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Draft:Original research/Semantics

Semantics is a branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. Semantics is an area of study within the school of linguistics, a part of the Social Sciences.

This learning resource starts out at a secondary level and proceeds into a university undergraduate level.

Considering the immensity of knowledge that has been accumulated and written down in semantics, this resource is just getting off the ground.

In linguistics, semantics is the study of the interpretation of signs or symbols used in agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts. Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, and proxemics have semantic (meaningful) content, and each comprises several branches of study. In written language, things like paragraph structure and punctuation bear semantic content; other forms of language bear other semantic content.

Notations
Notation: let the symbol Def. indicate that a definition is following.

Def. "[a] system of characters, symbols, or abbreviated expressions used in an art or science or in mathematics or logic to express technical facts or quantities" is called notation.

Notation: let the symbols between [ and ] be replacement for that portion of a quoted text.

Notation: let the symbol ... indicate unneeded portion of a quoted text.

Sometimes these are combined as [...] to indicate that text has been replaced by ....

Universals
Def. a "characteristic or property that particular things have in common" is called a universal.

"When we examine common words, we find that, broadly speaking, proper names stand for particulars, while other substantives, adjectives, prepositions, and verbs stand for universals."

Such words as "entity", "object", "thing", and perhaps "body", words "connoting universal properties, ... constitute the very highest genus or "summum genus"" of a classification of universals. To propose a definition for say a plant whose flowers open at dawn on a warm day to be pollinated during the day time using the word "thing", "entity", "object", or "body" seems too general and is.

To help with definitions, their meanings and intents, there is the learning resource theory of definition.

Def. "[t]he state of being, existing, or occurring; beinghood", from Wiktionary existence, is called existence.

Def. empirical reality; the substance of the physical universe, from the Dictionary of Philosophy; 1968, is called existence.

Def.
 * 1.a: an "independent, separate, or self-contained existence",
 * 1.b: "the existence of a thing as contrasted with its attributes", or
 * 2. "something that has separate and distinct existence and objective or conceptual reality",

is called an entity.

Def. "[a]n existent something that has the properties of being real, and having a real existence", from Wiktionary entity, is called an entity.

Def.
 * 1.a: "a separate and distinct individual quality, fact, idea, or [usually] entity",
 * 1.b: "the concrete entity as distinguished from its appearances",
 * 1.c: "a spatial entity", or
 * 1.d: "an inanimate object distinguished from a living being"

is called a thing.

Def. a thing that represents or stands for something else is called a symbol.

“[D]efinitions are always of symbols, for only symbols have meanings for definitions to explain.” A term can be one or more of a set of symbols such as words, phrases, letter designations, or any already used symbol or new symbol.

In the theory of definition, “the symbol being defined is called the definiendum, and the symbol or set of symbols used to explain the meaning of the definiendum is called the definiens.” “The definiens is not the meaning of the definiendum, but another symbol or group of symbols which, according to the definition, has the same meaning as the definiendum.”

"In a village of the riverine plains of central Laos, a man calls out through thin bamboo walling to a next-door neighbor named Noi: Noi bòò mii sùak vaa Noi (“Noi, do you have any rope Noi?”). She calls back: Haa? (“Huh?”). The man repeats the question: Bòò mii sùak vaa (“Do you have any rope?”)."

"In a hillside hamlet in central Eastern Ghana, two speakers of the minority language Siwu are preparing gunpowder, which will be sold for use at a funeral in another village. One man asks: Ilɛ̀ isɛ̀-ɛ? (“Where is the funeral?”). The other: Hã? (“Huh?”). The first: Ilɛ̀ isɛ̀-ɛ? (“Where is the funeral?”)."

"In the coastal lowlands of northwestern Ecuador, two Cha’palaa speakers exchange information. Motorkaa detisaa (“They say he bought a motor.”). Aa? (“Huh?”). Motorkaa detisaa (“They say he bought a motor.”)."

The "process of requesting clarification from someone else) is found in daily conversation in every household, village, town, and city of the world, regardless of the culture and lifestyle of the people or the language they speak."

"Not only does each of the languages have a way of doing this type of repair initiation, but the word used for doing it sounds almost the same in all corners of the world. It sounds very much like the English word Huh?"

There is "the possibility that Huh? was a universal word in the context of a large cross-language project on repair in conversation—the process of identifying and correcting a misunderstanding."

"To really know for sure whether Huh? was universal, we would have to check every single one of the 6,000 or so languages spoken in the world today. This task is of course required for any of the proposed universals of language that you’ll come across in linguistic research."

A "small set of around 60 word meanings are universal. Every language has a clear way to express simple concepts including good, all, people, and you."

Every "language has adjectives, a class of words that are distinct from nouns and verbs."

Recursion"—taking the output of a process and using it as input for the same process again—is found in the grammatical structure of all languages."

We "are able to state that something is highly likely to be universal, as long as no counterexamples have so far been found. This practice is accepted because linguistics is an inductive science."

"All humans are capable of producing the same wide range of vowel sounds."

If "we are going to claim that something is universal, we had better test languages in a sample that includes as many language families as possible."

"In our study, we had data from 31 languages in total, and these derived from 16 distinct language families. This sample represents only a fraction of the world’s languages, but in practice, a sample of this size and kind is sufficient to falsify many possible claimed universals. If Huh? were not universal in the sense we claim, chances are high that at least one of the 31 languages would lack it."

"Huh? is the product of convergent evolution. This term refers to the independent evolution of similar structures in unrelated species."

"Huh? has a similar form across languages because the same set of conditions leads in all languages to something like the Huh? word being produced. In the flow of conversation, people need to be sure that others know when they have failed to understand. Time runs by quickly in conversation, and there is only a short window in which to signal a comprehension problem. In that situation, one needs a syllable that is fast and easy to pronounce. Huh? does the job. The particular vowels that Huh? is restricted to in all languages happen to be the vowels that are most easily pronounced when a person’s tongue is in a relaxed position."

"Think about the conditions a person is under in conversation. First, not only are people capable of responding to what others say within the time it takes a sprinter to react to the starter’s gun, but there is a social expectation that they will do so. Second, there is a social preference not to hold up the conversation by requiring others to go back and revise. It is better to avoid initiating repair. Third, there is a further preference—which competes with the preceding one—for ensuring that problems in common understanding do not pass by unresolved."

"Huh? does not stand for universal confusion. It stands for universal cooperation. It shows that there is a global need, and willingness, to pause a conversation and sort out a communication problem as it occurs."

"This little word, like the turn-taking system in which it operates, suggests a moral architecture to communication. The word makes sense only when one can assume that the other person will cooperate by backing up and repeating what they said, thus helping the listener stay on track. This cooperation is possible because conversation involves joint commitment, and the interpersonal accountability that goes with it. And it explains why no other species goes Huh? or does anything like it, even when their communication systems are complex."

"Huh? is possible only when an ultraflexible system such as language, with ultracooperative users, demands and supplies a solid and readily available backup mechanism for ensuring intersubjectivity at every step."

Semantic model
An example of a semantic model can be found on the following page: semantic model.

Cognitivism
Cognitive semantics is part of the cognitive linguistics movement. Semantics is the study of meaning. Cognitive semantics holds that language is part of a more general human cognitive ability, can therefore only describe the world as it is organised within people's conceptual spaces. It is implicit that there is some difference between this conceptual world and the real world. The main tenets of cognitive semantics are:
 * 1) that grammar is a way of expressing the speaker's concept of the world;
 * 2) that knowledge of language is acquired and contextual;
 * 3) that the ability to use language draws upon general cognitive resources and not a special language module.

Discourses
Def. "basic systems of fundamental social cognitions and organizing the attitudes and other social representations shared by members of groups" are called ideologies.

"[I]deologies have at the same time been defined in sociological or socio-economic terms, and usually related to groups, group positions and interests or group conflicts such as class, gender or 'race' struggles, and hence to social power and dominance as well as their obfuscation and legitimation."

"'[D]ominant ideologies', in the exclusive sense of ideologies of a 'dominant' group, or ideologies imposed by a dominant group, are special cases of ideology, and not characteristic of all ideologies". "[W]e assume that not only dominant groups, but also dominated groups have ideologies that control their self-identification, goals and actions."

"[T]he level of meaning and reference plays a central role" in discourse. "Cognitive representations of attitudes and models may directly map onto semantic representations". "[I]t is largely through meaning that ... syntax, phonology or graphical structures, are affected by ideology".

"Discourse semantics [deals with] conceptual meanings or intensions ... [and] referents or extensions, as is the case for formal and philosophical semantics".

Theoretical semantics
Def.
 * 1. "the study of meanings:"
 * 1.a: "the historical and psychological study and the classification of changes in the signification of words or forms viewed as factors in linguistic development",
 * 1.b: "a branch of semiotic dealing with the relations between signs and what they refer to and including theories of denotation, extension, naming, and truth"
 * 2.a: "the meaning or relationship of meanings of a sign or set of signs; [especially]: connotative meaning"
 * 2.b: "the exploitation of connotation and ambiguity (as in propaganda)"

is called semantics.

