text:
Human eye development

Welcome to the Wikiversity learning project about human eye development.

Embryonic development of the eye is of interest both for how the retina forms from the neural tube and for how axons grow from the eye to carry visual information to the parts of the brain that process it and respond to it.

Retina

During embryonic development the retina forms from the brain. The part of the neural tube that forms the retina folds over another nearby part that forms the retinal pigment epithelium. The rods and cones are metabolically very active and they shed a large part of their structure every day. The adjacent cells of the pigment epithelium act like a garbage disposal to phagocytize the discarded chunks of the visual cells. Thus, it is very useful to have the photo-detector cells "inside". The other cells of the retina are essentially transparent, so it hurts nothing to have them on the "outside", with light having to pass through most of the retina to get to the light-sensitive part.

Optic nerve

It is a simple matter for axons of the optic nerves to follow the "stalk" of the retina back to the rest of the brain. In an animal like humans with over-lap in the visual fields of the two eyes, not all of the axons in the optic nerves cross to the other side of the brain. This allows information from the two eyes about the same object to be combined in the brain.

Visual cortex
The target for the axons of the optic nerves is not the back of the brain. The lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus is a major target for retinal axons in humans. In evolutionary terms, it was a later "invention" to send additional axons to the back of the brain and use for vision the vast amount of cerebral cortex that is available there.

Your turn
Read this and then edit this page to add more information about eye development.

title: Human eye development


text:
Fourier analysis

Introduction
Fourier analysis is a method of analysing functions. These functions may be electrical signals (say, from an electronic circuit being tested), pure mathematical functions, or any kind of data being analysed on a computer. Regardless, if the function is single-valued, Fourier analysis can be used to produce an imperfect approximation.

The trigonometric form
Fourier analysis works by breaking down the function being considered into a Fourier Series. The Fourier Series, in simplest terms, is a summation of sine and cosine functions. Each of these trigonometric functions looks something like this:

$$a_n \cos(\omega_n t) + b_n \sin(\omega_n t)$$

The exponential form
Consider f(x) as real valued function $$f(x)=\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} A_n e^{inx}$$

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fourier analysis


text:
User talk:Mojosaurus

Hello, how are you? How wonderfull it is, that you wish to learn about Palaeontology. What do you know about the subject? Thankyou Enlil Ninlil 02:58, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mojosaurus


text: Portal:Life Sciences/box-header

title: Portal:Life Sciences/box-header


text: Portal:Life Sciences/box-footer

title: Portal:Life Sciences/box-footer


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Intro

Welcome to the Life Sciences Portal!

This page connects Wikiversity visitors to the learning resources that have been developed by the various Wikiversity Life Sciences content development projects. Wikiversity participants who are interested in the Life Sciences are invited to create and develop learning projects and learning resources and help organize them by developing this portal.

Browse the major Life Sciences categories: Biology - Marine sciences - Medicine - Neuroscience - Plant Sciences - Zoology

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Intro


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Selected article

Participants in the Human Genetic Uniqueness Project join in the search for genes that account for the genetic differences between humans and our closest relatives. Activities center on accessing genome databases and analysis of differences between human genes and the genes of other species. Background learning topics include learning about genes, and genome sequencing projects.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Selected article


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Related portals

Other Wikiversity science-related portals: Biology - Engineering and Technology - Mathematics - Physical Sciences - Social Sciences - General Science Portal

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Related portals


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Life Sciences news

Participants at the Wikiversity Science Journalism Center develop learning resources about science journalism. The 2006 journal article RNA Silencing Sheds Light on the RNA World by Rachel Jones explored the implications of RNA interference for the molecular origins of life. See also: RNA World.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Life Sciences news


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Selected picture

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 2007 was awarded to Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello for their research on RNA interference. RNA interference is a mechanism for control of gene expression inside cells. This diagram shows how an anti-sense RNA (the yellow strand in this diagram) targets destruction of complementary mRNA (orange strand). The active site of the enzyme that cuts the mRNA has the amino acid sequence amino acids Asp-Asp-His (DDH) at the active site.

