only a very rare group of other people were able to keep everything organized in their heads. Most people need to keep a notebook to remind them of what they have learned. And a course such as this relies upon everyone being "on the same page," if we are going to learn together, which is the best way to learn. While this course will benefit the lone learner, learning with others is often a better approach, and that can be done online -- and for free. DRM

What is music? Music is a general melody of sounds that unify the mind and soul. Not even language differences can stop music from reaching out to our selected audience. Even before recorded history, people created music, whether through drumming, singing or chanting. Some of our strongest emotions may be brought on by listening to a piece of music. In this modern age, we hear music around us almost all of our waking hours, in one form or another: radio, television or film music and our personal music (iPods, MP3 players, etc.) is with us throughout the day. Most of us listen to recorded music or go to performances regularly, and some of us play a musical instrument. In earlier time before modern audio recording technology, music was available only in the presence of a musician, or to those who played an instrument or sang. Music varies in genres, pop, rock, R'n'B etc.

Musical concepts
A basic definition of music (in the Western World) is the chronological organisation of sounds; that is, making certain sounds at certain times, which make melodic, rhythmic and harmonic sense.

The first, most basic concept, is keeping the sounds "in time". This leads us to some of the first few musical concepts: beat, rhythm and duration.

 * Beat is the regular pulse which provides a `timeline` for the rhythm to anchor itself to.

 * Rhythm is essentially repeated patterns of long or short, stressed or unstressed sounds or silences which fit into the main beat.

 * Duration is the length of notes or sounds or silences which facilitate the rhythm.

Music is also the relationship between sound and silence. Duration and rhythm apply to silence in the same manner as they apply to sound.

One way to look at how we perceive music is as horizontal and vertical patterns. We hear melodies as a horizontal pattern. The notes (and silences) are heard one after the other over a period of time.

We hear chords (groups of notes played simultaneously) in a vertical pattern. A mixture of one or all of these: melody, rhythm, chords, and silence form musical patterns.

Rhythm
Rhythm is the most basic concept of music. In all cultures worldwide, the most simple and basic forms of music are purely rhythms. A rhythm is a pulse; a repetition of sounds in a pattern. Simple rhythms can be recognized straight away. Tapping rhythmically at a drum constitutes tapping it at timed intervals in a pattern. The most common rhythmic pattern in modern-day Western music is $$4/4$$ time (say four-four time). This is where four pulses come one after the other, with the first of each four being given emphasis (known as an accent). Try this exercise:

 * Say the words "one, two, three, four, one, two, three, four..." etc. continuously, and at even time intervals.
 * Now each time you say "one", say it slightly louder: "one, two, three, four, one, two, three, four..." etc.
 * You have just been saying the words "one", "two", "three" and "four" in $$4/4$$ time.

Reading

 * Rhythm module at Wikibooks.
 * rhythm article at Wikipedia

Tutorials

 * Mad Max - Creating more sounds with rhythm using GarageBand and symphony orchestra sounds - part of Filmmaking.

Melody
In music, pitch is used to describe how high or low a note sounds. Anyone would know the difference between a high-pitched scratching of fingernails across a blackboard, and the low, rumbling growl of thunder. When Maria tells the children in The Sound of Music that "the first few notes just happen to be...do re mi", she was referring to pitch. Using pitch, together with rhythm, we can start to construct melodies. Without rhythm, notes would just be long, sustained sounds. Without pitch, each sound would be the same (for example, the beating of a single drum).

Dynamics
In music, we use the word dynamics to describe how loudly or softly a note is played. Dynamics falls under the wider category of expressive techniques, which are instructions for the performer to play loudly or softly, smoothly or detached, and many other effects.

Timbre (tone colour)
In music, the "colour" of a sound being produced is referred to as timbre, or tone colour. Timbre is the difference between the harsh, scratchy sound of an electric guitar with distortion; the glassy, rounded sound of a piano; and the bird-like whispering sound of a flute. All these instruments could play exactly the same note, yet anyone would be able to recognise instantly an electric guitar from a piano from a flute.

Structure
Musical structure is usually defined by several things including scales and/or arpeggios, rhythm, key signature, melodic patterns, variations Etc. To keep this particular paragraph concise, all or some of the elements of music theory can be used in the structure of a musical piece. Many composers that listen to Bach are fascinated by the palindromes, variations and inversions of patterns contained in its compositional structure, most of which will never be noticed unless you plan on going through the notation with a magnifying glass.

