text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Unconscious motivation

Youtube link
ANYONE KNOW HOW TO ADD A LINK TO YOUTUBE ?????????

- I tried that and it didn't work I checked and rechecked my web address but I can't get it to create an auto link?
 * To start with, just add the full website address to the video - an auto-link will be created

What's the video? e.g., here's a link to a youtube video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXElh_VM0Uc which can be made prettier like this Dog parkour. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:37, 31 October 2010 (UTC)

Thanks for your help and thankyou for puting all my headings in a file box I couldn't figure it out. So a big thankyou for that

Feedback
Here's some comments and suggestions on the draft so far. The main issue is to remove any plagiarised content or quote and attribute it. Then I would expand the section on contemporary psychodynamic perspectives and make sure that you've incorporated peer-reviewed theory and research references about this topic. Hope this helps. Some more specific suggestions follow: -- Jtneill - Talk - c 01:47, 4 November 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Have you consulted the various Motivation and Emotion textbooks in short loan to check what they cover about unconscious motivation?
 * 2) Images could be slightly larger.
 * 3) I've some examples of how to do links to relevant Wikipedia articles in the initial sections - you may wish to do something similar for other key words. (Improves overall quality of written expression for this format)
 * 4) APA style
 * 5) It is highly unlikely that you have directly consulted, for example, David Hartley (1749), therefore it shouldn't be a primary citation - it may be a secondary citation.
 * 6) Proofeading
 * 7) e.g., freud -> Freud
 * 8) Introduction
 * 9) The Introduction could perhaps be improved by identifying some focus questions which are pursued throughout the body and answered in the summary/conclusion. This helps to give a chapter some clear direction.
 * 10) The Introduction should also outline what will be covered in the chapter and why.
 * 11) The Introduction could benefit perhaps from briefly mentioning motivation more generally and then the idea of unconscious motivation.
 * 12) What is tachistoscopic (explain)?
 * 13) History
 * 14) Good idea to have this section
 * 15) Initial half -> make it more prosaic
 * 16) Last paragraph -> Good, well done.
 * 17) Sigmund Freud's Theories of The Unconscious
 * 18) This section seems to be much better written than the previous content. This is sometimes a sign of plagiarism. A web search lead to me  which has a very close match with the text you've presented here as your own work. Such text should either be in quotation marks with the source and page number attributed or it should be removed ASAP. The ideas you want to discuss should be independently written in your own words.
 * 19) References
 * 20) Check the Freud references - the dates given are probably for the most recent publications, but they are just reprints - APA style would be something like (1937/2010) where 1937 is the original date of publication.
 * 21) The Freudian content (once you've rewritten it) is worthwhile, but I'm a bit concerned that you should at least equally be emphasising contemporary psychodynamic understandings about unconcious motivation (e.g. as per Ch14 in Reeve (2009)). So, set a historical context, explain Freudian or psychoanalytic understandings about motivation and then describe the subsequent developments and current state of play in psychodynamic understandings (theory and research) about unconscious motivation. - Basically, expand the section "The Unconscious: Other Theories not Related to Freud" (but perhaps give a different title e.g., Contemporary Psychodynamic Perspectives)
 * 22) Rather than your own theory, I'd suggest that it could be stronger to provide your own critical summary of traditional and contemporary psychological theory and research about unconscious motivation. This would be likely to provide a stronger demonstration of your depth of understanding. Having said this, the lack of discussion of Jung in Reeve (2009) is notable and it could well be relevant to include a section on Jungian unconsciousness and motivation.
 * 23) Differences Between Conscious And Unconscious Motivations - this could be useful to move up into or near the introduction - i.e., introduce motivations and then distinguish between conscious and unconscious motivations
 * 24) Summary/Conclusion - provide a review section to remind the reader about the key points that have been covered.

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:50, 13 December 2010 (UTC)


text:
Latonic/Indicative

Use of the Imperfectu
The Imperfectu is another past tense, but it is not as important as the Perfectu. It is used to give background information, situations and 'decor' for actions in the Perfectu. Actions in the Perfectu are always finished, while actions in the Imperfectu may not be. Therefore it can also be used as a continuous: We were ...ing. It is also used for habits and general truths in the past that have been finished, and for repeating actions that don't help the action continue. The Imperfectu on it's own can be used to report on a situation or a habit, but otherwise is rarely used to tell anything, only in combination with the Perfectu.

Forming the Imperfectu
The Imperfectu is quite a lot easier to form than the Perfectu. First of all, take the long root of any verb, and in case of the verbs on -are, add an -i- to bind it to the exit. Then add the following exits: -a, -a, -a, -amo, -ái, -a' Add these to the long root of verb to form the Imperfectu. However keep in mind that the binding vowel loses -ai- becomes -i- before the exits -amo, iái(this does not count for dare, stare, ire). Also, the exit -ái removes the accent from the binding vowel.
 * carmínare - carmínai-
 * dare - dai-
 * habíre - habí-
 * sentíre - sentí-
 * prenere - prené-
 * temére - temé-

Irregular forms
There are no irregularities to the Imperfectu the way there are to the Perfectu. Only a few special verbs use a different root, but with the same exits.
 * esse - me era, nos eramo/eriamo, vos erái
 * posse - me posséra, no posséramo, vo posserái
 * ire - me vaia, no vaiamo
 * velle - me voléa
 * nolle - me noléa
 * fêre - me féa

The Future
The Future Tense has three forms: Futuru Simplex, Futuru Irriale and Futuru Arcáicu

Futuru Simplex
The Futuru Simplex replaces our auxilary verbs go to and will. It is formed with the auxilary ire and the infinitive: me va carmínare, te va carmínare, etc.. Alternatively, the Gerundive may be used instead of the infitive to indicate a very concrete action: Me va carmínandu. I am going to sing (literally: I go with the intention to sing).

Futuru Irriale
The Futuru Irriale replaces our auxilaries shall, should and surely will. It is formed with the auxilary verb velle/nolle and the infinitive of the verb. Il vel certu retornare. I'm sure he'll return. Istu nole cadére. That won't happen. The Irriale occurs both in written language as in spoken language, though in written language, it is slightly more popular than the Simplex, while the Simplex is pore popular in spoken language.

Futuru Arcáicu
The Futuru Arcáicu is an ancient form which existed in Latin and dissapeared in all later Romance languages. In Latonic it has also dissapears, except for a few verbs which still have it as an alternative to the Futuru Irriale. The Arcáicu of esse and velle. is only used in written language, except in poetry and archaic spoken language. The Arcáicu of the other verbs is only used in archaic language, and might still occur in poetry. Being able to use it will certainly impress people, but it is not required to be able to do this, and is rather hard because all existing forms are irregular.

Plus que Perfectu
English has two past tenses: I was and I have been. However these may also be combind to the Past Perfect: I had been. Latonic also has a Past Perfect, known as the Plus que Perfectu (PqP). The PqP is formed by taking the third person plural of the Perfectu, removing the exit -o' and adding the exits of the Imperfectu:
 * carmínare - me carmínâra, te carmínâra, il carmínâra, no carmínaramo, vo carmínarái, i carmínâra'
 * finíre - me finîra, te finîra, il finîra, no finiramo, vo finirái, i finîra'
 * prenere - me presera, te presera, ..., no preseramo, ...'
 * habíre - me habûera, ..., no(s) habueramo, ...'
 * esse - me fûera, ..., no fueramo, ...'
 * etc.

Future Past
Sentences with an auxilary can always be put in the past: The Future Past Tenses are used when, at a certain point in the past, it seemed something was going to happen.
 * me fûi, me fûera - I have been, I had been
 * me va esse, me vaia esse - I will be, I will have been
 * me îi esse, me îra esse - I was going to be, I would have been
 * Futuru Perfectu - me îi esse (Perfectu ire + infinitive) - Used for an action/event which during one instant seemed was going to happen, but in the end didn't (or hasn't yet)
 * Futuru Exactu - me vaia esse (Imperfectu ire + infinitive) - Used for an action/event which during a period of time was known to be going to happen. Whether it has yet happened and/or will ever happen is not specified.
 * Futuru Plus que Perfectu or Futuru Perfectu Exacti - me îra esse (PqP ire + infinitive) - Used when, at some point in the past, it was presumed that at some point in the future from that point something would have happened or been done, when at the point itself it had not been happened. Whether it had happened at that point in the future, whether it has happened now and whether it ever will happen is unspecified. Don't try to learn or understand this, you will get what it's all about when you need to use it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Latonic/Indicative


text:
User:FilL

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Motivation and emotion are subjects I believe to be core to psychology. I have always been fascinated by human behaviour, my personal motivation for studying psychology. I believe motivation and emotion to be core aspects in driving human behaviour and so am looking forward to this unit.