Medical interventions that activate the RNA interference are being studied as possible future treatments of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurodegenerative diseases.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Selected picture


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Categories

Browse our learning resources:

 * Anatomy
 * Biology
 * Emergency Medicine
 * Evolution
 * History of biology
 * Marine sciences
 * Medical Terminology
 * Medicine
 * Neuroscience
 * Genetics
 * Paleontology
 * Pharmacology
 * Physiology
 * Plant sciences
 * Psychology
 * Virology
 * Zoology

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Categories


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Selected biography

Participants in the Bloom clock project track and report the bloom times of wildflowers and other plants. Bloom clocks are kept by gardeners, ecologists, and others who record the time of year different plants are in bloom. This project attempts to reduce the effects of anomalous data in an attempt to generate maps of geographical "zones" that can eventually be used when describing a plant's expected bloom time in a particular region.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Selected biography


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Quotes

"...any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relationship to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring." - Charles Darwin

"Every college student should be able to answer the following question: What is the relation between science and the humanities, and how is it important for human welfare?" Edward O. Wilson.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Quotes


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Did you know

Is the mammalian retina backwards? In the diagram, light enters from the left. The cells in the retina that detect light are at the deepest layer of the retina, to the right in the diagram. See human eye development.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Did you know


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Life Sciences topics

 * Nobel Prize Report - short podcast about the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology (link does not work any more 2008/11/18)
 * The 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription.
 * Getting to know pathogens - introduction to the concept of microbial disease
 * Telemedicine in French-speaking Africa - RAFT, a network of educational television and telemedicine in French-speaking Africa
 * Allelopathy is the chemical property of a given plant that allows it to suppress the growth of other plants, similar to herbicides.
 * Darwinism as religion - is evolution taught as religion in public schools?
 * Cell Biology - Exploring cell biology. Independent study with projects.
 * Phage project - participants access phage gene databases and participate in phage genomics research projects.
 * Encyclopedia of life - Explore cooperation between education-oriented Biology websites.
 * Life origins - abiotic origin of life, endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotes, origin of action potentials, origin of the human species, origin of human language.
 * Pluripotent stem cells - What are the prospects for medical therapies using embryonic stem cells?
 * Wikiversity Genomics Database - Database of information on genome characteristics.
 * The Science Behind Parkinson's - A learning and researching project for sharing emerging knowledge and insights.
 * Seminar in Biological Mechanisms of Aging and Cancer - explore the biological mechanisms that underly aging and cancer.


text: Portal:Life Sciences/Things you can do

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Things you can do


text:
Talk:New Zealand Pilot License/Air Law/Private

Welcome to subject 4 Air law.

This is the syllabus/knowledge requirements for the NZPPL Air Law. The actual knowledge can be found in the civil aviation regulations, NZAIP and civil aviation act 1990. Please do not refer to overseas (non-NZ) publications when contributing as they are most likely incorrect.

example: transition altitude in the United States is 18 000ft wheras in New Zealand it is 16 000ft.

Kind Regards

Aerodrome 05:04, 19 January 2007 (UTC)


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/WikiProjects

Wikiversity is new and depends on volunteer editors who create learning resources.

Schools Biology - Biomechanics - Marine sciences - Medicine - Alternative Medicine - Dentistry - Nursing - Pharmacy - Veterinary Medicine - Plant Sciences - Zoology Topics All topics by school

title: Portal:Life Sciences/WikiProjects


text:
Portal:Life Sciences/Featured

This page is for keeping track of featured content on Portal:Life Sciences. If you change/update content in the portal, please be sure that the record of past content is updated here.

Featured learning activity
Participants in the Human Genetic Uniqueness Project join in the search for genes that account for the genetic differences between humans and our closest relatives. Activities center on accessing genome databases and analysis of differences between human genes and the genes of other species. Background learning topics include learning about genes, and genome sequencing projects.