--Subnote, Colhsh: Musical Structure also refers to the overall layout of a musical work as a whole, these come in several forms the simplest form is Binary form, in which there is one section of music "A" which is then juxtaposed against a contrasting "B" section which finishes it, giving the piece an "A-B" structure. An expansion on this is ternary form which is the same as binary, except that the "A" section is repeated, making the overall structure "A-B-A"

Another musical form that was popular during the classical era is that of the Rondo form, in which there is an "A" section that is repeated throughout the work, but is interrupted by contrasting episodes, making any work in a random form typically have the structure of "A-B-A-C-A-D-Etc."

Larger structures include "Sonata form," which was developed in the Classical Period. The "Sonata form" often is the structure of the first movement of a Sonata, Symphony, and Concerto. The Sonata form is comprised of four sections.
 * Exposition - Introduces a main theme in the tonic key, and a subordinate theme in a related key - often the dominant, or if in a minor key - the relative major.
 * Development - Develops and elaborates the themes and explores new and exciting key centers.
 * Recapitulation - Returns to the tonic key and states the main theme and subordinate theme. The subordinate theme is often reworked to stay in the tonic.
 * Coda - Concludes the piece.

Texture
Texture refers to the layering of sounds on top of each other. It describes the depth, nature, and relationship of those layers of sound, or voices. It can describe the vertical and horizontal relationship between the voices. Some common textures are:

 * Monophonic texture: A melody by itself, without harmony, and without another melody. For example, singing in the shower, monks chanting, or a fife and drum corps.
 * Polyphonic texture: Two or more melodies, heard at the same time. For example, singing "Row, row, row your boat" as a round, or a Bach Fugue.
 * Homophonic texture: A melody accompanied by harmony, or by less important melodies. Most popular music is homophonic, and much classical music as well, such as Beethoven's "Moonlight" Sonata, or a church hymn.
 * Heterophonic texture: Two versions of the same melody heard at the same time. Often, this is the melody plain and a variation played over the top.
 * Mixed texture: More than one musical texture. For example, singing a round (polyphony) accompanied by guitar chords (homophony).

Texture can also be described with such terms as thick, dense, or open.

title: Introduction to music


text:
Understanding music

Introduction
Music is one of the most effective aspects of any culture. Almost anyone you know will most likely express a great interest in music and a particular style to which they are partial.

But to more fully appreciate music, it is important to understand its inner workings at least to some extent. Music is extraordinarily complex, but some formula and knowledge can help you understand it more easily. In using the word "understand", we need to clarify the meaning of music theory. The 'theory' of music is a way of talking and relating similar techniques and design processes; it does always remain just music 'theory' because the final basis for assessment is always based on subjectivity, personal opinion, and can be argued definitively from any imaginable angle. There is no final music 'truth' in any of our appraisal of harmony, melody, rhythmic form, nor any other designated parameter that we use to describe foundations for creating music.

Because, as an artist, I strive to seek appreciation for all creative art expressions, beyond my own personal tastes, and preferences, my opinion must come after my interpretation, appreciation, and willingness to be open minded and influenced by the artist more than by my own prejudices and biases. I cannot claim perfect adherence to any such policy of fairness, and friendly fellow encouragement through openness and willingness, but I think that it remains a much more productive mind frame, an artist's tool for further development. Through learning from our conscious efforts in adhering to such humility, sincerity, and anti-egotistical type attitudes and reactions, we will in fact surprise ourselves in what we may one day uncover, if we remember to place people and personalities before principles.

What is "Good Music" ?
For my own sincere beliefs describing the interpretation of music and art expressions in general, I strongly disagree with the following statement:

"Firstly, in order to bring simplicity and understanding to music, we must acknowledge (despite the wishes of some) that music does indeed have a form and structure - all "good music" that is. Good music "has a direction, a tendency, a flow."

Just who left this person in charge of making the final decision, about what is "Good Music" and what is not? Further statements following are their contributions to this wikibook, and for that reason they deserve my utter respect despite a highly different philosophical opinion. There truly must be value, in both sides of this approach to music "theory'.

Emotionally moving music
Very emotionally moving music is just that, moving. It plays with our minds pulling us aurally, and emotionally, in one direction and the next; it satisfies our musical desires in a delayed fashion. Think of it this way, how much more do you appreciate a glass of water after you have worked a hard day out in the sun than you would if you were inside lounging all day. Musical resolve and consonance (beauty and simplicity of sound and lack of dissonance) are most appreciated when they are delayed by a preceding dissonance.

To further define consonance and dissonance, consonance can be thought of as "clean," "pristine," "pure," "clear," and "pretty." Dissonance can be referred to as "rough," "nasty," "ugly," or "harsh." Now these definitions would be in reference to only two notes being played, not in the context of any song.

