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Bessel functions

Definition
The Bessel function is canonical solution to Bessel's differential equation $$x^2y''+xy'+(x^2-\nu^2)y=0, \, \nu \in \mathbb{C}~.$$ Solutions were first introduced by Daniel Bernoulli, but later generalized by Friedrich Bessel. The most common and most important case of the Bessel function is when $$\nu \in \mathbb{Z}~,$$ which is called the order of the Bessel function. Bessel functions arise when the method of separation of variables is applied to the Laplace or Helmholtz equation in cylindrical or spherical coordinates. They are very important for many problems dealing with physical phenomena, like wave or heat propagation.

Derivation of Bessel function using Frobenius's Method
Consider the Bessel equation: $$x^2y''+xy'+(x^2-\nu^2)y=0$$ $$\Leftrightarrow y'' + \underbrace{\left ( \frac{1}{x} \right )}_{p(x)} y'+ \underbrace{\left ( 1- \frac{\nu^2}{x^2} \right )}_{q(x)} y = 0$$ We're seeking solutions near $$x_0 = 0~.$$ Since: $$ \begin{align} xp(x) & = 1 \\ x^2q(x) & = x^2 - \nu^2 \end{align} $$ are power series in x, $$x_0=0$$ is a regular singular point of the Bessel equation. This allows Frobenius's method to be applied. We are seeking solutions of the form: $$y(x)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty C_nx^{n+r}, \, x > 0, C_n \neq 0$$ Differentiating yields: $$ \begin{align} y'(x) & =\sum_{n=0}^\infty (n+r)C_nx^{n+r-1} \\ y''(x) & =\sum_{n=0}^\infty (n+r-1)(n+r)C_nx^{n+r-2} \end{align} $$ Conditions for $$C_n$$ must be found. Substituting our expressions back into the Bessel equation: $$ \begin{align} 0 & =x^2y''+xy'+(x^2-\nu^2)y \\ & = \sum_{n=0}^\infty (n+r-1)(n+r)C_nx^{n+r}+\sum_{n=0}^\infty (n+r)C_nx^{n+r}+\sum_{n=0}^\infty C_nx^{n+r+2} - \sum_{n=0}^\infty \nu^2 C_n x^{n+r} \end{align} $$ A substitution must be made in indices:$$m=n+2~.$$ This yields: $$ \begin{align} 0 & =\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left [ (n+r-1)(n+r)+(n+r)-\nu^2 \right ] C_nx^{n+r} + \sum_{m=2}^\infty C_{m-2}x^{m+r} \\ & =\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left [ (n+r)^2-\nu^2 \right ] C_nx^{n+r} + \sum_{n=2}^\infty C_{n-2}x^{n+r} \\ & =(r^2-\nu^2)C_0x^r+ [(r+1)^2-\nu^2]C_1x^{r+1}+\sum_{n=2}^\infty \left \{ [(n+r)^2-\nu^2]C_n+C_{n-2} \right \} x^{n+r} \end{align} $$ Dividing the equation above by $$x^r~(x>0)~$$ yields: $$0 =(r^2-\nu^2)C_0+ [(r+1)^2-\nu^2]C_1x+\sum_{n=2}^\infty \left \{ [(n+r)^2-\nu^2]C_n+C_{n-2} \right \} x^n$$ By the "Identity Theorem" (which states that xn is linearly independent), it follows that: $$ \begin{align} & (r^2-\nu^2)C_0 = 0 \\ & [(r+1)^2-\nu^2]C_1=0 \\ & [(n+r)^2-\nu^2]C_n+C_{n-2}=0, \, n=2,3,4,\cdots \end{align} $$ By assumption, $$C_0 \neq 0~,$$ so we define a function: $$h(r):=r^2-\nu^2=0 \quad \text{(indicial equation)}$$ The possible values for $$r=\pm \nu~.$$ Let $$r_1:=\nu, \, r_2:=-\nu~$$ and for convenience, let $$\nu > 0~.$$ We obtain the following recurrence relations for $$C_n$$: $$ \begin{cases} C_0 \neq 0 \quad \text{(arbitrarily defined)} \\ C_1 = 0 \quad \text{(follows from } [(r+1)^2-\nu^2]C_1=0 \text{)} \\ \underbrace{[(n+r)^2-\nu^2]}_{h(n+r)}C_n=-C_{n-2}, \, n=2,3,4,\cdots \end{cases} $$ To get a solution to the Bessel equation, choose $$r_1=\nu~, \, \nu \neq 0~.$$ Thus, $$h(n+r)=h(n+\nu) \neq 0, \, n=2,3,4,\cdots~.$$ We can now solve for $$C_n$$: $$C_n=-\frac{C_{n-2}}{(n+\nu)^2-\nu^2}=-\frac{C_{n-2}}{n^2+2n\nu}$$ We end up with the recursion: $$ \begin{cases} C_0 \neq 0 \\ C_1 = 0 \\ C_n = -\frac{C_{n-2}}{n(n+2\nu)}, \, n=2,3,4,\cdots \end{cases} $$ Since the recursion has depth 2 and $$C_1=0$$, it follows that: $$ \begin{cases} C_0 \neq 0 \\ C_{2n+1} = 0, n=0,1,2,\cdots \\ C_{2n} = -\frac{C_{2n-2}}{2n(2n+2\nu)} = -\frac{C_{2n-2}}{2^2n(n+\nu)}, \, n=1,2,3,\cdots \end{cases} $$ Because of the recursion, we get the following set of terms: $$ \begin{align} & C_0 \neq 0 \\ & C_2 = - \frac{C_0}{2^2 \cdot 1 \cdot (1+\nu)} \\ & C_4 = C_{2\cdot 2} = - \frac{C_2}{2^2 \cdot 2 \cdot (2+\nu)} = \frac{(-1)^2 C_0}{2^4 \cdot 1 \cdot 2 \cdot (1+\nu)(2+\nu)} = \frac{(-1)^2 C_0}{2^4 \cdot 2! \cdot (1+\nu)(2+\nu)} \\ & C_6 = C_{2\cdot 3} = - \frac{C_4}{2^2 \cdot 3 \cdot (3+\nu)} = \frac{(-1)^3 C_0}{2^6 \cdot 3! \cdot (1+\nu)(2+\nu)(3+\nu)} \\ & \vdots \\ & C_{2n}=\frac{(-1)^n C_0}{2^{2n} \cdot n! \cdot (1+\nu)(2+\nu)\cdots(n+\nu)}, \, n=1,2,3,\cdots \end{align} $$ In order to simplify the expansion of y, we normalize $$C_0$$ and choose: $$C_0:=\frac{1}{2^\nu \Gamma(1+\nu)}$$ This simplifies our general term to: $$C_{2n}=\frac{(-1)^n}{2^{2n+\nu} \cdot n! \cdot \Gamma(n+1+\nu)}, \, n=0,1,2,\cdots$$ The first solution to the Bessel equation can be written like this: $$J_\nu (x) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n}{n! \cdot \Gamma(n+1+\nu)} \left ( \frac{x}{2} \right )^{2n+\nu}$$

Definition
The definition of the gamma function is defined on $$x \in \mathbb{R}$$ such that $$x > 0$$: $$\Gamma(x):=\int\limits_0^\infty t^{x-1}e^{-t} dt$$

Properties of the Gamma Function
Here are some theorems for the gamma function:
 * 1) $$\Gamma(x+1)=x \Gamma(x)$$
 * 2) $$\Gamma(1)=1$$
 * 3) $$\Gamma(n+1)=n!$$
 * 4) $$\Gamma \left ( \frac{1}{2} \right ) = \sqrt{\pi}$$

Second Solution of the Bessel Equation
For the case that $$\nu \not\in \mathbb{N}, \nu > 0$$, we can define a second solution to the Bessel function. In this case, $$n+1-\nu \in \mathbb{R} \backslash (-\mathbb{N} \cup \{ 0 \}) $$ and therefore $$\Gamma (n+1-\nu)$$ is defined. Consider: $$J_{-\nu}(x):=\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n}{n! \cdot \Gamma(n+1-\nu)} \left ( \frac{x}{2} \right )^{2n-\nu} $$ Some theorems for this new function: These theorems are proved easily, but will not be shown here.
 * $$J_{-\nu}(x)~$$ solves the Bessel equation.
 * $$J_{\nu}(x), J_{-\nu}(x)~$$ are linearly independent.

Bessel Functions of the Second Kind
A second function that is defined on $$\nu \in \mathbb{R}, \nu \not\in \mathbb{Z}$$ takes the form: $$Y_\nu(x):=\frac{\cos (\nu \pi) J_\nu(x)-J_{-\nu}(x)}{\sin (\nu \pi)}$$ Deriving this result is fairly difficult and will not be shown here. This function, called the Bessel function of the second kind of order $$\nu$$, is linearly independent from $$J_\nu(x)$$.