Selected image
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 2006 was awarded to Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello for their research on RNA interference. RNA interference is a mechanism for control of gene expression inside cells. This diagram shows how an anti-sense RNA (the yellow strand in this diagram) targets destruction of complementary mRNA (orange strand). The active site of the enzyme that cuts the mRNA has the amino acid sequence amino acids Asp-Asp-His (DDH) at the active site.

Medical interventions that activate the RNA interference are being studied as possible future treatments of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Featured research project
Participants in the Bloom clock project track and report the bloom times of wildflowers and other plants. Bloom clocks are kept by gardeners, ecologists, and others who record the time of year different plants are in bloom. This project attempts to reduce the effects of anomalous data in an attempt to generate maps of geographical "zones" that can eventually be used when describing a plant's expected bloom time in a particular region.

Science news
Participants at the Wikiversity Science Journalism Center develop learning resources about science journalism. The 2006 journal article RNA Silencing Sheds Light on the RNA World by Rachel Jones explored the implications of RNA interference for the molecular origins of life. See also: RNA World.

Did you know?
Is the retina backwards? In the diagram, light enters from the left. The cells in the retina that detect light are at the deepest layer of the retina, to the right in the diagram. See human eye development.

Quotes
"...any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relationship to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring." - Charles Darwin

"Every college student should be able to answer the following question: What is the relation between science and the humanities, and how is it important for human welfare?" Edward O. Wilson.

Featured learning projects

 * Nobel Prize Report - short podcast about the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology
 * The 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription.
 * Getting to know pathogens - introduction to the concept of microbial disease
 * Telemedicine in French-speaking Africa - RAFT, a network of educational television and telemedicine in French-speaking Africa
 * Allelopathy is the chemical property of a given plant that allows it to suppress the growth of other plants, similar to herbicides.
 * Darwinism as religion - is evolution taught as religion in public schools?
 * Cell Biology - Exploring cell biology. Independent study with projects.

title: Portal:Life Sciences/Featured


text:
Portal talk:Life Sciencesnew

Note: This is a "backup" copy of Portal:Life Sciences where new versions of the portal can be planned.

Colors
The page Portal:Life Sciencesnew/box-header contains the settings for the portal colors:
 * border=#aaaaaa
 * titleforeground=white
 * titlebackground=#aaccff
 * background=#f9f9ff
 * foreground=black

See w:Wikipedia:Portal/Instructions for details about how this portal format was created and can be modified.

Discussion
I would love to have a pop at this experimental page. I think it's a great idea to have one for a portal and I think schools and departments within the Portal may also benefit from such a page. Donek (talk) - Go raibh mile maith agaibh 23:20, 8 July 2008 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Life Sciencesnew


text:
User:JWSchmidt/Blog/19 January 2007

I am continuing to use Template:box portal skeleton to make portals. When I moved Portal:Sciencenew to Portal:Science the subpages were not automatically moved. There should be an option for the move function that would allow subpages to also be moved.

For Portal:Life Sciences and Portal:Life Sciencesnew, rather than use the move button for all the "Life Sciencesnew" pages I just copied the contents. I also made Portal:Life Sciences/Featured as a way of keeping track of featured content over time.

The "to do" boxes link to Template:Opentask.

Template Opentask
Jobs to do at Wikiversity.

 * 1) Have fun.
 * 2) Create links from Wikipedia pages to existing Wikiversity pages. See:
 * 3) Template:Wikiversity2
 * 4) Template:Wikiversity
 * Categorize pages and categories. See: Help:Category

Blog navigation
I created and started to use a template (see User:JWSchmidt/Blog/Navigation) for navigation between pages of this blog.

title: User:JWSchmidt/Blog/19 January 2007


text:
New Zealand Pilot License/Air Navigation and Flight Planning

Fundamentals of Air Navigation

Form of the Earth
Describe the general shape of the earth.

Define and identify, on a diagram of the earth, and explain the meaning of the following:

 * axis and direction of rotation;

 * geographic poles;

 * great circles;

 * rhumb lines

 * the equator

 * parallels of latitude;

 * meridians of longitude;

 * position.

