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Towards a better India/References

Indian public policy and governance
http://www.sabhlokcity.com/breakingfree.html - a book by Sanjeev Sabhlok

Children Issues
http://w3.whosea.org/LinkFiles/Towards_a_Better_Tomorrow_1b.pdf

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Towards a better India/References


text:
History of the Ottoman Empire/Height of the Ottoman Empire

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Part I

 * After Suleiman the Magnificent the Ottoman Empire became very strong. In the east, the Ottomans had defeated Persians. In the north, Ottoman horseman attacked Moscow area. The Russians were very weak in the 16th century. In the west, the Ottomans had defeated the Europeans. In the south, the Ottoman Empire was the strongest power. Following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, his son Selim II became emperor of the Great Ottoman Empire. Selim II was uneducated. But the new emperor was smart. He wanted to capture Cyprus, take back Tunisia and attack Central Europe, but there were riots in Yemen. The Ottoman army sent troops to this area and killed the rioters. After this problem had been dealt with, Ottomans began preparations for invading Cyprus. The Ottoman navy was much stronger than most of the European navies. Even the strongest European states were afraid of the Ottomans. In 1570, the Ottoman navy left Istanbul, and by July, they had reached Cyprus. Cyprus was ruled by the Greeks and the Venetians, with a navy which lived on piracy. This navy had raided many Ottoman ports in the past. There were several castles in Cyprus. Then the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) started. The Ottoman navy easily destroyed the Cypriot navy. Then the Ottoman army landed and captured the Cypriot castles. Finally, the Ottoman army besieged Nicosia castle. But Greeks and Venetians successfully defended this castle for seven months, although it finally fell. When the Ottoman army captured the last castles, Cyprus was absorbed into the Great Ottoman Empire. Cyprus was a very strategic island in the East Mediterranean.
 * In 1571, the Ottoman navy left Cyprus, sailing for the port of Lepanto in Greece. This navy was enormous, with over 200 warships. Ottoman soldiers in Lepanto port, navy was break. Also European states funded an enormous navy. This Crusader navy had over 200 warships. The Crusader navy wanted to destroy the Ottoman navy in Lepanto. The Crusader navy reached the Adriatic Sea. Ottoman navy commanders heard about this. Crusader navy came to Lepanto, fast. Ottoman commanders called soldiers to warships, urgently. But when the alarm, Crusader navy entered Lepanto port. Crusader warships started to fire. Hundreds of Crusader warships attacked Ottoman warships. Whereas Ottoman warships were not ready. Thousands of Ottoman soldiers died. The Ottoman warships that were prepared attacked Crusader warships. Thus, thousands of Crusader soldier died, but very little Crusader warships sank. Later, the Crusader navy left Lepanto Port (Battle of Lepanto). Over 20,000 Ottoman soldiers died, and 250 Ottoman warships sank. Whereas over 7,000 Crusader soldiers died and about 15 warships (According to some sources 17 - 20 warships) sank. Ottoman navy downfalled and power lost.
 * Sokollu Mehmed Paşa was prime minister of Ottoman Empire. He very sad this event. Later, Mehmed Pasha decided for Ottoman navy. A new fleet was built. Thousands workers worked for this mission in shipyards. Hundreds warships was ready for Ottoman navy. Only in year, Ottomans founded new and strongest navy in East Mediterranean. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa sayed to Venetian Ambassador: "By conquering Cyprus we have cut off one of your arms; at Inebahti by defeating our navy you have only shaved off our beard. However, you know that a cut-off arm cannot be replaced but shaved-off beard grows thicke!" (Original: Biz sizden Kıbrıs'ı almakla bir kolunuzu kestik. Siz ise donanmamızı mağlup etmekle, sakalımızı tıraş etmiş oldunuz. Kesilmiş bir kol yerine gelmez ama tıraş edilmiş sakal evvelkinden daha gür çıkar!). Ottoman navy was strongest navy in Europe again.
 * Ottoman emperor Selim II wanted to revenge of Lepanto. New Ottoman navy set out. Spanish army and navy were in Tunisia. Over 300 warships and thousands experienced Ottoman soldiers reached Tunisia. In June, enormous Ottoman army and navy attacked Spanish. Ottoman army won conflicts. Later, captured Spanish castles in Tunisia. Thus, Tunisia was part of Ottoman Empire. Later this victory, while he was having bath, he fell down and then, he had brain hemorrhage, he died. Ottoman people was very sad for this event. Ottomans like he and Selim II was successful emperor. When he died, area of Great Ottoman Empire was 15.162.000 km2.

Quiz on Height of the Ottoman Empire, Part I

Part II

 * In 16. century, Great Ottoman Empire was strongest and biggest state on the world. After the death of Emperor Selim II, Murad III became Sultan of Ottomans. He was young and smart. He wanted to gain more power and destroy his enemies. In the west, the Spanish Empire was very strong. This empire was the most important rival for the Ottoman Empire. The Spanish army captured a lot of Africa areas. Morocco State was occupied. Sultan Abdülmelik came to Istanbul and wanted to help. He wanted to Ottomans drive the Spanish out of Morocco. Young sultan Murad III agreed. During those events, Ottoman architecture was improving. For example Mimar Sinan made Selimiye Mosque.
 * In the east, Persian State was enemy for Ottoman Empire. Sect conflicts started and Persian State wanted to some places. In 1578, Persian state declared war on Ottoman Empire. Persian army, had nearly fifty-thousand soldiers. Persian army wants to destroy Ottoman army in area. Persians passed Derbent and made battle with Ottomans. Ottoman commander was Yakup Bey. Persians was stronger than Ottoman army and Persians won. Commander Yakup Bey died. Persian commander was Quli Khan. This problem was very important for Ottoman Empire. Osman Pasha was commander of Derbent and had nearly 17.000 soldiers. Persian army came to near of Derbent. Persian commander was sure for victory. Because Persian army was very higher than this Ottoman army. The war continued for two days. First time, battle did not result. Battle continued in the night. Ottoman soldiers fighted with torches. In the morning, Ottoman soldiers slashed Persian line. And Ottoman Army won (May 11, 1583), (Battle of Torches). Ottoman army recaptured other places. During those events, some problems was in Morocco.
 * When Murad III became emperor of the Great Ottoman Empire, Spanish and Portuguese trying make colonize Morocco. Morocco Prince Abdülmelik Khan supported Ottoman powers on the Morocco. Ottoman government wants to colonial Morocco of Ottoman Empire. Ottoman government ordered to governor of Algeria Ramazan Pasha for attacked Spanish and Portugal in Morocco. Sultan of Morocco was Mohammed III supported Portuguese and Spanish. Ramazan Pasha, entered Morocco area with 15 thousand soldiers. Abdülmelik's army had nearly 5 thousand soldiers and this army merged with Ottoman army. Thus, Ottoman alliance army had nearly 20 thousand soldiers. But Morocco army had over the 60 thousand soldiers and very higher than Ottoman alliance army. But, Ottoman soldiers destroyed Morocco army easily. Thereon, Abdülmelik became sultan of Morocco. But old sultan Mohammed III wanted to help from Portuguese and Spanish. Then, Philip II was emperor of Spanish Empire. Portuguese army entered Morocco area. Available of Ottoman army reached 55 thousand soldiers. Ottoman army made war with Portugal in Vadis-Seyl place. Ottoman alliance army won. Portuguese king and his aristocrats died in this war. Old sultan of Morocco Mohammed III caught and died. Thus, Morocco was colonial place of Ottoman Empire. Also, a minor Ottoman navy reached Morocco coasts and destroyed Portuguese warships. A two years later, Portuguese Kingdom downfalled.
 * In the north, Russian Kingdom gained power. Russians attacked some Tatarian areas. Russian army captured Astrakhan Khanate in 1556. Also, Russian Kingdom threatened Uzbek Khanate. Uzbek Khan wanted to help from Ottomans. Crimean Khan's soldiers attacked Russian area. End of 16th century, Crimean army entered Moscow. But, some problems was in the west with Austrian Empire. Therefore, Ottoman government gave up Russian problem. Years later, Russian Kingdom could capture Uzbek Khanate and gain more power...
 * İmportant problems were ın the west. Also, Persians made treaty of Ferhat Pasha with Ottoman Empire (Treaty of Ferhat Pasha). Thus, some places became area of Ottomans (1590). But, Austrian Kingdom often delayed taxes. This was not legal. Also, some Austrian soldiers entered Hungary - Croatia and was unrest. Governor of Bosnia Telli Hasan Pasha attacked Austrian area. In 1593, Austria - Ottoman war began (Long War). Since 1566 (Siege of Zigetvar), Ottoman was freund with Austrian Kingdom. This war continued for 13 years. During Murad III period, Ottomans didn't win. Nevertheless, Austrians didn't win too. In 1595, Emperor Murad III died. 11 days later, Mehmed III became emperor of Great Ottoman Empire. He was 28 years old.
 * Austrian army attacked Hungary all power. Ottoman army was un prepared. Nevertheless, Austrian army did not win. Austrian army sieged Esztergom Castle. And Austrians captured Esztergom Castle. Austrian soldiers killed hundreds Muslims and Turks. Mehmed III was commander of Ottoman army. He was in Belgrade. Some rebellions was in Romania. Ottomans made war with Austria, also involved with Romania. Romanian army raided to Ottoman army in Danube. Over 70 thousand Romanian soldiers, attacked Ottoman army suddenly and thousands Ottoman soldiers died. Ottoman Empire lost control of Romania. In 1596, Emperor Ottoman army entered Hungary area. In north of Budin, Ottoman army sieged Eger Castle. This castle was very strong. During siege, Austrian army reached Eger area. Also, Ottoman emperor Mehmed III was there. Austrian army was higher than Ottoman İmperial Army. Thousands Austrian soldiers entered Imperial Camp. Few Janissaries fighted with Austrian soldiers. Also, Ottoman emperor fighted with Austrian soldiers. Austrian army disintegrate suddenly. Thus, very little Ottoman soldiers won (Battle of Keresztes). Later, Eger Castle fell.
 * Nevertheless, Austrian army continued attacks on Ottoman area. On October 1600, Ottoman army sieged Kanizsa. During siege, Austrian army reached Kanizsa. Austrian army had 40 thousand soldiers and nearly 100 cannons. Ottoman army made battle Austrian army. Janissaries disintegrated. Already, Janissaries army lost power since end of 16th century. But, Ottoman-Tatarian and sipahi soldiers attacked Austrian army continuous. Thus, Austrian army disintegrated and Ottoman army won. On October 22, 1600; Kanizsa surrendered. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha became governor of Kanizsa. After victory of Kanizsa, Ottoman army turned to Belgrade. Also, Austrian army continued prepare for recapture Kanizsa. On September, 1601 Austrian army came to Kanizsa. Austrian commanders were sure for recapture Kanizsa. French, Hungarian, Maltese, German soldiers were in Austrian alliance army. This army had over 100 thousand soldiers and a lot of cannons. Austrian spies, stated Ottoman Castle had not cannons. Austrian commanders delighted for this news. But, it was Tiryaki Hasan Pasha's trap. Kanizsa had 100 little cannons. Austrian siege began. When Austrian soldiers approached to Kanizsa Castle, Ottoman cannons fired. Austrian soldiers surprised and shortly after, Austrian siege powers disintegrated. A lot of Austrian soldiers died in front of Kanizsa. Ottoman losses were very few. Austrian army, brought big cannons in front of Kanizsa. Also, Ottoman army was away. Kanizsa was alone. But, Tiryaki Hasan Pasha was resourceful and intelligent. Hasan Pasha set new traps for Austrian army. Austrian cannons fired and Kanizsa castle worn. Kanizsa Castle endures. A Hungarian soldier captive. A Ottoman sergeant said this prisoner; "I supported your army secretly, this castle is very strong. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha is Hungarian. He had a lot of cannons and soldiers.". Whereas, it was trap of Tiryaki Hasan Pasha. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha knew Hungarian soldiers were disgruntled in Austrian army. Hungarian soldiers did not want to fight with Ottomans. Hungarian soldiers ran to Austrian camp. They told status. Austrian commanders were sad for this problem. Austrian army, a day later, attacked castle general. Nevertheless, Ottoman castle resisted. Nearly 18 thousand Austrian - Hungarian soldiers died in front of castle. But, part of castle destroyed. Also, a few Ottoman soldiers fled from castle. They ran to Austrian camp and told everything. This problem was very dangerous for Ottomans. But, Tiryaki Hasan Pasha was very smart... He sent a few Austrian prisoners. And said them; "I sent a few Ottoman spy, did they reach Austrian camp?". Austrian prisoners went to Austrian camp. They told this problem. This trap was witty. Austrian commanders believed them. Ottoman prisoners were killed. Not only that, Tiryaki Pasha wrote fake letter. Austrian soldiers seized this letter. On this letter, Hungarian soldiers supported Ottomans secretly. Austrian commanders surprised, and decided kill Hungarian commanders. Hungarian soldiers revolted. Thus, Austrian army disintegrated. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha's traps were very witty. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha decided attack Austrian camp. Ottoman soldiers left castle and attacked Austrian - Hungarian army. Already, Hungarian soldiers were rebel. Austrian army destroyed easily. A lot of Austrian soldiers died. Nearly 80 thousand Austrian soldiers died. Ottoman soldiers capture 47 big cannons, 14 thousand rifles, 60 thousand tents, a lot of food. After this victory, Tiryaki Hasan Pasha's aide Kara Ömer Agha attacked Austrian area with a little army. This little army captured 3 thousand villages and a lot of booties.
 * In Anatolia, there were revolts. Some Siphai soldiers were jealous of Janissaries. Because Janissaries was privileged, they were special for Ottoman Empire. Also, Janissary commanders to spoiled. They got tax from tradespeople. Sometimes, Janissaries had revolt. Thus, big revolts began in Anatolia (Jelali Revolts). Nevertheless, Alevi people joined it. Revolt spread to Constantinople (Istanbul). Sultan worried from this revolt. Sultan's soldiers pressed this revolt bloody. But, Jelali Revolts were not end never. Sultan Mehmed III was old. Also, he was cruel. His son, shehzade Mahmud wanted to command to army. He asked to his dad (Sultan Mehmed) about this. But Mehmed III was angry for this ask, he ordered execution of Shehzade Mahmud. Shehzade Mahmud was killed. Thus, Ottoman people hated Mehmed III. Mehmed III was sorry. On December, 1603 he died from heart attack. His son Ahmed I became emperor of Great Ottoman Empire. He was only 14 age...
 * During period of Ahmed I, Austrian - Ottoman War and Persian - Ottoman continued. Persians entered Southeastern Anatolia. Ottoman and Persian Governments wanted to peace. Persian delegates came to Constantinople. The agreement was signed. Accordingly, Azerbaijan and East Caucasia was part of Persian Dynasty. Ottoman people sad from this event. Also, Ottomans could more attack Austrian Empire. Grand Vizier Lala Mehmed Pasha attacked Budin and won. His army entered Estergon, but unable. Later, Ottoman army captured Esztergom and Gyor. Cont Borchkay helped Ottoman army. Thus, after this event, Borchkay became Governor of Hungary. In 1606, Austrian delegates came to Zsitvatorok and agreement was signed (Peace of Zsitvatorok). Austrian accepted Ottoman power in Hungary. Also, Austrian Empire gave 200 thousand Gold. But, Ottoman Emperor was equal with Austrian Emperor. However, according to Peace of Constantinople (1533), Ottoman emperor was superior. In Lebanon, there were some revolts. Revolts about religious conflict. Ottoman Governor Kuyucu Murad Pasha pressed revolts bloody. He buried corpses. Also, Romanian waships plundered some Ottoman ports in Mediterranean. Ottoman seaman Halil Pasha attacked these and won. In 1616, Ahmed I built Blue Mosque (Blue Mosque is known as the Sultan-Ahmed Camii). On November 22, 1617 Ahmed I died. Thus, Ottoman standstill period end and decline period began. Because, Mustafa I was emperor of Ottoman Empire and he had intelligence problem...