Hankel Functions, Bessel Functions of the Third Kind
A third type of function (complex-valued) for $$\nu \in \mathbb{R}, \, \nu \not\in \mathbb{Z},$$ are: $$H_\nu^{(1)} := J_\nu(x)+ i \, Y_\nu(x)$$ $$H_\nu^{(2)} := J_\nu(x)- i \, Y_\nu(x)$$ and are called the Bessel functions of the 3rd kind or Hankel functions of order $$\nu$$. The Hankel functions $$H_\nu^{(1)}, H_\nu^{(2)}$$ are linearly independent.

Complete Solution to the Bessel Equation
For all $$\nu \in \mathbb{R}, \lambda \in \mathbb{R},$$ the complete solution of the Bessel equation: $$x^2y''+xy'+(\lambda^2x^2-\nu^2)y=0$$ can be written as: $$y(x)=C_1J_\nu(\lambda x)+C_2 Y_\nu(\lambda x)$$ or: $$y(x)=C_1H_\nu^{(1)}(\lambda x)+C_2 H_\nu^{(2)}(\lambda x)~.$$ If $$\nu \in \mathbb{R} \backslash \mathbb{Z}~,$$ then: $$y(x)=C_1J_\nu(x)+C_2J_{-\nu}(x)~.$$ Moreover:
 * $$J_\nu, J_{-\nu}, Y_\nu$$ have countably many zeroes.
 * If $$v \ge 0$$, then $$J_\nu(\lambda x)$$ is finite for all $$x \in \mathbb{R}$$, $$J_{-\nu}(\lambda x)$$ and $$Y_\nu(\lambda x)$$ are unbounded in the neighborhood of 0.

Identities
Here are some identities for the Bessel function. They can be deduced with reasonable effort.

Differential Identities
For $$\nu \in \mathbb{R}$$: Corollary: Corollary (Recursion Formula):
 * 1) $$\left [ x^{\nu} J_{\nu}(x)\right ]' = x^{\nu} J_{\nu-1}(x)$$
 * 2) $$\left [ x^{-\nu} J_{\nu}(x)\right ]' = -x^{-\nu} J_{\nu+1}(x)$$
 * 3) $$\left [ x^{\nu} Y_{\nu}(x)\right ]' = x^{\nu} Y_{\nu-1}(x)$$
 * 4) $$\left [ x^{-\nu} Y_{\nu}(x)\right ]' = -x^{-\nu} Y_{\nu+1}(x)$$
 * 1) $$x J_\nu'(x)+\nu J_\nu(x)=x J_{\nu-1}(x)$$
 * 2) $$x J_\nu'(x)-\nu J_\nu(x)=-x J_{\nu+1}(x)$$
 * 1) $$\frac{2 \nu}{x} J_\nu(x) = J_{\nu-1}(x) + J_{\nu+1}(x)$$
 * 2) $$J_\nu'(x)=\frac{1}{2} \left [ J_{\nu-1}(x) - J_{\nu+1}(x) \right ]$$

Integration Identities
For $$\nu \in \mathbb{R}$$: Important special cases $$(\nu = 0,1)$$:
 * 1) $$\int x^{\nu} J_{\nu-1}(x) dx = x^{\nu} J_{\nu}(x)+C$$
 * 2) $$\int x^{-\nu} J_{\nu+1}(x) dx = -x^{-\nu} J_{\nu}(x)+C$$
 * 1) $$\int x J_0(x) dx = x J_1(x)+C$$
 * 2) $$\int J_1(x) dx = - J_0(x) + C$$

title: Bessel functions


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Victoriana Schooldays/Chapter 6/Church School

When Albert was five years old, he joined the Junior School of St Matthew’s Church, which was in another building - in Queens Road. It was only Class 1 that had a separate room - known as ‘The Bottom Standard’. There he was taught the Prayer Book. At the same time, instruction given so that pupils could recite the Ten Commandments: the creed, the Catechism and the Lord’s Prayer. This was to prepare them for ‘confirmation’.

In subsequent years, the higher standards were taught in a large hall, which seated about five classes. The head teacher was Mr Dexter who had an assistant and three female staff. Boys were separated from Girls, who had their own hall. At this time, education was not compulsory - there was a voluntary charge made throughout the year of two pence per week for lessons. Discipline was vigorously exercised to keep noise levels down so as not to disturb the other classes. Lessons arranged so that singing in one class taught with sewing or drawing in another so that one would not affect the other.

These large rooms, or halls, were very cold in the winter for they had large windows and lofty ceilings. Each large room had a coal heater set in the middle of the floor with the chimney pipe running up to the high roof. The floor, uneven through use, showed raised nails - was of bare wood, which gave off clouds of dust when anyone moved. Colourless flaking lime-washed walls white peppered the surrounding floor, which added to the general dust.

He later spoke of the severe winters and dense fogs, which made going to school something to be dreaded. In the winter of 1894-5, which was particularly severe, hot meals were provided and warm clothing distributed to the needy and boots to those without. It was reported, by a school’s medical officer, that at least one third of all children had not had their clothes off for more than six months and that a high percentage of these had their underclothes sew on them. These children smelt - nobody wanted to sit next to them; others continually itched and could not sit still. Schoolroom was fumigated and teachers wore bags of sulphur sewn into their hems- to ward off vermin. A great many children worked before and after school as messengers, street sellers and errand boys. It was a case of having to, to provide for a single or sickly parent. For twelve-year-old girls leaving school domestic service was the most popular job available. Many of the children were fed by charitable funds provided by rich neighbours and philanthropic action by societies. It was only at the start of the First World War that the Board of Education compelled all authorities to provide meals. The health of schoolchildren was a matter of concern and provision made for the medical inspection of all schoolchildren. By 1914, just over three-quarters of London’s Boroughs made health, eyesight and dental checks. The improved provision of continuous tap water helped children’s health. Skin complaints began to disappear and infections from various bugs reduced to the degree that fumigation tailed off.

These were dreary winter days… when the teacher lit the gas mantle held in the wall bracket… to produce a depressing yellow glow. This light could hardly penetrate the gloom, not only because of the lateness of the hour but the denseness of the London fog outside which seeped into the room. It is difficult now to imagine… although understandable when we consider their Mondays’ in particular, when all the boilers lit for washing. It was difficult to breathe the sulphurous air: the fumes from candles, oil lamps and various heaters made even the inside of homes smoky. To go out was a trial… continually tripping over milk churns and dustbins, negotiating horse dung and rotting waste, into a world of a pale golden colour with humps and hillocks… ghostly bodies set lurching into each other… all groping to find their way.

The high-hung school bell, set on the roof, rang at nine and one o'clock. The children had to form up outside until let in… to form queues that were led snaking into the classrooms. There was no talking and no running every movement was regimented and orderly. Slates were used to write on which made a squeaky noise when the slate pencils were used. No provision was made for cleaning the slates so children spat on them and rubbed them with their sleeves. Slates, hung from pegs around the wall, were used for minor lessons and practice - to save paper. When writing perfected using slates ‘writing books’ and ‘pen and ink sets’ passed out by the monitor.

By the turn of the century, a system of elementary education had been worked out and some two million children attended board school. This was the direct result of the 1870 Education Act coming into fruition. All of England was divided up into school districts where school boards were set up with powers to levy rates and build schools. This was done and the results can be seen today – those schools are still in being although perhaps not as schools any more. The Education Act of 1902 was the basis for all branches of education – from elementary to university, included in this were church schools. County, district and borough councils who formed local education committees [LEAs] replaced School Boards. By the end of 1902, fifty-three secondary schools set up. It took a further ten years to add three hundred more.

The working population of large British cities, particularly London at the turn of the nineteenth century, was described graphically in Dickens’s novels. They were people intent upon holding their jobs, maintaining their position in the social order and putting on a brave face -to cover up any differences of order or hardship. Amongst these citizens were Albert's family - one of many who succeeded. They eventually considered themselves Londoners and were proud of it! What was different about them, from many such families, was that their paternal great-grandfather Thomas had been born in Ireland – of ancient Gaelic roots…

Albert considered himself fortunate… his father had a skilled job that enabled him to be self-employed. This was at a time when a number of events, in both Britain and the rest of the world, came one after another to create ‘the industrial society’. Steam engines were invented to pump out water from the mines - allowing more coal to be extracted. This power source was adapted to drive mills and traction engines. Canals were built to move heavy materials across country. Railways took over the transportation of goods and passengers. This movement of people stripped young people away from the countryside. Houses, factories, railway cutting, tunnels, and docks had to be provided. To clothe, equip, furnish and supply the factories and their workers ancillary businesses blossomed. Once this train of event happened, there was no stopping the development of a new ‘industrial’ society that had far-reaching social effects. Into the birth of this new world Thomas galloped, to start a new life and eventually become generations of Londoners. His son Thomas, took over the reigns, and benefited by the building boom, allowing him to start up his own business.