Def. "the branch of linguistics devoted to the investigation of linguistic meaning, the interpretation of expression in a language system." is called semantics.

Starting with universals and ontology, where the word "semantics" is in category 543. MEANING, a definition of semantics using concepts from categories lower in number than 543 may be as follows:

Def. the knowledge of the nature of ideas transferred among entities is called semantics.

Every word after Def. and before "is called" has its most popular category of usage less than 543.

Semantics in the brain
Per the learning resource, semantics in the brain: "The study of semantics in the brain is a branch of psycholinguistics that incorporates the understanding of semantics and the neurological structures that are involved.".

Theory-based semantics
From the learning resource on theory-based semantics: "Theory-based semantics is a phrase used by Richard L. Ballard to describe knowledge representations that are based on the premise that the binding element of human thought is "theory," and that theory constrains the meaning of concepts, ideas and thought patterns according to their associative relationships.".

Meanings
Def. "the thing one intends to convey [especially] by language" is called meaning.

Def. "[t]he symbolic value of something", per Wiktionary meaning, is called meaning.

Def. "[t]he significance of a thing", per Wiktionary meaning, is called meaning.

Def. "[t]he objects or concept that a word or phrase denotes, or that which a sentence says", per Wiktionary meaning, is called meaning.

Semantics "provides the rules for interpreting the syntax which do not provide the meaning directly but constrains the possible interpretations of what is declared."

On the basis of dictionary definitions, what is the difference between a 'body', an 'entity', an 'object', a 'thing', and a 'phenomenon'?

The categories for synonymy and most common usage place 'body' in "3. SUBSTANTIALITY", 'entity' in the same, 'object' in "651. INTENTION" , 'thing' in "3. SUBSTANTIALITY" , and 'phenomenon' in "918. WONDER". A slightly less common use of 'phenomenon' is in category "150. EVENTUALITY". For the word 'object' a slightly less common or popular meaning is in category "543. MEANING". The closest category of meaning or synonymy for 'object' to category 1. is category "375. MATERIALITY".

Of each of these words, 'entity' uses the word 'existence', category "1. EXISTENCE" in each definition. 'Entity' may be thought of as the most general of these terms because its meanings are the closest to category 1. The farthest from category 1. on the basis of conceptual meaning and synonymy is the word 'object' in category 375. A tentative order is 'entity' > 'phenomenon' > 'object' by generalness, or by preciseness (perhaps more description is needed beyond only existence) 'object' > 'phenomenon' > 'entity'.

'Thing' (category 3.) has the word 'entity' in three of four meanings and 'object' in the fourth. The second most popular meaning of 'thing' is in category 375.

'Body' (category 3.) has 'mass' and is closer to 'substantiality' in common usage than 'thing', and neither word has a synonym closer in meaning to 'existence'. The second most common meaning of 'body' is category "203. BREADTH, THICKNESS".

This suggests a hierarchy such as 'entity' > 'body' > 'thing' > 'phenomenon' > 'object' by generalness, where 'existence' is the most general word; or, 'object' > 'phenomenon' > 'thing' > 'body' > 'entity' by preciseness.

The choice of general order is 'entity' > 'source' > 'object' > 'phenomena'.

Theory of meaning
"The central question a linguistic theory of meaning must address is that of how finitely many lexical meanings can be systematically combined to yield indefinitely many sentential meanings."

"What words mean is a matter of the systematic effects they have on the semantic (and pragmatic) properties of (utterances of) sentences containing them, properties like entailments, presuppositions, incompatibility, and perhaps some kind of implicatures."

"The ultimate test of any proposed word meaning must be its contribution to the meaning of sentences containing it and the meaning-relations among such sentences."

Latencies
Def. underlying or implied meaning is called latency.

“Latent content is more subtle and intuitive by determining the underlying or implied meaning.” "Latent content is less reliable because it is open to interpretation".

Meaninglessness
Def.

 * 1: having the state, condition, quality or degree, of "no meaning",
 * 2: having the state, condition, quality or degree, of "no assigned function in a language system"

is called meaninglessness.

Inconsistent metrics are meaningless. "The problem with inconsistent metrics is that it leads to comparisons that are useless. Teams cannot be compared with one another, and changes cannot be selected for implementation because the impact of those changes will be unknown."

"One organization would compare product teams with what seemed like a single, common metric. Upon closer examination, it was determined that teams were measuring differently. The metric became meaningless for cross-team comparisons. Worse, the goal of trying to establish best practices from the better performing teams became impossible because it was unclear which teams were actually performing better."

"Before choosing metrics that determine what decisions and changes should be made, ensure that consistency is enforced. Software tooling is one way to enforce this if everyone uses the same tools, but tooling is only one part of the puzzle."

"When we fail to find meaning, it creates a void within, which is felt as anxiety, depression, despair, confusion and the deeper experience of anomie (meaningless-ness) (Esping, 2010)."

"[S]ometimes people experience meaninglessness counter this with work, relationships, and building a sense of self".

"Paradoxically, Frankl believed that this very sense of anomie - that one's life is meaningless, is evidence of how fundamental our need to find meaning is. The awareness of anomie becomes a felt need, which motivates the desire to find and create meaning in life (Frankl, 1959)."

Hypotheses

 * 1) Semantics may have multiple meanings based on the symbols, grammar, and context.
 * 2) Each meaning of semantics should be isomorphic with any other.

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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Envy

Comments
Hi. Your chapter looks great so far, I really like how you've used modern and past examples to illustrate what you're saying. I think this provides a happy medium in terms of psychological research and real life examples. I also think that the definitions of what envy is and the various types of envy are well demonstrated. Perhaps you could include socialisation in terms of developing envy or whether it is more biologically produced. Additionally, perhaps you could include cultural differences: does envy incorporate the same thing across collectivist and individualist cultures? But so far, the chapter is well written and expressive. I think you've done a great job.U3033746 22:06, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much for your feed back! I will definitely delve further into the cultural aspects of envy and its roots. I think you are right as well too bring up collectivist and individualistic cultures, it could be something which is really interesting so thank you very much for your help :) --EssDubz 11:22, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey Sam. Your book chapter looks good... I think that the colour scheme you've chosen works really well. I also really like the movie example with questions underneath - it breaks up the text well. You've given a good overall introduction and I'm interested to see your part on how to manage envy. I would encourage you to add another 'question' section like you did after the movie. Perhaps in your research you could consider including a section on how the media manipulates envy - so that people buy more things... and the practical self-help implications of this.KristaLeanne 07:07, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey thanks Krista! I am really looking forward to understanding how to cope with envy so when its written up I will let you know! Yeh seeing how the media can affect envy would be really interesting and I'm sure i could link it to someone elses page aswell so thank you for your input, good luck with the rest of your chapter. --EssDubz 11:22, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey Sam, your book chapter is visually pleasing! I like that you included an example in the media because it helps set up the context of your chapter well. Comparing envy with other emotions is effective to show their distinctions. Maybe you could discuss if envy is ever beneficial in driving someone to achieve a positive goal? Nice work :) AngeM 23:36, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey AngeM, thank you for your help, I am now considering whether i should include a little case example or something like that to show how envy can indeed drive someone to achieve a positive goal. If i can find something that really fits I will let you know. Thanks again. --EssDubz 11:27, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey your page is looking so nice and colourful and theres loads of good pics Maybe you could include some psychological theory if you can find any on why people get envy :) Kayla 01:47, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey Kayla, yeh I am hoping to attack some psychological theory behind envy its just really hard as it seems to be a really philosophical question, plenty of philosophical theories however :) thanks for your help --EssDubz 11:27, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Great job Samuel, i think the general consensus is that your page colours are delightful and "enticeing". I agree with previous statements where ppl have suggested describing if envy is successful in motivating a person positively (eg trying harder to be like someone else/have the things they have etc.). Just food for thought :) but cant wait for this chapter to develop more, it has great potential Atice 01 05:38, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Atice 01, thankyou for your feedback, they are quite enticeing I was hoping to go for that affect in order to draw people towards my page. I feel i must also add that i am quite envious of your page (pun intended). I will definitely take your feedback into consideration, thank you and goodluck with your the rest of your chapter. --EssDubz 11:27, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

--Cowboy Dan 10:39, 6 November 2011 (UTC), EssDubz I was wondering if you were going to draw up a table comparing jealousy and envy?