Quiz on Height of the Ottoman Empire, Part II


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/숙제3

Problem 1

 * 1) Derive the equation of motion.
 * 2) Verify $$y(x)$$ is parabola for the particular case of $$k = 0$$.
 * 3) First, consider $$k \ne 0$$, $${v_x}_0 = 0$$, then $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - mg$$. Second, find $$v_y(t)$$ and $$y(t)$$ for $$m = \mbox{constant}.$$

Solution 1

 * 1) Using the Newton's second law, $$\Sigma \vec F = m \vec a$$, we derive the equations of motion. Note that the only forces acting on the particles are gravity, $$m g$$, and air resistance, $$k v^n$$. First, we apply the Newton's second law in x-direction. $$\Sigma F_x = m a_x$$ $$- k v^n \cos \alpha = m \frac {d v_x} {d t}$$ Now, we apply the Newton's second law in y-direction. $$\Sigma F_y = m a_y$$ $$- k v^n \sin \alpha - m g = m \frac {d v_y} {d t}$$
 * 2) If we let $$k = 0$$, the equations of motion become $$m \frac {d v_x} {d t} = 0 \quad \mbox{or} \quad \frac {d v_x} {d t} = 0$$ $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - mg \quad \mbox{or} \quad \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - g$$ We can express the above equations like following $$\frac {d^2 x} {d t^2} = 0$$ $$\frac {d^2 y} {d t^2} = - g$$ Take indefinite integral twice for each equation $$x = at + b$$ $$y = - g \frac {t^2} 2 + c t + d$$ Write $$t$$ in terms of $$x$$ $$t = \frac {x-b} a$$ Substitute this expression into the equation of $$y$$. $$y = - \frac g 2 (\frac {x-b} a)^2 + c (\frac {x-b} a) +d$$ Since the last equation is in the form of $$y = a x^2 + b x + c$$, $$y(x)$$ which is a polynomial of degree $$2$$ in $$x$$ is a parabola with a vertical axis.
 * 3) First, if $$v_{x0} = 0$$, $$v$$ moves in y-direction only meaning that $$v_x = 0$$. Then $$v^2 = (v_x)^2 + (v_y)^2$$ becomes $$v^2 = (v_y)^2$$. We have $$v = v_y$$ since $$v \geq 0$$ and $$v_y \geq 0$$. The angle becomes $$\alpha = 90^\circ$$. As a result, the equation   $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k v^n \sin \alpha - m g$$  transforms into $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - mg$$ Second, we arrange the equation to be expressed as   $$(k (v_y)^n + mg) + m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = 0$$  Arranging the last equation and dividing each term by $$m$$ to be  $$\frac {d v_y} {d t} = - \frac k m (v_y)^n - g$$  $$\frac {d v_y} {- \frac k m (v_y)^n - g} = d t$$  Taking the integral on each side gives $$- \frac {v_y} g {~}_2 F_1(1,\frac 1 n;1+\frac 1 n;-\frac k {g m} v_y^n) = t$$ Third, we can derive that  $$m = \frac {m_1 - m_0} {t_1} t + m_0 \quad \mbox{for} \quad t_0 \leq t \leq t_1$$  $$m = m_1 \quad \mbox{for} \quad t \geq t_1$$  Now express $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - mg$$ with changing mass.  $$(\frac {m_1 - m_0} {t_1} t + m_0) \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - (\frac {m_1 - m_0} {t_1} t + m_0) g \quad \mbox{for} \quad t_0 \leq t \leq t_1$$  $$m_1 \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - m_1 g \quad \mbox{for} \quad t_0 \leq t \leq t_1$$  Arrange the both equations to be in the form of $$M(v_y,t) + N(v_y,t) \frac {d v_y} {d t} = k$$  $$k (v_y)^n + g (\frac {m_1 - m_0} {t_1}) t + (\frac {m_1 - m_0} {t_1} t + m_0) \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - m_0 g \quad \mbox{for} \quad t_0 \leq t \leq t_1$$  $$k (v_y)^n + m_1 \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - m_1 g \quad \mbox{for} \quad t_0 \leq t \leq t_1$$  Because the both equations satisfy the first condition of exactness, $$m \frac {d v_y} {d t} = - k (v_y)^n - mg$$ can be made exact by integral factor method.

Problem 2

 * 1) Derive the following equations. $$m_1 l^2 \ddot \theta_1 = - k a^2 (\theta_1 - \theta_2) - m_1 g l \theta_1 + u_1 l$$ $$m_2 l^2 \ddot \theta_2 = - k a^2 (\theta_2 - \theta_1) - m_2 g l \theta_2 + u_2 l$$
 * 2) Write the above equations in the form of $$\dot x(t) = A(t) x(t) + B(t) u(t)$$. $$ x := \left[ {\begin{matrix}  \theta_1 & {\dot \theta_1} & \theta_2 & {\dot \theta_2} \\ \end{matrix} } \right]^T $$ Find A, B, and u.

