text:
United States Law/Contract

Contracts are promises that the law will enforce by providing remedies when performance is breached. Generally, an enforceable contract is formed by the mutual assent of the parties to exchange consideration, which means that each party agrees to undertake some legal detriment at the inducement of the other, with the ultimate goal of moving goods or services to the party that values them the most. A "legal detriment" is simply the relinquishment of some legal right, which may be something so simple as the right to spend one's money on something else. It may also mean that the party undertaking the detriment forbears from doing something he or she could otherwise rightly do.

Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)
The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) is a collection of laws promulgated by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) and the American Law Institute (ALI) with the intent that states adopt these codes or modify them for their state then use them to foster and encourage goods transactions. In some variation, all 50 U.S. States have adopted the UCC. The UCC is divided into nine articles, of which UCC Article 2 governs the sales of goods. As such, contracts involving the sale of goods are generally governed by UCC Article 2 and not by common law.

The Restatement (Second) of Contracts
The Restatement (Second) of Law of Contracts is a legal treatise from the second series of the Restatements of Law. It summarizes general, legal theories based on the general principles of contracts as they are treated in common law. What is stated within the Restatement is not binding law; rather, it is persuasive authority. Generally, it is used by law school students in contract-law courses to learn the basics of contract formation and defenses to contract breaches.

Choice of Law
In the United States, there are two bodies of law that govern contracts: codified law and common law. Generally, contracts for the sale of goods are governed by the UCC (codified law) while all other contracts (e.g. contracts for services, land use, or land sale) are governed by the common law.

Goods Defined
Under the UCC, "goods" means "all things (including specially manufactured goods) which are movable at the time of identification to the contract for sale other than the money in which the price is to be paid, investment securities and things in action. 'Goods' also includes the unborn young of animals and growing crops and other identified things attached to realty as described in the section on goods to be severed from realty." UCC 2-105(1). "Goods must be both existing and identified before any interest in them can pass. Goods which are not both existing and identified are 'future' goods." UCC 2-105(2).

Predominant Factor Test
If the subject matter of the contract is mixed, including both goods and non-goods, such as services, the court will apply the predominant factor, or "Bonebrake," test in order to determine which laws apply. In order to determine the body of law that governs the contract, the court will look to the predominant objective of the buyer. If the buyer is predominantly seeking to acquire goods and the non-goods are merely incidental to that objective, then the court will apply the Uniform Commercial Code. If the buyer is predominantly seeking to acquire non-goods and the goods are merely incidental to that objective, then the court will apply the common law.

Merchants Defined
"'Merchant' means a person that deals in goods of the kind or otherwise holds itself out by occupation as having knowledge or skill peculiar to the practices or goods involved in the transaction or to which the knowledge or skill may be attributed by the person's employment of an agent or broker or other intermediary that holds itself out by occupation as having the knowledge or skill." UCC 2-104. Thus, the UCC defines merchants as ones who deal in goods of the kind involved in the transaction as either a buyer or seller; as ones who, by occupation, hold themselves out as having special knowledge or skills particular to the goods or practices involved in the transaction; or ones who employ someone, such as a broker or other intermediary, to do so.

If the contract is governed by the UCC, there are situations where the rules for merchants differ from the rules for non-merchants. Thus, it is important to determine whether the parties to the contract are merchants. See "Battle of the Forms" under UCC 2-207 (stating that where parties are merchants, an added term by one party without acceptance from the other may become part of their contract and thereby be enforceable).

Mutual Assent
Mutual assent is most easily demonstrated by the ritual of offer and acceptance, but may also be established by the prior course of dealing between the parties to the contract.

Offer
An offer is a manifestation of willingness, by word or by conduct, to enter into a bargain. It must be made in such a way as to justify its recipient in the reasonable belief that assent to the terms of the offer is invited and that assent will form a legally enforceable contract. The party that makes the offer is the "offeror" while the recipient of the offer is the "offeree."

The offeror need not intend for his or her words or conduct to manifest a willingness to enter a bargain; if a reasonable person in the position of the offeree would recognize the words or conduct of the offeror as an offer, then a valid offer exists.

Requirements of a Valid Offer
An offer must be sufficiently certain to enable a court to determine a breach and provide a remedy. Generally, an offer must identify the parties to the contract and name the substance of the consideration. Where other terms are left out, the court may look to the totality of the circumstances to determine the intent of the parties regarding those terms. For instance, an offer may not name a specific time for performance, but if a dispute arises the court may look to the facts of the situation in order to determine a reasonable time for performance.

Termination of an Offer
An offer creates in the offeree a power of acceptance that may be terminated by a variety of acts or events. However, so long as the power of acceptance persists, the offeree may manifest his or her assent to the terms of the offer and complete the formation of an enforceable contract.

Expiration of Time
An offer persists only for the time stated, or for a reasonable time, if no time is stated. A reasonable time is determined by the circumstances. Generally, in negotiations face-to-face or by telephone or other immediate forms of communication the offer is terminated when the parties discontinue negotiations. Where the parties negotiate by methods that are not immediate, the offer will probably persist for a longer time.

Where contracts involve the purchase or sale of commodities, securities, or goods that fluctuate rapidly in price, a reasonable time is normally very short, particularly when the contemplated transaction involves a fixed price.

Revocation
At any time prior to acceptance by the offeree, the offeror may revoke the offer, thus terminating the power of acceptance. Revocation may be direct or indirect. A direct revocation is a communication that is a manifestation of unwillingness to enter the proposed bargain. An indirect revocation occurs where the offeror takes some definite action that is inconsistent with the offer remaining open and the offeree learns of this by a reliable source. However, an offeror would not be wise to rely on indirect revocation; a direct revocation is much more certain.

Rejection
An unequivocal rejection by the offeree of the terms of the offer will terminate the power of acceptance. Under irrevocable offers, or option contracts, a rejection will not terminate the power of acceptance unless reasonably relied on by the offerer in good faith, and then only to the extent to avoid injustice.

Counteroffer
A counteroffer is a communication by the offeree that proposes to add, subtract, or modify the terms of the offer. Thus, it is functionally equivalent to a rejection of the original offer and the creation of a new offer, which creates a new power of acceptance in the party that had been the offeror.

An offeree need not intend for his or her communication to be a counteroffer; a communication by the offeree that purports to be an acceptance but adds, subtracts, or modifies the terms of the offer is a counteroffer.

When a counteroffer consists of changes to the terms of the original offer (rather than a proposal of completely new terms), this is also known as a conditional acceptance.

Death or Incapacity
The death or incapacity of the offeror terminates the power of acceptance.

Acceptance
An acceptance of an offer is an overt manifestation of assent to the terms in a way invited or required by the offeror

Option Contracts
In order to avoid the termination of an offer by a lapse of time, an offer may be held open by an option contract, which is a new contract between the parties to the underlying contract. There are several ways to create an option contract.

Option by Consideration
The simplest way to create an option is by paying consideration. That is, the offeree pays something to the offeror in exchange for the offeror's relinquishment of the power to revoke the offer. Thus, each party incurs a legal detriment.

The consideration need not be large and in a minority of jurisdictions an option may be created by nothing more than a signed writing that recites a purported consideration.

Equitable Option
Where an offer invites acceptance by performance and the offeree begins to perform, the offeror must then allow the offeree a reasonable time to complete performance before revoking the offer, thus creating an option contract. This protects the offeree from providing a partial performance of his or her duties under the contract without receiving compensation.

Option by Promissory Estoppel
Where an offeror makes an offer that he or she intends or reasonably foresees will induce action or forbearance of a substantial character on the part of the offeree and the offeree acts or forbears to his or her own detriment, the offer will remain open to the extent required to prevent injustice.

Firm Offers under the UCC
Under the Uniform Commercial Code section 2-205, where a merchant makes an offer in a signed writing that states it shall remain open, the offer shall remain open for the stated time, or for a reasonable time, in neither case to exceed three months.

Acceptance
Acceptance of an offer is the manifestation of assent to the terms thereof, made by the offeree in a manner invited or required by the offer. Generally, a person only has the power of acceptance when the offer has been addressed to him or when he is a member of the class to which the offer has been directed. An offeree's power of acceptance is not assignable, except where the offeree has paid consideration to keep the offer open.

The offeree must know of the offer in order to accept it. For instance, if A and B simultaneously send the other an offer pertaining to the same matter with the same terms, no contract is formed until either A or B accepts the other's offer.