 * Cowboy Dan, thank you for offering that advice, I have now added a small table showing the differences between jealousy and envy so the readers can get a clearer picture of how they really differentiate. Good luck on the rest of your chapter. --EssDubz 15:36, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

EssDubz, i just wanted to thank you for your contribution to my page. You were correct in assuming i needed to define aggression. So thank-you. In the act of reciprocity, i have read over and "touched up" your page a bit. I simply made minor changes to help you. I always find that looking through the eyes of another helps pick up small grammer mistakes that one wouldnt normally see having stared at ones own page for hours :) Best of luck with your page EssDubz Atice 01 15:17, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Atice 01, any time, thought that it might help you out. Also thank you for your contribution to my page as well, you are definitely right in saying that often we ourselves miss little mistakes as i clearly had in my introduction so thank you for fixing that up for me. Good luck with the rest of your page Atice 01 only hours left now until its due. love EssDubz --EssDubz 15:36, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Heading casing
FYI, the general wiki convention is for lower case headings. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:39, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Colour of envy
What is the colour of envy? Is is red? Or is it more like purple? Just wondering here about the title background colour. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 20:08, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Draft comments
I've had a quick look - in addition to the comments above: Sincerely, James -- Jtneill - Talk - c 20:22, 3 November 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) Overall - the scope, look, feel, style etc. all look to be very much on track with the style of the book and assessment exercise.
 * 2) Maybe make more clear how envy differs from similar/related emotions? It could be useful to consider whether envy is viewed as a core emotion or secondary emotion
 * 3) Maybe link to trailer of the Envy movie?
 * 4) Subtitle - on the Table of Contents it is Envy - Understanding the deadly sin of envy as an emotion; or Envy - What is it? and how do we manage it?. Make both places consistent (whatever you choose is fine).
 * 5) Structure - I've adjusted the structure slightly - I suggest short Intro and Summary sections. Initially, explain envy as an emotion, some historical info is useful/interesting but this is probably also the most expendable, then the psychology of envy and copying with envy sections are probably the most important in terms of addressing the theory and research marking criteria.
 * Hey James, Thank you very much for your feedback. I have changed the color scheme of the chapter in order to better suit the topic, I have also now added the trailer to the movie and fixed up the title on both the wiki book page and chapter page. I am hoping to find a bit more psychological information on envy however it appears to be a relatively new area in the field of psychology. Thanks again for the feedback I will most definitely put it into motion. --EssDubz 09:47, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

This is a fantastic shapter - really well done - congratulations - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 13:36, 25 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 05:09, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

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User:Marquard Markus

Marquard, Markus

Scientific worker at ZAWiW, Ulm University

Design, organisation and evaluation of innovative continuing education programs for older people and inter-generational groups. Supervision of action research projects on regional, national and international level in the field of opening of the Internet to older adults, application of the new media, online journalism, virtual and cooperative learning as well as inter-generational learning (dialogue between the generations).

AAL-Projekt: Third Age Online (TAO) Collaboration&Community European Cooperationproject with Wikimedia Germany, Wikimedia Switzerland, Seniorweb.nl and Seniorweb.ch; target of this AAL-project is to find the ways in which the access of older persons to the opportunities offered by online communities can be facilitated.

www.zawiw.de

TAO - Third Age Online

Silberwissen – Wikimedia Deutschland

title: User:Marquard Markus


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User:Hosborne~enwikiversity/BPS2011 Presentation on Poker Machine Reform

http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/hosbor07-1238602-poker-machine-reforms/

The above link will take you to a presentation regarding the recent proposed mandatory pre-commitment scheme for problem gamblers. The presentation focuses on the effect that the implementation of this scheme could have on sport and the community. The issue will be discussed from three aspects; the politics, business and sport.


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User:Liu Yu

My name is Liu Yu, I am studying Business Politics of Sport.

Assignment
/Impacts of Olympic Professionalism/

title: User:Liu Yu


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User:Liu Yu/Impacts of Olympic Professionalism

Here is the link of my video presentation,(Impacts of Olympic Professionalism). Thanks for your comments.

Since the distinction between "amateur" and "professional" was deleted from the Olympic charter, many argue that the advent of professionalism has devalued the Olympic spirit envisioned by the modern event's originator, France's Pierre de Coubertin. De Coubertin believed the modern Olympics should be a pristine, apolitical arena where "amateur" athletes indulge in pure competition and rejoice in the heights of human achievement. However, it has turned out that the modern Olympic Games’ developing trend is totally against De Coubertin’s wish. Olympic Professionalism seems to be the right vision where the modern Olympics should develop to, and as a matter of fact, the realties conditions are forcing the Olympics to operate more professionally. For instance, the host city needs to at least balance the huge cost of hosting the Games, and in that case, professionalism might give a great contribution on profit-gaining, such as, elite professional players’ performance could help on increasing the rates of tickets’ selling and broadcasting. In this essay, it will firstly discuss "amateur" and "professional" which way is more suitable for the modern Olympic Games’ development, and also apply facts to support the finding. Following, using comparison to explain both negative and positive impacts that are caused by Olympic Professionalism.

Introduction:
The International Olympic Committee’s (IOC’s) Rule 26 defined an amateur in 1960 as “one who participates and always has participated solely for pleasure and for the physical, mental or social benefits he derives therefrom, and to whom participation in sport is nothing more than recreation without material gain of any kind, direct or indirect” (Thayer, 1960, p.74). An additional clause noted that athletes who were subsidized by governments, educational institutions, or businesses could not be amateurs, nor could those individuals who received military or civil service posts in return for athletic service. Participation in training camps for more than two weeks a year, acceptance of athletic scholarships, or employment as a teacher of sport or physical education or as a coach constituted professionalism as much as the acceptance of money in return for competition, as did profiting commercially from one’s athletic fame in the media, press, or movies.

This concept of amateurism involves much more than simply a measure of income; purity of intent and conduct are the most importance in order to be considered an amateur (Thayer, 1960, p.74). This exclusion of professional athletes has caused several conflicts throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The Jim Thorpe case was the most famous one. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion, Jim Thorpe, was disqualified when it was discovered that he played semi-professional baseball prior to winning his medals. The IOC restored him as an Olympic champion seventy years later (Sports illustrated, 2004).

However, amateurism was treated as an ideal. Unfortunately, one frequently finds a considerable gap between the ideal and realities of the situation.

Highly organized sport
Sport seems to lend itself to organization. The first step is usually the organization of the team. From teams, the organization proceeds to leagues, conferences, playoffs, associations, international committees, etc., this appears that “organization breeds organization”. (Graham and Ueberhorst, 1976, p.88) As the organization increases, it becomes more and more difficult to maintain what could be called an amateur standing. Wherever sport is organized, the natural tendency is to move away from what might be called “pure” amateurism. In other words, unorganized sport is amateur sport. If we desire to truly see amateur sport, the place to look is in the back yard or on the neighborhood where a group of boys and girls are engaged in a “pick-up” game. It is difficult for any organization to be purely amateur.

Underground economy
As a result of the above situation, many people who conduct sport programs constantly find themselves in some sort of grey area. Over the years as the time, effort, and expenses increased and performance levels improved, the Western European and North American amateur sport community developed an underground economy to keep athletes competing, while the rules of amateurism ostensible were preserved (Jozsa, 2009). Performance bonuses, special clinics and personal appearances, money laundering through track clubs, double contracting, double and even triple dipping on expenses, multiple airline tickets, and secret contracts with sport equipment and shoe companies. Commercial sporting goods firms, such as Adidas, Puma, Nike, and others engaged athletes as marketing consultants and added large, under-the-table bonuses and subsidies. The result was that Olympic competitors remained amateurs on paper, but in practice, they were professionals. It was a shame period. The amateur situation contributed greatly to the collapse of the first professional track association because athletes could make more money as amateurs than as professionals. Some people said “we are naive to think that our athletes aren’t already professionals”.

Commercialism
The move toward professionalism in sport is not solely the result of increased organization and an underground economy. Commercialism is the largest invisible hand. IOC experienced financial crisis in the 1970s (Preuss, 2004, p33). The games themselves were such a burden on host cities that it appeared that no host would be found for future Olympiads.

Preuss’ (2004) listed numbers of facts on what is making the modern Olympics toward to the commercialism. The city of Montreal which is the first time Canada host the Games in 1976, was left with a crushing debt of $1.5 billion. Montreal finally made the last payment on that debt in December 2006; three decades after the national embarrassment began. 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, 65 countries boycotted which resulted $9 billion was in vain. The 1976 games in Montreal and 1980 games in Moscow had saddled organizers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues. Los Angeles was the only applicant for the 1984 Olympics, and the city of Los Angeles would bear no financial liability for the Games. At that stage the IOC was near bankruptcy and had to change to survive (Thomas, 2010). Commercialism was the only way forward and selling broadcast rights became the major income stream. Non-professional means less audience, which means less broadcast, and which also means no money. Therefore Olympic Game needs top athletes to improve performance and attract public attention. While non-professional is the big stone on the way to change. So by 1981, IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch completed the shift in emphasis away from defining an amateur by concentrating on defining a professional (Segrave & Chu, 1988, p.313).

All in all, it is impossible to begin to achieve the amateur ideal as long as the media and other sport promoters insist on reporting results in terms of point standings among the nations.