Direction on the Earth
Describe the 360 degree method of indicating direction

Describe the earth's magnetic field

Define:;

 * Magnetic pole

 * true north

 * magnetic north

 * the cardinal directions of the earth;

 * the quadrantal directions of the earth

 * true direcetion

 * magnetic direction

 * compass direction

 * magnetic variation

 * an isogonal

 * comapss deviation

 * true bearing

 * magnetic bearing

 * compass bearing

 * relative bearing

Convert between true, magnetic and compass directions

Convert between relative, true, magnetic and compass bearings

Plot and measure tracks and bearings (+- 1 degree) on a NZ Aeronautical Chart

Distance on the Earth
Define a:

 * statute mile

 * nautical mile (nm)

 * kilometre

Calculate the conversion between a statute mile, a nautical mile and a kilometre

State the number of feet and meters in a statute mile, a nautical mile and a kilometre

Measure distances (+- 1 nm) on a NZ Aeronautical Chart

Speed
Define:

 * a knot

 * groundspeed (GS)

 * indicated airspeed (IAS)

 * calibrated airspeed (CAS)

 * true airspeed (TAS)

Position Referencing
Define a:

 * ground position

 * air position

 * DR position

 * pinpoint

 * fix

Describe and apply the following position reference methods:

 * place name

 * bearing and distance

 * latitude and longitude

Calculate the relative bearing of a position from an aircraft

Calculate the bearing of an aircraft from a position

Altimetry
Define:

 * height

 * altitude

 * mean sea level (MSL)

 * ground level

 * elevation

 * pressure altitude (PA)

 * QNH

Explain the effect of a change in mean sea level air pressure on the altimeter reading of a transiting aircraft

State and apply the altimeter setting rules in New Zealand

Explain and apply the table of cruising levels

Principles and Terminology
Define:

 * true and magnetic track / course

 * wind velocity (W/V)

 * *head/tail wind

 * *crosswind

 * true heading

 * * magnetic heading

 * *compass heading

 * *drift (planned and actual)

 * *track / course made good (TMG / CMG)

 * port

 * starboard

 * dead (deduced) reckoning

 * *track error (TE)

 * *closing angle (CA)

 * *estimated time of departure (ETD)

 * actual time of departure (ATD)

 * *estimated elapsed time (EET)

 * *estimated time of arival (ETA)

 * actual time of arrival (ATA)

Explain and apply the 1:60 rule

Calculate the values marked with an * above

Time
Describe the six figure systems of indicating date/time groups

Define:

 * Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

 * Standard Time (NZST)

 * Daylight Time (NZDT)

Calculate ETD and ETA in UTC given planned flight time details and reference time in NZST and/or NZDT

Triangle of Velocities
Identify and label the three vectors of the triangle of velocities

Using a navigation computer, solve triangle of velocity problems (given four of the six variables):

 * heading and track (+-2 degrees)

 * TAS and GS (+-2kts)

 * wind velocity (+- 3 degrees +- 3 kts)

 * drift (+-1 degree)

aeronautical Maps and Charts

Properties and Principles
Explain the difficulties associated with representating a spherical shape on a flat surface

Define scale

List the uses of

 * a NZ Aeronautical Chart

 * the Aerodrome Chart

Map Reading
Interpret the features and symbols of a NZ Aeronautical Chart

Describe the method of indicating relief on a NZ Aeronautical Chart

Interpret information from Aerodrome Charts and Operational Data pages in the AIPNZ Volume 4

Circular Slide Rule

Computations
Derive TAS, given IAS, pressure altitude and air temperature in degrees Celcius.