Solution 2

 * 1) We use Newtons's second law for Rotation which is $$\Sigma \tau = I \alpha$$ for the derivation.  $$\Sigma \tau_1 = I_1 \alpha_1$$ We note that there are three torques applied on the particle 1; gravitational torque, controlling torque, and spring torque. Gravitational torque is $$\tau_g = \vec l \times \vec {F_g} = - l \sin \theta_1 m_1 g$$ Controlling torque is $$\tau_c = \vec l \times \vec {F_c} = l \cos \theta_1 u_1$$ Spring torque is $$\tau_s = \vec a \times \vec {F_s} = - a \cos \theta_1 k a (\sin \theta_1 - \sin \theta_2)$$ Moment of inertia for the point mass is $$I_1 = m_1 l^2$$ Angular acceleration for the point mass is $$\alpha_1 = \ddot \theta_1$$ We set up the equation of motion for the first particle. $$m_1 l^2 \ddot \theta_1\ = \tau_a + \tau_g + \tau_c = - a \cos \theta_1 k a (\sin \theta_1 - \sin \theta_2) - l \sin \theta_1 m_1 g + l \cos \theta_1 u_1$$ Apply the small-angle approximation which states that $$\sin x \approx x$$ and $$\cos x \approx 1$$ to simplify equation as $$m_1 l^2 \ddot \theta_1\ = - k a^2 (\theta_1 - \theta_2) - l \theta_1 m_1 g + l u_1$$ We use the same techniques to derive the equation of motion for second particle. Gravitational torque is $$\tau_g = \vec l \times \vec {F_g} = - l \sin \theta_2 m_2 g$$ Controlling torque is $$\tau_c = \vec l \times \vec {F_c} = l \cos \theta_2 u_2$$ Spring torque is $$\tau_s = \vec a \times \vec {F_s} = - a \cos \theta_2 k a (\sin \theta_2 - \sin \theta_1)$$ Moment of inertia for the point mass is $$I_2 = m_2 l^2$$ Angular acceleration for the point mass is $$\alpha_2 = \ddot \theta_2$$ We set up the equation of motion for the second particle. $$m_2 l^2 \ddot \theta_2\ = \tau_a + \tau_g + \tau_c = - a \cos \theta_2 k a (\sin \theta_2 - \sin \theta_1) - l \sin \theta_2 m_2 g + l \cos \theta_2 u_2$$ Apply the small-angle approximation which states that $$\sin x \approx x$$ and $$\cos x \approx 1$$ to simplify equation as $$m_2 l^2 \ddot \theta_2\ = - k a^2 (\theta_2 - \theta_1) - l \theta_2 m_2 g + l u_2$$
 * 2) We write $$\dot x(t) = A(t) x(t) + B(t) u(t)$$ in matrix form.  $$ \left[ {\begin{matrix}  \dot \theta_1 \\ \ddot \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \ddot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] = \left[ {\begin{matrix} A_{11} & A_{12} & A_{13} & A_{14} \\ A_{21} & A_{22} & A_{23} & A_{24} \\ A_{31} & A_{32} & A_{33} & A_{34} \\ A_{41} & A_{42} & A_{43} & A_{44} \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_1 \\ \theta_2 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] + \left[ {\begin{matrix} B_{11} & B_{12} \\ B_{21} & B_{22} \\ B_{31} & B_{32} \\ B_{41} & B_{42} \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} u_1 l \\ u_2 l \\ \end{matrix} } \right] $$ We divide the both side of $$m_1 l^2 \ddot \theta_1\ = - k a^2 (\theta_1 - \theta_2) - l \theta_1 m_1 g + l u_1$$ by $$m_1 l^2$$ to get $$\ddot \theta_1\ = - \frac {k a^2} {m_1 l^2} (\theta_1 - \theta_2) - \frac 1 l \theta_1 g + l u_1 = - \theta_1 (\frac {k a^2} {m_1 l^2} + \frac g l) + \theta_2 \frac {k a^2} {m_1 l^2} + l u_1$$ Similarly, we divide the both side of $$m_2 l^2 \ddot \theta_2\ = - k a^2 (\theta_2 - \theta_1) - l \theta_2 m_2 g + l u_2$$ by $$m_2 l^2$$ to get $$\ddot \theta_2\ = - \frac {k a^2} {m_2 l^2} (\theta_2 - \theta_1) - \frac 1 l \theta_2 g + l u_2 = \theta_1 \frac {k a^2} {m_2 l^2} - \theta_2 (\frac {k a^2} {m_2 l^2} + \frac g l) + l u_2$$ We can easily determine that the all the components on row 1 and row 3 of matrix A and matrix B are null, so we write that $$ \left[ {\begin{matrix}  \dot \theta_1 \\ \ddot \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \ddot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] = \left[ {\begin{matrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ A_{21} & A_{22} & A_{23} & A_{24} \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ A_{41} & A_{42} & A_{43} & A_{44} \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_1 \\ \theta_2 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] + \left[ {\begin{matrix} 0 & 0 \\ B_{21} & B_{22} \\ 0 & 0 \\ B_{41} & B_{42} \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} u_1 l \\ u_2 l \\ \end{matrix} } \right] $$ Now we plug in the expressions of $$\ddot \theta_1$$ and $$\ddot \theta_2$$ into the matrix. $$ \left[ {\begin{matrix}  \dot \theta_1 \\ \ddot \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \ddot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] = \left[ {\begin{matrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ - \frac {k a^2} {m_1 l^2} - \frac g l & 0 & \frac {k a^2} {m_1 l^2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \frac {k a^2} {m_2 l^2} & 0 & - \frac {k a^2} {m_2 l^2} - \frac g l & 0 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} \theta_1 \\ \dot \theta_1 \\ \theta_2 \\ \dot \theta_2 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] + \left[ {\begin{matrix} 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \\ \end{matrix} } \right] \left[ {\begin{matrix} u_1 l \\ u_2 l \\ \end{matrix} } \right] $$

Problem 3
Solve $$\dot x(t) = a(t) x(t) + b(t) u(t)$$ for the case where $$a(t)$$ and $$b(t)$$ are constant coefficients while u(t) is prescribed.

Solution 3
We state that $$a(t) = a$$ and $$b(t) = b$$ for this case. $$\dot x(t) = a x(t) + b u(t)$$ $$-a x(t) + \dot x(t) = b u(t)$$ $$h(t) = \exp [- \int^t \frac 1 1 (0 + a) ds] = \exp (-at) $$ So we have the equation in the form of $$hx' + h'x = hk$$. $$-\exp (-at) a x(t) + \exp (-at) \dot x(t) = \exp (-at) b u(t)$$ Note that we cannot use the equation of $$y(x) = \frac 1 {h(x)} \int^x h(s) d(s) ds$$ since the lower limit is bounded as $$t_0$$. Deriving an equation for the lower bound $$y(x) h(x) - y(x_0) h(x_0) = \int^x_{} h(s) d(s) ds$$ $$y(x) = \frac 1 {h(x)} \left[y(x_0) h(x_0) + \int^x_{} h(s) d(s) ds\right]$$ Apply the modified equation given above to our problem. $$x(t) = \frac 1 {\exp (-at)} \left[ x(t_0) \exp(-at_0) + \int^t_{t_0} \exp(-a\tau) b u(\tau) d\tau\right]$$ It is possible to simplify the equation further as $$x(t) = x(t_0) \exp[a(t-t_0)] + \int^t_{t_0} \exp[a(t-\tau)] b u(\tau) d\tau$$

Problem 4
Expand the Taylor series of $$\sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac {x^k} {k !}$$.

Solution 4
We derive the Taylor series for the exponential function $$f(x) = \exp x$$ at $$a=0$$. $$\sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac {f^{(n)} (a)} {n !} (x - a)^n = \exp (0) + \frac {\exp (0)} {1 !} (x - 0) + \frac {\exp (0)} {2 !} (x - 0)^2 + \frac {\exp (0)} {3 !} (x - 0)^3 + \cdot \cdot \cdot$$ $$= 1 + \frac x 1 + \frac {x^2} {2 !} + \frac {x^3} {3 !} + \cdot \cdot \cdot = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac {x^k} {k !} = \exp x$$

Problem 5
Transform generalized $$x(t) = [\exp \underline A (t - t_0)] x(t_0) + \int^t_{t_0} [\exp \underline A (t - \tau)] \underline B \underline u(\tau) d\tau$$ to SC-L1-ODE-VC.

Solution 5
If we transform the equation from SC-L1-ODE-CC to SC-L1-ODE-VC, the following two operations have to be applied. $$\underline A (t - t_0) \rightarrow \int_{t_0}^t \underline A (\tau) d\tau$$ $$\underline A (t - \tau) \rightarrow \int_\tau^t \underline A (s) ds$$ Now we express the transformed equation. $$\underline x(t) = [\exp \int_{t_0}^t \underline A (\tau) d\tau] \underline x(t_0) + \int_{t_0}^t [\exp \int_\tau^t \underline A (s) ds] \underline B \underline u(\tau) d\tau$$

Problem 6
Use $$\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0) = \underline A \underline \phi (t,t_0)$$ and $$\underline \phi (t_0,t_0) = \underline 1$$ along with $$\dot {\underline x}(t) = \underline A \underline x(t) + \underline B \underline u(t)$$ to obtain $$\underline x(t) = [\exp \underline A (t - t_0)] \underline x (t_0) + \int_{t_0}^t [\exp \underline A (t - \tau)] \underline B \underline u (\tau) d\tau$$.