As I mentioned dissonance can become attractive in light of a following consonance. However, dissonance without resolve, or a move to consonance, is essentially unattractive. If you have a piano, play (only) the notes B and C (the two white keys that are right next to each other and just to the left of a pair of black keys). Keep pounding those two notes. They aren't pretty when played alone (just the 2 notes) and without any resolve to consonance are they? Now play that same C note along with the white key that is two white keys to the right - the note E. This is quite a pleasant sound. You can actually move all the way up and down the keyboard at this same interval and produce a pleasant sound.

Music and rhythm
Now let's explore this a little further. The next two or five paragraphs will not be terribly exciting, but we need to do this so we can communicate clearly. Then it will be much better. Grab some coffee. We have largely been discussing how music "sounds." Some terms will help. When we get ready to sing a song or play a piece of music we like, we think of a series of "notes" that go up and down in a certain sequence. This applies to music from around the world as well. In a slow, dreamy, or romantic song each note may be played or sung for a half of a second, or several seconds. In a faster, energetic song many notes in sequence might be played in just one second.

This gives each piece of music something we call rhythm, or to use a more common word - a beat. Rhythm is like the "pulse" of the music. Instinctively, we human beings can pick out the beat of nearly any song. It is interesting to see what happens when a person learning an instrument knows pitch, but ignores the beat or intended duration of the notes of a familiar song.

When we create a single musical sound or note, it will be because our instrument or voice makes a physical vibration at a certain speed or frequency. The vibration makes the surrounding air vibrate in the same way, and it propagates out into further and further. This is identical to what happens when you drop a pebble into a pool of water. Our ears interpret these air waves as sound. When we talk about how notes are "high", "low," "going up", "staying the same", or "going down", we are describing another property of music called pitch. Pitch is a word musicians use to describe and write down the frequency of a note. We give letter names to certain frequencies. That way, everyone knows that when they play or see a "C" on a page, they refer to the same note. Imagine if we all had a different notion of what a "C" was - or no common way to communicate pitch! Then your cousin would know a very different version of Happy Birthday than you did.

Rhythm is the arrangement of notes or other musical sounds in time. Many people often refer to the rhythm of a song as the 'beat'; however, rhythm encompasses more than the steady repeating of a drum pattern. Rhythm is the basis of melody. A melody without pauses and sudden flurries of notes would not be very pleasant to listen to for long.

In contradiction what is mentioned above about the normative, subjective feeling about what sounds good experimental luthier Yuri Landman proved the opposite in his essay 3rd Bridge Helix in which he clarifies the universal physical laws about harmony.

title: Understanding music


text:
Beginners Music Theory

Section 1

 * /Music Notation/
 * /Instrument-specific Notation/

Section 2

 * /Dynamics/
 * /Guitar/
 * /Piano/
 * /Other Stringed Instruments/
 * /Four-Mallet Percussion/
 * /Six-Mallet Percussion/

Section 3

 * /Elements of Rhythm/

title: Beginners Music Theory


text:
Key Signatures

A key signature serves as a guide for the performer of a piece of music. The key signature determines the pattern of accidentals -- sharps and flats -- to be played, and reappears at the beginning of each staff. (In this way it differs from a time signature, which need be written only once). For example, if the key signature consists of only F-sharp, each written note F in the piece should be played as F-sharp, even though no sharp immediately precedes the written note. Often, however, an accidental contradicting the direction of the key signature will appear immediately before the written note. An accidental immediately preceding the written note always takes precedence. (For instance, in our example, if the key signature contains F-sharp but a written note F appears with a natural sign written in front of it, F-natural should be played). In traditional notation, this influence of the new accidental applies for the duration of the measure before the key signature resumes its "dominion", or until canceled by a subsequent new accidental.

Since a the presence of a "key" in music is contingent on a certain pattern of accidentals, the key signature gives a partial indication of the key of a given passage of music. We need more than the key signature to determine the key of a passage, though -- that must be decided on the basis of contextual features to be explained elsewhere in the School of Music. All other things being equal, though, each key signature can represent one of two musical keys: one major, and one minor. Each is termed the "relative" major or minor, respectively, in relation to the other. For example, B-flat major and G minor have the same key signature: the relative minor of the key of B-flat major is G minor, while B-flat major is the relative major of G minor. The following tables illustrate each key signature, along with a listing of their corresponding keys. It is of paramount importance for the practicing musician to memorize these keys and to be able to recall them instantly.

title: Key Signatures