His mother ran her own business. The laundry operated from home and provided work for local women. Once again, it was an opportune time to own such an enterprise especially in the middle-class area of Bayswater. It too prospered. This was a loving, secure, home environment, which provided him with a good grounding for organization and management.

Those Londoners who had a lot of money were easy to recognise from those who had little. Their dress would give them away. The rich women wore long dresses made out of silks and satins, wore flamboyant hats and fur stoles, and carried a parasol. They did no work but run their house through the effort of servants and cooks planning the weeks programme and menu. Their husbands, many were absentee property owners, living off the rents of property, stocks, and shares, wore: frock coats, bowler hats, and astrakhan collared over-coats... Income tax was very low allowing surplus money to be spent on clothes, houses, horses, and carriages. It was a very unequal society.

The poor children wore rags, went barefooted, and were frequently undernourished. They lived in tenements and back-to-back houses with no sanitary arrangements except a community lavatory and tap. Many children lived away from home - under bridges and populating derelict houses.

All the different strata of society wore clothes appropriate to that level – not attempting to copy their so-called betters, but maintaining their station in life. The rich looked upon the poor as ‘unfortunates’ some socially minded did so with embarrassment, others felt guilty - that there wasn’t greater equality. The mass of the population were struggling with the day-to-day survival. Three-quarters of all adults earned less than £160 per year. The gap between paying income tax or not widened during the Edwardian period. Almost sixty per cent of the population were living more than two to a room.

Many of these unfortunates were housed in the workhouse on a diet of half a pint of milk and five ounces of dry bread for breakfast. Dinner, the main meal of the day, consisted of an ounce and a half of fatty roast beef, four ounces of potatoes or other vegetable, and six ounces of some sort of pudding – usually a concoction of suet and flour. In addition, for supper, a half pint of, water and milk mix, of cocoa and a quarter pound of seed cake. This diet exceeded that of a workers family whose wage might be twenty-shillings a week… thirty shillings was considered a good wage. Alfred, Alberts father, was a self-employed painter, earned about forty-shillings a week. Fortunately, these were times of feverish activity industrially and economically. Employment was high for Britain was preparing its defences and the work demanded by the railways and house building kept the labour market busy.

The working week was sometimes more than fifty hours and even though employment was high there was always a fear of be laid off – of being out of work. Trade unions were weak and the law gave very little protection for unfair dismissal. There was no unemployment insurance or social security. The property owner for any trifling excuse could throw a family out of their house.

As there was already a piano in the house it was not difficult to accord Albert his wish to learn to play. It did not take long for him to reach the first grade and his teacher declared that he had a natural bent learning not only the practical side but the theory too. Soon he was able to play the hymns sung at the school assembly – he was often required to accompany singers at Christmas time and within a few years diligent practice proficient enough to play for the local film show, keeping pace with the black and white films. He continued to play for the rest of his life reaching a high enough standard to play for Masonic meetings.

To have a piano in the house at the turn of the nineteenth century was the popular means of home entertainment. It is estimated that there were between two and four million pianos in Britain - one instrument to ten to twenty people. It was a skill considered to be, ‘one of social inclusion’, especially for girls. To be able to play well - able to accompany singers entertaining company, a mark of distinction… it was also a guarantee of inclusion, for a skilled player was always wanted for every social gathering. The piano in the parlour was not just a butt for jokes but a matter of fact. Between 1877 and 1902 ‘The Lost Cord’ sold fifty thousand copies of sheet music per year making Parry a very rich man. The family singsong around the piano, singing the songs of the day from popular music hall acts, operettas, national tunes, and hymns looked forward to as a means of social discourse – bringing family and friends together.

Albert stayed at this Church School until he was seven years old when the family moved to Kensal Green. His next school, Princess Frederika Higher Grade School, had the sexes still separated. He tells us that it was a miserable place staffed by elderly teachers who were always unsmiling, stern and dressed as if in morning. He was glad when he moved yet again to the London School Board at Amberley Road, Paddington. (This school is still there and backs onto the Paddington Branch of the Grand Union Canal. One end of the road is Harrow Road in Westbourne Green). Whilst he attended this school Queen Victoria died and Edward VII was crowned King. All children were given the day off to celebrate and street parties were arranged. Later that year he joined the 6th. London Boys Brigade Company, which was attached to the school’s church. The captain who ran the company was J.A.Robson a remarkable man enrolling more than a hundred boys. Most years winning the area cup and shield for band and drill competitions.

The Boy Scouts were based upon trekking and scouting. The Boy’s Brigade linked to a military style of light infantry training. The Boy’s Brigade, founded by Sir William Smith in Glasgow at the end of the 19th.century. The object of the Brigade was to produce good citizens. In 1904 throughout the country there was said to be 54,000 boys between the ages of 12-14 in the organization. Baden-Powell became honorary Vice-president and Inspector General that same year. It was thought by many, both in the Army and Government, that here was an organization that could be a source of recruitment for future officers and men of the British Army. ‘A strong force behind the Volunteers and the Army – a third line in defending our shores’.

Now at last Albert was happy. The Headmaster at the London school Board was Mr Williamson who although strict was kind and fortunately ably assisted by capable teachers in six separate classrooms. He could master the three ‘Rs’ and was taught elementary algebra, composition, drawing, geometry, French and woodwork. He had great affection for this school and never forgot the headmaster - what he owed him for his many kindnesses. Discipline was looked on as something essentials and necessary and so too punishment for wrongdoing and slackness. There was a punishment book called ‘The Board School, cane and Punishment Book’. The children with great awe regarded this and so the threat of entry into this book was sufficient to deter misdoing.

At the start of every day, prayers were said and hymns sung in the main hall. At the end of each day, the same thing happened. Pupils were expected to pay respect to older people – hats should be raised and taken off to masters and mistresses, to say ‘Sir’ and ‘Miss’ when spoken to. When leaving school caps were to be worn at all times. Albert played the piano for the school assembly and in the evenings for the local picture palace where silent films with sub-titles were shown. This required dexterity and a knowledge of many tunes to follow each part of the story line.

English lessons, which were taught every day, had as their main content the spelling of words and note taking. Writing with a hand in copperplate script was the standard necessary and much practiced. Mental arithmetic was greatly encouraged by giving every class every day a problem to be solved. Teachers taught all subjects and knew their charges intimately, their faults and failings, their successes and strengths.

In 1900, the underground railway system was electrified. For the price of a tuppeny ticket, the passenger could travel as far as he wished. This became so successful that the underground railway was extended which in turn paid its way. The first transatlantic wireless message was sent the following year. The industrialization continued apace each year that passed more inventions and discoveries were made.

Albert started work at the age of fifteen in 1904 [the same time the Russo-Japanese War started]. He joined the Great Central Railway Company whose head office was at Paddington Station as a junior clerk. Because there was no vacancy at that post, to start with, he had to serve out his probationary period learning to pack parcels and load wagons in the Goods Yard. A few months later a vacancy for junior clerk occurred on the staff of Thompson McKay and Company, who were Carting Agents for the G.C.R…, which he took. Office work included dealing with street accidents, claims for damage to goods in carriage, stoppages, overtime and bonus payments, accounts, detention charges, correspondence and ordering feed for the horses. In retrospect; if he had waited for a vacancy with the railway company and not gone to a private cartage company, he would have benefitted enormously both in eventual retirement benefit and rising in the far larger concern.

The Cartage Department then came under the jurisdiction of the District manager who had six hundred horses, a Miles Daimler 5-ton, iron tyred, motor with rack and pinion drive and a 10 ton Yorkshire Steam Wagon. All the horses were young and some had to be trained. Some ‘car-men’, the term used for drivers, were detailed off as ‘young-horse car-men’ for breaking in these animals. As ‘Agents’ Thompson McKay & Co. carried out town cartage work as well as more general work… particularly orders for Lots Road, Electric Generating Station, which was speciality work… some being very heavy. In cases where the cartage of 40-ton boilers was, necessary twenty horses were used at a time pulling a special heavy-duty wagon. Steam engines were invented to drive pumps and move heavy goods for the mining industry at the turn of the 18th. Century. By 1903, Ford had built his first petrol driven motorcar and the first steam tractors for farm and roadwork designed.

Albert enjoyed his work and was interested to learn more outside his normal duties. By this time, his various tasks included visiting local markets and the docks and leaning how to service extra heavy loads. This started his never-ending love for London, its street and all the business, which went on within its boundaries. He did anything, which would help his career and increase his knowledge of the cartage industry. Gradually more and more motors were obtained to deal with the increased workload. Drivers had to service their own motors and for this, parts and lubricants had to be ordered in. Throughout this period, he kept abreast of all the latest methods adopted to transport goods, for a personal interest drove every vehicle, and got to known its working.

It was now just three years after the end of the Boar War. Previously Britain had invested the Empire with a rosy glow, after the war the glow was not quite so warm. Although the period was one of growth – the necessity of putting back what the war had drained away, the change in society, not quite as large as that experienced after The Second World War, was large – the people did have more and there was a definite improvement in the nation’s health. Nevertheless, there was a feeling that the ‘golden age’ of Victorian Britain was over.

