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Biblical Studies (NT)/I. The Birth of the Church

NEW TESTAMENT

Lesson 6

 ACTS  I. The Birth of the Church

The Place of Acts in the New Testament
Acts is a history of the early church from the time of Christ's ascension until Paul's time under house arrest in Rome. It roughly covers the period from 30 AD until 62 AD. During this time, the church multiplied in size, both in terms of numbers and in terms of area, due to the courage and persistence of the early disciples. Acts is a natural progression from the gospels, taking up where they leave off, and it also provides the background for the epistles which follow it. In the first chapter, Luke sets the tone for all that is to follow by quoting the words which Jesus spoke to his disciples in the moments before his ascension: “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you will be witnesses to me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (1:7-8). Acts does indeed trace the expansion of the church from Jerusalem, to the rest of Palestine, and from there to Rome, the capital of the empire.

The Author
In his commentary on Acts (Westminster, 1930), Charles Erdman writes, “It was a high honor to compose the most significant chapters in the history of the Christian Church; yet the author of The Acts, who alone relates the origin of the most significant society and of the mightiest movement in the world, makes no mention of his own name.” Nevertheless, credit for authorship is almost universally given to the same person who wrote the third gospel: the man Paul calls “Luke, the beloved physician” (Col 4:14). The idea of Luke’s authorship is supported by a constant tradition which extends back to the earliest days of the church. This is supported by the similarity in style, language, and spirit in the two documents. Both books were addressed to the same person, Theophilus, and the opening verse of Acts appears to refer to the Gospel of Luke: “The former account I made, O Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach” (1:1).

While parts of Acts (sometimes called “Acts of the Apostles”) are written using the first person singular (“I”), other parts are written using the first person plural (“we”), indicating that the author was present with Paul during certain events in his life. These passages agree with references to Luke in the letters of Paul. Some have argued that the “we” passages were written separately and incorporated into the story, but this is unlikely since Acts as a whole exhibits an overall unity of plan, style, and vocabulary.

The Greek in which Acts is written is of an excellent quality, matched in the New Testament only by the epistle to the Hebrews. It was not, however, written in the classical Greek style, but in the ordinary Greek of contemporary usage. The excellence of language is in keeping with the fact that not only was Luke a well-educated man, but unlike the other New Testament writers (with the exception, perhaps, of the anonymous author of Hebrews), Greek was his first language.

From a statement in the last verses of Acts, we know the time of writing to be between about 62 AD and 66 A.D. Luke writes, “Paul dwelt two years in his own rented house and received all who came to him” (28:30). Luke is referring to the period of Paul’s life (A.D. 60-62) when he was under house arrest in Rome, and this is where Acts ends. He does not mention Paul’s execution, which occurred in about 66 AD, and it is this that leads us to understand that while Acts was written at least two years after Paul arrived in Rome, it was also written before he was condemned to death, for it is most unlikely that if Luke wrote after Paul’s execution, he would have omitted to mention it.

If Luke was the author of Acts, it is natural to ask, “Who, then, was Luke?” This is not a question which can be answered in any great detail, for we know very little about his life. He was not a Jew (Col 4:11-14), which as far as we know gives him the special distinction of being the only non-Jewish writer in the entire Bible. He is thought by many to have been a Greek of the city of Antioch in Syria. Since Paul, in his letter to the Colossians, referred to him as “Luke, the beloved physician,” we know that he was a doctor. From this we can surmise that he was well-educated and probably a man of some affluence. Paul’s use of the word “beloved” indicates that he was held in high esteem, not just by Paul, but by all who knew him.

Not many people are aware of the extent of Luke’s contribution to the New Testament. Many people think that Paul is the New Testament’s major contributor because he wrote so many epistles. But in reality, Luke’s two books, the Gospel of Luke and Acts, make up about a quarter of the New Testament, comprising a larger portion than all of Paul’s letters, most of which are quite short. When they were written, each of Luke’s books would have filled a roll of papyrus about thirty-two feet long, each one carefully written out by hand.

The Founding of the Church
In describing the establishment and growth of the early church, Luke details an event of tremendous importance which was a major turning point in the history of the western world, an event which had been symbolically prophesied by Jesus in the parable of the vinedressers, in which the vinedressers represented the Jewish leaders. After relating the parable, Jesus spoke directly to these leaders, saying, “The kingdom of God will be taken from you and given to a nation bearing the fruits of it” (Mt 21:43).

We see an apparent fulfillment of this prophecy in Acts, beginning in Chapter 10, where God calls Peter to go and preach the gospel to Cornelius, a Roman centurion, and his household. This is the first occasion where we see the apostles preaching to non-Jewish people, for up until this point, the church only existed within the Jewish community and it was still believed among the disciples that salvation was reserved for the Jews. Luke writes, “Those of the circumcision who believed [i.e. Jewish Christians] were astonished, as many as came with Peter, because the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out on the Gentiles [i.e. non-Jews] also” (Acts 10:45). In Acts of the Apostles (John Knox, 1960), Albert Winn writes:
 * There seems to be a tremendous emphasis in Acts on the changeover from a church that was mainly a little sect within the Jewish nation to a church scattered over the Roman Empire and largely Gentile in membership. Thus Acts begins in Jerusalem, the world center of Judaism, and ends in Rome, the world center of the Gentiles. More and more as the book progresses, the Jews reject the Gospel and the Gentiles accept it. Four times, Paul turns from the Jews to the Gentiles. The last turning, at Rome, is the climax with which the book ends.

Matthias
Acts opens by telling us how Jesus commanded the apostles not to depart from Jerusalem until the coming of the Holy Spirit. After giving final instructions at the Mount of Olives, just east of Jerusalem, Jesus was taken up and a cloud received him out of their sight. The disciples then returned to Jerusalem, where they “continued with one accord in prayer and supplication” (1:14). During this time, the apostles agreed to select someone from among the disciples to take Judas Iscariot’s place in the group of twelve apostles which Jesus had selected to be his leadership council. Peter said, “Of these men who have accompanied us all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John to that day when he was taken up from us, one of these must become a witness with us of his resurrection” (1:21-22). There were two possibilities, “Joseph called Barsabas, who was surnamed Justus, and Matthias” (1:23). After praying for guidance, they drew lots and Matthias was chosen.