Solution 6
We can derive from $$\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0) = \underline A \underline \phi (t,t_0)$$ that $$\underline A = \frac {\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0)} {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}$$ $$\dot {\underline x}(t) = \frac {\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0)} {\underline \phi (t,t_0)} \underline x(t) + \underline B \underline u(t)$$ $$\dot {\underline x}(t) {\underline \phi (t,t_0)} = {\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0)} \underline x(t) + \underline B \underline u(t) {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}$$ $$\dot {\underline x}(t) {\underline \phi (t,t_0)} - {\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0)} \underline x(t) = \underline B \underline u(t) {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}$$ $$[\underline \phi (t,t_0)]^2 [\frac {\underline x(t)} {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}]' = \underline B \underline u(t) {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}$$ $$[\underline \phi (t,t_0)]^2 \int_{t_0}^t [\frac {\underline x(t)} {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}]' dt = \int_{t_0}^t \underline B \underline u(\tau) {\underline \phi (\tau,t_0)} d\tau$$ $$\underline x(t) \underline \phi (t,t_0) - \underline x(t_0) [\underline \phi (t,t_0)]^2 = \int_{t_0}^t \underline B \underline u(\tau) {\underline \phi (\tau,t_0)} d\tau$$ $$\underline x(t) = \underline x(t_0) \underline \phi (t,t_0) + \frac 1 {\underline \phi (t,t_0)} \int_{t_0}^t \underline B \underline u(\tau) {\underline \phi (\tau,t_0)} d\tau$$ $$\underline x(t) = \underline x(t_0) \underline \phi (t,t_0) + \int_{t_0}^t \underline B \underline u(\tau) {\underline \phi (t,\tau)} d\tau$$

Problem 7
Put $$\dot \phi = \omega$$, $$\dot \omega = - \frac 1 \tau \omega + \frac Q \tau \delta$$, and $$\dot \delta = u$$ in the form of $$\dot {\underline x}(t) = \underline A \underline x(t) + \underline B \underline u(t)$$.

Solution 7
$$\dot {\underline \phi}(t) = \underline \omega(t)$$ $$\dot {\underline \omega}(t) = - \frac 1 \tau \underline \omega(t) + \frac Q \tau \underline \delta(t)$$ $$\dot {\underline \delta}(t) = \underline u(t)$$

Problem 8
Without assuming prior that $$h$$ is a constant, discuss the search for the solution of $$h_x + h_y P = 0$$.

Solution 8
not available yet

Problem 9
Show that $$15 p^4 \cos x^2 y'' + 6 x y^2 y' - 6 x p^5 \sin x^2 + 2 y^3$$ satisfies the second condition of exactness for N2-ODE.

Solution 9
We are already given that $$f = 15 p^4 \cos x^2$$ $$g = (6 x y^2) p - 6 x p^5 \sin x^2 + 2 y^3$$ We derive the follwing terms $$f_x = - 30 p^3 x \sin x^2$$ $$f_y = 0$$ $$f_{xx} = - 30 p^3 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2$$ $$f_{xy} = 0$$ $$f_{yy} = 0$$ $$g_x = 6 y^2 p - 6 p^5 \sin x^2\ - 12 x^2 p^5 \cos x^2$$ $$g_{xp} = 6 y^2 - 30 p^4 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2$$ $$g_y = 12 x y p + 6 y^2$$ $$g_{yp} = 12 x y$$ $$f_{xp} = - 120 p^3 x \sin x^2$$ $$f_{yp} = 0$$ $$g_p = -30 x p^4 \sin x^2$$ $$g_{pp} = - 120 x p^3 \sin x^2$$ Now we test the second condition of exactness. $$f_{xx} + 2 p f_{xy} + p^2 f_{yy} = - 30 p^3 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2 + 0 + 0 = - 30 p^3 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2$$ $$g_{xp} + p g_{yp} - g_y = 6 y^2 - 30 p^4 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2 + 12 x y p - 12 x y p - 6 y^2 = - 30 p^4 \sin x^2 - 60 x^2 p^4 \cos x^2$$ $$f_{xp} + p f_{yp} + 2 f_y = - 120 p^3 x \sin x^2 + 0 + 0 = - 120 p^3 x \sin x^2$$ It is verified that $$f_{xp} + p f_{yp} + 2 f_y = g_{pp}$$ and $$f_{xx} + 2 p f_{xy} + p^2 f_{yy} = g_{xp} + p g_{yp} - g_y$$. Thus, this differential equation is exact.

Problem 10
Assume $$h_y y' = 2 y^3$$ and solve $$(6 x y^2) y' + 2 y^3 = h_y y' + h_x$$.

Solution 10
Substitute in the expression of $$h_y y'$$ into the equation. $$(6 x y^2) y' + 2 y^3 = 2 y^3 + h_x$$ So we have $$h_x = 6 x y^2 y'$$. $$h(x,y) = 3 x^2 y^2 y' + k_1$$ $$\phi(x,y,p) = (3 x^2 y^2 y' + k_1) + 3 p^5 \cos x^2 = k_2$$ Arrange the equation and obtain that $$\phi(x,y,p) = 3 x^2 y^2 y' + 3 p^5 \cos x^2 = k_2 - k_1$$

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/숙제3


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Comparative law and justice/Argentina

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Monica10 17:22, 5 October 2010 (UTC)

Basic Information
REPUBLICA ARGENTINA

Flag Description: The flag has three (3) equal horizontal stripes of light blue and white. There is a bright yellow sun with a human face that is known as the the Sun of May.

Demographical Data: Argentina has a moderate demographic density. The demographic density consists of about 38 million people, who mainly reside in urban areas. Roughly half of the 38 million residents live in the Federal Capital, Buenos Aires. Below is a chart listing several types of native descendents that occupy Argentinas population rate:

 * 1) European (mainly Spanish and Italian descent).......97%
 * 2) Mestizo, Amerindian and/or other nonwhite groups....3%

Geographical Data: Argentina is located in the southern portion of South America. Argentina is the second largest country in South America; however is the eighth in the world. The countries surrounding Argentina from the north are Bolivia and Paraguay, from the east are Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, and finally from the south of Argentina are the Atlantic Ocean and Chile.

Terrain: The fertile plains of the Pampas occupy the northern hemisphere of Argentina. The smooth to rocky plateaus of Patagonia consume the south, and the rugged Andes along western border.

Climate and Regions: Argentina has diverse landscapes throughout, below is a chart listing seven climatic regions of the beautiful country.

 * 1) Northwest : Here the climate is typically tropical. The terrain is made up of valleys, gorges, and plateaus which creates an opportunity for settlement.
 * 2) Gran Chaco : Consists mostly of forestall land and swampy ponds.
 * 3) Mesopotamia : The temperature is normally hot. The landscape consists of swampy territory.
 * 4) Cuyo : The temperature varies from hot to warm. With the availability of artificial irrigation, the land is ideal for viticulture.
 * 5) Central Sierras : The area offers dry temperatures.
 * 6) Humid Pampa : The temperature is warm. Here the fertile land provides agriculture and the opening for cattle breeding. The area is heavily populated.
 * 7) Patagonia : The area is filled with marine animals, perfect for sightseeing. The terrain is filled with plateaus and valleys.

Religion: The official religion of Argentina is Apostolic Roman Catholic. With such a large population, there are several other religions practiced in Argentina. Religious practices vary from traditional Catholicism to Protestantism, Judaism, and Islamism among many others.

Ethnic Characteristics: The roots of Argentina’s cultural and ethnic characteristics are European based. Argentina has a high level of cultural activity. The residents in Argentina have a passion for the arts and theatre. In the Federal Capital, there are about 100 cinemas and 90 theatres including the Colon Theatre which is among the top theatres in the world. The Colon Theatre offers impeccable architecture and exceptional acoustic performances. The music of the country is the passionate and rhythmic tango. Individuals can experience its whole essence, its melodramatic lyrics and movements. Depending on the region of the country, the choice of musical preference may vary, for instance, folklore rhythms and styles. The traditional type of food is asado. Asado is a form of barbeque where the meat is cooked over live coals. Argentina has such a diverse cuisine because of its diverse population. Such diversity derives from Spanish, Chilean, German, and many other influential heritages.

Language: The official language of Argentina is Spanish. However, other languages are spoken in Argentina, such as English, Italian, French, and German.

Brief History

On July 9, 1816, Argentina gained its independence from Spain. Argentina's population and cultural diversity incorporated immigrants from Europe, but mostly from Italy and Spain. From 1860 to 1930, the country’s population grew contributing to the largest percentage of newcomers. Throughout the mid 20th century, Argentina's pastimes were controlled by political conflict between Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and military groupings. As World War II was over, when "Peronist populism and direct and indirect military interference in subsequent governments was followed by a military junta that took power in 1976." Finally, democracy returned to Argentina in 1983 after failing to seize the Falkland Islands. Argentina fell into severe economic instability in 2001 and 2002. This unfortunate instability led to aggressive protests and to successive resignations of several presidents.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Economic Growth: Through the 1960's and 80's Argentina became a member of the Latin American Free Trade Association. In 1992, diplomatic and trade relations were reestablished with Britain. A new law was passed in 1993 that liberated the mining sector and created a dramatic increase in the industry. The American Constitution was amended in 1994 were the United States and Argentina signed an investment treaty. In 1997, The United States allowed imports of Argentine beef for the first time in six decades. This initiated a program which created several areas of free trade in order to increase trade investments. In 2002, Argentina and Brazil negotiated a new treaty that strengthened MERCOSUR. (MERCOSUR is a free trade agreement that join together Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay.)

Healthcare: The healthcare system is similar to other systems in other Latin American countries. The Department of Public Health controls National Health Policy. In 1998, there was "an estimated 108,800 physicians, 28,900 dentists, 15,300 pharmacists, 29,000 nurses, and 11,100 medical technicians." Healthcare services for employees were provided by clinics of unions, and employers were typically required to provide free medical care for injured workers. The private sector plays a role in the provision of health services in Argentina. The private sector guarantees social security through organizations called Obras Sociales. The way that funding was raised was from employee payroll taxes and contributions.

Education: , Argentina has one of the highest literacy rates in Latin America, only second to Uruguay "In 1993, Argentina switched from seven years of primary and five years of secondary education to a system known as EGB, consisting of nine compulsory years divided into three-year stages. This is followed by a three-year "multimodal" course of study offering either general or specialized training." In Argentina there are officially 46 accredited universities. The largest university in Argentina is the University of Buenos ires. Several private and religious schools are allowed,

Elections
Executive Branch The next election will be held in 2019
 * Chief of State: President Mauricio Macri. The President and Vice President are the head of the government.
 * Vice President: Gabriela Michetti.
 * Cabinet: The cabinet is chosen by the President.
 * Elections: The President and Vice President are chosen on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.
 * The last election held was in 2015

Legislative Branch
 * The National Congress consists of the Senate. The Senate seats 72 members whom are elected by direct vote.
 * The Chamber of Deputies seats 257 members.

Judicial Branch
 * Supreme Court: The Supreme Court judges are chosen by the President; however, the decision must be approved by the Senate.
 * The Supreme Court consists of seven (7) judges. Congress passed a bill in 2006 to reduce the number of Supreme Court judges to five (5).

Types of Government: Argentina is a republic. There are three levels of government, federal, provincial, and local.