Mailbox Rules
Communications of acceptance are effective upon dispatch. All other communications (rejections, revocations, counteroffers, etc.) are effective upon receipt.

A communication has been received when it comes into the possession of the person to whom it is addressed, or into the possession of an authorized agent of the person to whom it is addressed, or when it is deposited in a place that has been authorized for such communications by the person to whom it is addressed.

If an acceptance is lost or delayed, then no contract is formed.

If an acceptance is first sent by a slow method but a rejection is then sent by a quick method, a contract is still formed because the acceptance was effective upon dispatch.

If two parties send each other offers and then one of them decides to revoke its own offer before the other one accepts, there is no contract.

Consideration
Consideration is comprised of two elements:

 * 1) Each party must incur a legal detriment by promise or performance.
 * 2) The detriment incurred by each party must induce the promise or performance of the other.

This has been called reciprocal mutual inducement, or "reciprocal conventional inducement" (Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.).

Legal Detriment
A party incurs a legal detriment by doing or promising to do something he or she is not legally required to do, or refraining or promising to refrain from doing something he or she has a legal right to do.

Expectancy
Puts the parties in the place they would be if the contract had been fully performed. For example, if a man agrees to sell a teenager a $5000 rock for $5 bird then decides not to, he would owe the teenager $4995 ($5000 - $5) in expectation damages.

Reliance
Puts the parties in the place they were before the contract had ever existed. For example, if a man agrees with a boy to trade a hat for an apple and the boy spends $5 to buy the apple, but the man later decides not to trade, the man would owe the boy $5 in reliance damages.

Restitution
The party who was unjustly enriched must pay the other party the amount he was unjustly enriched. For example, if a doctor performs an emergency procedure on an unconscious dying victim, the victim is liable for the medical fees for restitution damages.

title: United States Law/Contract


text: Category:Physics stubs

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Physics stubs


text: User:Mike.lifeguard/Survey responses

title: User:Mike.lifeguard/Survey responses


text:
User talk:Wave~enwikiversity

hey duds

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Wave. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Wave~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:47, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:25, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wave~enwikiversity


text: File:Star Wars Spelled in Arabic.png

title: File:Star Wars Spelled in Arabic.png


text:
User talk:Callumturner

Welcome
Hello Callumturner, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 05:47, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Callumturner


text: Assembly language/x86

title: Assembly language/x86


text:
Talk:Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/ZoWeAySi/ISA analysis

about German edits
Hello, there were made also edits in German language. Do you know that there is also a German Wikiversity available ? There is the Fachbereich Informatik where you also could add a course in German language. What do you say - I could give you more info about that ? Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 08:48, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

What is to be done about the first section?
Seeing as it is in another language, is it supposed to be translated? Or removed? Matthew Greyling 01:27, 28 December 2007 (UTC)


text:
User:Eadthem/Assembly language/x86/x86 Instruction Set

This page is under construction notes are in { and } until the layout is finished

This will be the full x86 instruction set including all AMD Cyrix Intel and VIA instructions categorized by subset addition and function.

Instruction additions old to new. Chip it was introduced in for each manufacture in parenthesis. This is not a listing of CPU's.{ideally should be collapsible tables }
 * Logic
 * Move/Load
 * Jump/Branch
 * ADD
 * Subtract
 * Multiply
 * Divide
 * Size Translations (16bit <> 32bit)
 * Type Translations (Float <> Int)


text: File:Vector Particle In A Box.svg

title: File:Vector Particle In A Box.svg


text:
User talk:Sakkie89

Hello, the link you added here does not exist. Do you know the correct link or can give other info that helps people to find what you mean ? Below you find more info on Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 10:17, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Sakkie89, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 10:17, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sakkie89


title: Category:BCP/CTPA/10


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September

September

 * 1) White flowers (57)
 * 2) Herbaceous plants with white flowers (45) (Fine keys not available due to missing information. See Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September/Maintenance for to-do list)
 * 3) Herbaceous plants with white flowers and simple leaves
 * 4) Herbaceous plants with white flowers and simple, alternate leaves
 * 5) Herbaceous plants with white flowers and simple, opposite leaves
 * 6) Herbaceous plants with white flowers and compound leaves
 * 7) Trees, shrubs, and vines with white flowers (12)
 * 8) Pink flowers (26)
 * 9) Herbaceous plants with pink flowers (20) (Fine keys not available due to missing information. See Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September/Maintenance for to-do list)
 * 10) Red flowers (10)
 * 11) Orange flowers (10)
 * 12) Yellow flowers (33)
 * 13) Green flowers (8)
 * 14) Blue flowers (6)
 * 15) Purple flowers (35)
 * 16) Brown flowers (0)
 * 17) Black flowers (0)


text:
BCP/Armeria maritima/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Armeria maritima (Armeria).

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 17:26, 9 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:52, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Armeria maritima/Logs


text: Category:BCP/Family/Plumbaginaceae

title: Category:BCP/Family/Plumbaginaceae


text:
BCP/Euphorbia lathyris/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SB_Johnny May 15 2007 (from photographs)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:31, 4 July 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 11:56, 1 December 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:12, 17 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:47, 27 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:54, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:07, 20 July 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 09:05, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Euphorbia lathyris/Logs


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September/White Flowers/Trees, Shrubs, and Vines/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=White flowered plants category=BCP/SEPA/9 notcategory=Flowering herb logs order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Southeastern Pennsylvania/September/White Flowers/Trees, Shrubs, and Vines


text:
User:Jack hadfield~enwikiversity

Also 85.73.203.62

title: User:Jack hadfield~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Jack hadfield~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Jack hadfield, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 18:31, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jack hadfield. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jack hadfield~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:11, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jack hadfield~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Bioethics/Introduction

Bioethics and Tobacco
This article now properly directs attention to the "incestuous link" between the government, which needs the sin tax revenue, and the tobacco industry. More needs to be said about what is arguably the number one public health problem in the history of the planet ("None Dare Call It Genocide") and why an obvious remedy is "overlooked".

"It's the cigaret, stupid!"
The public has been led to misunderstand the smoking crisis. Not tobacco per se, or cannabis per se, is the cause of illnesses and deaths, but the long-established hot-burning-overdose smoking format known as the "CIGARETTE", which is now promoted in nearly 99% of all industry advertising and which governments tolerate and regulate as though it were somehow normal.

No net weight listed
Contrary to the practice with all foods, there is presently no indication of quantity required to be printed on each cigaret or on the packaging in which it is sold. Thus the public at large does not know or think much about the fact that a typical commercial filter cigaret contains 700 mg. net weight of tobacco (some brands, such as Pall Mall, boast of containing even more) and that, comparatively, with a properly designed miniature smoking utensil (6 mm. or 1/4 inch i.d. screened crater), which anyone can make, 25-mg. servings would be possible, or 28 of these from the tobacco found in one cigaret.

The cannabis connection
Miniature pipes fitting this non-overdose description are rarely found today because the same governments which receive billions in tobacco taxes also spend billions on law enforcement against cannabis, and any smoking equipment or procedure which does NOT flagrantly promote overdose, i.e. anything safer than cigarets, is suspected of being cannabis-related, thus illegal. (People say: "If I had one of those in my car and the cops inspected me, I'd lose my car!") Until 1996 Philip Morris contributed funds to the Partnership for a Drug-Free-America, a U.S.-based organization which promotes scare advertising campaigns against cannabis, well calculated to persuade voters to elect legislators who would pass "headshop laws" banning miniature smoking utensils as "cannabis utensils" or "drug paraphernalia".)  Candidates fitting that requirement are more likely to get campaign money from tobacco companies (along with a visit from a young, attractive, ingratiating lobbyist).

The "War Against Drugs", really a war against cannabis, provides a pretext to suppress equipment which could, if used with tobacco instead of the profitable overdose cigaret format, soon terminally collapse the profit margin in the tobacco industry-- while also saving 5.4 million lives a year (see WHO, Feb. 2008), saving a pack-a-day victim $2000 a year, and providing smokers with true freedom to smoke as much OR LITTLE as they want (i.e. less than an overdose) almost anywhere they want (because of eliminating "side-stream smoke" and other cigaret nuisances and hazards which have led to smoking bans in many places).