As this is the only mention of Matthias in the New Testament and there are no dependable historical references, we know nothing more about him than what these statements suggest. Peter’s words tell us that he was one of the earliest disciples, having been with Jesus from the time of his baptism by John, and that he continued with Jesus throughout his ministry and was a witness to his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension. Peter is specific concerning the candidate’s witness of the resurrection. This was probably to ensure that there could be no doubt, either in Matthias’ own mind or anyone else’s, that Matthias’ testimony was true, for he had been an eyewitness.

The Coming of the Holy Spirit
Ten days after Jesus’ ascension into heaven, the disciples were gathered together during the Feast of Pentecost. Luke writes, “Suddenly there came a sound from heaven, as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled the whole house where they were sitting. And there appeared to them divided tongues, as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance” (Acts 2:2-4). For three and a half years, Christ had physically walked among his disciples as their teacher and leader. Now his physical body was no longer with them, but as he had promised, he sent them his Holy Spirit, through which they would be empowered to carry on his work.

The coming of the Holy Spirit, like the coming of Jesus in the flesh, was seen as a fulfillment of a prophecy in the Hebrew scriptures (Christian Old Testament). When the crowd heard the disciples speaking in tongues and accused them of being drunk, Peter responded:
 * These are not drunk, as you suppose, seeing it is only the third hour of the day. But this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel: ‘And it will come to pass in the last days, says God, I will pour out of my Spirit on all flesh; and your sons and your daughters will prophesy, and your young men will see visions, and your old men will dream dreams. And on my menservants and on my maidservants I will pour out in those days of my Spirit; and they will prophesy. (Acts 2:15 18)

John the Baptist also prophesied the coming of the Holy Spirit, saying, “There comes one after me who is mightier than I, whose sandal strap I am not worthy to stoop down and loose. I indeed have baptized you with water, but he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit” (Mk 1:8). In the last days before the crucifixion, Jesus promised the disciples that he would not leave them without comfort and help, saying, “These things I have spoken to you while being present with you. But the helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, he will teach you all things, and bring to your remembrance all things that I said to you” (Jn 14:25-26). The word “helper,” used here in reference to the Holy Spirit, has variously been translated “comforter,” “counselor,” and “advocate.”

In the opening verses of Acts, we are told that Jesus himself ministered by the power of the Holy Spirit: “The former account I made, O Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach, until the day in which he was taken up, after he through the power of the Holy Spirit had given commandments to the apostles whom he had chosen” (1:1-2). Jesus warned the disciples of the persecutions to come, but encouraged them with these words: “When they arrest you and deliver you up, do not worry beforehand, or premeditate what you will speak. But whatever is given you in that hour, speak that; for it is not you who speak, but the Holy Spirit” (Mk 13:11).

Peter
Peter is the main character of the first twelve chapters of Acts, while Paul becomes the center of attention from Chapter 13. At the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost in 30 A.D., Peter gave a sermon that resulted in three thousand converts. This was just the first of many dramatic works ascribed to Peter in Acts. Peter appears to have been appointed the leader early on, for he is named first in all of the lists of the apostles. His leadership role becomes more pronounced in the days after Christ’s ascension. As one of Jesus’ oldest and closest disciples, he was a likely choice. However, he must also have had a natural leadership ability as well as a deep spiritual maturity which made him an automatic choice as the spiritual head of the Christian community at Jerusalem.

Our first evidence of Peter’s leadership comes at the end of Chapter 1, where he is the one who calls the disciples to choose an apostle to replace Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus. Again, in Chapter 2, on the Day of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit came upon them and people were “amazed and perplexed” to hear them speaking in languages of which they had no former knowledge, Peter was the spokesperson who got up and preached to the crowd the meaning of these things. In the next chapter, when the lame man is healed at the Beautiful Gate of the temple, even though John is present, Peter is the instrument of the healing, and Peter is again the spokesperson when an amazed crowd gathers around. Notwithstanding Peter’s role in the conversion of Cornelius, the first non-Jewish convert, Peter was mainly sent to his own people, in contrast to Paul, who was sent to the Gentiles (non-Jewish peoples). The Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary (Zondervan, 1967) says:
 * The character of Peter is one of the most vividly drawn and charming in the New Testament. His sheer humanness has made him one of the most beloved and winsome members of the apostolic band. He was naturally forward and often rash, liable to instability and inconsistency, but his love for and associations with Christ molded him into a man of stability, humility, and courageous service for God, becoming one of the noble pillars of the Church.

Administration in the Early Church
It was inevitable, as the church grew, that it would become necessary to create an administrative structure to handle the needs of its members. We see the beginnings of this in Chapter 6. Luke writes, “In those days, when the number of the disciples was multiplying, there arose a murmuring against the Hebrews by the Hellenists, because their widows were neglected in the daily distribution” (6:1). The apostles moved rapidly to correct this problem by appointing seven deacons, “men of good reputation, full of the Holy Spirit and wisdom” (6:3), who were to be the overseers of the ministry to the needy in the community. This ministry continues in churches to this day.

From about 42 A.D., Acts turns its attention from Jerusalem to Antioch (in Syria) where there apparently was a large Christian community, and which also was the base from which the apostle Paul set out on his missionary journeys. While Peter fades from the story, he nevertheless retains his position of influence over the Jewish believers from his base in Jerusalem. Paul, on the other hand, emerges as the spiritual head of the growing non-Jewish community of believers, which are largely the result of his own missionary work.