Solve mathematical equations:

 * multiplication (+-2%)

 * division (+-2%)

 * proportion (+-2%)

Derive time, speed, or distance, given two factors

Calculate time and distance to climb, given groundspeed, rate of climb and height to climb

Calculate rate of descent required to achieve a given heaight loss over time

Calculate fuel consumption, given the burn rate and time

Calculate fuel burn rate given the consumption and time

Calculate fuel endurance, given the fuel quantity and burn rate

Convert between:

 * degrees Fahernheit and Celsius

 * nautical miles (nm), statute miles and kilometres (+-1%)

 * metres and feet (+-2%)

 * pounds and kilograms

 * litres, imperial and US gallons

 * volume of fuel (in litres, imperial or US gallons) and a volume of fuel (in pounds or kilograms)

Mental Dead (Deduced) Reckoning

In-flight Revisions
Mentally estimate:

 * a heading change, using the 1:60 rule (+-2%)

 * a heading change, using driftlines (+-2%)

 * a heading to make good a reciprocal track

 * an ETA change, using proportional division

 * the effect of inaccuracies in heading speed and height

 * navigation in conditions of limited visiblity

Flight Planning

Route Selection
List the factors to be considered when selecting a VFR cross-country navigation route

List the factors to be considered when selecting altitudes at which to fly in the cruise

List the factors to be considered when selecting alternate routes and destination alternates

Map Preparation
Mark the following on a map:

 * departure aerodrome, turning points, and destination aerodrome

 * tracks

 * heading change markings, either 1:60 or driftlines

 * ETA amendment markings

Fold a map in a manner appropriate for a VFR cross-country flight

Plan Preparation
Cmplete a navigation log / flight plan for a VFR cross-country, including calculating the following values:

 * TAS's

 * tracks

 * estimated wind velocities

 * headings

 * grounspeeds

 * distances

 * EETs

 * ETAs

Fuel Planning
Derive, from an Aircraft Flight Manual, the fuel consumption rate for a given leg

Calculate the expected fuel burn on a given leg

Calculate the minimum fuel required on a given VFR cross-country flight

Calculate the legal minimum fuel reserves required on a VFR cross-country flight

Calculate the maximum holding time available for a given leg

Calculate the latest time of departure for a given VFR cross-country flight or a given leg

Load Planning
Calculate the take-off weight of a given aircraft on a VFR flight

Calculate the landing weight of a given aircraft on a VFR fight

Calculate the position of the Centre of Gravity of a given aircraft on a VFR flight

Calculate the available payload of a given aircraft on a VFR flight

Visual Navigation Procedures

Flight Management
Describe the techniques and procedures for:

 * setting heading

 * cruise routine / activity cycle

 * maintaining a flight log

 * turning points

 * approaching / rejoining at a destination aerodrome

Describe the techniques for map reading in flight

Describe techniques for:

 * pinpointing

 * changing heading to make good the desired track

 * changing heading to make good next turning point or destination

 * amending ETA

Estimate and calculate a heading to make good a reciprocal track

Estimate and calculate and aircraft's position given bearing and distance from an identified ground position

Special Procedures
Describe the techniques and procedures for:

 * re-establishing position if lost

 * diverting from the pre-planned route

 * navigating at low level when forced to do so by bad weather


text:
File:FemaleSign.png

Misc
Also see http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Image:FemaleSign2.png (its edges are not blurred, might be better for higher res)

title: File:FemaleSign.png


text:
File:FemaleSign2.png

Misc
This is probably better for higher resolution displays... For smaller res, see http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Image:FemaleSign.png if you'd like.

title: File:FemaleSign2.png


text:
User:Mikemaurice

Capt. Mike, Please tell us about yourself. (Erase this and begin.) Robert Elliott 09:27, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Mikemaurice


text:
New Zealand Pilot License/Meteorology/Private

The Atmosphere
State the composition of the atmosphere

Describe the presence and importance of the following in the atmosphere:

 * carbon dioxide

 * ozone

 * water vapour

Explain how temperature influences the ability of air to hold water vapour

Define tropopause

State how density of air affects the height of the tropopause in high, middle and low latitudes

Define pressure

Describe what is meant by:

 * cold advection

 * warm advection lapse rate

Define:

 * isobar

 * wind velocity

 * anticyclone ("high")

 * depression ("low")

 * ridge of high pressure

 * trough of low pressure

 * ccl

 * pressure gradient

Explain the relatonship between pressure gradient, isobars and wind velocity (airflow around pressure systems)

State the concept of convergence and divergence and describe how the associated subsidence or ascent of air influences the type of weather commonly associates with pressure systems

State the unit of pressure commonly used in meteorology

List the assumed conditions on which the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is based

Explain how a deviation from ISA calues influences performance of aircraft and their engines

Define

 * QNH

 * QNE

 * altitude

 * heaight

 * pressure altitude

Explain why an altimeter requires a subscale adjustment

Explain the importance of correct subscale setting

Temperature and Heat Exchange Processes
Explain what is meant by solar radiation

Describe the elements that influence or reject the amount of incoming solar radiation

Explain what is meant by terrestrial radiation

Descibe the elements that influence or restrict the escape of terrestrial radiation

Explain the effect of solar and terrestrial radiation on the air temperature (in the atmosphere)

Describe the:

 * conduction process

 * convection process

Define albedo

Describe the dirunal variation of surface air temperature and explain the effects of different types of surface on the variation

Atmospheric Moisture
Define:

 * condensation

 * evaporation

 * deposition

 * sublimation

 * melting

 * freezing

 * latent heat

Explain the function of condensation nuclei during condensation

State the effect of the following on the rate of evaporation:

 * air temperature

 * moisture content of air

 * atmospheric pressure

 * the wind

Describe the processes that produce changes of state of moisture and explain how latent heat is involved in each

Explain what is meant by relative humidity

Explain the effects of changes in temperature and moisture content of air on relative humidity

Explain what is meant by dew point

Explain how the effect of moisture content of air opn the value of the dew point

Explain how density of moist air affects aircraft and engine performance

Explain how temperature, relative humidity and dew point values can be used to indicate differences in wter content of air

The Wind
State the direction in which the following to forces act:

 * pressure gradient

 * coriolis force

State the effect of wind speed on the strangth of the coriolis force

Explain how the inter-relation between pressure gradient and coriolis force determine the circulation around pressure systems

Explain what is meant by the "friction layer", and describe the elements that influence the density of the layer

Explain how the friction layer affects the surface wind velocity

Define:

 * veering of the wind; and

 * backing of the wind

Describe the diurnal variation of the surface wind:

 * over land and

 * over sea

State the changes in wind velocity when climbing out of, or descending into, the friction layer

State the function of the rotating cup anemometer

Describe how an approximate wind velocity can be determined from a 25-knot windsock when at an angle of 30 degrees, 45 degrees, 75 degrees and 90 degrees from the vertical

Describe how an approximate wind direction can be determined from:

 * ripples on the water; and

 * windlanes on water

State Buys Ballot's Law

Explain how applying Buys Ballot's Law can:

 * determine the location of high and low pressure areas; and

 * establish possible errors in altimeter reading

Define wind shear

Describe the effects of vertical and horizontal wind shear on aircraft operations

[link title[link title[link title]]]==Stability of Air==

Explain what is meant by:

 * stable air

 * unstable air

 * neutrally stable air

State the two ractors that determine the stability of air

Describe what is meant by "environment lapse rate" (ELR)

Explain the adiabatic process

Draw graphs of steep and shallow environment lapse rates including inversions and isothermal layers

State the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

Explain how the relationshi[ between the ELR and DALR can be used to determine the stability or instability of unsaturated air

State the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)

Explain how the relationship between the ELR and SALR can be used to determine the stability or instability of saturated air

Explain the factors involved in thermal rising of air

Describe how different dew point values determine the cloud base of convective cloud, given a constant moisture content

Describe the types of cloud that could be expected in:

 * stable saturated air

 * unstable saturated air

Describe weather conditions and degrees of visibility in:

 * stable air and

 * unstable air

Local Winds
Describe the sea breeze process, including typical:

 * timing of the occurance

 * average strength of the sea breeze

 * horizontal and vertical limits

 * associated cloud development

 * associated turbulence

Describe the land breeze process, and state:

 * typical timing of the occurance

 * average speed of the wind

 * most likely season for the occurance

Describe the katabatic and anabatic wind processes, and state the:

 * typical timing of each offurance

 * average strength of the winds

 * effect of moist vally air on cloud / fog formation

 * effect of gravity on katabatic winds; and

 * effect of aiabatic cooling and warming

Define, and differentiate between, gusts and squalls

Describe the fohn wind process

Given environment temperatures, dew points and mountain heights, determine the:

 * cloud base on the windward side

 * cloud base on the lee side

 * temperature at stated datum's on the lee side

Describe the flight conditions associated with fohn wind conditions

Describe the mountain mountain wave (standing, or lee wave) process

Explain the wind and weather conditions, and associated main dangers to aircraft operations, in mountain wave conditions

Describe the rotor streaming process and explain the associated dangers to aircraft operations

Explain the dangers involved in attempting to out climb a slope in light aircraft, and describe the alternatives and remedies available under the circumstances

Inversions
Define:

 * inversion; and

 * isothermal layer

Explain the effect of inversions on:

 * the formation and development of cloud

 * visibility

 * turbulence

 * the relative humidity and dew point

 * the increased risk of carburettor icing

 * the presence of wind shear

Describe the flight conditions in the presence of inversions

Explain the factors involved in a:

 * radiation inversion

 * turbulence inversion

 * subsidence inversion; and

 * frontal inversion

Cloud
Describe the basic cloud formation process

State the most common method through which:

 * cloud is formed; and

 * air is cooled to produce cloud

Explain what is meant by "buoyancy" of air

Differentiate between cloud drops and rain / shower drops

State the approximate altitude limits (in NZ latitudes) of:

 * high cloud

 * middle cloud; and

 * low cloud

Describe the following types of cloud and include a description of likely icing, turbulence and precipitation:

 * cirrostratus

 * cirrocumulus

 * cirrus

 * altostratus

 * altocumulus

 * stratus

 * cumulus

 * cumulonimbus / towering cumulus

 * nimbostratus

Describe the terms used for the reporting of cloud

Describe the following methods whereby air is lifted, and include the effect of stability / instability on the type of cloud:

 * orographic lifting

 * mechanical lifting

 * convective lifting

 * slow widespread ascent

 * frontal lifting

Explain the processes that contribute to cloud dispersal

Precipitation
Define

 * precipitation

 * virga (aka virgo)

Explain how drops can grow through:

 * the presence of ice crystals

 * coalescence

Describe the following types of precipitation:

 * rain

 * drizzle

 * snow

 * sleet

 * hail

Describe the following characters of precipitation:

 * continuous

 * intermittent

 * showers

Visibility
Define (meteorological) visibility

Explain what is meant by transparency of air

Explain the effect of illumination on visibility distance

Differentiate between visibility distance and visibility range

Describe the effects of the following on visibility distance:

 * precipitation

 * fog or mist

 * have

 * smoke

 * sea spray

Explain the factors involved in slant range

Fog
Define fog

Describe the principals of formation, required meteorological conditions, factors affecting extent of, and dispersal of:

 * radiation fog

 * advection fog

 * valley fog

 * sea fog

 * steaming fog

 * frontal fog

Describe the operational problems associated with fog

Fronts and Depressions
Describe the polar front theory

Define airmass

List the airmass catagories

Defne the source region and state of typical global areas where source regions are found

Describe what is meant by:

 * cold advection

 * warm advection

Explain the typical weather conditions in New Zealand when affected by cold and warm advection

Describe how divergence aloft affects the atmospheric pressure near sea level

Describe how the characteristics of the:

 * polar depression

 * warm sector depression

 * orographic depression

 * thermal (heat type) depression

Draw the symbols, and colour codes, used to describe the following fronts on weather charys:

 * cold front

 * warm front

 * occluded front

 * stationary front

Draw a cross-section of the typical cold front influding cloud, temperature and freezing level changes, precipitation, and typical widgh

State the events before, at, and after, an idealised cold front in terms of:

 * pressure

 * temperature

 * wind velocity

 * cloud

 * precipitation

 * visibility

Draw a cross section of the typical warm front including cloud, temperature and freezing level changes, precipitation and typical width.