The ultimate favoritism
The U.S. Government agency, N.I.D.A., provides medical marijuana to a select list of patients wrapped up in CIGARETS, instead of providing sifted herb and a 6-mm.-i.d.-screened-crater minitoke-utensil.

Legal remedies
Here are a few revisions in the law which could make most of the ethical discussions over tobacco use moot:

 * a. Permit cigarets to be sold, but require that the net weight of tobacco per cigaret (usually 700 mg.) be printed on the paper in type at least as large as that used for the adjoining brand name.

 * b. Require that on the package ("pack") appear a reminder of this weight-number along with the number of cigarets, e.g. "20 Class A Cigarettes, 700 mg. tobacco net weight per cigarette, total 14 grams per pack."

 * c. Require any shop with a tobacco sales license to offer for sale a viable miniature utensil with a 6-mm./1/4-inch inner diameter screened crater and long flexible drawtube, permitting 25-mg. servings, and to advertise same with visible illustrated signage equal in size to that advertising any tobacco brand.

 * d. Government: spend funding to provide interesting, decently paid replacement jobs for former tobacco workers, such as in forestry, wood product engineering, etc.

 * e. Eliminate anti-cannabis laws, on the premise that with universal conversion of all smoking to an anti-overdose utensil format, illnesses and psychoses attributed to cannabis will disappear along with those attributed to tobacco.

An American enigma
WHO 2003 estimate: 5.3 million deaths per year attributed to cigaret smoking worldwide. Most often published figure for USA: 440,000. The USA has 4.5% of world population and 8.5% of world cigaret deaths! (This is a public relations nightmare because it gives any foreign hatemonger license to say, "It is God's judgment against the Americans for having too damn much money!"

"We're" No. 1!
The USA has economic and military supremacy over all other countries, and has put its might behind the law enforcement crusade against cannabis and "cannabis utensils" worldwide.

The USA now has a No. 1 moral imperative facing it: take the lead in the promotion of smoking reduction equipment before the Wirtschaftswunder in China, India et al. (teenagers with enough money to buy more cigarets) doubles their cigaret-related deaths and brings the world figure to TEN MILLION PER YEAR (1 bil. per century).64.107.3.124 19:57, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

 * A recent review (The feasibility of smoking reduction: an update) does not even discuss the idea of using pipes as a way to control the amount of tobacco smoked or the negative consequences of nicotine addiction. I'd be interested to know if there are any available data that compare the relative health benefits of nicotine replacement therapy to pipe use. My guess is that pipe use by nicotine addicts results in enough damage to health that few health professionals can really bring themselves to recommend it.....they prefer to try to get people to quit smoking. --JWSchmidt 21:04, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Not just any "pipes"
Thank you for the comment and the reminder of Hughes et al., who studied smokers reducing the number of cigarets per day (CPD). The lead author, John Hughes, is featured on www.cancer.gov under headline, "Reduced Smoking May Lead to Unexpected Quitting" (Dec. 2006). I have revised my posting, above, to emphasize that not just any "pipes" promote harm reduction but only ones with minimum (i.e. 1/4"/6mm.) crater-diameter. A typical tobacco pipe (3/4" i.d.) has enough space in it for a 2-gram overdose (but: "We don't inhale!"), and most head-shop "marijuana pipes" (aimed at youngsters who expect to inhale) are almost as wide.

Miniaturization benefits
The proposed small crater-diameter permits:

 * (a) 25-mg. servings;

 * (b) elimination of all side-stream smoke, which is known to be five times as rich in carbon monoxide;

 * (c) probably hundreds of degrees less hot burning temperature (compared with known temperature, 1500° F/860° C, in the tip of a cigaret; FURTHER TESTING is advised to determine the actual burning-temperature in a quarter-inch crater, which figure once published and widely compared to the 1500° F could possibly have a major impact on smoking usage worldwide).

 * (d) cigaret addicts, used to inhaling, can learn the advantageous slow, low-burning-temperature toke method, replacing the careless 1-second "puff" (or 2-4-second "drag") everyone was taught by advertising, movies and peer pressure.

(As soon as possible I will provide illustrations of several easy ways that anyone in their own neighborhood can manufacture a utensil as described above out of common materials such as a 1/4-inch socket wrench, brass hose-fitting, glass, wood, flexible pvc tube, Mesh-40 wire screen etc.)64.107.1.78 16:19, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It seems like there are two issues. First, if people are going to smoke, should they find a way to smoke that causes the least harm? Second, what is the best way to get people to stop smoking? Is there any published study exploring if use of smaller pipes is relatively safer than use of larger pipes? Is there any published study exploring if use of smaller pipes leads to greater chances of quitting? If there are such studies, they should be cited. If studies have not been done, is the point of advocating the use of small pipes to encourage researchers to perform studies on users of small pipes or is the point to get people to experiment on themselves? --JWS 17:24, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

 * 1. Yes-- freedom to smoke and least harmful method.

 * 2. a.  Some may quit after converting to utensil (Hughes et al.).
 * 2. b.  Some may never quit (if utensil solves health problems, need to quit is moot).

Lack of published studies
Examine the cannabis problem. Dr. Dean Edell (ABC radio host) rails against Fed. Gov. refusal to fund any cannabis studies. My theory: the Fed. Gov. protects its "sponsor", the tobacco companies (all that tax revenue) against cannabis legalization, bringing with it de facto legalization of the anti-overdose utensil, which they fear even more than the cannabis-- explaining why studies of an anti-overdose utensil are at least as hard to find as studies of cannabis.

Researchers should:

 * (a) verify the burning-temperature differences among smoking devices, especially comparing the 1/4-inch/6-mm. i.d. screened crater with larger-diameter craters 3/8", 1/2", 5/8" etc., the tip of a cigaret, "blunt", "joint" etc.

 * (b) measure temperature of "mainstream smoke" entering someone's trachea 7 inches from the tip of a cigaret, versus the temperature at same location after at least 24 inches of slow passage through a flexible extension tube.

Do it yourself?
If individual users experiment with a 25-mg. utensil, I am confident no one will suffer remotely near the damage that occurs today with every commercial 700-mg. sledgehammer overdose.66.99.1.55 20:49, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Smoke temperature and cannabis

 * Two more issues: first, what is the published information about the temperature issue? In a quick search the first thing I found was research by a tobacco company. And second, I'm not clear on the tobacco-to-cannabis connection: the claim is that there is a "blind spot" for researchers because they will not study delivery methods for tobacco smoke that are used for illegal street drugs? --JWS 22:03, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Temperature cover-up?
In the Reynolds-funded study you referred to, "tobacco smoke aerosol was generated under precisely controlled temperature conditions from 250 to 550 degrees C." How relevant can that be, since the indicated range differs so drastically from what I was informed to be the actual temperature in real-life cigarets (the 1500°F/860° C figure has been around since the 70's). Absence of any heat-measurements for an anti-overdose narrow-diameter utensil may be a sign of the disproportionate power of the tobacco interest.

Research "blind spot"
I would guess researchers fear they could get in trouble if they publish anything about "street drug paraphernalia" etc. Blacklisted from further funding? Lose accreditation, academic position? Suspicion of personal use? (Remember that U. S. Supreme Court nominee-- the first Ginsberg, 1987-- rejected because of exposed decades-earlier cannabis use?) Such utensils have long been at least a "grey" area and researchers found it safest to ignore opportunities to research them.64.107.1.125 00:13, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

lung cancer
"some forms of lung cancer (e.g. small cell cancer) are not related to smoking at all" <-- First, I don't know why this issue is relevant to the page. Second, it needs to be supported by references. It is easy to find many published sources that say, "It is known that smoking increases the risk for all histological subtypes of lung cancer." --JWSchmidt 05:22, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bioethics/Introduction


text:
User:Jsoroko

Jonathan Soroko - living in Brooklyn, N.Y.

Background relevant to firefighting and emergency management portal:

I'm an attorney, and former prosecutor; involved in our local CERT (Community Emergency Response Team), now trying to use the 3steps (www.3steps.org) neighborhood preparedness program in our neighborhood.

With the help of others, am trying to go beyond CERT -which isn't enthusiastically supported by the New York City municipal government. Under consideration are the following objectives:

- Attempting to approach Provo Utah's household preparedness level - nearly 80% of households.

- to recruit 1% of the population as active responders; because of our population density - within walking distance this would mean several thousand people. One of the questions which presents itself is - let's assume 1,000 people - how many people would get what sort of training? How many EMT's - how many logistics teams, how many cooks, how many to get bus driver's licenses?