In addition to these outstanding leaders, each church appointed elders for spiritual leadership and administrative purposes. These elders were sometimes appointed by Paul himself as he established new churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Luke writes, “When they had appointed elders in every church, and prayed with fasting, they commended them to the Lord in whom they believed” (14:23). Although there were leaders in every community, and although Paul was generally accepted as the spiritual head of the non-Jewish believers from the time of his first missionary journey, Jerusalem was still seen as the headquarters of the universal church. When a dispute arose over whether non-Jewish believers should observe the laws of Moses, it was necessary for Paul and Barnabas to go to Jerusalem to resolve the question to the satisfaction of the whole church. This early meeting of Christian leaders is known as the Jerusalem Council.

Stephen
One of the original seven deacons was Stephen, who is described as a man who was “full of faith and the Holy Spirit” (6:5). Not much is known of his life, but he is said to have worked extraordinary miracles, and that the leaders of the people were not able to resist the wisdom with which he spoke. As a result, he was seen as a threat. He was falsely accused of blasphemy and brought before the council to be judged: “All who sat in the council, looking steadfastly at him, saw his face as the face of an angel” (6:15).

In his defense, Stephen gave a brilliant speech in which he recounted the history of Israel with the object of illustrating how, all through history, the leaders of his people had rejected and murdered those whom God had sent to them. He closed with a stinging rebuke: “Which of the prophets have your fathers not persecuted? And they have killed those who foretold the coming of the just one, of whom you now have become the betrayers and murderers” (7:52). While he was still standing before the court, Stephen had a vision. He exclaimed, “Look! I see the heavens opened and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God!” (7:56). He was then pronounced guilty and taken out of the city and stoned to death.

After Christ, Stephen is believed to have been the first Christian martyr. Two chapters of Acts are devoted to him (6 and 7) and most of Chapter 7 consists of the speech he gave before the council. In all of the drama that characterizes Acts, there is perhaps nothing so moving as the story of Stephen. As little as we know about him, we know enough to see that he was an extraordinary individual. Following the example of Jesus, he died with this prayer on his lips: “Lord, do not charge them with this sin” (7:60).

The Jewish Establishment
While Palestine was a Roman colony, the Jews were allowed to retain their own culture and law, based on the Mosaic law of the Old Testament. The most powerful individual within the Jewish community was the high priest, and he in turn presided over the Sanhedrin: a body of seventy men, made up of priests, scribes and elders. Even though the ultimate authority was Rome, the Sanhedrin took care of the internal government of the country for the most part. Its influence was recognized even in the Diaspora (i.e. the Jewish communities outside of Palestine.)

In the crucifixion of Jesus, the Jewish leaders no doubt felt that a serious threat to their authority had been eliminated. It must have come as an unpleasant surprise when the disciples began to publicly preach and perform miracles in his name. Luke describes their response: “They called them and commanded them not to speak at all nor teach in the name of Jesus” (4:18). It is hard to imagine the blindness and the hardness of heart that characterized the leaders of the Jewish community at this time. Jesus said, “The scribes and Pharisees sit in Moses’ seat. Therefore, whatever they tell you to observe, that observe and do, but do not do according to their works; for they say, and do not do” (Mt 23:3). Then in a scathing attack, he added, “Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! For you are like whitewashed tombs which indeed appear beautiful outwardly, but inside are full of dead men’s bones and all uncleanness. Even so you also outwardly appear righteous to men, but inside you are full of hypocrisy and lawlessness” (Mt 23:27-28).

Philip
Despite opposition, the church had continued to grow in Jerusalem until the martyrdom of Stephen. Luke writes, “At that time a great persecution arose against the church which was at Jerusalem; and they were all scattered throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria” (8:1). However, instead of putting an end to Christianity, this persecution caused it to spread even more, for in all the places to which the believers fled, they preached the Gospel and made many converts.

Among the disciples who were scattered throughout the land as a result of the persecution was a man called Philip, who along with Stephen, had been one of the original seven deacons chosen to care for the poor in the church. This Philip is referred to as Philip the Evangelist or Philip the Deacon in order to distinguish him from Philip the Apostle, and he is only mentioned in Acts. The names of the seven deacons imply that they were of Hellenistic (i.e. culturally Greek, rather than Hebrew) background, and they were described as “full of the Holy Spirit and wisdom” (6:3).

When the church was scattered from Jerusalem, Philip went up to the city of Samaria, about thirty-five miles to the north. In Samaria, he is said to have performed many miracles: casting out demons and healing the sick. As a result, the people heeded the words which he spoke “and there was great joy in that city” (8:8). Even Simon, a local sorcerer who had amazed the people for a long time with his miraculous powers, was converted and baptized. The response was so great that the apostles at Jerusalem sent Peter and John to Samaria to help in the work. This was all the more remarkable because in those days Jews did not normally associate with Samaritans because of their mixed blood and syncretistic religion, which blended Judaism and paganism.

Luke writes, “An angel of the Lord spoke to Philip, saying, ‘Arise and go toward the south to the road which goes down from Jerusalem to Gaza’” (8:26). On the appointed road, Philip met a Jewish eunuch who was a man of great authority under Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia; a man who “had charge of all her treasury” (8:27). The eunuch was returning home after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. As Philip approached his chariot, he heard the man reading a passage from Chapter 53 of Isaiah which is interpreted by Christians as a prophecy concerning the crucifixion of Christ. Luke writes, “Philip opened his mouth, and beginning at this scripture, preached Jesus to him” (8:35). The man was converted to Christianity, and coming to some water, he asked Philip to baptize him. Luke continues, “When they had come up out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord caught Philip away, so that the eunuch saw him no more; and he went on his way rejoicing. But Philip was found at Azotus. And passing through, he preached in all the cities till he came to Caesarea” (8:39-40).