The Olympic spirit is devalued:
Many argue that the advent of professionalism has devalued the Olympic spirit envisioned by the modern event’s originator, France's Pierre de Coubertin. He envisioned a clean, pure, apolitical arena where "amateur" athletes compete for the betterment of human kind at the heights of human achievement (PBS, 1996). He created a vision that allowed everyone to compete in this significant international event. The participants do not need to be professional or have endorsements.

However in present day Olympic Games, athletes have sponsors, endorsement contracts, expensive equipment, and the luxury of training full time, and money has changed the look and feel of the Olympics (PBS, 1996). The influx of corporate involvement has caused some difficult moments. Michael Jordon and his “Dream Team” mates almost boycotted the medal ceremony in Barcelona because the team’s Nike loyalties and paraphernalia clashed with the podium, which sported the corporate symbol of the American team sponsor, Reebok. The podium was draped in the American flag to avoid embarrassment (Morgan, 2002). Another view has been raised after the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. The argument is that in some certain sports events, athletes were competing with the advanced technologies rather than their skills or capabilities (Bond, 2008). From the design of runners' shoes and aerodynamic bikes to the development of improved training regimes and performance-enhancing diets, technologies are diminishing the value of modern sporting records, making it unfair to compare the performances of this year's athletes with those through history.

Doping:
Doping is another certain issue that might be caused by the professionalism, and it is ruining the reputation of the Olympic Games as well. It is believed that, the levels of the competitions were significantly increasing since the professional players were allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. Therefore, in order to achieve or maintain a good result in the high level competitions. By using of substances to improve athletic performance is not new in each time of Olympic Games. The typical sample should be the five-time Olympic medalist sprinter Marion Jones. Jones achieved outstanding results in 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. However, after years she was failed by the doping tests at the U.S. track and field championships. She also admitted that she took the doping during Olympic Games, and returned the five golden medals to IOC (Cwelich, 2010). Moreover, in both 2004 Athens and 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, there were each 26 and 20 players failing the doping tests (ProCon.org, 2011). It could be thought that, even elite professional players have also taken drugs to enhance her performance in the high competitive Olympic events; the professionalism brings inestimable pressures for every Olympic competitor, and this negative impact seems hard to eliminate in the future Games.

Unfair competition for poor countries:
It appears that not all countries are equal when it comes to the Olympics. Recently certain countries in Africa have begun to voice their complaints about this inequality. Not all nations have the financial resources to support or train potential Olympic athletes. Therefore, in order to reach their full ability, athletes from countries such as Mozambique and Senegal have started to migrate to wealthier nations in order to compete. These wealthy nations have been accused by many African countries of stealing the best African athletes, thereby denying the poorer African countries from encouraging sport.

Closing the gap on professional sport:
It is assumed that, in some circumstance the professionalism could stimulate the developments of certain sports events. For instance, in the 1992 Olympic Games the USA entered the “Dream Team” into the Basketball tournament. During the tournament the NBA starts had demonstrated what the top level performance of basketball was (USA Basketball, n.d.). Since then, basketball professional leagues had been appeared one after another in each country, and the international players were starting to play in the NBA games. During years’ communications and developments, although the Americans have still dominated the first place of basketball, but their advantages are not as obvious as before. In 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the American men’s basketball team did face a great challenge by the Spanish’s’(ESPN, 2008).

Non professionals increased the prestige of the Olympic Games:
By overturning the amateur rule in 1986 the IOC responded to the changing world in which sport had become a business. Excluding professional athletes meant excluding many of the best athletes. The inclusion of professional athletes in Olympic competition means that once again the Olympic motto has substance, "Faster, higher, stronger".

Increasing IOC revenue:
Pierre de Coubertin envisioned that the Olympic Games would always remain an international gathering of amateur athletes who competed only for the love of sport. However, while this continues to be one of the reasons most athletes who participate in the Olympics continue to compete, sport now also represents a career choice. The Games also involve large amounts of money and an intimate association with commercial enterprise. Since the world top players could compete in the Olympic Games, the sponsors of each player or each national team also tried to enter this market as well. In 1985, IOC established The Olympic Partner Program (TOP). Under this program, corporations pay millions of dollars for exclusive worldwide marketing rights to both the Summer and Winter Games over a four-year period (IOC, 2007). According to the recent statistics, between 2001 and 2004, TOP was supported by Coca-Cola, Atos Origin, John Hancock, Kodak, McDonald’s, Panasonic, Samsung, Sports Illustrated, Swatch, Visa International, and Xerox. The program was worth US$604 million to the IOC (IOC, 2007).

Conclusion:
In conclusion, this article has been mainly focused on the impacts of the Olympic Professionalism. In the early discussion, it is stated that amateurism is only an ideal, or it might be a model when the ancient Olympic Games should follow. Professionalism is the current trend where the modern Olympics are heading to; meanwhile, highly organized sport, underground economy and commercialism have been explained as the three factors that are forcing the modern Olympics to be professionalism. Three factors also strength the fact amateurism is not suitable for the improvement of modern Olympics. Following, there is a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the Olympic Professionalism. The most negative impact of professionalism seems to be the devaluation of the Olympic Spirit. Due to the Olympic competitions are becoming more professional, money, sponsors’ deal, and getting Olympic medals are the players’ or national teams’ concerns right now. The Pierre de Coubertin’s pure Olympics’ thought is really hard to achieve under the current conditions of sport. In another hand, the Olympic professionalism are also generated the positive impacts the Olympics’ development. It is mentioned that, the professionalism could stimulate the nations to continually improve their national teams’ performance; consequently it strength on improving the qualities of the Olympics matches; therefore, the revenues of International Olympic Committees could will have a significant increase in each year.

References:
Charles W. T. (1960). A QUESTION OF THE SOUL. Journal of sports of illustration, 13 (7).Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/edb/reader.html?magID=SI&issueDate=19600815&mode=reader_vault

Sports Illustrated (2004). Jim Thorpe cruelly treated by authorities. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2004/olympics/2004/08/08/bc.olympics.athletics.thorpe/

Ueberhorst, H. (1976). Return to Olympia and the rebirth of the Games. In Graham, P. & Ueberhorst, H. (Eds.) The Modern Olympics. New York: Leisure Press

Jozsa, F. P. (2009). Global Sports: Cultures, Markets and Organizations. Hackensack, USA, NJ: World Scientific Publishing.

Preuss, H. (2004). The economics of staging the Olympics: a comparison of the games, 1972-2008. Northampton, MA: E. Elgar.

Segrave, J. & Chu, D. (1988). The Olympic games in transition. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics Books.

PBS.org (1996). OLYMPIC CHANGES: DOLLARS AND SENSE. Retrieved October 10, 2011, from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/july96/olympics_7-23.html

Bond, M.. (2008). Should technology be allowed to tumble records?. Retrieved October 11, 2011, from http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2008/08/deeper-beijing-pool-responsible-for.html Cwelich, L. (2010). Marion Jones: Should the Public Forgive Her?. Retrieved October 11, 2011, from http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/11/02/marion-jones-should-the-public-forgive-her/

ProCon.org (2011). Doping Cases at the Olympics, 1968-2010. Retrieved October 11, 2011, from http://sportsanddrugs.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=004420

International Olympic Committees (2007). Final Report 2001–-2004. Retrieved October 11, 2011, from http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_969.pdf

USA Basketball (n.d.). Games of the XXVth Olympiad – 1992. Retrieved October 13, 2011, from http://www.usabasketball.com/mens/national/moly_1992.htm

ESPN (2008). Redemption Time: U.S. survives Spain scare to reclaim gold. Retrieved October 13, 2011, from http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/summer08/basketball/men/recap?gameId=834


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User talk:B---------------D loving nerd

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I've blocked this account for a day for vandalism. I was tempted to block it indefinitely. But perhaps you can explain what you were doing here. See Special:Contributions/B---D loving nerd. --Abd 23:08, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Ah, never mind. I looked at more of the contributions. Indef. Talk page still open so maybe.... --Abd 23:10, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

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User:Marchibald/Exotic betting in the AFL essay

Over the past 3-4 years gambling has become an ever increasing issue for modern sport to deal with. Gambling agencies have began associating with major sporting codes around the country in order to tap into the mass audience that watches professional sport both live and at home. With an increase in gambling opportunities we are seeing more and more evidence of match fixing. Over the 2011 season a number of high profile players and coaches have been subject to AFL punishment for breaching the rules set in place by the league in terms of gambling on games.

On the back of this the Government, mainly Independent Senator Nick Xenophon and Mark Arbib, have come out with the intention of putting in national legislation which would see all exotic bet types banned from the game. These bet types include last scorer, first scoring play and number of goals for each possession. The Government believes these types of bets being available is leading to an increase in the opportunity for all involved in the game to break the rules for their own benefit. The AFL and the betting agencies both benefit significantly from each other. The AFL receives millions of dollars each year as a result of sponsorship as well as a number of clubs, radio stations and television stations which are involved in the game. In turn, the gambling agencies have the opportunity to reach millions of people with the services they provide.