My personal plan - as I'm trying to continue educating myself - is to try, within the next couple of years, is get either the EMT-B certification, or the CFR (Certified First Responder) cert., at least the first couple of NASAR SAR courses, and - I'd really like to take basic firefighter training.

I'm also the editor of a related blog, Popular Logistics

title: User:Jsoroko


text: File:Vector Particle In A Box.gif

title: File:Vector Particle In A Box.gif


text:
User talk:Garion96

Hello Garion96, thank you for your comment here. There was also contacted Aldo Leopold Foundation in this matter. Hopefully they will reply soon. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 21:54, 13 October 2007 (UTC)
 * We got feedback from the foundation and they clearly state it like this. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 15:49, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Garion96, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 21:54, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Garion96


text:
User:Gehirn~enwikiversity

Occupation
Undergraduate Student

University
University of Arizona

Major
Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics

title: User:Gehirn~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Gehirn~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Gehirn, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 00:17, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Gehirn. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Gehirn~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:09, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gehirn~enwikiversity


text: Category:Ecological sustainability

title: Category:Ecological sustainability


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August

August

 * 1) All plants from August (30)
 * 2) White flowers (16)
 * 3) Pink flowers (7)
 * 4) Red flowers (1)
 * 5) Orange flowers (5)
 * 6) Yellow flowers (10)
 * 7) Green flowers (0)
 * 8) Blue flowers (1)
 * 9) Purple flowers (9)
 * 10) Brown flowers (0)
 * 11) Black flowers (0)


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/September/All/DPL

This list is used to create a visual key.

 category=BCP/CTPA/9 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/September/All

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of September in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 08:49, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 19 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/September

September

 * 1) All plants from September (19)


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/October/All/DPL

This list is used to create a visual key.

 category=BCP/CTPA/10 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/October/All

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of October in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 08:54, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 11 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/October

October

 * 1) All plants from October (10)


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Yellow Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Yellow flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Yellow Flowers

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of August in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 09:06, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 10 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/White Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=White flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/White Flowers

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of August in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 09:05, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 16 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Pink Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Pink flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Pink Flowers

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of August in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 09:08, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 7 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Red Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Red flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Red Flowers

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of August in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 09:10, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 1 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Orange Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Orange flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Orange Flowers


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Purple Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Purple flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Purple Flowers

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of August in Central Pennsylvania.

last updated 09:13, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 9 plants


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Blue Flowers/DPL

This page is used to help create a graphical list.

 category=Blue flowered plants category=BCP/CTPA/8 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Central Pennsylvania/August/Blue Flowers


text:
BCP/Anethum graveolens

Anethum graveolens

title: BCP/Anethum graveolens


text:
BCP/Anethum graveolens/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * --Juan Pisek 17:48, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 02:13, 30 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 19:58, 30 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:17, 2 July 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:11, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 22:24, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Anethum graveolens/Logs


text:
BCP/Digitaria

Digitaria

title: BCP/Digitaria


text:
BCP/Digitaria/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 11:37, 3 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 10:46, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 08:45, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Digitaria/Logs


text:
BCP/Calendula officinalis

Calendula officinalis

title: BCP/Calendula officinalis


text:
BCP/Calendula officinalis/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Calendula officinalis (Pot-marigold).

Recent Logs

 * --Juan Pisek 18:03, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Calendula officinalis/Logs


text:
BCP/Crocosmia

Crocosmia

title: BCP/Crocosmia


text:
BCP/Crocosmia/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Crocosmia (Crocosmia).

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 08:31, 14 July 2007 (UTC)
 * SBJ 09:31, 16 July 2008 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Crocosmia/Logs


text:
BCP/Cuscuta gronovii

Cuscuta gronovii

title: BCP/Cuscuta gronovii


text:
BCP/Cuscuta gronovii/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Cuscuta gronovii (Common Dodder).

Recent Logs
=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 13:45, 31 August 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 09:21, 5 September 2008 (UTC)
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Cuscuta gronovii/Logs


text:
BCP/Dipsacus

Dipsacus

title: BCP/Dipsacus


text:
BCP/Dipsacus/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 08:26, 14 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Hazel 16:49, 3 August 2007 (UTC)
 * SBJ 09:50, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Dipsacus/Logs


text: Category:BCP/Family/Dipsacaceae

title: Category:BCP/Family/Dipsacaceae


text:
BCP/Kirengeshoma palmata

Kirengeshoma palmata

title: BCP/Kirengeshoma palmata


text:
BCP/Kirengeshoma palmata/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Kirengeshoma palmata (Kirengeshoma).

Recent Logs

 * SB Johnny-LM 09:27, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 12:05, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Kirengeshoma palmata/Logs


text:
BCP/Humulus lupulus

Humulus lupulus

title: BCP/Humulus lupulus


text:
BCP/Humulus lupulus/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Humulus lupulus (Hops).

Recent Logs

 * Chelodonium 12:52, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Humulus lupulus/Logs


text:
BCP/Papaver atlanticum

Papaver atlanticum

title: BCP/Papaver atlanticum


text:
BCP/Papaver atlanticum/Logs

2007 Logs

 * SB Johnny-LM 09:51, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * SB_Johnny-LM 10:34, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 12:10, 16 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:33, 27 May 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 11:10, 4 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 09:20, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Papaver atlanticum/Logs


text: User:Erkan Yilmaz/Survey responses

title: User:Erkan Yilmaz/Survey responses


text:
BCP/Persicaria virginiana

Persicaria virginiana

title: BCP/Persicaria virginiana


text:
BCP/Persicaria virginiana/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Persicaria virginiana (Virginia Jumpseed).

Recent Logs
=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * --SB_Johnny | PA! 09:37, 6 August 2007 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 10:39, 25 August 2007 (UTC)
 * SBJ 18:24, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 09:51, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:34, 29 July 2008 (UTC)
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Persicaria virginiana/Logs


text:
BCP/Origanum laevigatum

Origanum laevigatum

title: BCP/Origanum laevigatum


text:
BCP/Origanum laevigatum/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Origanum laevigatum (Oregano).

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:05, 2 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 02:11, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Origanum laevigatum/Logs


text:
BCP/Pelargonium

Pelargonium

title: BCP/Pelargonium


text:
BCP/Pelargonium/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Pelargonium (Pelargonium).

Recent Logs

 * --Juan 14:40, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Pelargonium/Logs


text:
Template:Bcp/prag/gp

(cultivated)

title: Template:Bcp/prag/gp


text:
Category:BCP/PRAGUE/GP

This category is for garden plants found in Prague, Czech Republic.

title: Category:BCP/PRAGUE/GP


text:
BCP/Perovskia atriplicifolia

Perovskia atriplicifolia

title: BCP/Perovskia atriplicifolia


text:
BCP/Perovskia atriplicifolia/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 18:24, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:47, 14 October 2007 (UTC)
 * SBJ 09:16, 16 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 17:51, 28 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 10:49, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 22:44, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Perovskia atriplicifolia/Logs


text:
BCP/Potentilla recta

Potentilla recta

title: BCP/Potentilla recta


text:
BCP/Potentilla recta/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Luai lashire 21:47, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:55, 3 July 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 10:49, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Potentilla recta/Logs


text:
Template:Bcp/ctpa/np

(native)

This template adds plant pages to Category:BCP/Flora of Pennsylvania and Category:BCP/CTPA/NP (it automatically adds ), for plants that are native in Central Pennsylvania. Later it can also be used to create a flora category for Pennsylvania, the Mid-Atlantic region, etc.

title: Template:Bcp/ctpa/np


text: Category:BCP/CTPA/NP

title: Category:BCP/CTPA/NP


text:
BCP/Portulaca oleracea

Portulaca oleracea

title: BCP/Portulaca oleracea


text:
BCP/Portulaca oleracea/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 14:05, 6 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:09, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 11:24, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Portulaca oleracea/Logs


text:
BCP/Rosa rugosa

Rosa rugosa

title: BCP/Rosa rugosa


text:
BCP/Rosa rugosa/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Rosa rugosa (Rugosa Rose).