Like many of us, I am a ‘naive’ scientist of life with some unsupported theories and alot of unanswered questions, particularly on emotions. I am fascinated by the internal influences on emotions. I have a friend who has bi-polar and was struck by a comment he once made that every morning he wakes up, he asks himself – ‘how am I feeling today and is this normal’. This sentiment floored me because I cannot imagine what it must be like to have emotions (i.e. moods that I associate with positive and negative emotions) that have such an influence on your wellbeing and state of mind, that there is a conscious need to be so acutely aware of these and separate them from a “normal” state in order to navigate your day.

I am also struck when an individual is so sad that they are motivated to end their life. I find this profoundly sad and wish to understand how emotion and motivation combine and lead to such devastating consequences. I find the use of the word motivation paradoxical in this sense as I associate motivation as the drive and will to achieve positive things. The definition is also misleading in that it talks about achieving goals and outcomes. I understand this is a failing on my part to encompass all that motivation is, and on this note the themes in the study of, and the many voices of motivation covered in this lecture resonated for me. They are starting to provide the perspective and framework I have been lacking in terms of thinking and understanding motivation in its entirety.

On a personal level I am interested in determining what motivates me in a number of aspects of my life. I would say that inspiration and pressure are big motivators for me, though these are two extremes and do not account for the in between. I am also interested in the practical application of motivational theories and how these can be used to solve problems.

Brain and physiological needs
In tutorials this week, we looked at the definitions of motivation and emotion. My personal definition for motivation was anything that drives and directs behaviour, and for emotion; feelings, a psychological and physical state – although the last part sounds wrong as it implies a physical state is an emotion which does not sound right. I meant it in terms of physiological processes that contribute to emotions such as serotonin produced in the brain and intestines is associated with greater wellbeing and happiness. It was interesting to see the various group contributions with some well thought out definitions. The exercised raised my interest and understanding into the various elements that make up these two phenomena.

We were also asked to share our personal interest in motivation and emotion, further to my interests outline earlier, I am particularly interested in the constructs or mood and emotion. The quick research I have done on the area of emotion and mood indicates that they are two distinct occurrences leading me to question if the origins of mood are in emotion or vice versa. The lecture on the brain and physiological needs covered the three areas for the motivated and emotional brain, they being thinking, motivatated and emotional. This led me to question, if mood isn’t emotion, then where does it fit in the grand scheme of things? Our tutorial definition of emotion indicates that it is a psychological state of mind related to thoughts and feelings...is that not what moods are?

My second interest is in how can psychological needs be greater than biological needs. This question is driven by the paradoxical nature of anorexia and other psychological acts that go against the will to survive. This week’s lecture touched on three reasons why physiologically people fail to self regulate. Finally, related to my text chapter, I am interested in this notion that culture can influence emotion. I find this extraordinary, can society really direct how we feel so much that it becomes part of our psyche?

Psychological and social needs
Thirst, hunger, sex, breathing, and sleep are all physiological motivating needs, however what of the psychological and social needs? I found the aspect of motivation driven by needs interesting in today’s lecture, particularly in relation to psychological needs.

It makes sense that physiological needs are inherent and come first in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Thirst and hunger are drive mechanisms that alert the body of a need. Physiological needs ensure survival...but can not the same be said for of psychological needs? On a basic level psychological needs that are not nurtured and satisfied may cause psychological distress. Does this motivate the individual to behave in ways that reduce the associated anxiety? Further, what happens if psychological needs are not met at certain stages does this result in psychological in-balance or dysfunctionality. Considered another way, are there psychological mechanisms that act as motivational drivers to ensure survival? For example bonding and attachment are psychological constructs that assist parents nursing their young – this is most evident in animals. In human females the hormone oxytocin is released after birth to assist in the bonding process ultimately conducive to greater chance of survival...but what are consequences of this not occurring.

Attachment theory argues that infants need to bond with at least one primary caregiver for sound emotional and social development (Bowlby 1969, cited in Strongman, 2003). Bowlby stressed a link between emotion expression and feeling (i.e. appraisal) and in interpreting the emotions of others (cited in Strongman). This is an interesting concept not so far touched on in the unit, with what appears to be a large focus in the literature on self appraisal of emotions, despite individuals being social beings.

Research lending to attachment theory has found that failure to form secure attachments in infancy and childhood can have negative impacts on behaviour and psychological wellbeing throughout life (Thompson 1999, cited in Strongman). For example, children with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder display attachment difficulties. Research suggests that early attachments can have detrimental impacts on later relationships. Thompson suggested that securely attached individuals are more receptive to the influence of socialisation, facilitating the development of consciousness, positive emotion regulation and control (cited in Strongman).

Further, in extreme case such as research in Romanian orphans who had no opportunity to form secure attachments displayed profound disabilities. While these are extremes, they illustrate psychological needs are primary needs, possibly influencing socialisation. For example, those who are securely attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong romantic relationships, and the ability to self-disclose to others.

Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and goal setting
This week’s lecture covered intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and goal setting and goal striving. I find this interesting on a number of levels in that I am curious to determine what intrinsically motivates me. Extrinsically, I’m open to persuasion of all sorts that until now I have not consciously thought about in terms of rewards. Altruistic [] motivation fascinates me – motivation to assistance others or do a good deed for no personal gain. I would have thought that it is related to intrinsic motivation and look forward to reading the text chapter on it on wikiversity. I was interested to learn that extrinsic motivators are not conducive to sustaining motivation. I related this to a current assignment I am completing in Learning, where I am looking at developing a behaviour management program using the principle of operant conditioning in an effort to reduce excessive alcohol use. I have focused the program on using positive reinforcers in the form of external rewards for abstaining from alcohol consumption. In light of this, I will try to incorporate some sort of reward that will attempt to reinforce intrinsic motivation to reduce excessive alcohol consumption.

I am also interested in the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in child rearing, particularly in encouraging positive behaviours through intrinsic motivators versus external motivators such as rewards or physical discipline. I acknowledge that rewarding children with overt extrinsic motivators (what I term bribes) is not conducive and attempts to create or instil intrinsic motivators to encourage positive behaviour is hard work, however it amazes me that many parents and caregivers will use physical discipline to manage a child’s behaviour in attempts to modify a child’s behaviour. Further to this, physical punishment can encourage violence and can cause psychological damage (Saunders & Goddard, 1999; Tucci et. al, 2006). The intentions of the parents may have little bearing on the outcome of the injury or emotional harm. Mostly, the use of physical punishment by parents is done when they are not calm and in control, suggesting that it is more about the parent’s anger than an effective means of discipline (Saunders & Goddard, 1999).

Gershoff (2002) conducted a meta-analysis into 88 studies from over 62 years examining the correlation between the use of physical punishment and number of children outcomes. While the use of physical punishment was found to achieve short term compliance (mostly through fear), it was also associated with 10 short and long term negative related outcomes that included increased fear, anxiety, aggression, anger, mental health problems and antisocial behaviour (Gershoff). Possible other incentives that may increase intrinsic motivators in shaping positive children behaviour are social reinforcers such as praise and smiling. Though a study by Kohls et al (2009) suggest that social incentives do not have a strong reinforcing value when compared to extrinsic motivators such as money. Interestingly, the study suggests that different personality traits may moderate the extent to which different type of reward motivates a child (Kohls). This raises the question for me, how does personality influence motivation and goal setting behaviour?

Group work

Through discussion with my tutorial group, I was able to refocus the direction of my text chapter, culture and emotion. Preliminary research I had done that I was hoping to guide the chapter was limiting me too specific topics on emotions and particular cultures. Suggestions assisted me to consider facial emotion recognition across cultures, what is it about cultures that influences emotion and how does this occur. Not only was it a useful process to focus on my own chapter, in considering other chapters topics in the group and the questions they were forming to guide their chapters.

Personal control and the self
Things happen for a reason; If it’s meant to be - it’s meant to be; Horoscopes!