Most of the middle and upper classes were quite prepared to tolerate extremes of poverty so that they could indulge themselves in luxury. The working class saw the need for communal action to improve society. Britain’s economy and growth had been greater and faster than at any other time. As time has gone by it becomes even clearer how substantial these changes had been. When an individual, group, or even country produces such wealth it becomes envied – produces a jealous reaction…, the Second World War, in this case, was the result …

The Prime Minister, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, held an election just after Christmas – in January 1906. It was a wise move for the result was a landslide victory for the previous Liberal Party gaining eighty-four seat majority over all other parties. The election had been fought on issues of Education, Chinese slavery and tariff reform - which the Liberals presented as a likely increase in the cost of food. It was an exciting time for those who left the Boys Brigade witnessing the massive public excitement. They all went to Trafalgar Square to see the huge screens erected there displaying the projected election results. It was agreed by Parliament, 31st March 1907, ‘That a sum of £2,353,000, be granted to His Majesty, to defray the Charge of Barrack Construction; for Works, Buildings, and repairs, at Home and abroad [including purchase of land]. This was a bill acknowledging that something had to be done about modernising the Army - improving the living arrangements. On the eve of war, there were 132,000 private cars on the roads.

During the last few years before the outbreak of the First World War Britain had developed department stores, chain stores and Cooperative stores. It was unusual to buy items direct from the manufacturer or farmer. Costly items such as suiting and shoes might be ordered ‘made to measure’… but most goods were made in standard sizes and weights. The middle classes graced Harrods and Selfridges; Liptons, Co-op, and Grand Universal Stores had been built up on the needs of the working class, catering for volume sales with small margins.

British society had become more tolerant. It was possible to alter ones class – to move up. There was greater understanding for the poor, homeless and handicapped. The Factory Acts did protect workers. Reforms allowing trades unions and the introduction of the Welfare State continue to this day… Britain was becoming more civilized... This improvement in living standards came from invention, new technologies, and entrepreneurship.


text:
User:Nattawat.laiklang

Nattawat Laiklang Profile
My name is Nattawat Laiklang.

My ID Number is 5380602.

My major is Tourism and Hospitality Management(ICTH). Nice to see you guys(and my teacher)!

Computer Specification
Computer Specification from D.I.Y. Computer Customization What's a great specification of this D.I.Y. Computer!! :-D
 * CPU :Intel Core2 Quad Q6600 2.4 Ghz
 * Mainborad : Asus P5Q-E
 * Memory : KingSton 1GB 800MHz DDR2 X3
 * Harddisk : Seagate ST3500320AS 500 GB 32MB
 * VGA : ESC GeForce 9800GTX
 * Rom : Lite-On DVD+-R/RW 20x

Portable Device Specification
In a group of two: Nattawat Laiklang ID: 5380602 and Pailin Kunnawat ID:5380315  Here are three examples: iPHONE 4, BlackBerry Storm and HTC

IPHONE 4 Specification
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GENERAL	2G Network	GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 3G Network	HSDPA 850 / 900 / 1900 / 2100 Announced	2010, June Status	Available. Released 2010, June SIZE	Dimensions	115.2 x 58.6 x 9.3 mm Weight	137 g  DISPLAY	Type	LED-backlit IPS TFT, capacitive touchscreen, 16M colors Size	640 x 960 pixels, 3.5 inches - Scratch-resistant oleophobic surface - Multi-touch input method - Accelerometer sensor for auto-rotate - Three-axis gyro sensor - Proximity sensor for auto turn-off

SOUND	Alert types	Vibration, MP3 ringtones Loudspeaker	Yes 3.5mm jack	Yes, check quality

MEMORY	Phonebook	Practically unlimited entries and fields, Photocall Call records	100 received, dialed and missed calls Internal	16/32 GB storage, 512 MB RAM

Blackberry Storm2 9520 Specification
GENERAL	2G Network	GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 3G Network	HSDPA 2100 Announced	2009, October Status	Available. Released 2009, November

SIZE	Dimensions	112.5 x 62.2 x 14 mm Weight	160 g

DISPLAY	Type	TFT capacitive touchscreen, 65K colors Size	360 x 480 pixels, 3.25 inches - Accelerometer sensor for auto-rotate

SOUND	Alert types	Vibration; MP3 ringtones Loudspeaker	Yes 3.5mm jack	Yes, check quality

MEMORY	Phonebook	Practically unlimited entries and fields, Photocall Call records	Yes Internal	2 GB Card slot	microSD, up to 16GB, buy memory

DATA	GPRS	Class 10 (4+1/3+2 slots), 32 - 48 kbps EDGE	Class 10, 236.8 kbps 3G	HSDPA, 7.2 Mbps; HSUPA WLAN	Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g Bluetooth	Yes, v2.1 with A2DP Infrared port	No USB	Yes, microUSB v2.0

CAMERA	Primary	3.15 MP, 2048x1536 pixels, autofocus, LED flash Features	Geo-tagging, image stabilization Video	Yes Secondary	No

FEATURES	OS	BlackBerry OS Messaging	SMS, MMS, Email, IM Browser	HTML Radio	No Games	Yes + downloadable Colors	Black GPS	Yes, with A-GPS support Java	Yes - BlackBerry maps - Document editor (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, PDF) - MP3/WMA/AAC+ player - MP4/H.264/H.263/WMV player - Organizer - Voice memo/dial

BATTERY	 	Standard battery, Li-Ion 1400 mAh Stand-by	Up to 305 h (2G) / Up to 280 h (3G) Talk time	Up to 5 h (2G) / Up to 6 h (3G)

MISC	SAR US	 0.97 W/kg (head)    0.60 W/kg (body) SAR EU	 1.02 W/kg (head)    0.53 W/kg (body)

Card slot	No

DATA	GPRS	Class 10 (4+1/3+2 slots), 32 - 48 kbps EDGE	Class 10, 236.8 kbps 3G	HSDPA, 7.2 Mbps; HSUPA, 5.76 Mbps WLAN	Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n Bluetooth	Yes, v2.1 with A2DP Infrared port	No USB	Yes, v2.0

CAMERA	Primary	5 MP, 2592 x 1944 pixels, autofocus, LED flash, check quality Features	Touch focus, geo-tagging Video	Yes, 720p@30fps, LED video light, geo-tagging, check quality Secondary	Yes, videocalling over Wi-Fi only

FEATURES	OS	iOS 4 CPU	1 GHz ARM Cortex-A8 processor, PowerVR SGX535GPU, Apple A4 chipset Messaging	SMS (threaded view), MMS, Email, Push Email Browser	HTML (Safari) Radio	No Games	Downloadable, incl. motion-based Colors	Black, White GPS	Yes, with A-GPS support Java	No - MicroSIM card support only - Scratch-resistant glass back panel - Active noise cancellation with dedicated mic - Digital compass - Google Maps - Audio/video player and editor - Voice command/dial - TV-out

BATTERY	 	Standard battery, Li-Po 1420mAh Stand-by	Up to 300 h (2G) / Up to 300 h (3G) Talk time	Up to 14 h (2G) / Up to 7 h (3G) Music play	Up to 40 h

HTC ThunderBolt 4G Specification
GENERAL	2G Network	CDMA 800 / 1900 3G Network	CDMA2000 1xEV-DO / LTE 700 Announced	2011, January Status	Coming soon. Exp. release 2011, Q1

 SIZE	Dimensions	122 x 66 x 13 mm Weight	164 g

DISPLAY	Type	TFT capacitive touchscreen, 16M colors Size	480 x 800 pixels, 4.3 inches - Accelerometer sensor for UI auto-rotate - Proximity sensor for auto turn-off - HTC Sense 2.0 UI - Multi-touch input method

SOUND	Alert types	Vibration, MP3, WAV ringtones Loudspeaker	Yes 3.5mm jack	Yes - DNSe (Dolby mobile sound enhancement)

MEMORY	Phonebook	Practically unlimited entries and fields, Photocall Call records	Practically unlimited Internal	8GB storage, 768 MB RAM Card slot	microSD, up to 32GB, 32GB included

DATA	GPRS	No EDGE	No 3G	Rev. A, up to 3.1 Mbps, LTE WLAN	Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n, DLNA Bluetooth	Yes, v2.1 with A2DP, EDR Infrared port	No USB	Yes, microUSB v2.0

CAMERA	Primary	8 MP, 3264x2448 pixels, autofocus, dual-LED flash Features	Geo-tagging, face detection Video	Yes, 720p Secondary	Yes, 1.3 MP