All parties involve understand that something needs to be done in order to uphold the integrity of the sport within Australia, and agree that something needs to be done in order to create and fair and balanced agreement between the Government, the AFL and the gambling agencies.

Introduction

Gambling has been an inherent part of Australian culture from the beginning of European settlement. In the beginning it was mainly horse-racing, then lotteries, then 'poker machines' in New South Wales in the 1950s and now, with legalised gambling facilities and opportunities having expanded greatly over the past 30-odd years, all known forms of gambling seem to be available. Geoff Winter, 2002

Sports betting is the fastest growing form of gambling within Australian. Gone are the days of spending hours upon hours playing poker machines or sitting it the local TAB, due to the rise of internet-based sports betting, this new form of betting is changing the face of gambling in Australia. With faster internet speeds and the proliferation on internet-enabled mobile phones, gambling has become a ‘gamble anywhere anytime’ phenomenon with many literally losing a fortune without even leaving the comfort of their own homes.www.businessday.com.au, 2011

With such an increase in gambling we are seeing more and more bet types coming to the fore. Gone are the days of a simple win or place bet, betting agencies now allow wagers on such things as what time the first goal will be kicked, whether the first scoring play by either side will be a goal or point, the first scoring play each quarter and the first team to reach a certain number of points. These new betting forms often referred to as spot betting or ‘exotic betting’ have been making headlines throughout World sport recently due to its association with corruption. With the introduction of something like exotic betting, ball-by-ball betting, and so-called micro-betting, there has become macro opportunities for corruption. ww.abc.net.au, 2011

In the wake of the latest string of betting scandal engulfing the AFL, debate has intensified over sports betting and the AFL's relationship with betting agencies. In the wake of the ever increasing examples of corruption in elite sport, Independent Senator Nick Xenophon, along with the backing from the minister for sport Mark Arbib, have called on the AFL to ban all exotic bets on the game. Xenophon warns that the AFL could soon have a question mark over its integrity and will become nothing more than a sideshow lacking the credibility that actually defines what sport is all about.Sydney Morning Herald, 2011

This article will examine both the positive and negative ramifications of such a proposed ban considering all stakeholders in the game including the AFL organisation, both Federal and State Governments, and the gambling agencies. By examining all parties involved, a clearer understanding of how each party is involved will hopefully result.

The AFL's Role

Exotic betting is fast becoming a major issue in Australian Sport. With the increased popularity and money involved in the game of Australian Rules Football more and more people are seeking to make money from this. In the last year along over $300 million was wagered during the 2010 season. According to Tabcorp, 85 per cent of bets are placed on the result or the first goal kicker. Betfair and Tabcorp pay the AFL at least $2 million a year to align their products with the game. More than 20 other betting agencies pay 5 per cent of their AFL-related profits into the league's coffers and nine of the 10 Victorian clubs have sponsorship deals with bookies. Herald Sun, 2011

The AFL has been in the media spotlight of late with high profile example of Collingwood players Heath Shaw and Nick Maxwell. Shaw was suspended for 14 matches, (six matches suspended) and fined $20,000 for sharing a $20 bet with a friend on defender Maxwell to kick the opening goal against the Crows in Round 9, at odds of $101. Maxwell was sanctioned $5000, with a further $5000 suspended, for recklessly disclosing inside information to his family, which led to three account bets totalling $85 being placed on him kicking the first goal of the match.

Given what has happened in other sports in Australia, the AFL is trying to keep a short leash on potentially catastrophic issue. Over the years the AFL has been a leader in terms of anti-corruption protocols in sport, boasting an integrity services manager and an intelligence co-ordinator. The AFL currently has the most stringent measures in place around bet types that are allowed, and the agreements with wagering operators allow them to determine any form of bet that may be placed, as well as allow them to track all betting returns for any unusual activity.Sydney Morning Herald, 2011 The league's new integrity database even goes as far too include banking details and phone records of players and officials.

AFL chief executive Andrew Demetriou has admitted he is concerned about the level of gambling advertising and constant display of betting odds during match broadcasts. The AFL enforces strict regulations on its players regarding gambling. Rules state that a player is not allowed to bet on AFL matches, nor provide inside information that may affect betting odds. With respect to inside information, AFL's regulation 19a.4 dealing with "inside information" clearly states that no inside information pertaining to a team could be divulged privately. The rule states in part that a person must not disclose or provide any information, advice or opinion to any other person about the teams playing in any match, including the actual likely composition of the team, player injury, form or player tactics, outside a bona fide media interview. Daily Telegraph, 2011

The AFL and gambling agencies how come out of the front foot regarding this issue and have warned that if the Government is successful in introducing the bill to ban all exotic betting, then punters would be pushed into the black market or overseas, where the league has no control over such issue of corruption.

Although AFL boss Andrew Demetriou is concerned about the threat gambling could have on the game, he admitted that the league does not intend to sever ties with betting agencies. The latest indiscretions were picked up due to the current mechanisms in place with the betting agencies. Setting up an integrity program to detect these breaches was an important step to check insider information, and prevent a situation of more serious forms of corruption.Adelaide Now, 2011

Without this legal set-up, exotic betting would go to the black market and that would cause a significant threat to the integrity of the sport. If we banned exotic bets it would push betting underground and our integrity policy would be toothless.

Gambling Agencies
In the beginning sports advertising was dominated by tobacco industry before the government realised there was a direct link between smoking and death, then it was alcohol before legislation intervened and alcohol companies were reined in. Then it was onto the fast food giants of KFC and Macdonald’s to dominate the Australian sporting scene. The new player in this industry is the gambling lobby who is now cutting their teeth on the big business of sports sponsorship and advertising. Betting agencies have seen an opportunity to place themselves alongside elite sport and nobody has quite realised yet just how shocking the consequences may be.Daily Telegraph, 2011

Gambling agencies are fast becoming one of the biggest forms of sponsors in Australian Sport. Today there are over 30 different sports betting agencies based in Australia with many playing a big role in the financial success of Modern Sport. Gambling agencies fork out big bucks each year for sponsorship signage, jumper signage, advertising which features commentators providing in the run odds for anything from first try scorer to full time result, and even sponsoring of stadiums around the country. Now we are on the brink of even more invasion from the gambling agencies that have seen in the last few years, massive opportunity to turn all sport into a version of horse racing.Daily Telegraph, 2011

Betfair & TAB Sportsbet, two of the industry’s largest firms, sponsor the AFL directly, while the three primary radio stations, television stations Prime, Ten, and Foxtel all have ties to betting agencies. Of the 18 clubs in the competition only 3 of them do not have any connection with a betting agency which highlights the significant gorwth of gambling agencies to the sport. www.backpagelead.com.au, 2011

Sports betting conglomerates contribute millions of dollar to the AFL alone, and are a vital cog in the revenue flow of the league. It would be naive and potentially damaging for the AFL to ignore the massive sums of cash on offer which is why both the AFL and gambling agencies are fighting hard to save their current relationship.

Both parties believe that the mere fact that both Heath Shaw and Nick Maxwell were caught shows that the current steps in place are satisfactory in deterring corruption. The AFL has taken a proactive policy of keeping bet types in the hands of bookmakers that are registered and can produce betting trends at the drop of a hat. Bookmakers also declared that having a legal agreement with the AFL (and other sports) to detect betting infringements was clearly working and that to ban exotic betting would leave the sport powerless.

Alan Eskander, from bookmaking firm Betstar, attacked the NRL's decision to ban exotic betting. He said he would rather have market forces dictate what punters wanted. You are sending these bet types underground and you lose control over them. Before you know it, you will have illegal bookmakers setting up business with no restraint, no access to ledgers, and no audit trail of who backed who and when. Sydney Morning Herald, 2011

The Government
THE minister responsible for gambling in NSW, George Souris, has thrown his support behind a crackdown on negative exotic betting over the Internet, which the state government believes is threatening the integrity of professional sport. Sydney Morning Herald, 2011 The federal government last week call on major sporting codes to act on the growing promotion of live betting odds during games. The phase out is intended to cover promotion of odds at sport venues, as well as advertising on television, radio and the Internet. The explosion of sports gambling has seen the Government become actively involved in the different sporting organisations as the push to curb problem gambling throughout all aspects of Australian life.

Independent Senator Nick Xenophon is the driving force behind the current legislation to ban exotic gambling. Xenophon is concerned the about the AFL welcoming in these gambling companies, the sports betting agencies with their millions of dollars in sponsorships, the clubs that have done deals with them. You can't watch a footy game on TV without being bombarded with ads encouraging you to gamble, telling you the odds, and the AFL should have known that this is the inevitable consequence. What we are seeing is an all-pervasive culture in gambling, where friends and relatives are tipped off about certain games, about certain events in games, which is very concerning for the sport.www.abc.net.au, 2011

Laws at every level have not kept up with the changing nature of sport, and government must play a big role in the control of betting regulations. It's important to get the regulation right, and in a balanced manner, that doesn't force people off into the black market or into overseas betting. The Coalition of Major Professional and Participation Sports (COMPPS) has created a paper which makes three major recommendations for sporting organisations:
 * Sports-specific national legislation which carries severe penalties for cheating in connection with betting.
 * Sports can veto exotic or spot bets that they think are at risk of corruption.
 * Victoria's sports betting act is adopted across all states and territories, meaning all betting agencies must have integrity agreements with sports.