I have often subscribed to the above sentiments and now in considering this topic, I wonder what value I place on them and how they assist in motivational processes. Or do I use or refer to them when there is a dissonance between an outcome I was or was not expecting or one that I simply cannot answer. For example, have you ever been at a loss to understand an incomprehensible event such as an untimely death or had a knock back on a job interview (even though you were aware you didn’t perform that well) or felt you needed some direction? Perhaps this is self preservation an attempt to understand or rationalise these inconsistency in thoughts and outcomes.

Self-efficacy or the psychological need for competence?
Reeve (2009) argued that self-efficacy and the psychological need for competence are two different motivational concepts, however further research suggests they are inter-related. Research into self determination theory has extended on White’s (1959, cited in Poulsen, Rodger & Ziviani, 2006) model of motivation that asserts children’s primary motivation is the need for competence, and suggests a further two major psychological needs in this area (Poulsen et al.). These are autonomy or ownership of one’s behaviour and relatedness. Fulfilment in these three areas is correlated with vital self efficacy behaviour that is intrinsically motivated, self-regulated, curious, proactive and intentional (Poulsen et al.).

Self determination theory asserts that goal directed need fulfilment of children requires supportive environments that enhance goal engagement and leads to personal growth (Poulsen et al.). Researchers have found that need fulfilment encourages activities that are intrinsically motivated, rather than just externally motivated activities (i.e. reward).

Taken from Reeve (2009).

Helplessness and depression
I am intrigued by findings reported in Reeve (2009) that depressed [] individuals could accurately judge the amount of control they had over a random condition, over non-depressed individuals who overstated the amount. It makes me question whether over stating your abilities acts as a motivator. Or, stated another way, does perceived competence in yourself have a self-serving benefit if it is not accurate?

Explanatory style
Glass half empty or glass half full? encapsulates the sentiment of this theory, with optimistic and pessimistic styles. These cognitive explanatory styles appear related to temperament as much as self-efficacy. Though not discussed in Reeve’s (2009) text, these styles appear to be linked to approaches taken by the individual to various aspects in their life. This is supported by the research presented relating to optimistic individuals who have better achievement and coping outcomes than negative individuals (Reeve, 2009)....which leads me to question which is greater - hope, or a belief in the self?

Hope is a phenomena involving a belief, which an individual is uncertain about that involves an expectancy (Clarke, 2003). Hope, along with optimism, are associated with positive health outcomes (Clarke, 2003). Reeve (2009) suggest that hope facilitates energy and direction for the individual’s coping efforts. Hope in this sense is derived from two beliefs. Firstly, that the individual can achieve their goals, and secondly, that they have determined a clear pathway. I do not dispute that optimistic people are hopeful, however is not their achievement a result from their belief in the self and the individual’s competence to complete the desired goal and not their reliance or value placed on hope? I question the direction of this relationship.

For example, if I had a low belief in my competency to complete this assignment, would having high hopes to get it done actually assist in the process of completing it, or would some other motivational force play a more active role. In contrast, if I had a high belief in my competency to complete this assignment, would not my self-efficacy motivate me to complete it...and perhaps I might hope to do well?

Nature of emotion
In this week’s lecture I was hoping to find answers to questions I posed in week three- what are the differences between mood and emotion. While I think I have a strong grasp on what emotions are, I’m not really clear on what moods are. I’ve considered the antecedents and differences of emotion and moods and understand there are differences. Differences lie in their antecedents, duration and influence (i.e. how they impact on us). Emotions arise from life events and our perception and appraisal of their significance to us (Reeves, 2009).

In contrast, or maybe on the same spectrum of emotions, moods arise from frequently unknown causes and are more ill-defined than emotions (Reeves, 2009). I am surprised that research is not closer to defining the construct of mood. Fox (2008) suggests that moods may be promoted by emotions and their function is to offer a general indication of how we are doing, though this is not conclusive. Lending some support to this theory is Rolls’s (2005, cited in Fox) evaluation of literature in the neurobiology of emotion. Rolls suggests that emotions consist of cognitive processing resulting in a decoded signal that an event (environmental) is reinforcing, a mood state is also produced in this process. However if a mood state is produced without external input (i.e. the environmental event) and the decoding, then the latter is only described as the mood state. A mood can be drawn out by a reinforcer but does not involve the cognitive processing appraisal of a reinforcer of an event (Fox). Emotions can be thought of being related to specific stimulus, where as mood is related to general stimulus (Fox). This makes sense when you think about particular emotions such as love, which cannot be quantified as a mood, however can result in a good or happy mood...though, I am still interested to learn what elicits mood in situations where there is no event that produces an emotion!

Moods make sense from an evolutionary perspective in that there are benefits of feeling good (Reeve, 2009), which makes me wonder whether altruism is a bi-product of feeling good? i.e. can you perform altruistic acts if you were in a negative or flat mood state? Research has found that altruistic acts significantly leads to positive mood (Harris, 1977), however there is little research of the reverse, with research providing non-conclusive results (Driver, 1987). Though Isen and Levin’s (1972, cited in Reeve) research suggests that positive mood does facilitate altruistic behaviour, with nearly all participants who found a dime placed in the coin dispenser of the phone by the researchers, mostly assisted a stranger who dropped their belongings after the event, compared to only one helping participant from the control group who did not find dimes. Later research by Hertel and Fiedler (1994) suggested that altruism (pro-social) behaviour is a secondary effect mostly guided by personality factors. They suggest that positive mood promotes pro-social behaviour.

Aspects of emotion
In tutorials this week, having to determine what category, out of six basic emotion types (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise and disgust) 211 emotions belong to, made me think that perhaps there are more than six basic types of emotion. Noting, as a group we decided to use the six broad emotions identified through basic emotion theory, which asserts that emotions are universal and innate (Ekman, 1970, 1972, 1992, 1993, cited in Ellsworth et al., 1998).

We found emotions that encapsulated stress did not fall under six of the broad and created our own emotion heading, Stressed. Further, emotions such as rattled, cussed, annoyed, thunderstruck and combative, to name a few, were difficult to place. We felt that these characterised another emotion factor separate to anger, interest and disgust. This led us to question whether there should be other core factors to encapsulate these...On a side – 211 emotions!! Who would have thought there are so many, that said some, such as nirvana, calm and energetic really describe states than actual emotions.

There are three approaches to considering the construction or event of emotions and they are through biological, cognitive and soci-cultural contexts. In the process of researching my wiki text chapter on Emotion and Culture, I have ascertained that all three factors have an influence on emotion regardless of what culture an individual belongs.

The facial feedback hypothesis is fascinating and although findings indicate that it produces a small effect on emotional experience, the potential role it can play in alleviating depression could be great. Research by Austad, Gendron, Fallahi (2007, cited in Andrasik, 2007) found that induced anger expressions and anger dissipation and positive facial expressions all produced significant changes in heart and breathing rates, with participants reporting correlating emotional states. The research implies that emotional states can be manipulated and has potential for therapeutic interventions focused on changing affective states.

Also in the tutorials we completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS measures current positive and negative affect as apposed to well-being or happiness as a trait. The scale includes two 10 item mood scales (positive and negative) where participants rate the responses (i.e. the extent they have experienced the specified emotion within a specific time frame) on a likert scale. The PANAS has demonstrated internal consistency and has found the two mood scales to be largely uncorrelated (Watson et al. 1988, cited in Rogatko, 2009).

Again this brings me back between differentiating between emotion and mood. If emotions in total equal certain affects, i.e. positive affect is more likely to result in flow, then are the two not interrelated? (Andrasik, 2007). Does it not follow that a depressed person (i.e. negative/flat mood) is more likely to feel negative emotions i.e. sadness than positive ones such as happiness?

I am left questioning what are the central aspects of mood?

Personality, motivation and emotion
Are you a sensation seeker? Do you thrive on thrill and adventure; experience; disinhibition; and are easily bored? If you answered yes to most, it is likely you are, and it is also likely you have extravert traits. The Sensation Seeking Scale[] measures the trait, sensation seeking, based on the four constructs just highlighted...(no - I am not sensation seeker!).

So does it suck to be an introvert? Judging by arguments asserting that extraverts have a greater capacity to experience positive emotions and are more eager to approach potentially rewarding and stimulating situations it would appear so (Reeve, 2009).