Legal System: The legal system in Argentina is a mixture of United States and European legal systems.

Constitution: Argentina's constitution was created on May 1, 1853. The Constitution has been amended several times beginning in 1860.

Voting Eligibility: The voting age is 16 and voting is compulsory and universal.

Judicial Review
Argentina follows a diffuse model of judicial review. A diffuse model of judicial review is when " a country's entire judiciary has the duty of constitutional control with the potential inconsistency of decisions being lessened through stare decisis or a structural equivalent." In Argentina's constitution, Section 31 states that the constitution and the laws that are approved by Congress are "the supreme law of the Nation" (Argentina Constitution, 1998.) Also, Section 116 grants the Supreme Court and other inferior courts permission to observe cases related to the Constitution and congressional laws.

In Argentina's appellate jurisdiction, the Supreme Court of Justice observes two kinds of appeal. For "ordinary" appeals the Supreme court reviews certain decisions made by the National Chamber of Appeals. The second type of appellate jurisdiction is "extraordinary" appeals, this supplys Argentina's special procedures for judicial review.

Courts and Criminal Law
Judges: Argentina has both federal and provincial courts. The Supreme Court in Argentina consists of seven (7) judges. The judges have the power to declare any legislative acts as unconstitutional and are considered the central element of the trial process. This privilege first began in 1854. Supreme Court judges are selected by the President of Argentina with the approval of the country's Senate. Federal courts are categorized according to the nature of the cause. There are civil, criminal, family, and commercial courts. Federal judges are also chosen by the President, with the recommendations of the magistrates council.

Juries: No jury system.

Lawyers: Licensed lawyers in Argentina are known as Abogados. Legal practitioners are trained by attending law school and by participating in a five-year law program.

Presumption of Guilt or Innocence: The trials in Argentina are public and defendants have the right to legal counsel and to call defense witnesses. A panel of judges decides whether the criminal is guiltily or innocence.

Structure of the Argentine Court System:

Federal Court System In this court system the Attorney General and the Official Defender are the lead administrators of the Public Ministry.
 * The Supreme Court
 * 17 Appellate Courts
 * The District and the Territorial Courts

Provincial Court System
 * The Supreme Court
 * Appellate Courts
 * Lower Courts: There are three (3) types of courts. They are civil, criminal, and labor courts.

Verdicts can be appealed to the Provincial Supreme court or Superior Tribunal of Justice.

Punishment
Typical Punishment: In Argentina, there have not been recent events of capital punishment (hanging, firing squad, torture, or flogging.)

Capital Data Information: Under the penal system, the Global Press states, "corporal punishment is unlawful as a sentence for the crime. Article 18 of the Constitution (1994) abolishes whipping and any kind of torture." On August 7, 2008, the Argentine Senate approved a law repealing the 1951 Military Code of Justice. This new law abolished the death penalty for all crimes committed, even those committed in times of armed conflict on in peace resolution by the armed forces. As many countries abolished the death penalty and Argentina was the tenth (10th) country to do so. On September 5, 2008, the government ratified the Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty. The last execution that took place in Argentina was in 1916.

Imprisonment Rate: Argentina's national imprisonment ranking is 71. The prison population is 54,472 and prisoners per 100,000 people is 140.

Justification For Punishment: In Argentina self-justification is available. Retribution punishment allows society to move forward. Prisons are for security purposes only but rehabilitation is an option for detainees. One rehabilitation option is job training. Training provides skills and knowledge that are necessary to re-enter the workforce and become economically self-sufficient. Drug and psychiatric treatments are another option for rehabilitation. A group of caring medical professionals has helped thousands of inmates achieve solidarity and mental and physically healthiness.

Juveniles: Economic issues in the region cause high unemployment rates which are a factor that contributes to juvenile delinquency. A high rate of homelessness is also a contributing factor. When a crime is committed and a juvenile is arrested the offender may or may not face charges in Youth Court.

Law Enforcement
Police Structure: Argentina's police structure is decentralized including both federal and provincial procedures. Policing in Argentina is the sole responsibility of federal and provincial governments. The main priority of the Federal Penitentiary System (SPF) is to provide safe custody, guarding and necessary treatment of the incarcerated prisoners. For instance, Argentina's Internal Security System provides a structured policy for 26 armed and unarmed police officers. At the provincial level, each government organizes and controls its police officers. However, in the jurisdiction of the federal police and security the protective forces are limited to defined crimes. Whereas the provincial police forces are limited to nonfederal crimes within their own borders.

Divisions of Law Enforcement:

The police forces in Argentina maintain internal security by law. Two specific types of police functions are listed below:
 * Security Police: The services are related to public order and safety, crime prevention and control, criminal control and protective administrative activities.

 * Judiciary Police: Strict policing activities performed under supervision and related to criminal investigations.

Militay: Argentina had three (3) military branches:
 * 1) Argentine Army (Ejercito Argentino)
 * 2) Navy of the Argentine Republic (Armada Republica; includes naval aviation and naval infantry)
 * 3) Argentine Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Argentina, FAA) (2010)

The age range for male and female military services are involuntary 18-24 years of age and for voluntary 18-21 which requires parental consent. The President of Argentina is the commander in chief of the military.

Manpower:
 * Male: 340,570
 * Female: 323,953

Police Corruption: Police corruption was and still is a serious problem in Argentina. There have been incidents of killings and brutalities by police officials. Unfortunately, after the federal government and the provincial government in Buenos Aires eliminated corrupt officers the problem still lingered. The corruption left prisons and jails to become overcrowded and innocent citizens detained.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Degree of Crime: In Argentina there are several different types of crimes committed. For example violent crimes, property crimes, and others such as human trafficking. In 2001, the overall rate of crime committed in Argentina was low compared to those countries that were industrialized. An investigation was done using INTERPOL data. Below is a chart which lists those crimes and statistical rates.

Crimes Statistics:

Family Law
Marriage: Argentina's official religion is Roman Catholic. With following Catholicism practices, marriage is considered a holy sacrament that creates a relationship between man and women. For Catholics, if one of the participants is Catholic, the Church requires the couple to express their desire to give themselves in marriage before a priest with at least two witnesses. This process is called the canonical form of marriage. Typically the two participants are baptized first as children then confirmed when adolescents and finally when they decide to commit themselves to matrimony is a binding promise which is a visible sign of God's love in the world. This means that the couple finds in their relationship a source of God's grace.

When it comes to same sex marriages Argentina became the first country in Latin America to legalize gay marriage after the Senate voted in its favor. The law, allows same sex couples to adopt, which led the Catholic Church and other religious groups to become upset and discouraged. The legislation, with the support of President Cristina Fernandez passed by 33 votes to 27 with three abstentions.

Divorce: It doesn't matter where in the world Roman Catholicism is practiced the idea of divorce is highly frowned upon. So when divorce and remarriage become legal in Argentina there was much controversy. The vote in the Senate was 26 to 14. The law was approved by the Chamber of Deputies in October of 2009 by a 176-to-36 vote. Legislation had stated that Argentina was one of only (7) seven countries in the world that forbid divorce under any circumstances. Under civil marriage law the couple may divorce by mutual consent after both participants have been separated for a minimum of a year. However, if the divorce is at the request of just one participant, the divorce only becomes available after a separation of a minimum of three years.

Adoption: In Argentina, there are specific requirements a child must meet in order to be eligible for adoption. Unfortunately, no child can be adopted if the specific requirements are met. The first eligibility requirement is the relinquishment of parental rights. The child's biological parents must relinquish their rights to the child. This is done through the justice system. Once the parents advocate their rights, their decision is irrevocable. The child may not be placed up for adoption immediately after birth. The law states that there is a 60-day waiting period in case the birth mother decides to change her mind. During the 60-day period, the courts have the ability to review the personal environment of the child and biological parents. For instance, the age of the parents and the level of care they are able to provide for the child, and if the housing conditions are suitable. According to Argentine law, the adoptive parents must tell their child of his/her adoption before he/she reach the age of 18. The law also states that the child has the right to know their biological identity and may have access to their adoption file once they have reached the age of 18. The second requirement is abandonment. If the child is a ward of the court, there is no need for a release from the parents. Also if the child lived on the streets, or housed in a government housing facility for more than one year then no release is needed.

In Argentina, an infinite amount of adoptions take place through a direct exchange or either through a private agreement between the biological mother and those wishing to adopt. New legislation was created to try to clarify and speed up the process of adopting through the state. The National Register of Aspiring Adopters (DNRUA) was created as a national list of people waiting to adopt. According to the law, each provincial register submits the names of all those on the waiting-list to the national register in the capital. The judges then use the list to choose the best family for each child.

Inheritance: In domestic law, the Argentine Civil Code states that the continuity of the estate of an expired person is governed by the law of the state of the deceased's residency at the time of death regardless of the person lineage. The Civil Code further insists that the same law oversees the information and authentication of wills. Also, the Civil Code suggests exclusion to the general rule that the law of the deceased's residency governs inheritance.

Decision-Making Rights: In Argentina, the legal age (with no restrictions) is the age of 18. Whereas the age of 13 allows minimal activity with certain restrictions. One particular restriction under the minimum age of 13 is in regards to sexual contact. The restriction prohibits adolescents from engaging in sexual activity between the ages of 13 and 16. If there is contact, a formal complaint can be filed by either the parent of guardian of either participant. The above restriction applies to a individual being 18 or older taking advantage of a minor sexually. The legal drinking age in Argentina is 18.

Citizenship Rights: Citizenship is granted to a child only on the premises that both the child's parents are citizens of Argentina.

Human Rights
The Argentine Constitution lists numerous rights and guarantees that the people are protected by. Below I listed fundamental rights that are listed in the Constitution.

Fundametal Rights:

"Section 8.- The citizens of each province shall be entitled to all rights, privileges, and immunities inherent in the condition of citizen in the other provinces. The extradition of criminals is a reciprocal obligation among all the provinces."

"Section 14.- All the inhabitants of the Nation are entitled to the following rights, in accordance with the laws that regulate their exercise, namely: to work and perform any lawful industry; to navigate and trade; to petition the authorities; to enter, remain in, travel through, and leave the Argentine territory; to publish their ideas through the press without previous censorship; to make use and dispose of their property; to associate for useful purposes; to profess freely their religion; to teach and to learn."

"Section 15.- In the Argentine Nation there are no slaves: the few who still exist shall become free as from the swearing of his Constitution; and a special law shall regulate whatever compensation this declaration may give rise to. Any contract for the purchase and sale of persons is a crime for which the parties shall be liable, as well as the notary or officer authorizing it. And slaves who by any means enter the nation shall be free by the mere fact of entering the territory of the Republic."