FEATURES	OS	Android OS, v2.2 (Froyo) CPU	1GHz Scorpion processor, Adreno 205 GPU, Qualcomm MSM8655 Snapdragon Messaging	SMS(threaded view), MMS, Email, Push Email, IM Browser	HTML Radio	Stereo FM radio with RDS Games	Yes + downloadable Colors	Black GPS	Yes, with A-GPS support Java	No - Video Skype & SNS integration - built-in kickstand - Digital compass - Active noise cancellation with dedicated mic - Google Search, Maps, Gmail - YouTube, Google Talk, Picasa integration - MP3/AAC+/WAV/WMA9 player - DivX/Xvid/MP4/H.263/H.264/WMV9/player - Organizer - Document viewer - Voice memo/dial/commands - Predictive text input

BATTERY	 	Standard battery, Li-Ion 1400 mAh

Phone Analysis
1.General I phone 4 works for GSM both 2G and 3G GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 3G HSDPA 850 / 900 / 1900 / 2100 Blackberry works for GSM both 2G and 3G GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 3G HSDPA 2100 HTC can’t use with GSM, can be used only CDMA 800 / 1900 with 2G and 3G

2. Size I phone 134 g, the most lightest, thinnest

3. Display Iphone 4 LED-backlit IPS TFT, capacitive touchscreen, 16M colors, 640 x 960 pixels, 3.5 inches - Scratch-resistant oleophobic surface - Multi-touch input method - Accelerometer sensor for auto-rotate - Three-axis gyro sensor - Proximity sensor for auto turn-off

4. Sound HTC, Vibration, MP3, WAV ringtone, equip with DNSe while the others are not have.

5. Memory HTC, Internal memory is 8 GB, 768 MB RAM, card slot can be put with microSD, up to 32GB. While BlackBerry Storm can put in a card with only up to 16 GB and iPhone 4 can’t put anything; use only internal storage.

6. Data iPhone 4 because it support all of connections; GPRS, EDGE, 3G, WLAN, Bluetooth and use USB 2.0 for connecting between a device and computer.

7.Camera HTC, it's camera feature is 8 MP, 3264x2448 pixels, autofocus, dual-LED flash, while Blackberry and Iphone 4 is 3Mp and 5 Mp respectively.

8.Features HTC and Iphone4 are almost equal Having CPU HTC 1GHz Scorpion processor, Adreno 205 GPU, Qualcomm MSM8655 Snapdragon Iphone 1 GHz ARM Cortex-A8 processor, PowerVR SGX535GPU, Apple A4 chipset

They both have push mail, digital compass, active noise cancellation with dedicated mic, voice command and organizers while Blackberry didn't support. Iphone has 2 colors, while HTC has 1 color. Iphone has micro SIM, scratch resistance glass. TV out. HTC has radio output while Iphone and Blackberry doesn't have. HTC also has video skype, SMS integration, also support MP3/AAC+/WAV/WMA9 player and DivX/Xvid/MP4/H.263/H.264/WMV9/player

9.Battery Iphone 4, it has Standard battery, Li-Po 1420mAh, more than other battery 20 mAh

10.Misc Blackberry has SAR (Specific absorption rate), while both HTC and Iphone doesn't have.

title: User:Nattawat.laiklang


title: File:DFT.0.B.Background.pdf


text: File:DFT.1.B.Complex Phase.pdf

title: File:DFT.1.B.Complex Phase.pdf


text: File:DFT.2.B.Matrix Example.pdf

title: File:DFT.2.B.Matrix Example.pdf


text: File:DFT.3.B.Matrix Property.pdf

title: File:DFT.3.B.Matrix Property.pdf


text:
User:Em736458

Bold textMy name is Emma Horner, I am a 3rd year Neuroscience major at Dalhousie University.

'

Blog 1: Language and Thought
The lecture by Aaron Newman on Wednesday December 12th outlined the idea of language and thought and further attempted to describe the relationship between them. What I thought was the most interesting was the diagrams presented under “the influence of language and thought”. The diagram was used in a study by Carmichel, Hogan, & Walter (1932), where the participants were asked to view the diagram of 2 circles connected by a line. They were then given 1 of 2 verbal captions, either stating eyeglasses or dumb-bells. What was really interesting was that the participants that were given the verbal captions then asked to reproduce the original diagram altered it fit the caption. I found this really interesting because the human brain unconsciously has a schema for the verbal captions and is able to distort the memory of the original diagram. I think this study was really very interesting and really got me excited about the dynamic between language and thought. I really look forward to unraveling this idea more. When doing research on this topic I found interesting suggestions that tests like this should be preformed on adults and children, because there is little evidence about the cognitive construction that is taking place, to me this was also really interesting.

Blog 2: Lateralization in the Brain
Brain lateralization was presented in Aaron Newman’s Psycholinguistics class on Monday January 17, 2011. I think that it is so interesting that some of the brains functions are lateralized. Although this topic is not new to me, every time it is brought up in one of my classes I always find it very exciting. The ability of the right side of brain to deceiver emotion and prosody and the left to be more focused on language and math is really very fascinating. Its so interesting that although the corpus callosum enables the communication between the hemispheres that it also somehow allows the inhibition of hemispheres to take place. For example I think its pretty interesting that if you were watching a ballet your right hemisphere would be firing like crazy trying to feel the emotion from the performance and ( at least for me) your left hemisphere that would be focused on the physical calculations of the dance would be almost silent. Conversely, if you were writing the MCAT or the LSAT you would hope that you left hemisphere would be dominantly firing and the right may be more quiet. Lateralization also brings up the fascinating studies on “split brain” patients who have no problems with their vision but since their corpus callosum is severed there hemispheres can act like they are blind. For example showing a word to the right eye, which would be represented in the left hemisphere, would be able to be spoken by a split brain patient. On the other hand if you were to show a word to the left eye (right hemisphere) the patient would not be able to say the word aloud but would be able to draw it. The dynamics between the hemispheres of the human brain are very riveting to me, and this class was a nice summary of these topics.

'

Blog 3: Speech Perception
For my blog this week I thought I would do some extra research on a topic that was presented in class on January 28th 2011. Oralism is the word used to define the techniques and approaches to teaching a hearing impaired individual to better communicate with the world around them. I found this topic absolutely fascinating. Aaron Newman suggested the idea of allowing the deaf child to hold the throat of the speech therapist and feeling the vibrations as the therapist speaks. The ability to do this gives the hearing impaired individual and mental representation of the word as well as some insight into how it may be pronounced. From doing research I also found that oralism includes the ability to lip read and exercises that involve putting your hand in front of your mouth and feeling the air that is exhaled during speech. The ability to attempt to form words from feeling their vibration is so interesting to me, I cant imagine the commitment and energy it would take to mentally convert one to the other. I have a new respect for the hearing impaired and the struggle they may have to communicate. I also found while researching that oralism isn’t always the best idea and can have large limitations but for those children with a small residual ability to hear or those who loose their auditory abilities later in life oralism can be quite beneficial.

Blog 4: American Sign Language
After another interesting class by Aaron Newman I am left extremely fascinated by American Sign Language. It appears I have developed a special interest in language in hearing impaired individuals. Dr. Newman presented the topic of ASL inflection in class and since I have researched a little more on this amazing language. American Sign Language is the third most popular language in the United States! Being previously naïve and uneducated on the language I thought that ASL only consisted of hand signing, I had no idea of the movements and orientations that are involved. Dr. Newman gave an example of how people who use ASL talk about people or things not in close enough proximity to point to. I think its so interesting that they leave the person or thing in an area of space and refer back to that area of space as they talk about it. I cant imagine the mental capacity and discrimination that needs to take place in order to deceiver the locations of the head, hands, and body. I would like to know more about the spatial abilities of those who speak fluent ASL to see if there capacity is different than those who speak a verbal language. This lead me to the idea of left and right hemisphere usage during ASL. I did find that ASL production and comprehension are developed in the same way as in other languages (in Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area respectively) but I am still wondering about the role of the right hemisphere as it is dominant for viso-spatial abilities which I think would be incredibly important to ASL users. Another intriguing idea is that if the right hemisphere is more dominantly involved in deciphering facial expressions, that in people reading ASL would most likely have a very active right hemisphere to determine the facial adverbials. So would that mean that the brains of ASL speakers would be overall more bilateralized for language and speech? I only attempted to make a dent on the topic of lateralization in ASL speakers and the most interesting thing I found was a difference in the white matter connections in the brain between ASL speakers and english speakers, and nothing else significant. I will continue to research it. Also when researching this topic I learned how people who use ASL write language, the term used for this is glossing and it looks like English words with all capital letters. I thought that this was so interesting because those who gloss would be defined as bilingual ( with the ability to speak ASL and to also communicate with English glossing). A fascinating example I found on the internet showed the translation of “what you see is what you get” to WYSIWYG in glossing. Overall I am utterly captivated by American Sign Language and I am inspired to learn it, I have always wanted to speak another language and I think this would be the most fun and interesting! Thank you for another interesting class! Site used for example of Glossing: http://faculty.valenciacc.edu/arasmussen/asl_1/asl_1_readings/ASL_Grammar/glossing_quick_dirty_2.htm