Reeve (2009) proposes that extraverts are more happy than introverts because they are more sensitive to seeking rewards in social situation, and are more disposed to positive feelings and are more likely to approach rewarding situations. Though not all research in the area supports these assertions. Tamir (2009) found that preferences for happiness differed as a function of trait and situational demands when participants expected an effortful task. Tamir (2009) proposed that when individuals anticipate a challenging task requiring increased motivation, individuals demonstrated emotional preferences consistent with personality traits. Extraverts were more likely to favour feeling happy while completing effortful tasks than introverts. The findings suggest that extravert individuals are more likely to be motivated to increase their happiness in effortful situations.

However, no difference was found in happiness preferences in social versus private situation, only in the context of effortful situations. Research asserting that social implications account for higher preference for happiness in extraverts is not supported by this research. Emotional set-point theory accounting for the lower levels of happiness sought by introverts is also not supported by this study as the findings relating to higher happiness preferences only pertained to effortful situations and not effortless situations among both traits. Private effortful situations included taking a test, solving a personal problem, and being creative. Social effortful situations included giving a speech, solving a conflict and participating in group discussions. Tamir (2009) suggests that the difference may be in motivational orientations consistent with the extravert and introvert traits. For example extraverts are more inclined to approach reward-seeking activity compared to introverts who may be low in approach though are more engaged in rewarding activity, and who may benefit more from emotional neutral states, i.e. be more engaged in the activity rather than its pursuit.

Researching emotion and culture for my chapter, and learning that collective cultures when perceiving emotional expression or internal states of emotion referred to the surrounding social context makes me question the impact culture has on extravert and introvert traits. A study by Sheldon and Hoon (2007) into factors influencing subjective wellbeing (including personality) among US and Singaporean (representing both individualist and collective cultures) participants found that the negative association of neuroticism was smaller in the Singaporean group – this could suggest that culture does mediate trait factors. While not directly related to extraverts, culture appears have a ‘top down effect on its members’, effects that Sheldon and Hoon argue cannot be accounted for by personality constructs. Further, extraversion may be a trait that is encouraged and emphasised in individualist cultures such as the US, that could account for greater discrepancies between extravert and neurotic traits in these two participant samples.

Unconscious motivation
The chapter opening in Reeve (2009) on unconscious motivation demonstrates how thoughts, emotion, behaviour and motivation can be derived from external suggestions without the individual’s conscious knowledge.

I am struck by the reliance on limited psychoanalytic theories in attempts to understand unconscious motivation. While I understand that unconscious motivation is not tangible such as behaviour, I am surprised that there has not been more research. Does limited theories in the area suggest that contemporary psychodynamic theory is sufficient and widely accepted in explaining unconscious motivation. Given the criticisms levied at the theories it would not appear so.

Contemporary psychodynamic theory proposes four elements that influence unconscious development. They are:
 * 1) 	The unconscious
 * 2) 	Psychodynamics
 * 3) 	Ego development
 * 4)      Object relations theory

In keeping with research that also aligns with my text chapter, emotion and culture, I focused on research that asserts if culture has any influence on unconscious motivation. Research by Pysczczynski, Greenberg, and Solomon (2000) focused on terror management theory (TMT), which purports that individuals require self-esteem and faith in their cultural world views as they provide protection in a fundamental fear of death. TMT suggest that individuals avoid this fear by focussing on cultural views that provide explanations for existence ( Pysczczynski et al.). When individuals are conscious of death they defend against this by inflating their mortality and health and attempt to avoid and suppress such thoughts. However, Pysczczynski et al argue that in doing so, they have not adequately deal with the inevitably of death, only pushing it in the future. They suggest that individuals solve this issue by believing in a cultural world view and acquiring self esteem. They further suggest that unconscious thoughts of death increase this need. These assertions are based on studies that have found that when thoughts of death enter consciousness, proximal defences that serve to push these thoughts out of consciousness are activated. Individuals respond to this situation by dismissing the relevance of a threat to themselves but after a delay they do not. Once these thoughts are out of conscious, though still accessible and thus a continued threat, the proximal defence function is not needed as boosts in cultural world view and esteem occur. That is, they found that individuals defended the cultural world view only after a delay in exposure to death related thoughts, termed as distal defence because they report no conscious thoughts of death.

Sound a bit far fetched? Possibly. There could be a multitude of reasons why individuals felt more national pride or defended cultural views after a delay in death related thoughts. However, the research does support that conscious and unconscious threats activate two different defence mechanisms. Given this study was mostly based on an individualist culture (the US), further research would be of value to determine if collective cultures yeild different outcomes in TMT.

Growth psychology
Reeve (2009) purports that most people believe they are better than average in most domains. This tendency is suggested to be related to positive well-being and enhanced performance (Reeve). Peterson (2000, cited in Reeve) suggests that optimism is related to these processes of positivity. This positivity is associated with expectations for the self and hope (as opposed to wishful thinking).

This tendency is interesting when you compare it to findings that depressed individuals more accurately assessed their performance in a task over non-depressed individuals (see personal control and the self entry). This tendency to assess the self as better than average is fascinating, and leads me to question why reality (i.e. accurate assessments) does not always contribute positively to wellbeing.

A study by Svanum and Bigatti (2006) contributes to the reported findings on optimism that looked at optimistic grade expectations in 258 university students. They looked at optimism as uniformed wishfulness and aspiration judgement. They found grade optimism in 70% of participants, that is 70% of participants overestimated their grade by one full grade. Further, students that achieved lower grade were relatively more optimistic.

Higher achieving students more accurately predicted their performance. Svanum and Bigatti (2006) suggest this may be due to a mix of self-knowledge and realistic aspirations or informed optimism. Svanum and Bigatti (2006) suggested higher predications in grade by lower achieving students may be due to uniformed wishfulness. This finding supports Oettingen’s (1996, cited in Reeve, 2009) arguement that ‘wishful thinking can do more harm than good’.

I think the tendency relating to optimism to exaggerate estimations may be evident in positive and growth psychology. While these theories for me encapsulate attitudes I believe that clinical psychology should instil in clients, I do share the criticism that these perspectives do not account for the alarming level of hatred, prejudice, crime, war etc that exists. Further, there is a lack of empirical research into therapeutic processes and problem solving applications for clinical settings. Reeve (2009) suggests that evil is derived from enculturation and not human nature, though this is difficult to determine. Adler (1974) suggests that environment can influence the development of evil in children, stating “pampering, suffering and neglect of the child are the roots of a development toward the bad. The child is not good or bad by nature. The circumstances and how he understands them make the child one way or the other”.

Group work

This week’s tutorial raised some thought provoking questions into the nature of evil – is it inherent or a product of culture? I mostly consider evil to be shaped by environment and the associated experiences, and if I consider suggestions put forward by attachment theory (see psychological and social needs entry) that asserts negative attachment experiences can lead to social dysfunction such as oppositional defiant disorder, I can identify a link between experience and outcome. Of course, the definition of evil needs to be considered carefully here, but I question whether acts of extreme evil are shaped by nature or arise from an inherent trait in the individual.

I was fascinated by the different perceptions and rationale on unconscious motivation and positive psychology by the group. Life experience has taught me that there is no single best approach for all people, with individuals with varying personalities and beliefs, suited to different approaches regardless of any criticism toward that approach. Inherently I believe that people are drawn to approaches that resonate with them on a personal levels. There may be valid criticisms for an approach, though personal experience and perceptions that have shaped the individual are likely to guide them to an approach that resonates for them.

Maslow and Rogers while similar in concept in respectively asserting an actualised individual and fully functioning person, appear to differ in key characteristic. Maslow places emphasis on rising above personal individualistic ambitions, where as Roger emphasis the individual’s functioning and associated experiences. Maslow’s theory is broader, while Rogers’ is inwardly focussed – not surprising for an assertive, confident, American male born into a middle class American family. While Maslow was also born in the US, he was born into a Russian Jewish family - perhaps with a collective culture influence, though I am speculating whether these are factors.

Summary
The last tutorial really pulled together and encapsulates what I have obtained from this unit in motivation and emotion. While learning the fundamentals of motivation and emotion and the correlation between the two, it is the needs, experience, understanding, and personality of the individual that generally shapes their motivation and emotional behaviour and experience.

I found it interesting to see how some of the principles in particular areas may relate to each other. For example, findings that depressed people are more likely to accurately make assessment judgements over a ‘normal’ people, compared with a tendency for optimistic individuals to exaggerate their abilities, suggest a correlation of sorts into motivational factors across this dimension.