From this account, it seems likely that Philip was instrumental in introducing the Gospel into Africa. The place where he is believed to have baptized the Ethiopian is Beth-zur, on the Jerusalem-Gaza road. Azotus, where Philip went later, was near the Mediterranean coast, about thirty miles west of Beth-zur. From Azotus, Philip continued preaching in all the cities up the coast as far as Caesarea, the Roman provincial capital, about sixty miles to the north. It seems that Philip stayed in Caesarea, for the next we hear of him is about twenty-eight years later in A.D. 58, when Paul stopped there on his way to Jerusalem. Paul and Luke stayed with Philip “many days.” Philip had become a family man also, for we are told that at the time of Paul’s visit, he had “four virgin daughters who prophesied” (21:9). Nothing more is known of his life after this.

The Gospel Is Preached to Gentiles
A landmark event in church history took place in 41 A.D. During his evangelistic travels around Palestine, Peter came to the city of Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. It was to be an eventful visit. He began by raising a dead woman called Tabitha to life. Then he had a vision in which God revealed to him that the Gospel would now be taken to Gentiles (i.e. non-Jews). Up until this time, it had only been preached among the Jews. No sooner had Peter seen the vision than messengers arrived requesting him to come to a Roman centurion named Cornelius who lived at Caesarea, another coastal town about thirty miles to the north which was where the headquarters of the Roman forces in Palestine were located. Cornelius also had a vision, in which he had been told to send messengers for Peter and have him brought back to his house. When Peter arrived there, he began to explain the Gospel to Cornelius and his household. Luke writes, “While he was still speaking these words, the Holy Spirit fell on all those who heard the word. And he commanded them to be baptized in the name of the Lord” (10:44,48). Thus, for the first time, the Gospel was preached to non-Jews, and the door was thrown open for the dramatic expansion of the church which was to take place in the next few centuries.

Test Your Knowledge
{ Approximately which time period in church history does Acts cover? -4 BC – 29 AD +29 – 64 AD -0 – 100 AD -50 – 100 AD
 * type=""}

{ Who wrote Acts? -Matthew -Mark +Luke -John
 * type=""}

{ During which decade in the first century was Acts probably written? -Thirties -Forties +Sixties -Nineties
 * type=""}

{ Who contributed the most, in terms of length, to the New Testament? -Paul -John -Matthew +Luke
 * type=""}

{ In the years between Christ’s ascension to heaven and the first non-Jewish converts, how is Christianity most accurately described? +A Jewish sect -A secret society -A new religion -A social club
 * type=""}

{ When Matthias was chosen to replace Judas, what were the necessary qualifications? -To have been with the disciples since the earliest days, when Jesus was baptized in the Jordan. -To have been consistently present with the disciples during Jesus’ recorded ministry years. -To have been an eyewitness to Jesus’ death and resurrection. +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ Who did Jesus promise to send to the disciples to help them after he was no longer physically present with them? -The spirit of Elijah +The Holy Spirit -The angel Gabriel -Mary, mother of Jesus
 * type=""}

{ After Jesus’ ascension, who took over the leadership of the disciples? +Peter -Paul -Stephen -Luke
 * type=""}

{ In the early days, how were churches organized? -Committees of elders made leadership decisions for the individual congregations. -Committees of deacons were responsible for ensuring that the physical needs of members were met. -Issues which affected the Christian community as a whole were referred to Peter and the church in Jerusalem. +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ Who was the first Christian martyr? +Stephen -James (brother of John) -Paul -Peter
 * type=""}

{ What was the name of the ruling body of the Jews? -The Pharisees -The Sadducees +The Sanhedrin -The Essenes
 * type=""}

{ What is the collective name for the Jewish communities outside of Palestine? -The Exile -The Emigrant Communities +The Diaspora -The Ten Lost Tribes
 * type=""}

{ When persecution broke out in Jerusalem after the death of Stephen, who took the gospel to the Samaritans, with whom the Jews did not normally associate? -Matthias +Philip, the deacon -Philip, the apostle -Matthew
 * type=""}

{ Who were the first Gentiles (non-Jews) to convert to Christianity? +Cornelius (a Roman military officer) and his household -Pontius Pilate and his wife -The emperor Caligula -None of the above
 * type=""}

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Biblical Studies (NT)/II. The Ministry of Paul

NEW TESTAMENT

Lesson 7

 ACTS  '''II. The Ministry of Paul'''

Saul (Paul) Persecutes the Church
In Chapter 9 of Acts, we come into close contact with Saul, later known as Paul, for the first time. Paul has already been briefly mentioned in Acts in Chapters 7 and 8, in connection with the stoning of Stephen. Luke writes:
 * They cast [Stephen] out of the city and stoned him. And the witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet of a young man whose name was Saul. And Saul was consenting to his death. And devout men carried Stephen to his burial and made great lamentation over him. As for Saul, he made havoc of the church, entering every house, and dragging off men and women, committing them to prison. (Acts 7:58, 8:1-3)

Such was the unpromising introduction to Paul. No one could have foreseen that this man who was so bent on eradicating Christianity was to become one of the greatest leaders in church history.

Paul’s Background
Apart from Paul’s natural characteristics, there were several things in his background that contributed to his effectiveness as a missionary, evangelist and church leader. Firstly, he was born near the beginning of the first century in the city of Tarsus in the province of Cilicia, which is now a part of Turkey. Tarsus was a busy Greco-Roman city at the northeast corner of the Mediterranean which was noted as a trading center and for its university. This environment provided Paul with his knowledge of the Greek language, philosophy and culture. Secondly, he was born a Roman citizen. This citizenship was to prove invaluable to him when his rights were in danger of being denied, and it probably saved his life on more than one occasion. Thirdly, having been born into a devout Jewish family, he was educated in the traditions and scriptures of Judaism. At the appropriate age, probably thirteen, he was sent to Jerusalem to study under the famous teacher Gamaliel, where he proved himself to be a superior and zealous student.