Blog 5: Watson
It has taken IBM 4 years, and a highly educated team to develop a computer that has the ability to answer questions in a natural “human” way. In order to function, the computer program named Watson, needs to take into account all aspects of language. IBM has made sure the that the program responds in a speedy and usually accurate way. The precise ability of this computing system to mimic the comprehension of human language is extremely fascinating. Interestingly, Watson will be participating in Jeopardy this Monday (February 14th) against the human word leaders. Jeopardy questions are not black and white questions, but rather they use puns, irony, riddles, and many others non traditionally styled questions. How does it do this? Watson rapidly searches documents that are stored in it memory and is not connected the internet. It uses speedy evaluations of the words in the question and associates them to form a response. Watson is also equip with systems that are able to judge the confidence in the formed answer and decide whether or not to respond by buzzing in. Watsons skill basically relies on the semantics of the words presented. For years computers have been able to out smart humans in computer terms, but the difference now is that Watson is playing on human turf. That means that Watson will compete using natural human language and wordplay. To me this is absolutely riveting. I cannot even fathom how the world of technology will change with this addition. The opportunities are endless with a program that can understand humans. In years would Watson, or similar programs, be able to change the field of medical diagnostics- providing and online system that understands your needs and wants. Or even in police work to respond to call ins and communicate and mediate with people in extreme stress. The Watson program does make me question how it would respond to philosophical questions and or it will ever have this capability. What is the meaning of life? Would Watson be able to structure a response from its data files to accurately respond. I wonder in how many years will there be a computer with the ability to communicate thoughts and ideas in a spontaneous way like humans do. I know that these ideas are far off, but Watson really got me thinking. We are again on the edge of a major discovery that will change the way we as humans do things, and give us more insight into the dynamic processes that form our language capabilities.

Blog 6: Aphasia
An interesting topic presented quickly in the past week was aphasia. Although in neuropsychology and cognitive psychology aphasia is a pretty common topic, treatments for aphasia are not. I thought this week I would do some research to find what is going on in the field of aphasia treatments.

I found a really interesting article on treatment for non-fluent aphasia. Non-fluent aphasia is when the production and expression of speech is impaired. Strokes or brain damage to Broca’s area usually result in this. Interestingly, it has been found that after damage to Broca’s area (usually located on the left) there is over-activation in the right hemisphere in the similar location. It has been suggested that this activation in the right hemisphere can interrupt or interfere with the individual’s ability to recover from the aphasia. In 2004, a study was completed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) on the right hemisphere as a treatment for non-fluent aphasia (Martin et al). They used slow frequency currents over 10 treatments and they found a significant increase in the patient’s ability to name pictures viewed. I think this is really interesting because it provides some insight into brain plasticity. I think its amazing that the human brain can recruit the right Broca’s area after damage to the left, and that its even more interesting that the right impairs the damaged left’s ability to recover. The TMS suppresses the inhibition of the right hemisphere and in-turn reactivates and promotes neural plasticity further compensation. This lead me to question whether this same effect would happen in left handed patients with right hemisphere dominant language capabilities. Can the lateralization be reversed? And if so can this sort of treatment be extended to apaxia patients? Or even to other forms of brain injury? Would TMS stimulation on the correct brain area help treat any lateralized brain damage? The brains ability to wire and re-wire continues to fascinate me. I think that the TMS experiments are only scratching at the surface of treatment for aphasia and at an even larger level the plasticity of the human brain. Em736458 01:50, 28 February 2011 (UTC)

Martin, P.I., Naeser, M.A., Theoret, H., Tormow, J>M>, Nicholas, M., Kurland, J., Fregni, F., Seekins, H., Doron, K., and Pascual-Leone, A. (2004) Transcranial magnetic stimulation as a complenmentary treatment for aphasia. Seminars in speech language May;25(2):181-91.

Blog: Aphasia and Society
Every year 10,000 new cases of aphasia are diagnosed. The typical aphasic is a mid Forties or early fifties individual has survived some kind of brain damage whether it be a stroke or tumor. Previous to this presentation I had never really thought about aphasia recovery centers or programs. I also had no idea that so many individuals were diagnosed each year. Why is that? Why is it that most people know very little about aphasic disorders? The presenter made an interesting comment on how not that many people know more about other debilitating disorders but not aphasia, for example why is there is no poster child for aphasia in the media like there is for say Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s? It’s honestly saddening that aphasic individuals are not getting the full support that they could be because the general public doesn’t understand their disorder. In a society where language and communication is so heavily waited, you would think a disorder that interrupts the ability to communicate would be getting more funding. I think that education and understanding of aphasia needs to increase to the general public. I can’t imagine how life would be without the ability to clearly say what you mean, essentially to be trapped in your own mind. I have studied aphasic disorders for a couple years now but I have never seen first hand how individuals actually communicate, and how hard it can be to understand and comprehend what they are thinking and feeling. Our society takes communication by means of spoken language for granted, and even I did before this presentation. Really fantastic presentation on aphasia, I wish more people knew.

Blog: Oppositional Defiant Disorder
There were some interesting debates this past week in class. Very well communicated debate on Ebonics usage and the controversy behind it. What I found most interesting was a student who made a comment about the drop out rates of students in Oakland, California and in an attempt to rebuttal another students comment that students in that community may be more likely to drop out if they force Ebonics out (they may feel robbed of their culture) a certain student made a rash statement that definitely, at least for me, forced their team to lose the debate. She commented back about how the reason the students in that community may drop out is because they have oppositional defiant disorder. The comment was completely from left field and came across as seriously racist. I would have hoped that by 3rd year in a psychology class, that there would be a certain level of education and respect for topics of such nature. ODD on average in the United States is 6% of the population, in Oakland there is a population of African Americans of about 27.3% according to the 2010 consensus, and the prevalence is equal among all races. So as you can see the comment was not thought threw and came off as offensive. It is interesting that such an assumption can roll off the tongue of an obviously educated student, and I am aware in no way did the student mean to say something so offensive but it got me thinking about stereotypes and assumptions. I assume if this same group of students was talking about a community that was strictly Caucasians the comment would not have even been thought of. The whole debate encouraged me to be more aware of what I am saying and what I am communicating to those who are listening because pretty quickly you can turn a statement into something offensive.

Chapter Assignment: The Neural Components of Speech Production
Introduction

The ability to verbally communicate with the world is a precious and precise ability. Humans are the only specie on earth that produces such a dynamic form language to communicate. One important feature in the verbal communication of humans is speech production. Speech production is the conversion of individual thoughts into structured sentences for the purpose of communication. The ability to produce speech comes from the integration physiological, neurological, and cognitive efforts. Humans use these efforts to translate their emotions and thoughts into strings of meaningfully plotted words that are relevant to the topic at hand. It is interesting to see the dynamics of the human brain when producing speech and noting that there is not necessarily one area that is activated. When a human utters a word, the lexical, emotional, motoric, semantic, phonological, and syntactic neural areas are all activated. Speech production is a fascinating ability that humans use, and an interesting area of research.

The Physiological Production of Sound

The machinery involved in the physiological production of sound can be divided into two active parts; the source and the modulators. The exhaled air, being pushed out by the diaphragm, from the lungs is the source of sound in humans. As the air leaves the lungs and moves up the trachea it enters the larynx. The larynx houses the vocal folds, which are the most important organs in speech production. As the vocal folds, or more commonly called cords, vibrate the air that is channeled around them is converted into sound. Those cord oscillations are what determines the pitch of the sound being produced. A human can produce a frequency of anywhere between 200 and 7000 Hz. That sound then travels through the pharynx, and both the oral and nasal cavities where is it expelled. In order to articulate the sound the lips, tongue, and soft palate quickly modify the shape of the vocal tract, allowing for speech to be modulated and made. It is interesting to note that the only difference between the chimpanzee and human vocal tract is the location of the larynx. Human evolution has lowered the larynx, which allows us to produce a greater variety of formants. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds including their production and perception. In regards to the tongues phonetics there is a traditional and modern view of how to conceptualize the articulation of the tongue. In the traditional view there is discrimination between high, low, mid, front, and back vowels. An example of a low vowel would be the “a” in daughter and how the tongue makes a low flat position in the mouth. This view however, does not take into account the dynamic movements and changes that the tongue makes in articulation. A modern view was then suggested. The modern view takes into account the changing position of the tongue in relation to height vs. how forward or backward it is. The vertical and horizontal abilities of our tongue within our vocal tract are what provide humans with the precision needed to produce speech.