Moods moody moods...I can’t say I am satisfied with my learning in this area, this exercise has left me wanting to learn more about the nature and construct of them...perhaps motivation for later. Also while there are some interesting theories into unconscious motivation, I also was surprised at the lack of research, an area I find fascinating.

My text chapter on culture and emotion [] led me on journey of learning. Highlights for me included:
 * differentiating between basic emotions and culturally influenced emotions such as happiness and shame had not occurred to me prior;
 * different cultural influences and perspectives of collective and individualist societies that can account for some personal observations I have made in my bicultural family; and
 * learning that some collective cultures such as Japan will appraise emotional facial expression and their own emotions in context to the groups’ emotional expression - I find this both fascinating and foriegn being from an individualist culture.

On reflection and with distance from each entry, I can see a pattern that emerged in how I approached my learning. My entries were very much motivated by my interests such as mood versus emotion, culture, life experiences, and biases – yes biases...I think I am more of an introvert than an extravert and went to great lengths to prove that extraverts cannot - do not have more happier experiences! And despite wanting to score high on the Sensation Seeking Scale –  that is simply not me. In all, the personality and cultural aspects that influence motivation and emotion I found the most fascinating. While not having answered all questions I set out initially, I feel I have a greater understanding into emotions and motivation.

title: User:FilL


text:
User:Egm6321.f10.team6.lee/HW5

=Equation of Motion of a Spring-Damper-Mass System etc…=

Problem Statement
A general spring-mass-damper system has spring constant k, mass m, and damping coefficient c. The equation of motion is given as :

Part 1
1. Find the PDE's integration factor h(t,y). (Condition 2 of exactness - 2 relations)

Part 2
let the trial solution for integrating factor $$ \begin{align} h(t)={e}^{\alpha t} \end{align}$$

Multiply the integrating factor to the eqn(5.1) and integrate both side.

Assume that the left hand side would have the form of eqn(5.3) to reduce order.

1. Find $$ \begin{align} \bar{{a}_{1}} \end{align}$$ and $$ \begin{align} \bar{{a}_{2}} \end{align}$$ in terms of $$ \begin{align} {a}_{2},{a}_{1},{a}_{0} \end{align}$$

2. Find quadratic equation for $$\begin{align} \alpha \end{align} $$.

3. Reduce order of equation.

4. Find $$\begin{align} y(t) \end{align} $$ by applying integrating factor.

5. Show that:

Where $$\begin{align} \alpha \end{align} $$ and $$\begin{align} \beta \end{align} $$ are roots of the equation for $$\begin{align} \alpha \end{align} $$ in part 2.2

6. Deduce and expression for the particular solution $$\begin{align} {y}_{P} \end{align} $$for a general excitation  $$\begin{align} f(t) \end{align}$$

7. Verify with the table of particular solutions. Consider, $$\begin{align} f(t)={t}^{2} \end{align} $$

8. Solvev L2_ODE_CC when $$ f(t)= {e}^{-{t}^{2}}$$ and find coefficient $$\begin{align} {a}_{2},{a}_{1},{a}_{0} \end{align} $$ :

such that

8.1 The roots for equation 5.1 are obtained from $$\left( r+1 \right)\left( r-2 \right)=0$$.

8.2 The roots for equation 5.1 are obtained from $${{\left( r-4 \right)}^{2}}=0$$. .

Part 1.1
Let's find the integrating factor $$\begin{align} h(t,y) \end{align}$$ first.

Multiply the integrating factor to the eqn(5.1).

and we can rewrite the eqn(5.6) to check the exactness condition.

where $$\begin{align} p:= y' \end{align} $$

therefore,

$$\begin{align} f(x,y,p) = h(t,y){a}_{2} \end{align}$$

$$\begin{align} g(x,y,p) = h(t,y){{a}_{1}}p+ h(t,y) {{a}_{0}}y - h(t,y)\cdot f(t)\end{align}$$

There are two relations for the 2nd condition of exactness.

we can check the second relation i.e eqn(5.9) first as it is less complex than eqn(5.8).
 * The second condition of exactness

Hence,

Let's check the eqn(5.8). we can drop out $$\begin{align} {h}_{y}, {h}_{ty}, {h}_{yy} \end{align}$$ for the eqn(5.11)

and then, we get the L2_ODE_CC. i.e.

Hence, we can find $$\begin{align} h(t,y) \end{align}$$ from the eqn(5.14).

Part 2.1
As eqn(5.3) is assumed to be the same to eqn(5.2),

Differentiate both side of the eqn(5.15) i.e.

therefore,

Part 2.2
We can find the quadric equation for $$\begin{align} \alpha \end{align}$$ from the eqn(5.18),

Multiply $$\begin{align} \alpha \end{align}$$ both side.

Part 2.3
Let's reduce order for the eqn(5.2).

As we assumed that the eqn(5.2) and eqn(5.3) are the same, we can put them as,

Part 2.4
by using integrating factor method [eqn(1)p10-1 at the lecture note] where, $$\begin{align} \beta := \frac{\bar{{a}_{0}}} \end{align}$$

Let's find $$\begin{align} y(t) \end{align}$$ [eqn(6)p10-3 at the lecture note]

Part 2.5
We know that

Therefore,

As eqn(5.28) is satisfied, we can set quadric equation which has two roots $$\begin{align} \alpha, \beta\end{align}$$

This is the same as eqn(5.20).

Part 2.6
Let's rearrange the eqn(5.26) to distinguish $$\begin{align} {y}_{H1}, {y}_{H2}, {y}_{p} \end{align}$$

Part 2.7
Let's check the eqn(5.32) with the table of particular solution when $$ \begin{align}f(t)={t}^{2}\end{align}$$

Assume that, then,
 * with the table of particular solution

we can put them to the eqn(5.1).

there are three unknowns and theree equations. therefore we can find A, B and C. therefore, the particular solution by using the table would be,

this eqn(5.36) should be the same to the particular solution with eqn(5.26).

from eqn(5.32), we can integrate this equation easily with the help of Wolfram Integrator we can put the eqn(5.27) and eqn(5.28) to the eqn(5.37).
 * with general particular solution - eqn(5.32)

Now, we have verified that the particular solution (5.32) is correct because eqn(5.38) is the same to the eqn(5.36)

2.8.1
from given characteristic equation, $$ \begin{align} (r+1)(r-2)=0 \end{align}$$

we can find two homogeneous solutions,as $$ \begin{align} {r}_{1}=-1, {r}_{2}= 2 \end{align}$$.

from eqn(5.31), we know that

therefore,

we can find the coefficients $$ \begin{align} {a}_{0}, {a}_{1}, {a}_{2} \end{align}$$. from the eqn(5.27) & (5.28).

The homogeneous differential equation is,

we can check the result with WolframAlpha, and it shows that there are two homogeneous solutions which are the same to eqn(5.40)

Now, let's apply the Gaussian distribution to the f(t). then,

By using the WolframAlpha, we can find y(t). ♦see the result

2.8.2
from given characteristic equation, $$ \begin{align} {(r-4)}^{2}=0 \end{align}$$

we can find two homogeneous solutions,as $$ \begin{align} {r}_{1}={r}_{2}= 4 \end{align}$$.

(they are the same double roots.)

from eqn(5.31), we know that

therefore,

we can find the coefficients $$ \begin{align} {a}_{0}, {a}_{1}, {a}_{2} \end{align}$$. from the eqn(5.27) & (5.28).

The homogeneous differential equation is,

we can check the result with WolframAlpha, and it shows that there are two homogeneous solutions which are the same to eqn(5.45)

Now, let's apply the Gaussian distribution to the f(t). then,

By using the WolframAlpha, we can find y(t). ♦see the result

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team6.lee/HW5


text:
Social enterprise and public procurement

A research programme funded by EQUAL BEST Procurement

by Tim Curtis and Patricia Worgan, Sustainable Development Research Centre

BEST Procurement stands for Benefiting the Economy and Society Through Procurement.
It is a second round Equal CIP Programme that is being developed by SEEM. The programme will focus on combating labour market discrimination by channelling the purchasing power of the public sector, using social enterprise as a vehicle, combining social inclusion and economic growth.

The aim of the Development Partnership is to increase equal opportunities in the labour market and diversity within the supply chain by channelling public sector purchasing power through social enterprise. This will achieve economic growth in a sustainable and equitable manner, reflecting the needs of communities of interest to access quality, meaningful employment.