Paul’s Conversion
When Paul first appeared in Acts at the stoning of Stephen, he was probably about thirty years old and had already become an acknowledged leader in Judaism. Paul clearly saw Christianity as a heresy and a major threat to Judaism, and he made it his business to persecute the church wherever he found it, even in other cities. It was one such mission that led him to set out for Damascus in Syria in about 37 A.D. Luke writes, “Saul, still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord, went to the high priest and asked letters from him to the synagogues of Damascus, so that if he found any who were of the Way, whether men or women, he might bring them bound to Jerusalem” (9:1-2).

Paul was completely unprepared for what was to happen to him on that journey. As he approached Damascus, a brilliant light shone around him. He then heard a voice which spoke to him the now famous words, “Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?” (9:4). The speaker identified himself as Jesus. Paul asked, “Lord, what do you want me to do?” (9:6), to which Jesus replied, “Arise and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do” (9:6). After this experience, he was blind for three days, and during this time he fasted. After the three days, a disciple named Ananias came and laid hands on him, and Paul received his sight and was baptized.

Following his conversion, Paul immediately began to preach that Jesus was the Messiah in the synagogues in Damascus. He then went into the Arabian desert. It is not known exactly how long he was there, but it is believed that this was a time of retreat, rather than an evangelistic journey. When he returned to Damascus, the Jews, no doubt feeling betrayed, plotted to kill him, but hearing of their plot, he escaped by being let down at night from the city wall in a large basket.

Paul returned to Jerusalem in about 40 A.D., but was unable to stay because of further threats to his life. He then returned to his home town of Tarsus for several years, but we do not have any definite information concerning this period.

Paul Goes to Antioch
Following the acceptance of non-Jews into the church after 41 A.D., Antioch in Syria began to emerge as a leading center of Christianity. Barnabas, the overseer of the church there, needed help and called on Paul to come from Tarsus to assist him. Although we know nothing of Paul’s ministry in Tarsus, it seems likely that he had already established himself as a mature Christian leader for Barnabas to request him to come to Antioch and help with the church there. Luke writes, “For a whole year they assembled with the church and taught many people. And the disciples were first called Christians in Antioch” (11:26).

When the time had come for Paul to begin his missionary travels, the Holy Spirit spoke through certain “prophets and teachers” who were at Antioch, saying, “Separate to me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them” (13:2). After fasting and laying hands on the two, the disciples sent them on their way.

Antioch in Syria (not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia) was about three hundred miles north of Jerusalem, not far from the Mediterranean coast. Having a population of half a million, it was the third largest city in the Roman Empire, surpassed only by Rome and Alexandria. The city was a center for the cult of Ashtoreth, the goddess of fertility, which was noted for sexual indulgence. Nevertheless, the people accepted Christ in large numbers and Antioch also became a major center of Christianity in the middle of the first century. The word Christian was first used there, and it was the starting point of Paul’s famous missionary journeys.

Paul’s First Missionary Journey
The first missionary journey began in about 45 A.D. From Antioch, Barnabas and Saul traveled about sixteen miles to the coast, to the port at Seleucia Pieria. From there, they boarded a ship bound for Cyprus, which is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, being about a hundred and fifty miles long and averaging about twenty miles across. The island lay about a hundred miles southwest of Seleucia and was important for copper mines and timber. While in Paphos, the island’s capital city, Paul cursed the sorcerer Elymas with temporary blindness for obstructing the work of the Lord. This miracle caused Sergius Paulus, who as the Roman proconsul was ruler of the island, to become a believer. Up until this time, Paul is referred to as Saul, the Hebrew version of his name, but from this time forward, he is always called by the Greek version: Paul.

When his work in Cyprus was completed, Paul set sail for Perga in Pamphylia, about a hundred and fifty miles to the northwest. The region of Pamphylia was located on the Mediterranean coast in what is today southwestern Turkey. At this point, Mark, who had accompanied Paul and Barnabas, left them and returned to Jerusalem.

They then went north to another city named Antioch, in the province of Pisidia (often referred to as “Pisidian Antioch” to distinguish it from “Syrian Antioch”). The message was so well-received at Antioch that the Jewish leaders became jealous and began to obstruct them, causing them to turn from the Jews and preach to the non-Jewish population. The Jewish leaders then stirred up the leaders of the city and had Paul and Barnabas expelled from the region. Despite this opposition, Luke writes, “The word of the Lord was being spread throughout all the region” (13:49).

After being expelled from this region, they continued north into Galatia, a Roman province in what is central Turkey today, where they preached in the cities of Iconium, Lystra and Derbe. It is probable that Paul’s letter to the Galatians was intended for the Christians in these towns. In Iconium, “the multitude of the city was divided: part sided with the Jews and part with the apostles” (14:4). After an attempt was made to stone them, they moved on to Lystra where, after Paul healed a man who had been crippled from birth, the population tried to worship them as gods. Then some of the Jews from Antioch and Iconium came and stirred up a crowd who stoned Paul and left him for dead, but he recovered and continued to Derbe. After making many disciples at Derbe, they returned to Lystra, Iconium and Antioch, encouraging the churches they had started and appointing elders over them. Then they returned to Syria, arriving back in Antioch after a journey lasting about two years. They gave account of all their experiences, causing great joy among the disciples there.

Rejected by His Own People
Jesus said, “A prophet is not without honor, except in his own country and in his own house" (Mt 13:57). This was certainly true in Paul’s case. In the course of his evangelistic travels, he was constantly making enemies of the Jewish communities in the cities where he preached. For various reasons, it was his policy when entering a city for the first time to go and preach the Gospel in the synagogue first. Often, his initial reception would be warm. But he was invariably rejected when envious synagogue leaders saw that his powerful and convincing teaching was resulting in many converts.

Undoubtedly, one reason for Paul’s lack of popularity with the Jewish leaders was his teaching that in Jesus all could find salvation, regardless of ethnicity. Salvation, for Paul, was no longer the exclusive privilege of the Jewish nation, as it had been for so long. It now included all who were willing to come to God through faith in Christ. The coming of Jesus had marked the beginning of a new age in “salvation history.” This teaching must have seemed, to the synagogue leaders, to undermine the importance of their role as spiritual leaders, as well as the role of the Jewish nation as a whole as God’s chosen people on the Earth.