Recent Logs

 * SB Johnny-NHAMP 09:13, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Rosa rugosa/Logs


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/CsutaZaeraDobler/ThreeMicroDiscussion

Overview

 * Harvard Architecture (data and program memory use seperate busses)
 * RISC Architecture (75 standard instructions)
 * 8-bit ALU with single Accumulator (WREG)
 * 24Kbytes flash memory to store up to 12288 single-word instructions
 * 2Kbytes SRAM
 * 256 bytes EEPROM
 * 24 I/O pins
 * Support interrupt priority
 * USB Serial Interface Engine
 * USART, A/D, Capture/Compare/PWM, Timers, SPI, I2C
 * Hardware Stack (31)

Program Memory
The PIC18F microcontroller has 24Kbytes of flash memory for program storage and is divided into two sections, the boot and the application program section. The Program Counter (PC) is 21 bits wide, and accesses bytes in the program memory. Since all instructions are either 16 or 32 bits wide the least significant bit of the PC is always zero.

The microcontroller features several interrupt sources and two interrupt priority levels.
 * Reset Vector at address 0x0000h
 * High Priority Interrupt Vector at address 0x0008h
 * Low Priority Interrupt Vector at address 0x0018h

Data Memory
The data memory contains Special Function Registers (SFRs) and General Purpose Registers (GPRs). SFRs are used by the CPU and peripheral modules for control and status of the controller and peripheral functions. GPRs are used for data storage.

The data memory space is divided into 16 banks, each bank with a size of 256 bytes. Any memory location can be addressed either by its address (12 bits) or an low-order address and a 4-bit bank pointer (BSR). When accessing memory registers the 8-bit low-order address is part of the instruction. To ensure fast access of SFRs and the first 96 bytes of Bank 0 the PIC18F device contains an Access Bank with a total size of 256 bytes. This Bank can be accessed only with a 8-bit address. One bit inside instructions, is used to determine either the Access Bank or the GPR Banks.

The PIC18F2455 supports direct, indirect or indexed Addressing modes.

Instruction Set Summary
The PIC18F controller has a set of 75 standard instructions, as well as an extended set of eight instructions. The extended instruction set is disabled by default and can enabled through device configuration bits.

The Standard Instruction Set is grouped into four categories:
 * Byte-oriented operations
 * Bit-oriented operations
 * Literal operations
 * Control operations

Byte-oriented Operations
Most byte-oriented operations have 3 operands.

'd' is zero => result is placed in WREG.

'd' is one => result is placed in 'f'

'a' is zero => BSR (Bank Select Register) is ignored and the Access Bank is used

'a' is one => RAM Bank is specified by BSR

'f' 8-bit register file address

 * e.g, ADDWF MYREG, W, B (Add WREG and f)

Bit-oriented Operations
Bit-oriented operations have 3 operands

'b' 3-bits to select one bit of 'f'

'a' is zero => BSR is ignored and the Access Bank is used

'a' is one => RAM Bank is specified by BSR

'f' 8-bit register file address

 * e.g., BSF MYREG, bit, B (Bit set f)

Literal Operations
Literal operations have only one operand

'k' 8-bit immediate value

 * e.g., MOVLW 7Fh (move literal to WREG)

Control Operations
'n' 20-bits immediate value

 * e.g., GOTO Label (Goto Address)

Pipeline
The clock input is internally divided by four to generate four non-overlapping quadrature clocks. Each instruction cycle consists of such four quadrature clocks.

Two Stage pipeline
 * Instruction fetch
 * Instruction decode and execute

PIC Tutorials

 * The bare necessity for PIC 16C84 & 16F84 Microchip microcontrollers. Basics & indispensable info.

Overview

 * Direct addressing capability: 1 MB of memory
 * 20 bits addressing
 * Architecture designed for Assembly Language
 * 14 Word, by 16-bit register set
 * 24 Operand addressing modes
 * Bit, byte, word and block operations
 * 8 and 16-bit signed and unsigned arithmetic in binary or decimal including multiply and divide

Memory Organization

 * Linear array of up to 1 million bytes
 * Logically divided into code, data, extra data and stack segments of up to 64K bytes each
 * Memory references relative to base addresses contained in high speed segment registers
 * Little Endian
 * Physically: high bank (D15 – D8) and low bank (D7 – D0) of 512K 8-bit bytes addressed in parallel by the processor’s address lines
 * Certain locations are reserved for specific CPU operations

Data Transfer
The MOV instruction is used to transfer 8 and 16-bit data to and from registers. Either the source or destination has to be a register. The other operand can come from another register, from memory, from immediate data (a value included in the instruction) or from a memory location “pointed at” by register BX.

I/O Operations
The 8086 has separate I/O and memory address spaces. Values in the I/O space are accessed with IN and OUT instructions. The port address is loaded into DX and the data is read/written to/from AL or AX.

Arithmetic/Logic
Arithmetic and logic instructions can be performed on byte and 16-bit values. The first operand has to be a register and the result is stored in that register.

Control Transfer
Conditional jumps transfer control to another address depending on the values of the flags in the flag register. Conditional jumps are restricted to a range of -128 to +127 bytes from the next instruction while unconditional jumps can be to any point.

 * The CALL and RET instructions call and return from subroutines. The processor pushes IP on the stack during a CALL instruction and the contents of IP are popped by the RET instructions.

Pipeline
Fetch/Execute: Tasks are divided into 2 sections: Fetch (BIU), and Execute (EU). Different circuits for every function, but working in parallel. At the beginning, just Fetch can waste time. From then and on, Fetch goes first than Execute, bringing instructions to the processor, while this one is executing those were brought in advance.

OR1200 CPU
OR1200 is intended for embedded, portable and networking applications. It can successfully compete with latest scalar 32-bit RISC processors in his class and can efficiently run any modern operating system.

The OR1200 CPU/DSP is a central part of the OR1200 RISC processor. It is a RISC CPU with Harvard microarchitecture, a 5-stage pipeline and with a virtual memory support (MMU) and with basic DSP capabilities. It was developed in the OpenRisk project. The whole hardver is open, all major characteristics of the core can be set by the user. It has separated instruction and separated data memory management.

Cache
The default caches are 1-way direct-mapped 8KB data cache and 1-way direct-mapped 8KB instruction cache, each with 16-byte line size. Both caches are physically tagged. Instruction/data cache size scalable from 1KB to 64KB.

I/O
It has no separate Input/Out Unit. It has Memory mapped I/O.

Registers
OpenRISC 1200 implements 32 general-purpose 32-bit registers. OpenRISC 1000 architecture also support shadow copies of register file to implement fast switching between working contexts, however this feature is not implemented in current OR1200 implementation. OR1200 implements general-purpose register file as two synchronous dual-port memories with capacity of 32 words by 32 bits per word.

Pipeline
Scalar, single-issue 5-stage pipeline delivering sustained throughput.

Interrupts
It has 2 non-maskable, 30 maskable interrupt sources, and two interrupt priorities level. The Interrupts are used for the Task-Scheduling. It is called Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC).

Instruction Set
The instruction unit implements the basic instruction pipeline, fetches instructions from the memory subsystem, dispatches them to available execution units, and maintains a state history to ensure a precise exception model and that operations finish in order. It also executes conditional branch and unconditional jump instructions. The instruction set is grouped into the Program Control Group, Logical Group, Arithemtic Group, Shift and Rotate Group, Input/Output Group and Interrupt Group. In total the processor supports 3 operands instructions. The most instructions execute in 1 clock cycles. The istruction set is the standard ORBIS32 type. The ORFPX32/64 and ORVDX64 instruction classes are not supported by current OR1200.

General Features
These are the main characteristics of our microprocessor that have been taken into consideration before "creating" the instruction set:

 * Data and program separate memories
 * 16 16-bit general purpose registers (GPR)
 * Register - register addressing mode (some special immediate and indirect addressing mode instructions)
 * 16-bit status register
 * 128 Kbytes data memory and 128 Kbytes program memory
 * Numerical data can be expressed in decimal, hexadecimal (h after the number) or binary (b after the number).

INSTRUCTIONS
Complete set (Opcodes 0101 and 1011 are still free):

 * Arithmetic: ADD, SUB, ADDI, SUBI.
 * Logical: AND, OR, NOT, SHFL, SHFR.
 * Special: MOV, MOVUI, MOVLI, NOP.
 * Conditional branches: BEQ, BNEQ, SLT, SLTI.
 * Unconditional branch: J, JAL, RET.
 * Data transfers: LD, ST, LDI, STI.

Arithmetic
These instructions rise the zero, carry and negative flags when it proceeds.