The objectives of the programme are:

 * Influencing public sector procurement strategies-To enable the public sector to pursue economic, environmental and social objectives concurrently through channelling existing purchasing power.
 * Creating market opportunities for social enterprises - To create social enterprise market opportunities within the public sector, focused on labour market integration and the needs of communities of interest.
 * Developing the capacity of social enterprises - Ensure the development of social enterprises capitalise on the market opportunities created through winning and sustaining contracts.
 * Achieving labour market integration- Through creating additional and improved employment opportunities within social enterprise for people experiencing labour market discrimination and/ or disadvantage.

The Sustainable Development Research Centre is the research partner on the programme and this is a developing record of the research process.

Table of contents

 * /Introduction/
 * Research protocol
 * Research question
 * Theoretical underpinnings
 * Supply side interventions

The EU EQUAL programme is for everyone, nobody has exclusive rights to the material generated, what we write is for all the partners specifically (and everyone generally) and we want to encourage a collaborative approach to the research and the reflections on the research.

This resource is constantly growing and changing, please take the contents as they are intended to be: reflections on a growing and developing research programme, not advice or a complete piece of work.


text:
Talk:Social enterprise and public procurement

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Social enterprise and public procurement/Introduction

Introduction This chapter reports part of the activities undertaken during the Action 1 preparatory stage of an EQUAL funded Development Partnership 'BEST Procurement' operating in the East Midlands. The paper identifies the issues faced by social enterprises in their interaction with potential and actual public sector clients and records the considerations that formed the basis for the design of the resulting Action 2 social enterprise and procurement support programme. Background In the East Midlands region, as elsewhere in the UK, there is a strong driver to promote and develop social enterprise. Central government is promoting social enterprise through the Department of Trade and Industry and its support of the national Social Enterprise Coalition, a member organisation of social enterprises and social enterprise support agencies that promotes the interests of the sector at national level. Regional Development Agencies have been established to co-ordinate economic development activity in the regions and many RDAs, in particular East Midlands Development Agency (EMDA), recognise that social enterprises can help deliver on their targets for social inclusion. There are also agencies that have recognised the benefits of social enterprise in meeting sustainability targets for regenerating communities and involving local people in the improvement and delivery of local services. The East Midlands comprises of the counties of Lincolnshire, Derbyshire, Rutland, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. The East Midlands is the third largest region in England, with a population of just under 4.2 million, it has a distinctive 'polycentric' settlement structure based on the three major cities of Nottingham, Derby and Leicester. Approximately 40% of the population live in towns and villages of less than 10,000- making the East Midlands one of the more rural regions in England. The Indices of Deprivation 2004 ranks local authorities over a number of indicators of deprivation. Nottingham was described as a local authority that falls within England's 20 most deprived areas at 12th, with Leicester not far behind. Unemployment in the region remains lower than the national average and employment rates higher. As a result the East Midlands in general, scores quite well on a range of social indicators, yet masks a more complex picture of social conditions within it. In larger urban areas, Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, in particular, suffer serious problems of social exclusion; whilst much of the region is relatively prosperous such areas contain deprivation not statistically reflected. Third sector organisations contracted to deliver public services can usually be described as social enterprises. The delivery of a public service means carrying out a defined service in return for payment - with the terms usually set out in a legally binding contract. In this case the third sector organisation can be said to be trading with the public body: undertaking specific activities in return for payment. In turn this makes the organisation a form of social enterprise. Small firms, voluntary and community organizations, social enterprises and ethnic minority businesses are recognised to be (potentially) innovative and add value. They play an important role in the local economy and contribute to social cohesion. They often have environmental goals. It is important that they have access to the local government marketplace, including as members of the supply chain for strategic partnerships. BEST Procurement The overall aim of the Development Partnership is to increase the conversion rate between public expenditure and social and environmental improvement within the East Midlands Region. This will be achieved by demonstrating improved value for public money, establishing social enterprises as key delivery agents for this goal. The BEST Procurement Development Partnership is focused on improving the prevailing conditions in the labour market in order to achieve long term structural change that increases equality in the labour market. Disadvantage in the labour market is created not only by the relative situation of the "disadvantaged" individuals but also by the value ascribed by the labour market to those individuals and their situation and willingness to include them. The DP intends to help social enterprises and voluntary and community sector organisations to access procurement opportunities made available by the public sector, to help the public sector purchase better labour market outcomes through its mainstream procurement practices and to help social enterprises to provide high quality employment opportunities for people from BME communities, women, people with disabilities and people aged over 50 year. The main partners are public sector bodies (local authorities and health sector bodies), charities and academic institutions working on issues of sustainable development, social enterprises and social enterprise support agencies and strategic regional and national agencies. The DP is focused on achieving a change in practice within the East Midlands Region that other parts of the country can learn from, that provides evidence of use to national policy makers and ultimately that informs European policy. The DP's aim is to increase the conversion rate between public expenditure and labour market equality within the East Midlands Region. To do this it is necessary to improve value for public money in targeted areas and establish the social economy, particularly social enterprises and voluntary and community sector organisations, as key players in achieving this goal. System design The emerging Action 2 project design was framed around a supply/demand model (in line with Figure 1 which is discussed in more detail below), with a marketplace connecting public authorities as the demand-side and social enterprises (SEs) as the supply side. The intent of the BEST Procurement Action 2 programme was to identify a mix of interventions within that marketplace to correct the distortions arising from lack of information or poor communication. The literature review revealed a relatively mature body of literature for each of the two aspects of the market - a significant amount of work has been done at the strategic level of the social enterprise sector (in academic as well as the grey literature), and on the nature and strategy of public authority procurement. Less well developed is the link between the two bodies of literature. There are a few, now well publicised, but rather aged, examples of SEs entering the public procurement market, in particular that of the construction sector. These examples mostly indicate difficulties with respect to the contracting side or the capability of the social enterprise or involve very large SEs supplying primarily outsourced public services such as homecare. On both sides of the market place, there are two aspects of the procurement process. On the side of the SE, there is the external aspect of the provision of products and services and the choices that SE makes about the capabilities it presents to the market. This includes the products and services already provided to the public sector in well known areas as direct outsourcing of public services such as home care or social service provision through social service provision such as recycling activities with the disabled or construction industry training for the intermediate labour market. The internal aspect is the 'fitness for' the market, ranging from the basic recognition of a need or desire to trade rather than exist on grants through to the financial and managerial capacity to trade effectively in the public procurement market. For the public authorities, the external aspect is the communications it provides to the market with respect to its procurement requirements including the nature and size of the procurement event. It is important to note that there are two distinct types of procurement within local authorities and the importance of each varies according to the extent of the central procurement function. The focus of much of the demand side procurement literature is on the major, planned, public tender processes such as those advertised through OJEU involving contract managers and central procurement officials. There is, however, a significant, but as yet within this study, unquantified procurement at a department or area office level that is more (although not entirely) ad hoc and usually involves limited action tenders (as opposed to whole UK or EU advertising) to a specific, small set of tenderers or are single action tenders on the basis of project extension or locally determined procurement factors. On the internal aspect of public authority procurement, there is the knowledge of the skills and capabilities that the SE sector could offer, over and above that already offered and the ability to 'bundle ' procurement requirements with social service outputs (often crossing departmental budget lines). A significant weakness in this area is the ability to effectively measure both procurement efficiency and social service outcome adequately in terms of each other. This leads to the scenario where, for example, community recycling initiatives 'cost' several times more per tonne of recyclate (the measure of efficiency used in contracts with the private sector, but with real but indeterminate social service outcomes. In such circumstances the 'cultural capital ' is not being realised or measured. This is often the case where intermediate labour groups are used as 'cheap labour' rather than trading on the specific skills or experiences within the marginalised group - such as disables groups providing Disability Discrimination Act compliance services. The public procurement literature suggests significant opportunities but, unless linked with specialist documents such as legal guides to procurement with social enterprises, the support is insufficiently specific to support any but the most determined and well prepared SE in the procurement process. In these circumstances, personal experience in the procurement on behalf of individuals in the SE, or direct support from the procuring authority, are the primary factors for success. There is, however, literature that analyses SME supply more generally which concludes that current trends (largely desirable) to larger contracts, aggregation of spend, and