The Jerusalem Council
In about 50 A.D., a conflict arose when certain Jewish believers came to Antioch from Judea saying that the new non-Jewish believers must be circumcised and keep the law of Moses. This was in sharp contrast to Paul’s doctrine which stated that salvation comes only by the grace of God through faith in Christ, and that the religious observances given by Moses were no longer necessary to salvation. The age of law had been replaced by the age of grace.

As a result, Paul, Barnabas, and “certain others” went to Jerusalem to resolve the matter in what has come to be known as the Jerusalem Council. At this meeting, Peter stood up and said of the non-Jewish converts, “God, who knows the heart, acknowledged them, giving them the Holy Spirit just as he did to us, and made no distinction between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith. Now, therefore, why do you test God by putting a yoke on the neck of the disciples which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear?” (15:8-10). As a result of the arguments of Peter, Paul, Barnabas, and James, it was resolved that the non-Jewish believers should be required only to “abstain from things polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from things strangled, and from blood” (15:20) – things which were associated with the idolatrous practices of the time.

Paul’s Second Missionary Journey
Soon after the Jerusalem Council, Paul embarked on his second missionary journey. Luke writes, “After some days, Paul said to Barnabas, ‘Let us go back and visit our brethren in every city where we have preached the word of the Lord, and see how they are doing’” (15:36). However, there was a disagreement between the two when Barnabas decided he wanted to take Mark, because Mark had returned home before completing the first journey. As a result, Barnabas and Mark (who were cousins) traveled together, while Paul teamed up with Silas (also known by his Latin name, Sylvanus) instead.

On this occasion, Paul chose to take the overland route, going north from Syrian Antioch about a hundred miles, then west into Asia Minor. Luke writes, “He went through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches” (15:41). Paul’s home town of Tarsus was in Cilicia, and no doubt he stopped there on his way. Continuing west, Paul came into Galatia, where he revisited the churches at Derbe, Lystra and Iconium. At Lystra, the group was joined by Timothy.

After visiting the towns of Galatia, they arrived at the coastal city of Troas on the Aegean Sea. Luke writes, “A vision appeared to Paul in the night. A man of Macedonia stood and pleaded with him, saying, ‘Come over to Macedonia and help us’” (16:9). This led him to cross the Aegean to the region of Macedonia, now in northern Greece. After a voyage of about a hundred and twenty miles, Paul and his party arrived at Neapolis (Kavala) on the coast, and from there journeyed a few miles inland to Philippi, where the first known Christian convert was made in Europe: “Lydia, a seller of purple from the city of Thyatira” (16:14). Paul and Silas were whipped and imprisoned at Philippi after Paul cast a fortune-telling demon out of a slave girl, who, as already noted, had made much money for her master. However, Acts tells us that the Holy Spirit miraculously opened the doors of the prison in the night, and as a result, the jailer and his family were converted.

After his release, Paul traveled westward to Thessalonica where he made many converts, both Jewish and non-Jewish. Encountering opposition from the Jewish leaders, Paul continued west to Berea, where he ministered for a time before traveling south to Athens, which was then in the province of Achaia. Paul did not have great success in Athens, although “some men joined him and believed” (17:34). The Westminster Historical Atlas to the Bible (Westminster, 1956) says:

 * In its golden age, Athens had been the center of the classical culture of ancient times. On its Acropolis stood famous masterpieces of art and architecture. In Paul’s day, Athens was less brilliant, but it was still a city to thrill any lover of culture. Objects of art abounded; interest in poetry, mythology, and philosophy continued; tradition was rich.

While in Achaia, Paul also spent time at Corinth, fifty miles west of Athens. Corinth was the political and commercial center of Achaia. It was also famous for a huge temple dedicated to the goddess of love which was situated on the Acrocorinth, a nearby mountain. Paul met with great success there, even being able to convert Crispus, a leader in the Jewish community, together with his household. Luke writes, “He continued there a year and six months, teaching the word of God among them” (18:11).

After Corinth, Paul set his sights toward home. Wishing to attend the coming festival in Jerusalem, he boarded a ship and sailed to Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast of Palestine, then continued overland to Jerusalem. After the festival, he returned to Syrian Antioch, arriving in about 52 A.D. He had traveled over three thousand miles, an incredibly large distance in those days.

Paul’s Third Missionary Journey
After only a short stay in Antioch, Paul departed on his third missionary journey, which began in about 53 A.D. Luke writes, “He departed and went over all the region of Galatia and Phrygia in order, strengthening all the disciples” (18:23). After revisiting the churches that he had founded on his previous journeys, Paul continued on to Ephesus, where he remained for nearly three years. The time he spent there was the high point of the third missionary journey. He taught extensively in and around Ephesus and his ministry was accompanied by extraordinary miracles.

Unfortunately, a silversmith named Demetrius who had a business making idols saw a serious threat in Paul, who was turning people away from idol worship in large numbers. He stirred up others of his trade and together they incited the people to riot. Although the riot ended without any harm to Paul or the other disciples, it became necessary for Paul to leave Ephesus. Nevertheless, the work there had been extremely successful. Acts tells us that during this period, “All who dwelt in [the province of] Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks” (19:10).

After Ephesus, Paul continued westward into Macedonia and Achaia (now in Greece), where he revisited the cities where he had ministered on his second journey. He met with sufficient success to warrant spending three months there, most of it probably in Corinth. While there, he made plans for his final visit to Jerusalem. Paul finally left Greece after discovering a plot by the Jewish leaders to kill him.

After he left Greece, Paul returned to the province of Asia, where he sojourned in the city of Troas on the Aegean coast. He stunned everybody there when he miraculously raised a young man named Eutychus back to life. Eutychus had fallen from a third storey window while listening to Paul preach.