Anatomical Areas Associated with Speech

The localization of speech production in the human brain varies greatly. In order to visualize and better understand the neural components of speech production studies mainly use lesion studies or neuroimaging. This chapter will outline some important lesion studies as well as giving some insight using modern imaging techniques like fMRI and PET. The areas that are most frequently identified as playing major roles in speech production are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. Broca’s area lies in the left inferior frontal gyrus, just above the lateral fissure. It role is believed to be in the production of speech. Broca’s area stores the motor programs needed to produce words. Wernicke’s area is located in the left superior temporal gyrus closer to the end of the lateral fissure. Wernicke’s area has been suggested to be important in the comprehension of words, as it holds the meanings, or semantics, of words. Damage to these areas results in Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia, which will be discussed in the aphasias section. Although these dominant areas are usually located in the left hemisphere the right hemisphere also has important roles in higher order speech tasks. The right hemisphere has been shown to be involved in speech perception, grammar, and sentence level semantics (Shuster, 2010). Also, interesting studies have shown that patients with right hemisphere localized strokes or brain damage have a disrupted ability or inability to maintain or initiate normal speech prosody. As there are lateralized functions in the brain there are also important bilaterally activated regions. These regions include the motor cortex, thalamus, dorsolateral caudate nucleus, and the cerebellum.

The Wernicke-Geschwind model is a three-section model that evolved from lesion studies. It outlines the proposed mechanisms that control comprehension, speech, and reading in the brain. The Wernicke-Geschwind model initiates the production of speech with cognition, which is the mental representation or plot of what the individual wants to express. It then moves to Wernicke’s area, which would outline the meanings of the words needed, that information is then sent along the arcuate fasciculus to Broca’s area. Broca’s area is where the motor plans of speech are assembled. Broca’s area then sends these instructions to the adjacent areas in the motor cortex, which communicates with the brainstem to activate the facial motor neurons, and further activate the over 100 correct facial muscles needed to produce speech (Geschwind, 1972). Studies were done to support this suggested role of Broca’s area. It was found that stimulating Broca’s area, in awake patients, gave them the inability to make the voluntary facial movements needed in speech production. Interestingly, stimulation of this area also disrupted the patient’s ability to discriminate phonemes and also affected the patient’s ability to produce gestures associated with speech (Ojemann, 2003). This inability to produce gestures is because the areas used for gestural language and vocal language are mapped in adjacent areas, and it has even been proposed that they depend on the same brain structures. Using fMRI it was found that native signers (those who learned sign language early in life) have the same localized left areas activated during signing that a person who was communicating audibly would have (Newman, 2002). Other major brain areas have just recently been suggested to aid speech production. Having so many distinct brain areas activated in speech production has provided evidence that rather than focusing on localization, that speech production is more about the network connections. Studies have shown that the articulo-phonological brain network is much more dynamic that once proposed. Here is a small summary of the important secondary brain regions involved in speech production as studied using fMRI technology:

Motor & Pre-Motor Areas: quite obviously the motor areas are involved in speech production, as they are the centers of control for all the muscles and cranial nerves involved. Results from an fMRI study on speaking shows that these areas a bilaterally activated. Thalamus & Basal Ganglia: there are distinct parallel circuits between the basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum. Initiation and control of voluntary movement has been seen to activate the basal ganglia. It has been suggested that the thalamus is involved in the preparation of the movements of speech. Cerebellum: studies have shown that in order to carryout speech production the cerebellum is one of the most important regions. The cerebellum also shows activation with vertical movements of the tongue and lip modulations. Insula: it has been proposed that the involvement of the posterior insula in speech production is to contribute to the conscious awareness of your own speaking. The left anterior insula, comparatively, has been shown to be involved in the formulation of an articulatory plan.

Newer studies have shown the involvement of many other aspects of the brain in speech production. In a meta-analysis it was found that in basic speech production the posterior, middle, and superior temporal gyrus are activated, compared to in more complex speaking tasks the left inferior frontal gyrus, cerebellum, and left caudate nucleus (Soros et al., 2006). This means that with varying intensity of cognitive effort toward speech production, the neural activation map changes. To conclude many areas of the brain are activated in speech production and more research needs to be done to specify the role of each of these areas. The next part of this chapter takes the neural areas mentioned and structures them into a map cross-listed with a classic cognitive model of speech production.

Interesting Findings from PET Imaging Studies

An analysis of PET scans revealed that when speaking there is bilateral activation the facial neurons, both motor and sensory. Interestingly when speaking verbs the areas of activation are; the frontal lobe, posterior temporal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and the cerebellum (Petersen, 1988). This suggests that when speaking an action word aloud the brain is not only considering it verbally but also activating the motor regions involved in partaking that action.

Weaver Model Linked with the Neural Regions in the Brain The Weaver model was designed to show, at a conceptual level, the processes and the outputs from each cognitive level within the brain. This section will attempt to link the classic Weaver model with newer research to propose locations and regions that these processes and outputs are taking place neutrally. This linkage was summarized nicely in a article by Gregory Hickok in 2010.

1.	The first process in Weavers model is conceptualization. At a neural level it is hard to definitively outline the area that this process activates. Studies show that conceptualization is widely distributed in the human brain. The output from this process is the lexical concept. 2.	The second process is lexical selection. The output of this level is lemma, which is the mental wordedness. The lemma is found by using abstract conceptualizations to find a word that you aspire to use by only taking into account the meaning you are attempting to suggest and not the sound. This lexical interface has been shown to have weak bias in left hemisphere and activation in the posterior medial temporal gyrus and the posterior inferior temporal sulcus. 3.	Morphological encoding is the third process in the Weaver model. Its output is the morphemes needed. The specific region of the brain responsible for morphemes has not been well defined. 4.	Phonological encoding, more specifically syllabification, is the fourth process involved, and its output is the phonological word. The main brain area involved in this process is Wernicke’s area (in the superior temporal gyrus in the left hemisphere). 5.	The fifth process is phonetic coding (syllabary). The output from the process is phonetic gestural scores. It has been determined that the area involved in phonological network is the middle posterior superior temporal sulcus. It has been proposed that the dorsal pathway maps phonological representations onto articulatory motor maps and a ventral stream take the phonological representations into lexical conceptual representations. 6.	The final process in Weaver’s model of speech production is articulation. The output of this process is sound waves. The main outlined areas for articulatory networks are the posterior inferior frontal gyrus and the anterior insula, both being left lateralized.

Disorders of Speech Production Speech production aphasia would be a defect or loss of the ability to express or produce speech. There are many different symptoms that can accompany these type of aphasia. The main symptoms that are present in speech disorders are; poor articulation, anomia (word-finding defect), paraphrasia (unintentional phrases), loss of grammar or syntax, inability to repeat, defects in verbal fluency, and aprosodia (loss of tone in voice). Aphasic Syndromes regarding speech production can be classified in two categories; fluent and non-fluent.

Fluent Aphasia means that the individual’s speech is still fluent and they do not make articulatory mistakes. They do however; have poor comprehension, poor ability to repeat, and frequent anomias or paraphrasias. Aphasias of this nature include: 1.	Wernicke’s Aphasia: Also called sensory aphasia. This is the inability to arrange speech sounds or to comprehend speech. Develops due to damage to Wernicke’s area. 2.	Transcortical Aphasia: Also called isolation syndrome. This is the inability to speak spontaneously or to comprehend words, although their speech is still defined as fluent and their ability to repeat words is intact. 3.	Conduction Aphasia: This is an interesting aphasia in that individuals with this would be able to speak fluently, understand, and name but are not able to repeat words. Develops due to damage or disconnection between the word image and the motor system to produce the word. 4.	Anomic Aphasia: this type of aphasia, as the name suggests, is the inability to name objects with all other speech properties intact. Interestingly people with this disorder are only unable to name nouns. If the word they are trying to express is also a verb they can usually mentally find and dictate it. Develops due to damage to the temporal cortex.

Non-Fluent Aphasia: this means that the individual’s comprehension is correct but they have trouble initiating, producing, and articulating speech. It is interesting to note that most individuals with these types of aphasias do know what they want to express and can structure it in their minds correctly; they just are challenged by their inability to convert those thoughts into words. Aphasias of this nature include: 1.    Severe Broca’s Aphasia: This is the complete inability to actively produce speech. Aphasias of this nature also show problems with repetition. 2.	Mild Broca’s Aphasia: A less severe form of Broca’s aphasia. This syndrome shows noticeable articulation problems, anomia, agrammatism, dysprosody. 3.	Transcortical Motor Aphasia: this includes the intact ability to repeat and name, but difficulties with spontaneous speech production. 4.	Global Aphasia: this is the most severe type of aphasia it symptoms include speechlessness, poor comprehension, and laborious articulation.

Conclusion

The human brains ability to produce speech is a well researched area of psycholinguistics. Although there is so definitive map that outlines the regions clearly it appears that science is moving in the right direction by use of fMRI and lesion studies. The neural precision needed to produce even basic speech activates many regions in the brain. Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are the most mentioned but newer studies have placed emphasis on other regions to aid in speech production. Without the combined efforts of the physiological, neural, and cognitive processes humans would not be able to communicate in such effective ways. It is also important to understand the mechanisms of action by recording how damages or lesions affect the brain. At the completion of this chapter the reader should have a better understanding of the neural components of speech production.

References

Geschwind, N. Language and the brain. Scientific American 226:76-83, 1972.