longer relationships with prime contractors and "partners" all make life more difficult for SMEs trying to sell into the sector. The outlook for SMEs (and in this context SEs) that do not offer any real differentiation (innovation, service, quality, specialist skills) compared to their larger competitors is not good. Figure 1 BEST Procurement Research Model The model above represents a systems diagram developed during the two day workshop between SEEM and SDRC and many subsequent meetings during 2004/05. On the left hand side of the model are the supply-side components, the profit distributing (non-SE, private sector) and the two main types of SE's - large multiservice organisations (usually up to 250 employees up to £250m turnover ) and the small, niche SEs that are fully constituted legal bodies. Such small SEs may grow to the large SE category through organic growth, merger or some form of consortium (either with each other or with 1st tier private sector contractors). At the large SE level, the main characteristic is long, large contracts, whereas the niche SE is most likely to capitalise on ad hoc sales or other opportunistic developments. The right hand side of the model is demand-side of the market. The model require development, but the types of contract let by the demand-side can also be split into large, tendered contracts, usually those above EU limits, and smaller contracts which are let through limited tender lists, adverts and networking. These are often procured by the technical department requiring the product or service, rather than a specialist procurement department. Increasingly, local authorities are being structured on an area basis and thus can procure identical products or services on a localised or area basis providing significant opportunities for small SEs. Two areas of significant risk for the supply- and demand-side can be identified. Risk, or the perception of risk, in these circumstances limits the adoption of new contract models. Interventions in the areas of risk, to reduce the perceived risk, through information, experience and capacity building, can free up the process to allow creatively structured technical and legal specification or free up an SE to develop new products or services that the demand-side requires. Suggestions for interventions in Action 2 of BEST Procurement to address the areas of risk for both demand- and supply-side included: Demand-side - Information brokerage- this has been suggested in a number of literature sources, but barely implemented specifically for SE's. The standard SME support services such as TED, OJEU etc are available, but SE's need to recognise that such procurement advertising routes can applied to them. Although national databases have not taken off as suggested, local and regional initiative would benefit SEs as well as the local private sector. - Catalyzer-similarly, there are a number of catalyzer initiatives that have been trialled in a number of areas, most notably the recent BizFizz from NEF. The approach for SEEM may be to replicate an existing model after due consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of each, but with a view to, regardless of which model, work as a partner with SEs to assist the development of their experience in tender processes. Supply-side - Fellowship - many SEs may identify either the need or the opportunity to expand from their existing structure towards greater trading, but there is a critical period between identifying the opportunity, or an entrepreneurial individual to take an initiative forward, and achieving that goal during which the SE is quite vulnerable. It is straying from its core-business into an unknown area with immeasurable payback and requires intensive support to overcome the initial hurdles of developing an idea into a defendable business plan or develop the systems required to be a credible public sector supplier. The concept would be to provide for a three month intensive fellowship for social entrepreneurs which provide them with business support from the private sector and time and income to allow the new business to be developed. - Management systems capacity development - a major aspect of being a credible public service supplier is having and maintaining robust management systems that cover all aspects of financial, health & safety, environmental and quality issues. As an SE develops towards being a public sector supplier, support s required in implementing such systems and developing a culture within the organisation that remains true to the core values of the staff but also allows it to trade in a new way. Consultation with potential beneficiaries of Action 2 also provided the following comments: - The Programme seeks to identify innovative ways in which public procurement can tackle labour market discrimination, by demonstrating ways in which social enterprises can achieve their aims through trading with the public sector - There is a £42bn market of public sector procurement in the UK - the challenge of the programme is to establish how to assist social enterprises in competing for that market - At a local authority, or even regional, level, the precise details of this spend are relatively unknown. Until recently, many local authorities did not have centralised reports of spending patterns and did not communicate those patterns to the supply market. - Local authority procurement is complex with thousands of suppliers and decentralised purchasing powers ensuring that 'contracting with the local authority' is more a case of contracting with individuals within the local authority. - Procurement processes are not primarily concerned with meeting social objectives but objectives such as Best Value have to be tempered with efficiency targets. - Local authorities are generally unenthusiastic about the outsourcing of social support services which means that enterprises that supply social services find the market very difficult. This programme is not primarily aimed at changing the service delivery options for the public sector but to capitalise on the existing procurement (or outsourcing) activities of the local authority- i.e. accessing the market rather than developing a new one (although this may be an effect of the Programme). - There is a cultural perception issue in that large parts of local authorities consider the social enterprise sector as voluntary or those activities that should be supplied by volunteers rather than being paid for at commercial rates. They are not seen as credible businesses that also contribute to social justice. - There is a need to find and exploit paths of least resistance - behaving like the private sector in order to secure contracts, communicating added value and retaining profits for investment in the social aspects of the organisation. - The private sector, through movements such as ethical businesses, corporate social responsibility and corporate governance concerns means that businesses are also reducing overall profitability to meet social or environmental concerns. - Resources are required to demonstrate why using social enterprises are better value than the wholly private sector. Work is being done on this in Scotland and SEs may benefit from being assisted to communicate their differentiation through tools such as Social Return on Investment. - SEs need assistance in marketing positioning, identifying unique selling points (USPs), niche identification, market intelligence, networking - all activities that are essential for a successful private sector entrepreneur - SE's can't raise share capital to fund opportunistic growth and are often understaffed, thus taking advantage of entrepreneurial opportunities requires an expansion of the staffing levels in the hope of success. This could be funded through CDFI or could consist of temporary teams given three or so months to take an idea through to business plan or successful contracting with the public sector - There are no recognised schemes for recognising the worth of social enterprises. Local authority staff are to pressed to undertake that research, so a Trade or Professional Association for SEs could demonstrate to procurement officials that an SE is a fit and competent supplier - Successful social entrepreneurs become 'precious' about their creations, whereas 'serial' entrepreneurs could work with SEs wishing to expand to help change, with a clear exit strategy. - Franchising of recognised SE initiatives adds authority to the new SE. - What is required is a lie network of intelligence and support to capitalise on opportunities, rather than toolkits and guides - meetings like First Friday, Meet the Buyers, excellence networks rather than books and pamphlets, advocates rather than advisors. The resulting Action 2 programme The considerations described above were then developed into a structured programme of support interventions to be delivered by a number of partners, not least the public sector, during Action 2, with a view to begin to correct the distortions arising from lack of information or poor communication. The resulting Action 2 design is summarised in Figure 3 Figure 3 BEST Procurement schematic The design of the programme was such that the starting capabilities in procurement issues of all beneficiaries entering the BEST Procurement Action 2 programme was captured, in order to measure the 'distance travelled' by the beneficiaries during Action 2 but also to assist in the selection of interventions that would be most beneficial to that beneficiary. Thus, the 'entry point' for BEST Procurement Action 2 was designed to be 'Enterprise Directions' Enterprise Directions The objective of the 'Enterprise Directions' work is to assist social enterprises operating in any field of potential relevance to public sector supply to understand whether and how they can improve their response to the public sector market. The Enterprise Directions Partner will assist social enterprises making contact with the programme, providing an initial one-to-one consultation at the clients premises or a nearby location. They will then signpost the enterprise to one or more packages of assistance under the Social Enterprise Development side of the programme where/as appropriate Enterprising ideas The objective of the 'Enterprising Ideas' work is to run a series of workshops which, incorporating market information provided, enable participants to develop new approaches to delivering added social value to delivery of goods and services to the public sector. The Enterprising Ideas Partner will convene a series of workshops to enable potential social enterprise suppliers and potential public sector purchasers to work together on new ideas that could eventually lead to contracts. Replication The objective of the 'Replication' work is to identify existing social enterprises that sell goods and/or services to the public sector in any part of the UK and Europe, and oversee a process of replication within the East Midlands for approximately 5 new social enterprises. It is anticipated that 2-3 of these will be established and start trading during the timeframe of the project. The replication intervention will be biased towards developing a response to general observations of the public sector market rather than specific contracts, however, where there is awareness of suitable contracts over a 2-3 year horizon there may be a case for working specifically towards them. Culture Change The objective of the 'Culture Change' work is to assist the staff and boards / committees / trustees of organisations to evaluate their 'fitness to trade' and undergo development activities to prepare their culture to support a move from grant based income. The Culture Change Partner will work with organisations (Voluntary and Community Sector organisations and social enterprises without significant trading experience) and assist social enterprises in understanding the nature of their operational culture and identify what changes they need to introduce to enable them to trade. The Partner will use a number of tools, from the private and public sector, on a one-to-one basis to assist social enterprises in developing