 * ADD, SUB

Where OPCODE=0001 and Func=0000(ADD) or 0001(SUB). Op1 is source and destination register while Op2 is only source register (both GPR)

e.g., ADD R1, R8                  R1 ← R1+R8 SUB R1, R8                  R1 ← R1-R8

 * ADDI

Where OPCODE=0010. Op1 is source and destination register while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 8 bits maximum.

e.g., ADDI R3, F2h R3 ← R1+11110010

 * SUBI

Where OPCODE=0100. Op1 is source and destination register while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 8 bits maximum.

e.g., SUBI R3, F2h R3 ← R1-11110010

Logical

 * AND, OR, NOT, SHFL, SHFR

Where OPCODE=0011 and Func=0010(AND), 0011(OR), 0100(NOT), 0101(SHFL) or 0110(SHFR). Op1 is source and destination register while Op2 is only source register (both GPR) in the instructions AND and OR. In the instructions NOT, SHFL and SHFR Op1 is only destination register. AND and OR can rise the zero flag (ZF) while SHFL and SHFR can rise the overflow flag (OF).

e.g., AND R2, R4               R2 ← R2 AND R4 (bit by bit) OR R2, R4               R2 ← R2 OR R4 (bit by bit) NOT R2, R4               R2 ← NOT R4 (bit by bit) SHFL R2, R4               R2 << #R4  (filling with zeroes) SHFR R2, R4               R2 >> #R4 (filling with zeroes)

Special

 * MOV

Where OPCODE=0001 and Func=0111 Op1 is destination register while Op2 is source register (both GPR).

e.g., MOV R9, R5               R9 ← R5

 * MOVUI

Where OPCODE=0110. Op1 is destination (only its 15-8 bits) register while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 8 bits maximum.

e.g., MOVUI R9, 00101110b R9(15-8) ← 00101110

 * MOVLI

Where OPCODE=0111. Op1 is destination (only its 7-0 bits) register while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 8 bits maximum.

e.g., MOVLI R9, 00101110b R9(7-0) ← 00101110

 * NOP

NO OPERATION

Conditional branches

 * BEQ, BNEQ

Where OPCODE=1000(BEQ) or 1001(BNEQ). The jump will take place depending on the value at the specified flag of the Status Register. The relative jump cannot be greater than 10 bits. If it were, the assembler would print an error message.

e.g., BEQ ZF, 1001101001b if (ZF = 1) then PC ← PC + 1001101001 BNEQ ZF, label1 if (ZF = 0) then PC ← label1

 * SLT

Where OPCODE=0001 and Func=1100. Op1 and Op2 are both source general purpose registers. If Op1 is smaller than Op2 then a flag will be activated in the Status Register.

e.g., SLT R1, R8                  if (R1 < R8) then NF=1

 * SLTI

Where OPCODE=1100. Op1 is a general purpose register while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 8 bits maximum.. In this instruction, in case Op1<Op2 then the negative flag (NF)will be activated in the Status Register.

e.g., SLTI R1, d12 if (R1(bits 7:0)=00001100) then NF=1

Unconditional branch

 * J

Where OPCODE=1101. The absolute address can be both specified by the PC value or a label.

e.g., J label1 PC ← label1 J F0Bh PC ← 111100001011

 * J (the same name but slightly different working way)

Where OPCODE=0001 and Func=1000.

e.g., J (R3) PC ← (R3)

 * JAL

Where OPCODE=0001, Func=1001 and the next program counter is changed to the value in R1. The former program counter + 2 will be kept into a general purpose register. When using a label the assembler generates a pseudo-instruction.

e.g., JAL R3                 R3 ← PC + 2; PC ← R1 PSEUDO-INSTRUCTION!!! JAL R3, label2 MOVIU R1, label2[15:8]; MOVIL R1, label2[7:0]; JAL R3

 * RET

Where OPCODE=0011. Return from a subroutine and PC takes the value in the specified register.

e.g., RET R3               PC ← R3

Data transfers

 * LD, ST

Where OPCODE=0001 and Func=1010(LD) or 1011(ST). Op1 is destination while Op2 is source. LD moves a data from memory to a register and ST does the opposite. In both instructions, one of the operands is specified by using indirect addressing mode.

e.g., LD R9, (R5) R9 ← (R5) ST (R9), R5               (R9) ← R5

 * LDI

Where OPCODE=0011. Op1 designs a general purpose register among R12, R13, R14 and R15 while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 10 bits maximum.

e.g., LDI (R14), 0011001100b R14 ← (0011001100)

 * STI

Where OPCODE=0101. Op2 designs a general purpose register among R12, R13, R14 and R15 while Op2 is an immediate addressed source data of 10 bits maximum.

e.g., STI (0011001100b), R14 (0011001100) ← R14


text:
User talk:Safira~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Safira, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 12:05, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Safira. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Safira~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:53, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Safira~enwikiversity


text:
United States Law/Tort/Additional material

Tort is a hard to define term.

Tort Law is a Blend of Common Law and Statutory Law

Common law (judge-made law) It is primarily state law and it may differ from state to state Modified and supplemented by statute Modified, for example, by statutory limitations on tort recovery (e.g., caps on damages) Supplemented, e.g., by Dram Shop and Wrongful Death Acts

Tort Law Replaced by Statutory Compensation Schemes

Sometimes tort law may be substantially limited or eliminated by statutory law, e.g. Workers’ compensation laws No-fault automobile insurance laws These tort reforms are limited, however Problems in defining the “compensable event”

The purpose of tort law?

Corrective justice (moral responsibility). Impose liability on persons who are at “fault” Achieve appropriate compensation for injured persons

Tort Law: Relationship to Criminal Law and Contract Law

Torts may arise out of conduct that is also subject to criminal penalties. A person may be subject to both civil and criminal penalties. Torts may a rise out of a breach of contract (e.g., breach of an express warranty that results in personal injury)

Torts and Fault

Why is Fault Required? If fault is not required, then the tort system becomes a state-financed compensation scheme. We would not be able to bear the expense of such a system.

Intentional Torts - some examples

Fault typically triggers the tort system.

Battery and assault Intentionally hitting or threatening to hit someone Intentional infliction of emotional distress Intentionally causing someone severe emotional distress Defamation Injuring someone’s reputation

Fraud and misrepresentation

Intentional interference with contractual relations

Intentional Torts – Additional Examples

Invasion of privacy Intentionally intruding in a private place or publicizing private facts about another person Fraud and misrepresentation Intentionally misstating the truth, where another person relies on the misrepresentation and incurs damage

Negligence - examples

Failing to exercise reasonable care in driving your car Failing to keep your property in a reasonably safe condition Failing to exercise reasonable care in manufacturing products Professional negligence, e.g. Medical or legal malpractice

Strict liability - examples

Abnormally dangerous activities (e.g., dynamite blasting or storage of toxic chemicals)

Sale of defective products


text:
BCP/Tropaeolum majus

Tropaeolum majus

title: BCP/Tropaeolum majus


text:
BCP/Tropaeolum majus/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium).

Recent Logs

 * --Juan Pisek 18:34, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Cormaggio talk 15:09, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Tropaeolum majus/Logs


text: Category:BCP/Family/Tropaeolaceae

title: Category:BCP/Family/Tropaeolaceae


text:
BCP/Solanum americanum

Solanum americanum

title: BCP/Solanum americanum


text:
BCP/Solanum americanum/Logs

2007 Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 13:51, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

2009 Logs

 * Jomegat 17:12, 22 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 02:29, 13 August 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 09:40, 17 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 20 August, 2008
 * --SB_Johnny talk 09:27, 31 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 18:07, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

2009 Logs

 * Jomegat 00:45, 22 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 17:52, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

Recent Logs

 * Jomegat 19:53, 25 June 2010 (UTC)

title: BCP/Solanum americanum/Logs


text:
BCP/Sinapis arvensis

Sinapis arvensis

title: BCP/Sinapis arvensis


text:
BCP/Sinapis arvensis/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Sinapis arvensis (Wild Mustard).