Sports Minister Mark Arbib has also come out in support of Senator Xenophon and said “without national consistency on these issues, we simply don't believe that our governments are taking this issue seriously enough. We are very supportive of the Victorian legislation and believe that should be looked on as a national approach”. Sydney Morning Herald, 2011 The Government wants to ensure they have tough regulations in place to prevent match fixing, while also ensuring we don't drive betting onto the black market.

Conclusion
Sporting organisations, especially the AFL, need to think carefully before accepting any more sponsorship from gambling companies. Clubs that accept funds should have in place strong codes of conduct that protect junior sport and ban the promotion of gambling products by players and officials. It's good to see sports like the AFL and NRL that currently have strict codes of conduct and are continually working on ensuring the game remains fair. Promotion is a major concern for a number of key stakeholders in sport. The Government should be applauded for taking such a big stance on banning all gambling advertisements within the next year, but must ensure they don’t overstep the line and force gambling on sport into the black markets.

Although this new form of sponsorship has enabled the AFL to prosper into Australia’s top sport, in order to maintain their reputation they may need to downgrade the role gambling agencies play in the sporting landscape.

The government has a duty of care to help. Gambling agencies play a big role in the survival of not just the AFL but also local sporting communities. There needs to be a balanced result with the new reforms to ensure the best outcome is achieved for all.

Reference List

 * Geoff Winter, 2002. Gambling- An Australian Tradition on the up, Viewed October 24th, http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2001-02/02rp14.htm

 * Internet breads 'gamble anytime' generation, www.businessday.com.au, Viewed October 24th, http://www.businessday.com.au/executive-style/culture/internet-breeds-gamble-anytime-generation-20110315-1bvqo.html

 * Xenophon urges AFL to ban exotic bets, ABC news, Viewed October 21st, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-07-18/xenophon-afl-gambling/2798688

 * Ten years jail for fixing matches, Sydney Morning Herald, Viewed October 21st, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/ten-years-jail-urged-for-fixing-matches-20110826-1jehg.html

 * Backlash over AFL's sports betting splurge, Herald Sun, Viewed October 21st, http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/afl/backlash-over-afls-sports-betting-splurge/story-e6frf9jf-1226034969361

 * Heated flak for exotic bets ban, Sydney Morning Herald, Viewed October 28th, http://www.smh.com.au/rugby-league/league-news/heated-flak-for-exotic-bets-ban-20110602-1fiwu.html

 * AFL 'obsessed' with wagering integrity, Daily Telegraph, Viewed October 28th, http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/afl/afl-follows-money-trail-on-exotic-bets/story-e6frexx0-1226062257431

 * League won't ban exotic bets, Adelaide Now, Viewed October 24th, http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/sport/league-wont-ban-exotic-bets/story-e6frecj3-1226096027726

 * Sports betting punts integrity, Daily Telegraph, Viewed October 24, http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/sports-betting-punts-integrity/story-e6freyar-1225987948497

 * Compromised AFL has each way bet, Back Page Lead, Viewed October 31st, http://www.backpagelead.com.au/afl/4621-the-afls-each-way-bet-

 * NSW backs crackdown on negative betting, Sydney Morning Herald, Viewed October 25th, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/nsw-backs-crackdown-on-negative-betting-20110504-1e8js.html

 * Sports set to clamp down on exotic bets, Sydney Morning Herald, Viewed October 25th, http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-sport/sports-set-to-clamp-down-on-exotic-bets-20110608-1fs6c.html


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional control vs. emotional expressiveness

Comments
Hey :-) Great topic - I've not had a chance to read your text yet. Just thought it might be good to separate some of your sections with lines, so that there is more "break" between each section. That allows the reader to digest each section in smaller chunks, rather than a whole wall of text. You may be planning to do this though. Thanks, TabithaJ 00:54, 3 November 2011 (UTC) Oh one other comment - I do like how you've added in the part about how some people just don't feel emotions too intensely. I think this is a good point as it shows that although we process emotions similiarily as human beings, we all have different temperaments and we should not assume others feel things in the same way we do. I like it! Thanks, TabithaJ 00:56, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

I like how your page is coming along :-) I fixed up your references a bit for you... I'm procrastinating from doing my own page(Sensation seeking) haha. Good luck finishing it off. KristaLeanne 10:10, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey, Looks good. Just a couple of things, noticed you haven't put in a year for when you mention 'Robert Plutchik' in the What is Emotion section, just making sure you remember to do this. Also maybe the the Social function section, have just a line saying some like Social Function serves to: then list. Just because a list under a heading seems odd without some kind of lead in sentence. It would look, slightly better if you had Emotional suppression as just a one line definition, rather than a heading and definition. In your reslience section the numbers seem to run into the picture, not sure if you are aware. Lastly your references look odd with a line in between all off them, don't think we are suppose to do that. Overall though good job, good luck with it. Mlac 10:25, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Thank you for looking at my chapter, I will take your comments on board. Margaret 10:30, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Margaret, saw you were looking for comments. I really like your chapter & will include a link to it from mine on shame. Love the images you've chosen too. Only have a few suggestions: Hope that is helpful. :) Jeanette 21:20, 5 November 2011 (UTC)
 * a brief intro about what you're going to cover in the chapter might be worthwhile before getting into what is emotion.
 * the first half of the section on Managing negative emotions would probably benefit from being in dot points (more like the summary you've used). In fact, it's such a short section, you probably don't need a standalone summary, just the whole series of steps.
 * You might also like to link to other chapters on the emotions (since that's a core part of what you're talking about). There are chapters on anger, disgust, empathy, etc.
 * This could be just me but red highlights always make me think I've done something wrong (all that red pen corrections from school). Maybe choose a different colour than red to highlight a quote.
 * Not sure where you're up to on in-text referencing but there seem to be a lot of sentences in the text which make claims of some kind that seem likely to be based on research but which are not yet attributed. Maybe because you're still drafting.

Great chapter - very interesting information and illustrations - very well done - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:24, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

Alleged plagiarism
It has come to my attention that some aspects of this chapter may be plagiarised, including: -- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:24, 12 December 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) "Emotions help us respond adaptively to environmental challenges and opportunities"
 * 2) "Experimental findings demonstrate that reappraisal has a healthier profile of"
 * 3) "Emotional suppression is when emotions are intentionally ignored and mentally"
 * 4) "These individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social"
 * 5) "Sickness, disease, and general unhappiness all take a larger-than-necessary role"
 * 6) "relaxation exercise called progressive muscle relaxation focuses on a person alternating between tensing and relaxing different muscle groups throughout the body."
 * 7) "Using relaxation exercises can be a very effective way of reducing your stress and anxiety"
 * 8) "As a result, our emotions have the potential to serve us today as a delicate and sophisticated internal regulation system."

Outstanding plagiarism
Some changes have been made to remove plagiarism and provide additional sources. However, significant evidence of plagiarism remains, including, for example: -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:37, 2 June 2013 (UTC)
 * 1) "Some psychologists have tried to subdivide emotions in categories" etc.
 * 2) "Our emotions alert us when natural human need is not being met. For example, when we feel lonely, our need for connection with other people is unmet. When we feel afraid, our need for safety is unmet. When we feel rejected, it is our need for acceptance which is unmet."
 * 3) "Here are few general guidelines for managing negative emotions. . First, identify the feeling. Next, ask if is a healthy feeling. Then list your options and chose the"
 * 4) "suggests that there are eight basic emotions grouped in four pairs of opposites: joy/sadness acceptance/disgust anger/fear surprise/anticipation In Plutchik's view, all emotions are a combination of these basic emotions."
 * 5) "neither suppressing their feelings nor inhibiting the expression"
 * 6) "People vary in the intensity of their emotional reactivity"


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Fear

Overview

" I must not fear. Fear is the mind-killer. Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration. I will face my fear. I will permit it to pass over me and through me. And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path. Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. Only I will remain. "

Our everyday existence is surrounded by problems, obstacles and challenges. Emotions are our natural response that help us to deal with them. Fear is an emotion we have all experienced. We experience fear in response to an external event or thought that we perceive as a threat. We might feel our heart beating faster or harder than usual, breathing differently, perhaps some shivering or sweating, or we might feel completely frozen for a split second in which we simply don’t think and we feel totally paralysed and vulnerable. These are just some of the physiological symptoms that accompany the experience of fear. It is definitely an unpleasant emotion for most of us. People can fear almost anything, the list is endless; some of these fears can be considered rational, other not so much. Below is a list of common fears, ask yourself, how many have you experienced?
 * Fear of death
 * Fear of heights
 * Fear of losing our jobs
 * Fear of rejection
 * Fear of failure
 * Fear of spiders
 * Fear of terrorism
 * Fear of being separated from people we love
 * Fear of losing control in various situations
 * Fear of flying
 * Fear of germs
 * Fear of illness
 * Fear of speaking in public

Have you experienced more than one? If so, you are a common human. If you haven’t experienced at least one of them, you are certainly extraordinary and defy most theories presented on this chapter.