Hickok, G. The functional anatomy of speech processing: From auditory cortex to speech recognition and speech production. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-68132-8_8

Newman, A.J., Bavelier, D., Corina, D., Jezzard, P., Neville, H.J. A critical period for the right hemisphere recruitment in American Sign Language processing. Nature Neuroscience 5:76-80, 2002.

Ojemann, G.A. The neurobiology of language and verbal memory: Observations from awake neurosurgery. International Journal of Psychophysiology 48:141-146, 2003.

Petersen, S.E., Fox, P.T., Posner, M.I., Mintun, M., Raichle, M.E. Positron emission tomographic studies of the processing of single words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 1:153-170, 1988.

Shuster, L.I. The effect of sublexical and lexical frequency on speech production: An fMRI investigation. Brain and Language, 111(1), pp.66-72, 2009.

Soros, Sokoloff L.G., Bose, A., McIntosh, A.R., Graham S.J., Stuss, D.T. Clustered functional MRI of overt speech production. Neuroimage 32,pp.376-37 8, 2006

title: User:Em736458


text: Psycholinguistics/Speech Production

title: Psycholinguistics/Speech Production


text:
User:Gallant.julien

My name is Julien Gallant. I am a third year Neuroscience major at Dalhousie University.

Blog
Blog Week 1 - January 17th

In the last few classes, we dove into the subject of Psycholinguistics by first looking at it's history and concepts. We then moved onto thought and language. I liked the comparisons that were made between different languages and cultures, it lead to interesting class discussions. We also learned how important language is to the thought processes themselves. I also found the concept of relative and absolute frame of references interesting, and greatly appreciated redoing the experiment in class. Though the in class participant didn't behave as would have been expected, it really helped bring the concept to life. I really enjoy practical examples of the subject matter.

title: User:Gallant.julien


text:
User talk:Gallant.julien

 Hello Gallant.julien, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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title: User talk:Gallant.julien


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User talk:Em736458

 Hello Em736458, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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Blog 1: Language and Thought
The lecture by Aaron Newman on Wednesday December 12th outlined the idea of language and thought and further attempted to describe the relationship between them. What I thought was the most interesting was the diagrams presented under “the influence of language and thought”. The diagram was used in a study by Carmichel, Hogan, & Walter (1932), where the participants were asked to view the diagram of 2 circles connected by a line. They were then given 1 of 2 verbal captions, either stating eyeglasses or dumb-bells. What was really interesting was that the participants that were given the verbal captions then asked to reproduce the original diagram altered it fit the caption. I found this really interesting because the human brain unconsciously has a schema for the verbal captions and is able to distort the memory of the original diagram. I think this study was really very interesting and really got me excited about the dynamic between language and thought. I really look forward to unraveling this idea more. When doing research on this topic I found interesting suggestions that tests like this should be preformed on adults and children, because there is little evidence about the cognitive construction that is taking place, to me this was also really interesting. Em736458 01:24, 17 January 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Em736458


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 Hello U5280149, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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File:31812 1391288475204 1621908275 976046 8074730 n.jpg
Hi! Thanks for uploading the file File:31812 1391288475204 1621908275 976046 8074730 n.jpg. It is a terrific photo, but unfortunately it isn't currently in use and doesn't have any licensing information, so as part of a cleanup I've tagged it to be removed. If you would like to keep the file here, though, that would be great - all you need to do is add an appropriate license if the copyright belongs to you, or if it is otherwise available under a compatible free license. If you need any help, just ask - I'm very happy to assist. - Bilby 02:05, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

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Hi! I noticed that you uploaded the file File:Mypicture.jpg, and that you're using it on your userpage. However, when you uploaded it you didn't include a license. I was wondering if you still wished to use the image, in which case you'll need to add a license to the image's description page. Information on licensing is available from License tags. - Bilby 03:15, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Nattawat.laiklang


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 Hello Calmezz, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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Conan.jpg
I have deleted this file as it was unused and it was an unambiguous copyright violation, as the character is the intellectual property of Shogakukan. Thanks. --S Larctia 16:17, 26 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Calmezz


text:
User talk:Jacklover1

 Hello Jacklover1, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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I replied to you
I replied to you with:. Thanks for asking. --Abd 15:14, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

Stupid Abd
I know, Stupid Abd is troubling you! Mabuabsdd--Mabuabsdd 12:55, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Stupid Abd is concerned that you may be pretending to be two different users, when you are probably one person, from what I've seen. Mabuabsdd, you just created User:Jacklover1, as if you were Jacklover1. Please stop this kind of thing. If you will list, on your user page, the accounts you have created, I have no problem, personally, with you having multiple accounts, and I will help you keep them.

 * But if you pretend otherwise, that creates problems for Wikiversity, and it will have to stop. That is called "sock puppetry," and if an adult did it, or someone we think is an adult, they would be quickly blocked for it, and, in this case, the block could stop anyone from your school from writing on Wikiversity, and we might need to talk to the school.

 * Am I stupid for trying to talk to you and help you? This is a learning exercise for both of us. Are you learning? What are you learning? I know I'm learning. Have a great day! --Abd 14:52, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

Did you consider Playing around with Haiku Instead of lectures?

Show us the way, Moulton. --Abd 16:32, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

Brevity is the Soul of wit, Mr. Lomax. So tear down those walls.

I talk with real kids every day, Moulton. In this age range. Sometimes few words is best, sometimes many. I do worry about the number of words above, for the age range, but the kids were getting it. Just not you.

Meanwhile, this Jacklover1 account has been globally locked, "stuffed in the hall closet," to use your favorite expression about JWS. Your contribution to fixing that? Or do you care? --Abd 17:05, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * My contribution to fixing that was presented to you thrice now. You are free to disregard it and do something ineffective at best and counterproductive at worst, if that's your heartfelt preference.  —Moulton 17:24, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Your "contribution" consisted of suggesting, on meta -- where you are banned -- that I do what you could do just as easily, but what I consider would be positively harmful, disrupting a month of effort here. I do know what I'm doing, quite well, backed with current study of child psychology, real experience with real kids in this age range, and consultation with an expert in the field of transformational education. Here is what you suggested, the version here on Wikiversity:

 * *Abd, the thing to do in these cases is to ask one of the youngsters to call the teacher over to the computer. Discuss with the teacher their role in working online with their students to ensure that the students are using online resources in an appropriate and educationally constructive manner. —Moulton 15:54, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Kids, what do you think? What would you do if I did what Moulton is asking? I think I know, but it is really for you to say. You can be honest, it won't hurt. Moulton is not in charge here.

 * Moulton, what would you do if someone asked you to do this? Serious question. --Abd 17:47, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jacklover1


text:
User talk:Richard Barbrook

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Wikimania 2012
All the nominations are not in yet. See here for more info.Leutha 21:09, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

Forbidden Kingdom
Have you seen this?Leutha 02:54, 8 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Richard Barbrook


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User talk:Orchi

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title: User talk:Orchi


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User talk:Rinrada noon

 Hello Rinrada noon, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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Hi! Thanks for uploading the file File:RIMG0059.JPG. Unfortunately, it isn't currently in use and doesn't have any licensing information, so as part of a cleanup I've tagged it to be removed. If you would like to keep the file here, though, that would be great - all you need to do is add an appropriate license if the copyright belongs to you, or if it is otherwise available under a compatible free license. If you need any help, just ask - I'm very happy to assist. - Bilby 02:14, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Chediel


text:
Chord substitutions

When playing a chord we have many different choices in how to outline that chord. An Am chord ( A C E ) could be Am6 ( A C E F#) or Am7 ( A C E G ) or Am9 ( A C E G B). When a chord in a progression is substituted for, or replaced by, a related but different chord it is called Chord Substitution. There are endless creative possibilities, one way of out lining the concept is looking at the basic II7 - V7 - I7 chord progression. In the key of G major that is Am7 - D7 - G7 / (A C E G) - (D F# A C) - ( G B D F). First we can see that in the Am7 chord there is a C major arpeggio, the relative major. In the D7 chord the F# diminished arpeggio F# A C made up of consecutive minor 3rd intervals. The G7 chord also has a diminished arpeggio within its notes. So long as there is a bass playing the root note of the chord other instruments may experiment with chord voicings and notes over those chords.

Substitution happens when the bass note in the root of the chord changes. Changing a chord at its most basic involves taking the notes of a know chord and changing it by one note in the bass. For example if we take the D7 chord D F# A C, and remove the A, D F# C, and then add an Ab in the bass we have the chord Ab D F# C, of Ab minor7#9. This could be thought of as a D7 chord with an Ab minor in the bass. Or better that in the Ab minor7#9 chord there is a D F# C arpeggio. So the V chord in the II - V - I progression could be substituted for a bII chord. II - bII - I or Am7 - Ab minor7#9 - G7.

title: Chord substitutions


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User talk:Sltravers

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title: User talk:Sltravers