a change management plan, should they decide to implement one, and coach them, over a period of a year, through that transformation process. Enterprising Management The objective of the 'Enterprising Management' work is to assist the staff and, to a more limited extent, the boards / committees / trustees of organisations to implement management systems necessary to support greater traded income. The Enterprising Management Partner will work with organisations (Voluntary and Community Sector organisations and social enterprises without significant trading experience). Initially the work will be done as a mixture of consultancy and workshop-style training according to client demand. The success of these delivery methods will then be compared to inform a decision about the forward strategy. Sales Broker The objective of the 'Sales Broker's' work is to achieve increased sales of goods and services from social enterprises to public sector purchasers. The sales broker will work on behalf a number of social enterprises, advising them on the way they promote themselves and making sales leads with public sector purchasers for up and coming contracts. The broker will set up selling clubs and networks as a route to collective promotion of social enterprise and the development of the enterprises' capacity to sell themselves. Contract Finder The objective of the 'Contract Finder's' work is raise awareness within social enterprises and the Voluntary and Community sector of contract opportunities as they arise. The contract finder will work on behalf of a number of social enterprises who subscribe to the service, sending details of relevant contracts and the sources of information. The contract finder may also work to promote the use of certain websites by public sector purchasers where this would assist in the on-going success of the venture. Contracting Know-How The objective of the 'Contracting Know-How' work is to develop and run a modular training programme that meets the development needs of social enterprises wishing to improve their response to contracting with the public sector. The Contracting Know-How Partner will be targeting established social enterprises and Voluntary and Community sector organisations who are already contracting, or are clear that it is appropriate for them to contract, with the public sector. Collaborative Frameworks The objective of the 'Collaborative Frameworks' work is to develop, test and evaluate appropriate ways of engaging groups of social enterprises in providing a successful collective response to parts of the public sector market. The Collaborative Frameworks intervention will be biased towards developing a response to targeted contracts that are coming up over the two years of the programme, however there may be limited scope for more speculative collaborative development where a market opportunity is identified. Advisory Partner The objective of the 'Advisory Partner's' work is to ensure that the Partners working within the Social Enterprise Development Working Group (supply side) of the BEST Procurement Development Partnership continue to do work of relevance to social enterprises' needs. The Advisory Partners will be expected to take, inform and advise the regular progress meetings with the Social Enterprise Development Working Group Equality of Employment The objective of the "E-Quality of Employment" work is to support social enterprises, expanding or becoming more financially secure as a result of improved contracting opportunities with the public sector, to develop their capacity as high quality employers providing Equal Opportunities in employment. The E-Quality of Employment Partner will work with signposted social enterprises to measure the changes in quality and equality of employment and to support social enterprises to maximise quality and equality in line with their social aims. Public sector action The less structured programme of demand-side interventions are based on the local authorities and primary health care trust partners developing more information with respect to their procurement practices, particularly considering influencable spend patterns and procurement processes, in order to facilitate better access of social enterprises to the market place and fairly distinguish the added (or blended) value that can be offered by the social economy. This aspect will be the subject of a subsequent paper. Innovation? EQUAL exists to encourage innovative solutions to employment and social problems which are difficult to solve. It provides support for applying new ideas to learning, sharing and international partnership. Evaluations of the ADAPT and EMPLOYMENT programmes offer the following definition. '...innovations are novel changes in a system, which are performed and achieved for the first time in its development. This first-time aspect of a novel change - the development aspect - is an important but insufficient criterion for innovations; a more important one is that the development should lead to something qualitatively new which increases the efficiency of a certain system. Innovations provide better solutions to problems from the previous state. The decisive determinant of the innovative content of the new solution is its relation to the old one. It is the relation to previous solutions and approaches that determines the degree of innovation of a novel change.' For the purposes of Equal, the following categories have been adopted. - Process-oriented innovations: these innovations relate to developing: - new or improved methods of doing things; - ways to use technology; and - labour-market initiatives. Examples of process-oriented innovations include new or improved approaches to delivering training and guidance and new ways of working with target groups. The final evaluation of ADAPT and EMPLOYMENT programmes found that the most common type of innovation was process related. - Goal-oriented innovations: these relate to developing new outcomes, outputs or 'products', with the needs of a specific target group in mind. In this way, it is about meeting a gap in the market. Examples include developing new qualifications and opening up new areas of employment for disadvantaged groups. - Context-oriented innovations: these relate to developing frameworks for interventions. Examples include: - developing local, regional and national networks; - developing new frameworks for, and approaches to, dissemination, information and awareness raising; and - steps to involve new partners and establish new working arrangements. Innovation is evident particularly in the co-ordinated response to developing a more equal market place and simultaneous supplier development of social enterprises. The connectivity between the social enterprise (supply-side) interventions and the public sector (demand-side) activities will serve to exchange theory, practice, experience and new solutions throughout the market-place. Mainstreaming activities are targeted at wider influence of use of public expenditure and increasing social enterprises' focus on understanding the market for what they want to do. Empowerment is addressed through appointing representatives to the steering committee from the outset and reviewing accountability of the partnership as the project progresses to target any gaps. Partnership principles include the way that programme is structured as a set of working groups focused on particular issues with representation on an overall steering committee enabling effective stakeholder participation. The partners are invited to submit their own work-plan against the set of intervention briefs (described above) and then the actual Action 2 activities were negotiated on the basis of the submissions of the potential partners. In this way, although the master plan was 'designed' the actual programme for delivery in Action 2 emerged out of the intentions of the master plan design and the submissions of the partners. The main activities to be undertaken in Action 2 are to understand and influence the demand for added value in public sector purchasing, to develop purchasing frameworks and specific contracts that deal with issues of sustainable development, to undertake supplier development of social enterprises and the VCS and to develop an evidence base that addresses key areas of policy. The outputs will be actual changes to contracting arrangements, toolkits, frameworks and local agreements, new businesses started, jobs created, improved employment conditions for existing jobs, analysis of social enterprises added value contribution and an increased capability within the social economy to address the public sector market. The goal of market-shaping to create growth potential for social enterprises will open up a new area of employment for disadvantaged groups by creating jobs within social enterprises and facilitating their entry into them. The programme will build new political alliances through undertaking joint work on a shared agenda with the Regional Assembly. The programme will also involve new working arrangements for the collaborative development of support programmes to social enterprise at sub-regional level and will bring new partners together, e.g. Local Authority Procurement Departments with Social Enterprise Support Agencies and the Voluntary Sector. Other programmes, on the other hand, concentrate on actions relating to one or other side of the marketplace, e.g. the Provide project focused on social enterprise support, NAPP focused on Local Authorities. The process of identifying the contract opportunities can be formulated as a public sector market analysis tool for social enterprise. This will ensure the maximum impact by only working where there is a possibility of success and was welcomed enthusiastically as a strong new approach by the public sector, social enterprises, support agencies and the voluntary sector who responded to our regional consultation. The programme will also use new combinations of existing approaches, by combining use of the various tools, guidance and methodologies currently available and drawing on others' experience to create a holistic approach. Tools and guidance can remain under-utilised by their target audience without effort being put in to increase their application. The programme aims improve an existing approach of seeking to create employment opportunities within social enterprises by linking this with the creation of targeted market opportunities in the public sector. Approaches to stimulating the public sector market for the benefit of social enterprise so far have been partial; based on information sharing and promotion, on toolkits or on guidance. This programme makes the link directly between the desired outcome (an equitable labour market), a major player in shaping the labour market (public sector contracting) the delivery vehicle (social enterprise and VCS), and the groups that suffer inequality. Conclusions The design of the BEST Procurement programme has been undertaken on a 'whole-market' approach. Internal programme design based on a systems approach with external consultation has resulted in a series of supply-side procurement support interventions being developed. These were taken forward by Social Enterprise East Midlands in its BEST Procurement Action 2 briefs for which social enterprise support agencies were free to bid. The final implementation of the design will be significantly altered from the original design on the basis of the capability and development interests of the development partners, adding to the innovation being deployed. This has been a process of emerging design, based on a broad ranging literature review and action oriented design workshops. The programme for SDRC in Action 2 is to measure the implementation of the programme by its partners, identifying where and why the programme departs from the design and establishing when and under what conditions, the market-place interventions work best to overcome labour market inequalities.


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Talk:Social enterprise and public procurement/Introduction

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