But, why do we fear? Many would argue fear is a negative emotion that impedes our normal functioning, so how is it helpful in our everyday lives? And ultimately, how can we exert some degree of control over it? The aim of this chapter is to explore answers to these and other questions by examining relevant and contemporary theories and research.

 * Focus questions
 * 1) What is fear?
 * 2) Why do we experience fear?
 * 3) What is the function of fear? How is it helpful?
 * 4) What types of fear can we experience?
 * 5) How can we manage fear?

Definition(s)
The experience of fear is usually classified under two categories: Minor or ordinary fears and phobias. Minor fears are experienced as an unreasonable amount of anxiety and other symptoms to a specific stimulus that is perceived as a threat. When this fear interferes and impedes daily normal functioning, it becomes a phobia. .

The four components of emotion
Emotions are experienced in four different ways. These are the four different components or dimensions of emotion.
 * Subjective: this component includes how we feel and perceive the emotion and our verbal interpretation of it.
 * Physiological or Biological: involves the way our body reacts physiologically to the situation.
 * Functional: the functional dimension of the emotion involves its purpose.
 * Social expression: this is how we publicly express the emotion. How we communicate it to others and how it influences social interaction.

Let’s take a moment and analyse fear under these four components. Subjectively, we may experience it as a shock followed by anxiety and perhaps a mild body paralysis. Physiologically, our hear rate might increase, breathing might become more difficult and shivers might travel around our bodies. The functional purpose of fear is to protect us from a threat. Finally, we might express it as running away and asking out for help.

Fear as a basic or primary emotion
Basic emotions are those which share certain universal characteristics. A basic emotion is part of the innate nature of a human being. In other words, it is not acquired through experience or socialisation. This type of emotions is also expressed in a unique and universal way. That is to say, every individual expresses the emotion in a particular way which is distinct from other emotions. Basic emotions are accompanied by an expectable physiological response. And finally, they arise from the same situation and circumstances for every person.

Fear shares all of these characteristics. We can see from babies to adults of the third age experiencing fear under similar circumstances and displaying similar facial expressions.

Terror management theory
Terror management theory (TMT) is based on the writings of Ernest Becker Its basic premise is that humans have an instinct for self-preservation as any other animal but they acknowledge that their lives will end and can be in an unexpected and sudden way. This awareness of death leads a person to fear the end of his existence. Researchers recognize two types of defenses people have to reduce the anxiety related to death awareness.
 * Distal: Are triggered when thoughts of death are no longer part of the focus of attention but are available in the preconscious mind. The nature of these defences is symbolic in the sense that they establish a sense of personal value in a continuing and significant world. Symbolic defences encompass cultural worldviews and self-esteem endeavours.
 * Proximal: Are triggered when thoughts of death enter conscious awareness. They typically intend to suppress or make such thoughts less disturbing by denying mortality or focusing on thoughts of longevity.

How can cultural worldviews alleviate death anxiety? They can describe the world in various ways in which death is less threatening. They can even define chances of transcending death either symbolically or literally. Additionally, they can describe the world as safe, stable and non-chaotic, which gives the individual a sense that they are in control of their mortality. . Typical worldviews that lessen death anxiety include religions that proclaim any sort of life after corporeal death. Also, cultural views that give importance to things created by the individual which persist after his or her corporeal death like art works, or their offspring.

Self-esteem can also play a role in reducing death anxiety. Both cultural worldview and self-esteem can change self and world interpretation to one less threatening to life. Self-esteem can create a feeling of uniqueness in which one is different from the rest of society and less or not vulnerable to death at all. Also, self-esteem may create the belief that one’s consequences of their actions, or contributions to the world may endure after corporeal death.

Experiments on terror management theory: Recent studies on TMT have found evidence supporting its premises. It was found that when death enters awareness, people with an internal locus of control decrease intentions to engage in risky behaviour .Also people started preferring using sunscreen with higher SPF. Additionally, people showed more intensions to start exercising when they had a reminder of death.

title: Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Fear


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Avoidance motivation

Overview
This chapter focuses on avoidance motivation. In particular, performance-avoidance goals and the implications it has on mental health. This chapter addresses two focus questions:
 * 1) What role does fear of failure play with performance-avoidance goals?
 * 2) What implications does this have on mental health

Avoidance motivation is the energising of behavior by, or the direction of behavior away from, negative stimuli (objects, events, possibilities) (Elliot, A.J. & Church, M.A., 1997). Another explanation for avoidance motivation is taking (or not taking) action to avoid something unpleasant. An example that might help explain could be; a woman is really interested in learning Spanish. The only way to this in her community is to take an adults class. She’s a little shy and has a hard time approaching people. She really wants to learn, but there is a problem. She believes she will make a fool of herself in the class. As such, she never enrolls in the class. Her avoidance strategy is to just never try. In avoidant behaviour, people do things to avoid something. Fear of snakes and heights fall into this category. Anxiety on the other hand may not immediately elicit a specific goal object (Franken, 2007). People who are anxious are unable to specify the source; they experience a sense of dread. Avoidance causes tend to be very compelling; they are difficult or near impossible to ignore. For example, people who fear snakes and spiders feel a strong sense of need to immediately distance themselves from those goal objects. However, because people are often unable to pinpoint the source of their anxiety, they attempt to cope with it by finding a safe place (Franken, 2007). For example, a person who experiences anxiety at a party, without knowing exactly what the source is, they might decide to leave the party and continue to avoid future scenarios. Avoidant causes often involve threats to our survival, from a biological perspective, two primary goals are to survive and produce (Franken, 2009). Even though avoidant causes that don't pose a threat to a person's survival they still evoke the same reaction. Not all people are equally anxious; some are more anxious at birth (Kagan, 2003; Watson & Clark, 1984, 1993). Those who are born anxious are more likely to engage in avoidant behaviours, even thinking of certain activities is enough to make them feel anxious. For example they might not eat certain foods because they think they will get sick, they might not travel as they feel they might get injured. To fully understand avoidance motivation you must have an insight to Achievement motivation.

History
Avoidance motivation sits along side Achievement Motivation, which has been discussed in scientific psychology for over a century (James, 1890,pp309-311). Through the years there have been numerous theoretical ideas of achievement motivation, the most prominent being: the achievement motive approach, the test anxiety approach, the attributional approach, the self-worth approach, and the achievement goal approach (Elliot, 1999). The achievement goal approach has clearly been the most influential. The two theoretical approaches to achievement motivation are classical and contemporary. Classical approach of achievement behaviour includes the dynamics-of-action model, whereas the contemporary approach is a cognitive approach that centres on the goals people adopt in achievement situations.

Achievement goal approach research has been rapidly growing for education, developmental and the social-personality psychology. This approach is the foundation for much applied tasks in school, work, and sports environments (Elliot, 1999); so much so that the National Advisory Mental Health Council identified that research on achievement goals was an integral component of their behavioural science research agenda on emotion and motivation in 1995.

The achievement goal approach was first brought to surface in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s by the revolutionary work of Dweck (1986), Nicholls (1984), and a few others (Elliot, 1999). Two theoretical approaches dominate the understanding of achievement motivation: classical and contemporary (Elliot & Church,1997). Dweck and Nicholls pinpointed two types of goals that vary as a function of how competence is defined, mastery goals and performance goals. Performance goals are said to be linked to a negative set of processes and outcomes (withdrawal of effort when faced with failure, surface processing of study material, decreased enjoyment in the task); mastery goals in contrast are linked to a positive set of processes and outcomes (persistence when faced with failure, deep processing of study material, enhanced task enjoyment (Elliot et al, 1997).

The evidence Dweck and Nicholls presented in support of the performance-mastery goal approach was impressive and compelling and laid the foundation for this framework to become the dominant theoretical approach in contemporary achievement motivation literature (Elliot, 1999). Another significant player in the conceptualisation of achievement motivation is Atkinson, who took a ‘person on the street’ view of approach-avoidance distinction (Elliot, 1999). Atkinson took the classical view of achievement behaviour, which includes the dynamics-of-action model. Gray (1970, 1982) suggested that humans have two nervous systems that correspond respectively to an approach system and avoidance system. His work was the forerunner of what has become part of the generally accepted view that, indeed, here is a biological basis for approach and avoidant behaviour. What gives rise to some of the individual differences we observe among humans, according to this view, is hat we can inherit different amounts of each system such that some people are more inclined to approach and others are more inclined to avoid (Franken, 2007). It has been conceptualized that people have different temperaments that fall along a continuum ranging from having an approach temperament to having an avoidant temperament. This concept is meant to capture the idea that we approach life with a particular orientation that affects everything we do and say (Franken, 2007). However, it is only an orientation and in the end learning and cognition also plays an imperative role.