From Troas, he traveled overland to nearby Assos, where he boarded a ship bound for Jerusalem. The ship made several stops and among them was Miletus, which was near enough to Ephesus for Paul to make contact with the elders of that church, who he exhorted to continue steadfastly in the work which he had started. Luke writes, “They all wept greatly, and fell on Paul’s neck and kissed him, sorrowing most of all for the words which he spoke, that they would see his face no more” (20:37 38). Paul knew that he would be arrested in Jerusalem, for he had told them, “I go bound in the Spirit to Jerusalem, not knowing the things that will happen to me there, except that the Holy Spirit testifies in every city, saying that chains and tribulations await me” (20:23).

Paul is Arrested
In about 58 AD, at the end of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for the purpose of observing the Feast of Pentecost. He had not been there many days when some of the people who had come from the province of Asia for the festival stirred up the crowd against him and he was arrested in the temple grounds. He was accused of turning people against Judaism and of defiling the temple by bringing a person into it who was not Jewish, a charge for which there was apparently no basis. As a result, an unruly crowd tried to kill Paul, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers and taken into custody. The next day he was brought before the Sanhedrin (the ruling body of the Jewish people in Palestine). However, they could not agree among themselves concerning the charges, so the commander took Paul back to the barracks.

The following night, Paul had a vision of Jesus standing by him and saying, “Be cheerful, Paul, for as you have testified for me in Jerusalem, so you must bear witness also at Rome” (23:11). Hearing of a plot to kill Paul, the military commander sent him away with a heavy escort to Felix, the Roman governor, who lived in Caesarea on the coast. When Ananias, the high priest, came down from Jerusalem with the elders, Paul defended himself eloquently before both them and Felix. Finding nothing substantial in the charges against him, Felix refused to condemn Paul to death, but not wanting to antagonize the Jewish leadership, he kept him in custody. Paul was to remain imprisoned in Caesarea for two years. Nevertheless, Acts tells us that Felix “commanded a centurion to keep Paul and to let him have liberty, and told him not to forbid any of his friends to provide for or visit him” (24:23).

Caesarea
Caesarea was a cosmopolitan city whose prevailing culture was Greco-Roman, rather than Jewish. It was the Roman administrative capital of Palestine and, as already mentioned, had the distinction of being the first place where non-Jewish converts were accepted into the church. It was developed by King Herod the Great to honor the Roman emperor Caesar Augustus, and inaugurated in 10 B.C. It was the site of Palestine’s most important seaport, and ships from there made connections with all parts of the empire. Among the many fine buildings were the governor’s palace and an amphitheater which was larger than the Colosseum in Rome, and in which gladiators spilled their blood in exciting tournaments for the entertainment of the people.

Paul Appeals to Caesar
After two years, a new governor, Festus, replaced Felix. Wanting to please the Jewish leadership, Festus was ready to send Paul back to Jerusalem, but knowing that this would mean certain death, Paul availed himself of his right as a Roman citizen and “appealed to Caesar.” By law, this required that Festus send him for trial in Rome.

Several days later, King Herod Agrippa II, great-grandson of Herod the Great, was in Caesarea with his sister Bernice, so Festus invited them to come and hear Paul speak. Paul gave an account of his life as a Pharisee and his conversion and subsequent efforts to spread the Gospel. Agrippa was so impressed that he told Paul, “You almost persuade me to become a Christian” (26:28). Then, speaking aside to Bernice and Festus, Agrippa said, “This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar” (26:32).

This was now the second occasion when Paul’s Roman citizenship had come to his aid. The first was when he was arrested in Jerusalem. The Roman commander had ordered that Paul be “examined under scourging”, i.e. that he be questioned with a few lashes of a whip to help him talk. As he was being bound, Paul asked, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a man who is a Roman, and uncondemned?” (22:25). When the commander found out that Paul was a Roman, he was afraid of the potential consequences of what he had done and immediately ordered that Paul be unbound. This is the same commander who, hearing of a plot to kill Paul, sent him under protection of a heavy guard to the governor at Caesarea, where his enemies would not be able to harm him. Clearly, there was one law for citizens and another for non-citizens. It is unlikely that Paul would have been given continued protection if he had not been a Roman citizen.

Paul Goes to Rome
Probably in 60 A.D., Paul began his voyage to Rome. On the way, the ship ran into a storm and was shipwrecked on the island of Malta, which lies in the Mediterranean about sixty miles south of Sicily. They decided to stay there for the winter, and while there, Paul healed many sick and disabled people. After three months, they continued in another ship to Puteoli, on the west coast of Italy, completing the journey to Rome overland.

In Rome, Paul seems to have had a relatively comfortable existence for one who was a prisoner, being allowed to live in his own rented house (with a soldier guarding him), and being able to receive visitors freely. It was during this time that he wrote the “Prison Epistles”: Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, and Philippians. While the next few years are somewhat vague, it is generally believed that Paul was released from custody after two years, because Acts ends by saying, “Paul dwelt two years in his own rented house” (28:30). After this time, it is likely that he revisited the churches in Greece and Asia Minor. He may also have gone to Spain, as he had previously indicated a desire to do so.

Several years later, Paul fell victim to a great persecution of Christians which arose in 64 A.D. after much of Rome burned in a devastating fire. The Christian community, which was thought by many to be an unusual and somewhat strange sect, was a convenient scapegoat. Christians were ostracized, tortured, and murdered in barbaric ways. During this time of persecution, Paul was imprisoned in Rome and finally beheaded in about 66 A.D. His last remaining words were written from his prison cell and are preserved in his second epistle to Timothy. In it, there are surprisingly no words of condemnation for the emperor or for the Roman political system by which he was imprisoned and soon to be executed. He merely writes: “Do not be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me his prisoner, but share with me in the sufferings for the Gospel according to the power of God” (2 Tim 1:8).