Recent Logs

 * --Juan Pisek 18:14, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs===== (If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
 * (no archived logs yet)

title: BCP/Sinapis arvensis/Logs


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Prague/October/All/DPL

This list is used to create a visual key.

 category=BCP/PRAGUE/10 order=descending ordermethod=lastedit

title: Bloom Clock/Keys/Prague/October/All/DPL


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Prague/October/All

The plants pictured below have been recorded as blooming during the month of October in Prague, Czech Republic.

last updated --SB_Johnny | talk 12:52, 14 October 2007 (UTC) with 12 plants

 * updated by --Juan 12:13, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Bloom Clock/Keys/Prague/October/All


text:
User:ChangeMe

1. OR1200 CPU (www.opencores.com)]

The OpenRISC 1200 processor is a part of the following system:

The OR1200 CPU is a RISC CPU with a 5-stage pipeline. It was developed in the OpenRisk project. The whole hardver is open, we can use it freely the whole Verilog codes. It has Hardvard architechture, separated instruction and separated data memory management.

Block diagram of the OR1200 CPU

Cash
Harvard model with split instruction and data cache Instruction/data cache size scalable from 1KB to 64KB

I/O
It has no separate Input/Out Unit. It has Memory mapped I/O.

Registers
The processor support 32 general purpose 32-bit registers.

Pipeline
Scalar, single-issue 5-stage pipeline delivering sustained throughput.

Interrupts
It has 2 non-maskable, 30 maskable interrupt sources, and two interrupt priorities level. The Interrupts are used for the Task-Scheduling. It is called Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC).

Instruction set
The instruction set is grouped into the Program Control Group, Logical Group, Arithemtic Group, Shift and Rotate Group, Input/Output Group and Interrupt Group. In total the processor supports 3 operands instructions. The most instructions execute in 1 clock cycles. The istruction set is the standard ORBIS32 type.

title: User:ChangeMe


text:
Template:Bcp/prag/np

(native)

This template adds Category:BCP/PRAGUE/NP to bloom clock plants. It should be used in the "Prague = " field of bloom clock plant middle

title: Template:Bcp/prag/np


text:
Template:Bcp/prag/ip

{invasive or naturalized)

title: Template:Bcp/prag/ip


text: Category:Bloom Clock Keys/Prague

title: Category:Bloom Clock Keys/Prague


text:
User talk:Arceus fan

Hello, I saw your edit here: Talk:Translation practice course. Could you give more info so we can assist you faster ? Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 13:45, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Arceus fan, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 13:45, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arceus fan


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/OhHaHeTa

calab ws07 wiki page of: Alexander Oh, Andreas Haschka, Claudia Hermann, Stefan Tauner

Comparison of 3 ISAs

stuff
button pins am fpga: 41/L13 = btn1 == sd-slotseite, rechts, von oben gesehen, oben == schrift am fpga lesbar 42/L14 = btn0 == audioausgangsseite, links, von oben gesehen, oben == schrift am fpga lesbar

ncts 28 nrts 177 rxd 153 txd 178


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/OhHaHeTa/ThreeISAs

Intel i960
The i960 (aka. 80960) architecture originates from a joint venture from Intel and Siemens (1989-1990) to design a fast, fault-tolerant, object-oriented computer system. Due to problems finding a market for the project was abandoned. Later Intel built various versions of the CPU for (high-end) embedded applications, which came quite successful till about 2000.

The i960 is a RISC-based design with some special extensions not found in many other embedded processors (see below). They dont share all of the instructions implemented in the original BiiN processor (i960MX). Some dont have a MMU or FPU or they lack several instructions (e.g. atmod), depending on the predetermined market.

Registers and Memory
32b/4GB physical address space 32b/4GB virtual address space for each process, which can be partitioned further into domains with enforced object-based protection.

Data in memory and in registers is stored in little endian (least significant byte at base address of an object/register), although there are big endian versions as well (i960CA and CF).

There are 16 general purpose 32b registers (g0...g15, g15 reserved for framepointer), 4 80b floating point registers (fp0...fp3) and 3 32b control registers (arithmetic (condition code etc.), process and trace). The processor provides a fresh set of 16 local registers (r0...r15) after every call without spilling the old register values to main memory (if possible). This method to increase performance is known as Register Windowing. The number of register sets depends on the implementation, it is 4 for the i960MX processor.

Data Types

 * signed and unsigned integer (8, 16, 32, 64 bits)
 * real (32, 64, 80 bits; if FPU present)
 * ASCII encoded decimal digits(!)
 * bits, bit-strings (consecutive bits) (in a register only)
 * byte strings (contiguous sequence of bytes (in memory only))
 * triple and quadwords (96 and 128 bits)
 * literals (0-31: 5b; +0.0, +1.0 in FPU instructions)

Other Integral Parts/Features
Pipelining is aided by:
 * instruction cache (512B in BiiN/i960MX)
 * Register Scoreboarding
 * write buffering

Instruction Set
There are 4 types of instruction encoding, although the MEM format exists in two variants. All instructions are word aligned (on 32b/4B boundaries) and all, except the second MEM variant are 4B long:

As you can see in the diagram all instructions can be easily distinguished by their opcode located in the highest byte, except for the REG instructions. Those are the majority of i960 instructions, which is the reason, why they need a second byte to be differentiated. They use values from registers (or literals (m1/2 is set then)) as operands only. Instructions in the COBR format are primarily the compare-and-branch instructions. Source_1 can be a literal or register, source_2 is a register. The displacement is used to jump to IP + 4*displ., when the branch is taken. CTRL instructions combine the branches, where only a address to jump is needed. MEMA and MEMB operations are distinguished by the 12th byte, where 0 encodes the MEMA format. They compute memory addresses and incorporate load, store and lda as well as some other instructions.

Data Movement

 * loading and storing bytes, shorts, (double-, triple-, quad-)words from/to memory with automatic sign and zero extending. certain register alignment rules need to be followed. real numbers need to be transfered to integer registers before loading/storing them.
 * moving (double-, triple-, quad-)words around in memory
 * special commands for all the above operations to be used with virtual addressing.
 * lda to load big constants immediately or from memory.

Arithmetic

 * add, subtract, multiply, divide, remainder with signed and unsigned integers.
 * add, subtract w/ carry with unsigned integers.
 * extended multiply and divide with unsigned longs
 * modulo with signed integer
 * shift left, right with signed and unsigned integers
 * rotate left with unsigned
 * shift right dividing integer (equivalent to dividing even for negative values)

Bit, Bit Field and Byte String

 * set, clear, toggle(notbit) a bit
 * chkbit sets the condition code according to the bit
 * alterbit sets the bit according to the condition code
 * find the most significant set or clear bit
 * extract converts a bit field into an unsigned integer (== shift + zero fill)
 * modify copies the masked contents of one register into another
 * movstr moves a byte string in memory (fast and nonoverwriting (if the locations overlap) mode).
 * fill copies an ordinal repeatedly into a byte string.
 * cmpstr checks if two strings are equal
 * scanbyte checks if any two corresponding bytes are equival.

Comparison

 * cmpi, cmpo compare two signed or unsigned integers
 * concmpi, concmpo similar two the instruction above, but checks condition code before comparing. can be used to optimize two-sided checks (A >= x >= B).
 * compare and in/decrement designed for check ins loops.
 * matches the condition code with several masks (see ) and stores 0 or 1 in the destination register.

Branches
Most of the branch instructions specify the target IP with a signed displacement to be added to the current IP. Extended branch instructions specify a memory address which contains the target IP using one of the addressing modes described above.

unconditional branches
b, bx jump to specified IP bal, balx "branch and link", used for an alternative implemantation of procedure calls.

conditional branches
test the condition code and jumps iff it "matches" according to the instruction. following matches are possible: [not] equal, less [or equal], greater [or equal]

compare and branch
instructions test two (un)signed integers and branches only if they "match" (same matches as above). bbs, bbc check bit and branch if it is set/clear.

Call/Return
Calls and return automatically save local registers and setup the stack frames.

FPU
Typical floating point operations like add, subtract, multiply, divide, remainder, square root, comparing and conversion to/from integer and to different floating-point types are supported in some incarnations of i960.

Other
To aid debugging, exceptions can be triggered with explicit commands (mark, fmark) or enabling generic trace-faults per process, which fire for example when a return instruction is executed. Latter are controlled thru the trace-control word which can be modified with modtc. Another possibilty to trigger faults are comparing instructions like "fault if equal" etc. There are three instructions to do an atomic read-modify-write operation:
 * Debugging
 * Atomic
 * atadd : adds the operand to the value in memory
 * atmod : replaces the value at the destination with the source value where the mask bits are set.
 * atrep : like atmod but without a mask.