Implicit theory
The first implicit theory applies to “entity theorists,” people who believe they are endowed with fixed, enduring qualities. The thinking is “you either have it, or you don’t” in that some people are smart and motivated while others are not. The second implicit theory applies to “incremental theorists,” people who believe they are endowed with flexible, changing qualities. The thinking is “the more you try, the more you learn, the better you get” in that all people can become smarter and more motivated (Reeve, 2009).

In short entity theorists believe people have a fixed amount of intelligence, personality and motivation. Whereas incremental theorists believe personal qualities are something that grow through effort and learning (Reeve, 2009).

Implicit theories are important to achievement strivings because they guide the type of goals we pursue (Elliot et al, 1997).

For an entity theorist, the meaning of effort is “the more you try, the dumber you therefore must be”. High effort means low ability. High effort is, in fact, evidence that the performer lacks ability. For an incremental theorist, the meaning of effort is that it is a tool, the means by which people turn on and take advantage of their skills and abilities. What one needs when facing a difficult task is high effort, which poses a motivational dilemma to the entity theorist (Reeve, 2009). High effort to an entity theorist signifies low ability, which is precisely the sort of thing an entity theorist wants to avoid. Entity theorists tend to adopt maladaptive motivational patterns by withholding effort, engaging in self-handicapping to protect the self, and never really understanding or appreciating what effort expenditures can do for them in life (Dweck, 1999; Stipek & Gralinski, 1996). Incremental theorists experience no conflict between the effort challenging tasks require and their willingness to roll up their sleeves and engage in effortful and persistent work.

Avoiding failure
"If you take risks, you may fail. But if you do not take risks, you will surely fail. The greatest risk of all is to do nothing. - Robert Goizueta"

Achievement behaviour depends not only on the individual’s need for achievement but also on the task-specific probability of success (Reeve, 2009). Which is where performance avoidance can come into play. Just as much as people have a need for achievement, they also have motivation to avoid it, especially if they feel that they will fail at the set task. Performance motivation is an individual’s defense against the loss of self-esteem, social respect, and the fear of embarrassment.

With performance goals, the person facing the standard of excellence seeks o demonstrate or prove competence, display high ability, outperform others, and succeed with little apparent effort. Achieving a performance goal means doing it better than others. However the fear of failure drives people to control their behaviour varying ways that can interfere with performance, persistence, and emotions (Reeve, 2009). It is the fear of failure that prompts individuals to adopt performance avoidance goals; such as trying to avoid making a mistake, performing poorly, or embarrassing oneself. (Reeve, 2009). These avoidance goals lead individuals to under perform, quit, and lose interest in what they are doing (Elliot & Chuch, 1997; Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Roney, Higgins, & Shah, 1995). This forms the basis of a relationship (Fear of failure →performance-avoidance goals → maladjusted coping style in achievement settings) has significant implications for personal adjustment and mental health (Reeve, 2009).

Performance avoidance and well-being
The more people fear failure the more likely they are to adopt performance–avoidance goals. The more avoidance goals a person harbours, the poorer their subsequent well-being tends to be on measures such as low self-esteem, personal control, vitality, life satisfaction and psychological well-being (Elliot & Sheldon, 1997). The reason why well-being suffers when one adopts performance-avoidance goals is that trying so hard to avoid poor performances, one controls day-to-day behaviour in ways that produce dissatisfaction, negative affect, and little enjoyment or fulfillment (Reeve, 2009). Always trying to avoid embarrassing oneself, even when successfully accomplished takes it’s toll on well-being (Reeve, 2009). People who adopt performance goals are concerned with looking smart and with not looking dumb. They are concerned with performing well, especially when others are watching. The goal is therefore to use performance as the means to prove that one has much of a desirable characteristic (intelligence). For example, when university students choose an elective, they often will choose a class that they will perform well in. This ensures that they will achieve a high grade and will look smart to impress others (Reeve, 2009).

Treatment
The problem with avoidance behaviors is that they maintain the symptoms of anxiety. If you always avoid giving speeches, or if you only give speeches without making eye contact, your anxiety about giving a speech will never diminish (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Instead of avoiding giving speeches, or only delivering them in a "safe" way, you need lots of exposure to giving speeches without avoiding, escaping, or using safety behaviors. An effective treatment for social anxiety disorder (SAD), one of the goals of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is to identify avoidance behaviors and provide exposure to feared situations.

Phobia is one type of disorder in which avoidance conditioning plays a critical role. Another is obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), a disorder characterised by persistent thoughts, impulses, or images (called obsessions), and repetitive, stereotyped actions (called compulsions) that are carried out in response to the obsessions (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010).

Performance avoidance shares similar symptoms to SAD (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H.,2010). Physical symptoms often accompanying social anxiety disorder include excessive blushing, sweating (hyperhidrosis), trembling, palpitations, nausea, and stammering often accompanied with rapid speech. Panic attacks may also occur under intense fear and discomfort. An early diagnosis may help minimize the symptoms and the development of additional problems, such as depression (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Some sufferers may use alcohol or other drugs to reduce fears and inhibitions at social events. It is common for sufferers of social phobia to self-medicate in this fashion, especially if they are undiagnosed, untreated, or both; this can lead to alcoholism, eating disorders or other kinds of substance abuse.

To view a quick loop video of what someone might look like if they are anxious, please click the link. [[Media:Anxiety.gif]]

Avoidant personality disorder is reported to be especially prevalent in people with anxiety disorders, although estimates of comorbidity vary widely due to differences in (among others) diagnostic instruments. Research suggests that approximately 10–50% of people who have panic disorder with agoraphobia have avoidant personality disorder, as well as about 20–40% of people who have social phobia (social anxiety disorder) (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Some studies report prevalence rates of up to 45% among people with generalized anxiety disorder and up to 56% of those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Although it is not mentioned in the DSM-IV, earlier theorists have proposed a personality disorder which has a combination of features from borderline personality disorder and avoidant personality disorder, called "avoidant-borderline mixed personality" (AvPD/BPD).

The most important clinical point to emerge from studies of social anxiety disorder is the benefit of early diagnosis and treatment. Social anxiety disorder remains under-recognized in primary care practice, with patients often presenting for treatment only after the onset of complications such as clinical depression or substance abuse disorders (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Research has provided evidence for the efficacy of two forms of treatment available for social phobia: certain medications and a specific form of short-term psychotherapy called Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), the central component being gradual exposure therapy.

Personality avoidance disorder - People with avoidant personality disorder are preoccupied with their own shortcomings and form relationships with others only if they believe they will not be rejected (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). Loss and rejection are so painful that these individuals will choose to be lonely rather than risk trying to connect with others.
 * Avoids physical contact because it has been associated with an unpleasant or painful stimulus
 * Feelings of inadequacy
 * Severe low self-esteem
 * Self-loathing
 * Mistrust of others
 * Emotional distancing related to intimacy
 * Highly self-conscious
 * Self-critical about their problems relating to others
 * Problems in occupational functioning
 * Lonely self-perception, although others may find the relationship with them meaningful
 * Feeling inferior to others
 * In some more extreme cases — agoraphobia

Treatment of avoidant personality disorder can employ various techniques, such as social skills training, cognitive therapy, exposure treatment to gradually increase social contacts, group therapy for practicing social skills, and sometimes drug therapy (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). A key issue in treatment is gaining and keeping the patient's trust, since people with avoidant personality disorder will often start to avoid treatment sessions if they distrust the therapist or fear rejection. The primary purpose of both individual therapy and social skills group training is for individuals with avoidant personality disorder to begin challenging their exaggerated negative beliefs about themselves (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010). However, because of the deep-seated feelings of inferiority and extreme social fear, it is unlikely that those with AvPD will ever overcome the disorder entirely, with the prognosis being even worse for those low-functioning persons as they are likely to drop out of treatment if they become too anxious (Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H., 2010).

According to the DSM-IV-TR, avoidant personality disorder occurs in approximately 0.5% to 1% of the general population. However, data from the 2001-02 National Epidemiologic Survery on Alcohol and Related Conditions indicates a prevalence rate of the disorder of 2.36% in the American general population. It is seen in about 10% of psychiatric outpatients.

Quiz
{When people experience fear they immediately escape to a safe place and avoid the scenario in the future? - No, they usually don't know what it is they afraid of and experience intense dread - Yes, however they don't avoid the scenario in the future. + Yes, they find a safe place to escape to and tend to avoid any future exposure to the goal object.
 * type="(+)"}

{Gray had a classical view on achievement motivation? - No, he had a contemporary view + Yes, he had a classical view.
 * type="(+)"}

{Avoidance motivation is the energising of behavior by, or the direction of behavior away from, negative stimuli (objects, events, possibilities? + True - False
 * type="[+]"}