"Section 16.- The Argentine Nation admits neither blood nor birth prerogatives: there are neither personal privileges nor titles of nobility. All its inhabitants are equal before the law, and admissible to employment without any other requirement than their ability. Equality is the basis of taxation and public burdens."

"Section 41.- All inhabitants are entitled to the right to a healthy and balanced environment fit for human development in order that productive activities shall meet present needs without endangering those of future generations; and shall have the duty to preserve it. As a first priority, environmental damage shall bring about the obligation to repair it according to law. The authorities shall provide for the protection of this right, the rational use of natural resources, the preservation of the natural and cultural heritage and of the biological diversity, and shall also provide for environmental information and education. The Nation shall regulate the minimum protection standards, and the provinces those necessary to reinforce them, without altering their local jurisdictions. The entry into the national territory of present or potential dangerous wastes, and of radioactive ones, is forbidden."

Equality: The Argentine Constitution protects the equality of both males and females. The Constitution prohibits any type of discrimination against women. There are civil liberties for women’s that are respected. The law guarantees freedom of movement for women and there are no restrictions of this freedom. Women also have the freedom of financial independence.

Presence of Discrimination: Although there are laws protecting both male and female rights there is a definite presence of discrimination. In Argentina there are various ethinic groups who live within the borders. Just recently did Argentina consider itself a multicultural society.

title: Comparative law and justice/Argentina


text:
Northern Arizona University/Environmental Ethics/Adaptation Groups

Small Communities
Group Sub-Topics
 * Agriculture
 * Energy
 * Demographics
 * Climate and Business
 * Forest Ecosystems
 * Harmful Effects and Policy
 * Food Security


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/3

Homework 3
All problems except for 8

Part 1
Derive the following equations.

Part 2
Write the above equations in the form of $$\dot x(t) = A(t) x(t) + B(t) u(t)$$. Find A, B, and u.

Part 1
We use Newtons's second law for Rotation which is $$\Sigma \tau = I \alpha$$ for the derivation. We note that there are three torques applied on the particle 1; gravitational torque, controlling torque, and spring torque. Gravitational torque is Controlling torque is Spring torque is Moment of inertia for the point mass is Angular acceleration for the point mass is We set up the equation of motion for the first particle. Apply the small-angle approximation which states that $$\sin x \approx x$$ and $$\cos x \approx 1$$ to simplify equation as We use the same techniques to derive the equation of motion for second particle. Gravitational torque is Controlling torque is Spring torque is Moment of inertia for the point mass is Angular acceleration for the point mass is We set up the equation of motion for the second particle. Apply the small-angle approximation which states that $$\sin x \approx x$$ and $$\cos x \approx 1$$ to simplify equation as

Part 2
We write $$\dot x(t) = A(t) x(t) + B(t) u(t)$$ in matrix form. We divide the both side of $$m_1 l^2 \ddot \theta_1\ = - k a^2 (\theta_1 - \theta_2) - l \theta_1 m_1 g + l u_1$$ by $$m_1 l^2$$ to get Similarly, we divide the both side of $$m_2 l^2 \ddot \theta_2\ = - k a^2 (\theta_2 - \theta_1) - l \theta_2 m_2 g + l u_2$$ by $$m_2 l^2$$ to get We can easily determine that the all the components on row 1 and row 3 of matrix A and matrix B are null, so we write that Now we plug in the expressions of $$\ddot \theta_1$$ and $$\ddot \theta_2$$ into the matrix.

Problem 3
Solve $$\dot x(t) = a(t) x(t) + b(t) u(t)$$ for the case where $$a(t)$$ and $$b(t)$$ are constant coefficients while u(t) is prescribed.

Solution 3
We state that $$a(t) = a$$ and $$b(t) = b$$ for this case. So we have the equation in the form of $$hx' + h'x = hk$$. Note that we cannot use the equation of $$y(x) = \frac 1 {h(x)} \int^x h(s) d(s) ds$$ since the lower limit is bounded as $$t_0$$. Deriving an equation for the lower bound Apply the modified equation given above to our problem. It is possible to simplify the equation further as

Problem 6
Use $$\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0) = \underline A \underline \phi (t,t_0)$$ and $$\underline \phi (t_0,t_0) = \underline 1$$ along with $$\dot {\underline x}(t) = \underline A \underline x(t) + \underline B \underline u(t)$$ to obtain $$\underline x(t) = [\exp \underline A (t - t_0)] \underline x (t_0) + \int_{t_0}^t [\exp \underline A (t - \tau)] \underline B \underline u (\tau) d\tau$$.

Solution 6
We can derive from $$\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0) = \underline A \underline \phi (t,t_0)$$ that $$\underline A = \frac {\frac d {dt} \underline \phi (t,t_0)} {\underline \phi (t,t_0)}$$. Because $$\phi (t_0,t_0) = \underline 1$$ which is an identity matrix.

Problem 10
Assume $$h_y y' = 2 y^3$$ and solve $$(6 x y^2) y' + 2 y^3 = h_y y' + h_x$$.

Solution 10
We derive the following procedures according to the given assumption. Note from the equation of $$(6 x y^2) y' + 2 y^3 = h_y y' + h_x$$ that $$h_x = (6 x y^2) y'$$. Take a derivative of $$h(x,y)$$ with respect to $$y$$ to find that Multiply by $$y'$$ to determine that $$k_1(y)$$ is a constant. Since $${k_1}'(y) = 0$$, then $$k_1 (y) = k_1$$.

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team5.abc/3


title: File:6321HW3S2.pdf


text:
User:Renamed user dj65cf874dfh44

I mainly contribute to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jeffmcneill but can be found on other wikis.

title: User:Renamed user dj65cf874dfh44


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User talk:Renamed user dj65cf874dfh44

 Hello Jeffmcneill, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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User talk:Egm6321.f10.team5/hw3

Problem Assignments
Since there are 7 members in the team and 10 problems are assigned for this homework, please work on 3 problems. Each problem should be solved by 2 members. Only one problem should be solved by 3 members since there will be total of 21 solutions made by us and 20 solutions are needed. If 2 members have already taken a problem, please do not work on the problem. Unless each member solves 3 problems, we will not have 2 solutions to compare for each problem.

title: User talk:Egm6321.f10.team5/hw3


text: File:Invsquare.JPG

title: File:Invsquare.JPG


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team5.steinberg/hw3

Given
A second order nonlinear ordinary differential equation (N2-ODE) may be represented as follows (First Cond. of Exactness):

$$ F(x,y,y',y) = g(x,y,p) + f(x,y,p)y = 0 \! $$

where $$ p = y' \! $$

If both the first and second conditions of exactness are satisfied,

Find
Define the method for determining $$ h(x,y) \! $$ such that for the case when $$ h(x,y) \not= const \! $$

Solution
Using Eq. (8.3), the following partial derivatives can be obtained

Recalling the definition of $$ g \! $$ given in Eq. (8.1) and substituting (8.4) and (8.5) into (8.1) yields

Because we already know $$ g \! $$ from the N2-ODE given, we can set like terms equal in order to solve for $$ h(x,y) \! $$.

For example, should (8.6) simplify into the following form,

$$ ay' + b = h_x + h_y y' \! $$

then we may set $$ h_x = b \! $$ and $$ h_y = a \! $$ and solve for $$ h(x,y) \! $$.

Given
$$ a(x) = sin(x^3) \! $$

$$ b(x) = cos(x) \! $$

$$ c(y) = exp(2y) \! $$

Find
1. Using $$ \bar b(x)c(y)y'+a(x) \bar c(y) = 0 \! $$, find a N1-ODE that is either exact or can be made exact.

2. Find $$ \phi(x,y) = k \! $$.

Solution
$$ \bar b(x) = \int^x b(s) ds = \int^x cos(s) ds = sin(x) \! $$

$$ \bar c(y) = \int^y c(s) ds = \int^y exp(2s) ds = \frac{1}{2} exp(2y) \! $$

Substituting these along with $$a(x) \!$$ and $$c(y) \!$$ into the given equation yields the following N1-ODE:

$$ \frac{1}{2} sin(x^3)exp(2y) + sin(x)exp(2y)y' = 0 \! $$

In this form, the N1-ODE is not exact since the second condition of exactness is not satisfied i.e. $$ \frac{\partial M}{\partial y} \not= \frac{\partial N}{\partial x} $$.

However, we may employ the Euler integrating factor method to force the equation to be exact.

$$ hM + hNy' = 0, \bar M_y = \bar N_x \! $$

$$ \bar M_y = h_y M + h M_y \! $$

$$ \bar N_x = h_x N + h N_x \! $$ $$ h_x N - h_y M + h(N_x - M_y) = 0 \! $$

$$ M = \frac{1}{2} sin(x^3) exp(2y) \! $$

$$ N = sin(x) exp(2y) \! $$

$$ M_y = sin(x^3) exp(2y) \! $$

$$ N_x = cos(x) exp(2y) \! $$

Let $$ h_x = 0 \!$$

$$ h(y) = exp(\int \frac{1}{M} (N_x - M_y) dy) $$

$$ = exp \Bigg ( \int \frac{2}{sin(x^3)exp(2y)} exp(2y) [ cos(x) - sin(x^3) ] dy \Bigg) $$

$$ = exp\Bigg (y \bigg [\frac{cos(x)}{sin(x^3)}-1 \bigg] \Bigg) $$

??????

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team5.steinberg/hw3


text:
User talk:Kubke

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text:
User:Egm6321.f2010.team5.riveros/hw3p9

=Problem 9 - Show the given equation satisfies the second condition for exactness= From Meeting 17, p. 17-2

Given
We are given a nonlinear second order ODE,
 * $$ \displaystyle

\underbrace{\phi_p}_{f}y + \underbrace{\phi_yy' + \phi_x}_{g} =\underbrace{(15p^4cos (x^2))}_{\phi_p}y + \underbrace{(6xy^2)}_{\phi_y}y' + \underbrace{(-6xp^5sin(x^2) + 2y^3)}_{\phi_x} = 0 $$ Thus,
 * $$ \displaystyle

f = \phi_p = 15p^4cos (x^2) $$ and,
 * $$ \displaystyle

g = \phi_yy' + \phi_x = (6xy^2)y' + (-6xyp^5sin(x^2) + 2y^3) $$

Find
The second condition of exactness for nonlinear second order ODEs states that the ODE must satisfy the following two relations:
 * 1) $$ \displaystyle f_{xx}+2pf_{xy}+2p^2f_{yy} = g_{xp}+pg_{yp}-g_{y}$$
 * 2) $$ \displaystyle f_{xp}+pf_{yp}+2f_{y}=g_{pp}$$

Show that the given equation satisfies the second condition of exactness.