The ISA supports...
 * Process Management
 * hardware scheduling where a process can be added to dispatching queue with 32 priority levels and roundrobin decisions within one priority class (schedprcs)
 * saving the current state of a process to memory (saveprcs)
 * switching over to another process (resumprcs)
 * interprocess communication in form of semaphores (wait, condwait, signal) and message passing similar to (but simpler than) unix message queues (receive, condrec, send, sendserv)

 * Decimal
 * dmovt: moves a decimal from one register to another and checks if it really is a decimal
 * daddc, dsubc: add/subtract decimals w/ carry.


text:
User:DerHexer

I live in Berlin, Germany, and I'm a steward at meta.wikimedia and a sysop at en.wikipedia and at de.wikipedia. I'm interested in Latin language, Chemistry and Ancient Greek. My contributions can be found here, and sorted by namespace here. At the moment I'm fighting vandalism.

cs:Uživatel:DerHexer de:Benutzer:DerHexer el:Χρήστης:DerHexer es:Usuario:DerHexer fr:Utilisateur:DerHexer it:Utente:DerHexer ja:利用者:DerHexer pt:Usuário:DerHexer

title: User:DerHexer


text:
User talk:DerHexer

Danke und Herzlich Willkommen hier, Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 14:20, 14 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Nichts zu danken, gefunden über SWMT – ist einer der berüchtigten Interwikivandalen. Grüße, DerHexer 11:01, 15 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Danke für die Info, schaue ich mir mal an. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 20:17, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:DerHexer


text:
User talk:ChangeMe

Welcome
Hello ChangeMe, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Remi 14:40, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

It would be a blessing if we had people from OpenCores come over here! Welcome! --Remi 14:40, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:ChangeMe


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/Project HB Lab1

MOS Technology 6502
The MOS Technology 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor with a 16-bit address bus and is known as the first CPU (1975) with a 1-step instruction pipeline.

Registers
The next table shows all registers of the 6502:

Status Register Flags
The following table contains all status flags used for arithmetical operations and branch decisions:

Instruction Set
The instruction set is grouped into compare, stack, jump, memory, transfer and arithmetic operations. In total the processor supports 56 instructions. The instructions are of 16 bit width and have different execution times, in the range of 1 to 6 cycles.

The compare instructions set or clear three of the status flags (Carry, Zero, and Negative) that can be tested with branch instructions, without altering the contents of the operand. There are three types of compare instructions, see the next table. The compare instructions subtract (without carry) an immediate value or the contents of a memory location from the addressed register, but do not save the result in the register. The only indications of the results are the states of the three status flags: Negative (N), Zero (Z), and Carry (C). The combination of these three flags indicate whether the register contents are less than, equal to (the same as), or greater than the operand "data" (the immediate value or contents of the addressed memory location.
 * Compare Operations

The processor stack has a 8 bit range and is top down accessed via LIFO principle. The instruction set provides storing and loading of the accumulator and the status register.
 * Stack Operations

The jump instructions push the actual program counter (PC) to the stack and set the PC to a new value. If the jump goes to a interrupt routine, then additionally the status register is pushed to stack, too. The return instructions are then the reversal of the jump instructions.
 * Jump Operations

Memory instructions allow the data exchange between the processors registers (index registers and the accumulator) and external memory. Additionally the content of the data sources is checked if its value is negative or zero and the status register is set, accordingly.
 * Memory Operations

These instructions enables the data exchange between the processors registers and also allows the accessing of particular stack addresses. Additionally the content of the data sources is checked if its value is negative or zero and the status register is set, accordingly.
 * Transfer Operations

For the direct access of the status register.
 * Status Register Operations

The arithmetic instructions set or clear four of the status flags (Carry, Zero, Overflow and Negative). Usually the operants of an instruction is a register and a memory address. Therefore for some of the supported operation the instruction set provides two different instructions, one for the operation on the index register and one for the operation on the accumulator.
 * Arithmetic & Logical Operations

Branch instructions increment (either +1 or +2) the PC as a function of the status register.
 * Branch Operations

Motorola 68000
The Motorola 68000 is a 16-bit Microcontroller running with 8 MHz and CISC instruction set. All internal registers are 32-bit wide, the external address-bus has a 16-bit length, the external data bus 24-bit. The 68k Series was used in high-end computers (also the first Macintosh used a 68k) in the 1980s and later as controllers of numerous systems.

ISA Characteristics
Special about the address registers is the register A7 which is used for the Stack-Pointer. In addition to the 8 data- and 8 address registers the 68000 has a status register with these flags:

The instruction set was defined to enable almost full orthogonality -> addresses may be written in every way for almost all commands. In general, the 68000 shows no special instructions worth mentioning. Arithmetic operations (ADD, SUB, MUL), jump-, interrupt- and register commands are available. Latter supports no direct load/store commands.

ARM
ARM stands for Advanced RISC Machine and is a 32 bit RISC architecture. Its the leading in 32 bit RISC CPUs and is found in nearly all modern mobile electronics. The most recent version is ARMv7M but all the newer versions of ARM include several different ISA for different applications. We will look at the original ARMv5 which has a 32bit instruction set and a 32bit address space.

Registers
These are all the registers of an ARM:

Status Register Flags
The following table contains all status flags used for arithmetical operations and branch decisions:

ISA Characteristics
All instructions have a length of 32 bit and are word aligned. Therefore the PC (r15) bits [1:0] are zero. R14 is also used to store the return address when branching. The instructions are pipelined. Branch instructions can jump up to 24 bit offset. At arithmetic/logic instructions one operant is always a register, the other is either an immediate value or a register value (optionally shifted). There is an additional multiplication instruction that can multiply 32 bit numbers with a 64 bit result. Load and store instructions can be offset addressed, pre-index or post-index addressed. More advanced functions are STM/LDM which block-transfer the GP-registers to or from the memory and SWP which exchanges the values in a register with a memory location. SWP allows atomic update of semaphores.


text:
User:The winner~enwikiversity

Welcome to my User Page!

I'm French and I love English and Spanish. That's why I created my English Wikiversity User Page. Please, Englishmen or Englishwomen don't talk me about the semi-final of Rugby! I hate English people, I prefer Scottish people, Welsh people, Irish people etc...! I love Modern Early English, it's closer to French than Modern English.

Countries I love:

Countries I hate:

PS: Other countries, I don't hate you but I haven't got the time to write all the codes!

fr:Utilisateur:The winner

title: User:The winner~enwikiversity


text:
Introduction to Media Studies/Representation

How the movie is represented to the audience AND How the director tells the story through use of camera angles, colors and lighting etc


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Introduction to Media Studies/Audience

Audience
Learners completing this instruction are designers of instructor-led training courses. These instructional designers may work in an academic or business setting or they may be completing advanced pre-professional training; and they may or may not deliver the instruction they create.

•	==General Characteristics==

 * o	Educational Level: The learners will have proven educational competency by earning undergraduate and some graduate work. It is likely that the learners will know about the constructivist terms but do not understand their practical usefulness or the relationships between them.

 * o	Attitudes/Motivation: The learners will possess a generally positive attitude about instructional theory and strategies because they expect it will be useful in their career and/or personal activities.

 * o	Learning Styles: Learners will possess varying strengths of learning styles, including: visual, aural, verbal, physical, logical, social, and solitary learning styles. Because they will have pursued this instruction in an online format, it is presumed that visual, verbal, logical, physical and solitary learning styles are present.

 * o	Diversity: Learner ages may range from 18 to 90 years old with a likely average of 35. Learner population will include male and female students.  Racially, learners will be representative of the US population.

•	==Entry Competencies==

 * o	Learners will possess a limited knowledge of:
 * The specified constructivist principles, practices, and strategies
 * Uses of each constructivist principle, practice, and strategy
 * Distinguishing characteristics of each constructivist principle, practice, and strategy
 * Common examples of each constructivist principle, practice, and strategy

 * o	If students are to succeed at understanding the constructivist principles, practices, and strategies, the following competencies must be present.
 * Ability to read and understand English text and spoken language.
 * Basic understanding of cognitivist learning theory
 * Working knowledge of cognitivist instructional methods
 * Ability to access and navigate internet-based lesson and resources.

Design_Document

Topic:Instructional_Design

Syllabus Description

Project Description

--Shhammer 19:30, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Introduction to Media Studies/Audience