State the events before, at, and after, an idealised warm front in terms of:

 * pressure

 * temperature

 * wind velocity

 * cloud

 * precipitation

 * visibility

Draw a cross section of the following occlusions and explain how each type develops:

 * a cold occlusion

 * a warm occlusion

Describe the potential dangers to FVR flight through fronts

Sescribe the techniques, and precautions that can be taken to reduce or eliminate the dangers of VFR flight through fronts.

Thunderstorms
Explain the conditions to be met for the development of thunderstorms

Describe the three stages of thunderstorm development

Explain the development, and describe the characteristics of:

 * orographic thunderstorms

 * heat type thunderstorms

 * frontal thunderstorms

Describe the haxards associated with thunderstorms and explain why light aircraft should avoid them

Explain the orogin and development of tornadoes and state the main hazards

Icing
Explain what is meant by supercooled water, and describe the influence of latent heat on the formation of ice.

Explain the process of freezing and melting.

With regard to airframe icing, explain the processes involved in the formation of:

(a) clear ice;

(b) rime ice;

(c) hoar frost;

(d) freezing rain.

State the types of cloud, and cloud drop size, that are conducive to the formation of each type of ice listed in

State the altitudes relative to the freezing level where rime ice or clear ice can be expected in cloud.

Give examples of conditions that could cause:

(a) freezing rain.

(b) hoar frost

State the hazards for light aircraft from:

(a) snow;

(b) sleet;

(c) hail.

Explain the influence of the following on the rate of ice accretion:

(a) water content of cloud;

(b) aircraft characteristics, components and airspeed.

State the dangers of icing to aircraft in flight and on the ground.

Explain the methods that can be used to minimise or eliminate the dangers of aircraft icing.

Explain the factors involved in carburettor icing.

State the maximum temperature range in which carburettor ice can form.

Explain how the accretion rate of carburettor ice is governed by:

(a) moisture content of air; and

(b) throttle setting.

Explain the conditions that can cause carburettor icing while on the ground.

Describe the methods commonly available in light aircraft to combat carburettor icing.

Explain the dangers and possible remedies for icing of engine and pitot system intakes.

Turbulence
Describe the cause(s), factors involved, dangers, and techniques commonly used to avoid or minimise:

(a) thermal (convective) turbulence;

(b) mechanical turbulence - small scale and large scale;

(c) wind shear turbulence;

(d) wake turbulence.

New Zealand Climatology
Describe how the following items govern the NZ climate:

(a) latitude;

(b) oceanic surroundings;

(c) topography.

In general terms, describe cloudiness, gustiness, visibility and turbulence at various locations within New Zealand during typical:

(a) northwest wind regimes;

(b) northeast wind regimes;

(c) southwest wind regimes;

(d) southeast wind regimes.

With regard to VFR flight in light aircraft over the Southern Alps, describe:

(a) the need for through flight planning;

(b) in-flight considerations;

(c) adverse winds;

(d) favourable winds;

(e) selection of tracks.

Meteorological Services for Aviation
With respect to NZ Domestic VFR operations, interpret, understand and assess information of all descriptions contained in:

(a) area forecast (ARFOR);

(b) meteorological reports (METAR/SPECI);

(c) trend forecasts (TTL);

(d) aerodrome forecasts (TAF);

(e) SIGMET;

(f) special aerodrome reports (SPAR);

(g) automatic terminal information service (ATIS);

(h) aerodrome and weather information broadcasts (AWIB);

(i) basic weather reports (BWR);

(j) pilot reports.

Interpret, understand and assess weather information made available by television, Internet, newspapers and radio.