First relation
The terms on the left hand side are found,
 * $$\displaystyle

f_{xx} = -60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2}) $$

 * $$\displaystyle

f_{xy} = 0 $$

 * $$\displaystyle

f_{yy} = 0 $$ Thus, the left hand side is,
 * $$\displaystyle

f_{xx}+2pf_{xy}+2p^2f_{yy} = -60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2}) $$ The individual terms on the right hand side are found,
 * $$\displaystyle

g_{xp} = 6\,{y}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2})-60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2} $$

 * $$\displaystyle

g_{yp} = 12\,xy $$

 * $$\displaystyle

g_{y} = 12\,xyp+6\,{y}^{2} $$ Thus, the right hand side is,
 * $$\displaystyle

g_{xp}+pg_{yp}-g_{y} = -60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2}) $$ We then check for equality,
 * $$\displaystyle f_{xx}+2pf_{xy}+2p^2f_{yy} =g_{xp}+pg_{yp}-g_{y} \implies -60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2})=-60\,{p}^{4}\cos({x}^{2}){x}^{2}-30\,{p}^{4}\sin({x}^{2})$$

Which is true.

Second relation
The individual terms on the left hand side are found,
 * $$\displaystyle

f_{xp} = -120\,{p}^{3}\sin({x}^{2})x $$

 * $$\displaystyle

f_{yp} = 0 $$

 * $$\displaystyle

f_{y} = 0 $$ Thus, the left hand side is,
 * $$\displaystyle

f_{xp}+pf_{yp}+2f_{y}=-120\,{p}^{3}\sin({x}^{2})x $$ The right hand side is then found,
 * $$\displaystyle

g_{pp}=-120\,{p}^{3}\sin({x}^{2})x $$

We check for equality,
 * $$\displaystyle f_{xp}+pf_{yp}+2f_{y}=g_{pp} \implies -120\,{p}^{3}\sin({x}^{2})x=-120\,{p}^{3}\sin({x}^{2})x$$

Which is also true; therefore, the given equation satisfies the second condition of exactness.

[Author]

Egm6321.f2010.team5.riveros 06:20, 5 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User:Egm6321.f2010.team5.riveros/hw3p9


text:
User:Ha98574/Railroad

 * /China
 * /Korea
 * /Japan

 *
 *

title: User:Ha98574/Railroad


text:
User:Ha98574/Railroad/Korea

 * Express Line
 * /Gyeongbu Express Line
 * /Honam Express Line

 * Railroad
 * G
 * /Gaeun Line
 * /Gaeseonggongdan Line
 * /Ganggyeong Line
 * /Gaya Line
 * /Gimjin Line
 * /Gudaegu Line
 * /Gugyeongchun Line
 * /Gugyeongbuk Line
 * /Gyeongbu Line
 * /Gyeongbuk Line
 * /Gyeongbuknaeryuk Line
 * /Gyeonggihwahak Line
 * /Gyeonggiseobu Line
 * /Gyeongui Line
 * /Gyeongwon Line
 * H
 * /Hansoljeji Line
 * /Hamgyeong Line
 * S
 * /Songtangunyong Line
 * /Surye Line
 * T
 * /Tongil Line
 * U
 * /Uijeongbugunyong Line
 * W
 * /Wonsanbukhang Line

 * Metropolian Subway Line
 * G
 * Gaeun Line
 * Ganggyeong Line
 * Gaya Line
 * Gimjin Line
 * Gugyeongbuk Line
 * Gyeongbu Line
 * Gyeongbuk Line
 * Gyeongbuknaeryuk Line
 * Gyeonggiseoobu Line
 * Gyeongui Line
 * Gyeongwon Line

title: User:Ha98574/Railroad/Korea


text: User:Ha98574/Railroad/Korea/Gyeongbu Express Line/m


text: User:Ha98574/Railroad/Korea/Gyeongbu Express Line/Template


text:
User:Mindwalkeronline

Part I

There is Reality and there are all the things within Reality. All the things within Reality are the things that are real. Moreover, nothing unreal exists. That is to say, there is nothing real outside of Reality and there is nothing within Reality that is not real. There is Reality and there are all the things within Reality and there is nothing else.

Reality is a sea of unawareness seeking to attain awareness. All the things within Reality are the attainment of awareness by Reality. Hence, Reality is a sea of unawareness with islands of awareness within it. In other words, all things within Reality are islands of awareness within the sea of unawareness that is Reality.

Reality is a sea of unawareness. It is an actual sea. It is not a metaphorical sea. Reality is a sea of unawareness with islands of awareness within it.

There is unawareness. There is the sea consisting of unawareness. The sea of unawareness is Reality.

There is order. There are islands consisting of order. The islands of order are all the things within Reality.

There is Reality and there are all the things within Reality. Reality is unawareness. Reality is a sea of unawareness. Unawareness is chaos. The sea of unawareness is chaos. Each thing within Reality is awareness. Each thing within Reality is an island of awareness. Awareness is order. Each island of awareness is order. Within the sea of unawareness, there are islands of awareness. Hence, Reality is chaos with order within it.

Between chaos and order, there lies a boundary. This boundary is a fractal. All fractals are an open boundary between chaos and order. Fractals are neither chaos nor order. Fractals are both chaos and order.

title: User:Mindwalkeronline


text:
User talk:Panupon

 Hello Panupon, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Adultery

Introduction
On one side of the world, a woman stands in a courtroom pleading her innocence. Her husband has accused her of committing adultery. After deliberation the judge finds her guilty and sentences her to death by stoning.

On the other side of the world, a man and a woman walk into their counsellor’s office and discuss how adultery affected their marriage and whether they can move on from this or whether they should get a divorce.

One of the most serious forms of violating relationship norms is being unfaithful to a person’s spouse. While different cultures have different views on adultery, it remains a topic of widespread interest in popular culture, this is partly due to the fact that adultery can lead to divorce (Laumann, Gagnon, Mitchael & Michaels, 1994). The topic is also regularly featured in the media, such as soap operas, talk shows and magazines. As a result of this fascination with adultery in some cultures it has almost become normalised, with influential people admitting to adultery, for example, Tiger Woods and Bill Clinton. This chapter will explore what motivates a person to commit adultery. This chapter will define adultery, discuss the prevalence of this issue, gender, dissatisfaction, opportunity, The Big Five, children, education, the length of marriage and religion will be explored to determine whether these factors can help explain what motivates a person to cheat on their spouse.

Definition
The term adultery lacks a consistent operational definition. Psychological literature defines adultery in numerous ways, for example, having an affair, infidelity, an extramarital relationship, cheating, sexual intercourse outside of the primary relationship, emotional connections that are beyond friendship with an individual who is not the spouse or an internet relationship. Due to the complexity of defining adultery, when this chapter discuses adultery it will be referring to, sexual intercourse or an emotional connection that goes beyond friendship by a married person with someone other than their spouse.

The prevalence of adultery
Many studies attempt to estimate exactly how many people engage or have engaged in adultery. One study indicated that 25% of married men and 15% of married women admitted to having had extramarital sex at least once during their marriage (Laumann, Gagnon, Mitchael & Michaels, 1994). However, in a 1991-1996 General Social Surveys report it was reported that 13% of respondents have had extramarital sex (Atkins, Baucom & Jacobson, 2001). In contrast other authors have reported significantly lower prevalence statistics. For example, in Leigh, Temple and Trocki’s (1993) sample 1.2% of married participants admitted to having had extramarital sex in the last thirty years, 3.6% had extramarital sex in the past twelve months and 6.4% had extramarital sex in the past five years. These statistics imply that there is still debate about the extent of adultery within society, nevertheless, the consequences of adultery have been established with adultery being the most cited reason for divorce in 160 countries (Betzig, 1989)and the leading cause of spousal battery and homicide (Daly & Wilson, 1988). Adultery is a worldwide problem that affects a considerable amount of people, with the consequences being devastating.

Gender differences
Gender has been the most commonly studied variable in extramarital behaviour. As a result a person would expect that it would be relatively easy to determine whether males or females are more motivated to commit adultery. However, the body of research in this area offers no clear answer.

The typical finding has been that significantly more men than women have engaged in adultery (Allen & Baucom, 2004). Furthermore, men report a larger number of extramarital relationships and they express a greater interest in infidelity (Buunk & Bakker, 1995). At the same time other research suggests that men are only slightly more likely than women to engage in adultery (Choi, Catania & Dolcini, 1994). However, resent research suggests that the difference between the sexes in rates of adultery may be decreasing (Oliver & Hyde, 1993). Oliver and Hyde (1993) conducted an experiment in which they examined gender differences and adultery. The report found that the rates of adultery for men and women are becoming similar for younger people. In another study Wiederman (1997) reported that men and women less than forty years of age showed no differences in their reported adultery. These studies reveal that in the past men appear to have been more motivated to commit adultery or more likely to admit to cheating, however, it could be argued that due to the fact that society, in particular women, have evolved over the last few decades that this gender gap is becoming less significant.

Gender also appears to interact with emotional and sexual adultery and the meanings that are associated with that behaviour (Glass & Wright, 1992). For example, women generally appear to place a greater emphasis on the emotional connection of an affair than men, whereas for men, there generally seems to be a greater emphasis on the sexual experience. A study that looked at emotional and sexual adultery supports the notion that emotional experiences in adultery are more important to women than men (Glass & Wright, 1992). Emotional adultery occurs when a person thinks intimately about and craves emotional intimacy from someone other than their spouse (Glass & Wright, 1992). Sexual adultery is when an individual engages in sexual activity with someone other than their spouse (Glass & Wright, 1992). Research also indicates that while men are more likely to engage in an affair for sexual intercourse, women appear to be more inclined to engage in an extramarital relationship that is both sexual and emotional (Glass & Wright, 1992). Therefore, while both sexes are motivated to cheat on their spouses, males and females appear to have different motivations in what they need from the person that they are committing adultery with.

If a person is dissatisfied in their relationship are they more motivated to cheat?
A large body of literature supports the concept that individuals engage in adultery because there is something wrong with their marriage (Atkins, Baucom & Jacobson, 2001). At the very least the relationship dissatisfaction increases the desire for an extramarital relationship (Atkins, Baucom & Jacobson, 2001). Glass and Wright (1985) found a negative correlation between marital satisfaction and infidelity to be significant for all types of extramarital involvement (sexual, emotional and a combination of sexual and emotional). Furthermore, men and women who are involved in both sexual and emotional adultery are more dissatisfied in their marriages than people who engage in either sexual or emotional adultery (Glass & Wright, 1992). Nevertheless, not all studies have shown a relationship between adultery and relationship dissatisfaction. For example, Blumstein (1999) failed to find a statistically significant relationship between adultery and satisfaction. On the whole it appears that a significant body of literature indicates that if an individual is dissatisfied in their marriage they are more motivated to find satisfaction outside of their primary relationship, whether sexual or emotional.

There is also some evidence that other variables may moderate the relationship between dissatisfaction and adultery. Glass and Wright (1985) showed that a sexual affair is less likely to be correlated with marital dissatisfaction than a combination of a sexual and an emotional affair. This research supports the theory that dissatisfaction is more prominent in a marriage when a person seeks emotional satisfaction outside of the primary relationship (Glass & Wright, 1992). Therefore, it could be argued that there are different reasons for affairs and therefore, relationship dissatisfaction may be a contributing factor for some affairs but not others.

Opportunity
While gender and marital dissatisfaction have been the most studied reasons for a person committing adultery, another variable that has been shown to increase the likelihood of a person cheating on their spouse is opportunity. Opportunity is a construct reflecting an individual’s access and desire to commit adultery (Greeley, 1994). The current body of research into opportunity has examined this variable in the workplace. Atkins, Baucom and Jacobson (2001) measured opportunity by considering employment status and income. The study found a positive relationship between adultery and opportunity. Wiggins and Lederer (1984) also finding a significant relationship between opportunity and adultery in the workplace. More specifically, the study found that one-half of their participants who engaged in adultery were involved with co-workers. As a result a person’s perceived opportunity in the workplace can been used to explain the gender differences in rates of adultery (Atkins, Baucom & Jacobson, 2001). Men in the past have been in the workforce in greater numbers than women, leading to contact with a number of people and an increased opportunity to commit adultery (Greeley, 1994). This view of opportunity may explain the closing gender gap in rates of adultery, as greater numbers of women enter the workforce and therefore, they are given a greater opportunity to engage in adultery. Together this body of research indicates that opportunity is one variable that can contribute to a person being motivated to engage in adultery.

The Five Factor Model
The Five Factor Model or the Big Five are five broad dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality (Barta & Kiene, 2005). In regards to adultery research indicates that these motivational styles may be contributing factors in why a person decides to cheat on their spouse. The Big Five traits are, Neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative affective states, for example, worry; Extraversion, the tendency to experience positive affective states, for example, happiness; Conscientiousness, the tendency to preserver at tasks and follow rules; Openness to Experience, the tendency to expose oneself to novel, unconventional or even difficult and challenging thoughts and sensations; and Agreeableness, the tendency to avoid interpersonal conflict and seek harmonious relationships (Barta & Kiene, 2005).

Current research supports the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and the likelihood of committing adultery. Buss and Shackelford (1997) asked newlyweds to estimate the likelihood of whether they would commit adultery during their marriage. This study found that the likelihood of a person committing adultery was associated with low values on a measure of conscientiousness (Buss & Shackelford, 1997). Barta and Kiene (2005) in regards to Extraversion research found that due to the fact that extraverts are likely to place an especially high value on having an enriching relationship, when their relationship does not fulfil this desire they are likely to seek it outside of the primary relationship. In another study it was found that if participants had in the past participated in extra-dyadic relationships than it was found to be negatively correlated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and a positive relationship was found with Neuroticism (Schmidt & Buss, 2001). Currently no research can be found to link adultery and openness to experience.

To explain how these personality traits may offer insight into the motivational styles of individuals who engage in adultery, take an example of an individual who scores high on the personality trait Neuroticism. Neurotic individuals are less likely to experience happiness in their relationship, are insecure and impulsive (Barta & Kiene, 2005), therefore, one could argue that these characteristics would increase the likelihood of a person engaging in adultery. Another example would be someone who scores low on the personality trait Agreeableness, they would be more likely to react to a fight with their spouse with anger, and anger has been found to be a motivation for adultery (Barta & Kiene, 2005). Therefore, a person could argue that low Agreeableness could predict likelihood of adultery.

Does a person having children stop them from committing adultery?
It has been theorised that having children increases a partner’s involvement in a marriage and therefore, children act as a deterrent against adultery (Liu, 2000). However, studies do not appear to support this theory. For example, Gottman and Notarius (2000) found that children can decrease the relational and sexual satisfaction of a couple due to the increased demands, stress and commitments of looking after a child (Gottman & Notarius, 2000). Due to the negative correlation between relationship satisfaction and adultery reported in previous studies, some couples with children may actually be more vulnerable to adultery. Therefore, some people with children may be more motivated to engage in adultery.

Education

Current research has examined the relationship between a person’s level of education and the likelihood of them committing adultery. While literature appears to differ in regards to the extent of the relationship between education and adultery, a significant relationship between the two has been established. The theory that opposites attracts has been around for centuries, however, it would appear that in regards to education this difference can fracture a marriage. According to Forste and Tanfer (1996) a woman is more likely to commit adultery if her spouse and her educational levels differ. More specifically, the study’s results indicate that if a woman has more education than her spouse, she is more likely to seek an extramarital relationship, however, if the husband has more education than the wife, than she is less likely to engage in adultery. Therefore, this research in regards to women, suggests that higher education may be associated with more open-minded attitudes towards sexuality and cheating.

This theory appears to be supported by Atkins, Baucom and Jacobson (2001) who found that highly educated people are more likely to report having sex outside of their marriage. More specifically, the study found that participants with graduate degrees were 1.75 times more likely to have had extramarital sex than participants with less than a high school education. While more research is needed to examine the correlation between education and adultery, it appears that to some extent, education is one factor that may motivate an individual to cheat.

Length of marriage
Another variable that has been studied in regards to adultery is whether length of marriage can have an affect on whether a person will seek an extramarital relationship. Research has found that for women, the longer the marital relationship the less likely it is that the woman will seek an extramarital relationship Forste & Tanfer, 1996). According to Lui (2000) married women reach a peak at the seventh year of marriage and decline steadily thereafter. In contrast, for married men longer relationships correlate with an increased likelihood of adultery. Men reach a critical point in the eighteenth year of marriage, at which time the chance that men will have an affair begins to increase (Lui, 2000). As a result it appears that gender is a contributing factor in regards to length of marriage and whether an individual will engage in adultery.

Religious affiliations

Religion is another variable that has been examined to establish whether a relationship exists between adultery and religion. Although some studies indicate that no relationship exists between attendance at religious services and adultery, other research implies that attendance at a religious service may lead to lower rates of infidelity (Amato & Rogers, 1997). Lui (2000) reported that that for men religious activities correlates negatively with adultery and Hansen (1987) found that attendance at religious services and a religious belief lead to lower rates of adultery for women. Another study that found a relationship between religion and adultery was conducted by Choi et al. (1994), the study found a similar negative correlation between church attendance and adultery, although the study found that it was only significant for Black and Hispanic participants, not for Caucasian participants. It is theorised that religious behaviour may have an effect on the likelihood of a spouse engaging in adultery through its influence on relationship happiness (Atkins, Baucom & Jacobson, 2001) and through individuals being exposed to messages condemning adultery (Lui, 2000). It is also possible that people who attend religious services have tighter social network services and this exposure helps people follow the norms of the community (Lui, 2000). A significant body of research implies that religion has the ability to encourage a person to stay faithful to their spouse.

Conclusion
This chapter has explored a variety of motivations in regards to adultery. Current research implies that a number of issues can contribute to a person committing adultery, including gender, relationship dissatisfaction, opportunity, The Big Five, children, education and the length of the marriage. Research also implies that one variable that may stop a person from committing adultery is religion. Research implies that no one issue contributes to adultery, instead a variety of factors can cause a person to cheat. It also appears, particularly with gender, that the motivations discussed can change over time. As a result research indicates that a variety of issues contribute to a person committing adultery, however, more research is needed to explore this prevalent issue. {{Hide in print|

Quiz
Now for a quiz to test your knowledge on the chapter of sexual motivation.

{Adultery is the most cited reason for divorce.
 * type=""}

+ True - false

{What gender is more likely to commit adultery? (select the best answer)
 * type=""}

-Women -Men +Men, however, the gender differences appear to be decreasing. -Women, however, the gender differences appear to be decreasing.

{Women are more likely to seek out an extramarital relationship if it is?.
 * type=""}

-Sexual -Emotional +Emotional and sexual

{Is dissatisfaction in a marriage always a motivation to commit adultery?
 * type=""}

-Yes +No

{Schmidt and Buss (2001) found that if participants had in the past participated in extra-dyadic relationships than it was found to be negatively correlated with?
 * type=""}

+Agreeableness and Conscientiousness -Neuroticism -Neuroticism and Agreeableness -Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness

{Children are a factor that motivates all people to cheat?.
 * type=""}

-True +False

{According to Forste and Tanfer (1996) a woman is more likely to commit adultery if?
 * type=""}

-the husband has more education than she does +She has more education than her spouse

{All studies indicate that religion can stop a person from engaging in adultery
 * type=""}

-True +False

{What age do men reach a critical point of adultery?
 * type=""}

-10 -1 -17 +18 }}

Glossary
Adultery: Sexual intercourse or an emotional connection that goes beyond friendship by a married person with someone other than their spouse.

Agreeableness: The tendency to avoid interpersonal conflict and seek harmonious relationships.

Conscientiousness: The tendency to preserver at tasks and follow rules.

Emotional adultery: Occurs when a person thinks intimately about and craves emotional intimacy from someone other than their spouse.

Extraversion: The tendency to experience positive affective states, for example, happiness.

The Five Factor Model (The Big Five): Five broad dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality. The personality traits are Neuroticism, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience and Agreeableness.

Neuroticism: The tendencies to experience negative affective states, for example, worry.

Openness to Experience: The tendency to expose oneself to novel, unconventional or even difficult and challenging thoughts and sensations.

Opportunity: A construct reflecting an individual’s access and desire to commit adultery.

Sexual adultery: When an individual engages in sexual activity with someone other than their spouse.