The Roman Empire and Church Growth
Notwithstanding the persecution mentioned above, Rome had a great deal to do with the establishment of the early churches. Roman forces had united all of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean under one government. Travel, communication, and trade flourished between these numerous provinces. Overland travel was made possible by the vast network of quality roads that the Romans built, and the empire was made safe by the Roman military forces, which for the most part ensured that law and order prevailed everywhere. The sea-routes were safe also, for the entire Mediterranean coast was ruled by Rome and there were no enemy ships to worry about.

This provided an ideal setting for the spread of the Gospel. Paul and the other apostles were able to travel freely, establishing churches throughout Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and even in Rome itself. Another by-product of the unity of the empire was that the Jews had been able to establish synagogues in most major cities, and Paul generally preached in the synagogue on arrival in a town where the Gospel had not been previously taught. As a well-educated Pharisee with an expert knowledge of the scriptures, he was always welcome to speak, though he was usually rejected by the synagogues once he began to make converts. Nevertheless, the overall political environment created by the empire, itself a pagan institution, created an ideal field for evangelization.

An "Unexcelled Missionary Statesman"
Paul’s life has been an inspiration to people for two thousand years. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary (Zondervan, 1967): “Paul’s achievements proclaim him as an unexcelled missionary statesman. His epistolary writings, formulating, interpreting, and applying the essence of Christianity, are vital to Christian theology and practice. He grasped truth at its full value and logically worked out its implications. Having understood his duty, he followed it unflinchingly, undeterred by possible consequences to himself.”

Test Your Knowledge
{ What form did Paul’s first contact with Christianity take? -He advocated the cause of Christians among the Jewish leadership -He helped find sources of funding for the Christians +He persecuted and imprisoned Christians -a and b
 * type=""}

{ Which of the following are true of Paul? -He was born in the city of Tarsus, in the region of Cilicia (in Turkey today). -He was a devout Jew and a Roman citizen. -At the age of 13, Paul was sent to study in Jerusalem with the great Jewish scholar, Gamaliel. +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ What eventually caused Paul to change his mind about Christianity? -He had a meeting with Peter in Jerusalem and was impressed with his message. +On the road to Damascus, he had a vision of Jesus. -He felt betrayed by his Jewish friends. -He felt ready for a new direction in his life.
 * type=""}

{ Which city was the starting point for Paul’s missionary journeys? +Antioch (in Syria) -Antioch (in Pisidia) -Jerusalem -Caesarea
 * type=""}

{ On Paul’s first missionary journey, from whom did he experience the greatest opposition? +The Jews -The Romans -The Greeks -All of the above
 * type=""}

{ What was the central issue of the Jerusalem Council in about 50 AD? -Malicious gossip among church members. -Widows and orphans were being neglected in the charitable work of the church. +Whether non-Jewish converts should be required to observe the laws of Moses, especially circumcision. -Whether church leaders should be permitted to marry.
 * type=""}

{ On Paul’s second missionary journey, what led him to cross unexpectedly from Asia Minor over to Greece? -He decided he would like to see Athens -He was being pursued by the police -He was offered a large sum of money if he would go to Greece +He had a vision at Troas, in Asia Minor
 * type=""}

{ Which of the following happened on Paul’s third missionary journey? -The idol makers at Ephesus had Paul expelled from the city because they were losing business as a result of his teachings. -He revisited the communities of his first two journeys for the purpose of strengthening the disciples and continuing the momentum which had been established. -He miraculously raised a man to life who had been killed by falling from a third storey window. +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ After Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, the Roman governor, Felix, decided there was no basis for the charges against him. Why, then, did he not set him free? -He personally disliked Paul. +He did not want to antagonize the Jewish leadership. -He was motivated by anti-semitism. -All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ After his arrest in Jerusalem, Paul remained imprisoned, though with considerable liberty, in Caesarea for two years. Which of the following is true of Caesarea? -It was the Roman administrative capital of Palestine. -The prevailing culture was Greco-Roman. -It was the site of many impressive buildings and an important seaport. +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ Why did Paul leave Caesarea and go to Rome? -Festus, the new governor, wanted to get him out of his way. -Paul had escaped from prison and needed to get as far away as possible. +Paul appealed to Caesar, which under Roman law meant that he must be tried in Rome. -None of the above.
 * type=""}

{ Paul was executed during a persecution of Christians by Emperor Nero after the Great Fire of Rome. In approximately which year was he executed? -29 AD -50 AD +66 AD -95 AD
 * type=""}

{ Apart from the occasional persecutions, why did the Roman Empire provide an ideal setting for the growth of Christianity? -It had a good infrastructure (roads, shipping, etc) -It was generally tolerant with regard to various religious practices -Law and order were strictly enforced throughout the empire by the Roman army. +All of the above
 * type=""}

{ In addition to his inestimable contribution to the spread of Christianity, what influential legacy did Paul leave to the world? +A collection of brilliant theological writings -A book of church by-laws -A book of prayer -An award-winning novel
 * type=""}

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MediaWiki talk:Spam-blacklist

Ghost writing web sites
✅ assuming no objections. --Abd 01:58, 18 August 2011 (UTC) ✅ assuming no objections. --Abd 18:46, 18 August 2011 (UTC)
 * ghostpapers.com
 * berkeleytermpapers.com is on the global blacklist
 * flashpapers.com
 * see CIDR contributions:119.155.43.0/16 --Abd 01:58, 18 August 2011 (UTC)
 * essaywritingmaster.co.uk
 * essaywritinghelper.com
 * See Special:contributions/119.155.11.133. --Abd 18:42, 18 August 2011 (UTC)
 * blocked IP range (/16 listed above) for one week. I found no legitimate contributions in that block, ever. Let's see what happens. --Abd 18:57, 18 August 2011 (UTC)

I cleaned the spam made by 116.71.43.56. --79.156.242.51 21:26, 19 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I'd imagined that I'd checked for external links, but I obviously missed some. They weren't all from that IP. --Abd 01:20, 20 August 2011 (UTC)

autoloansspot.com
✅ Disagree? Request review. --Abd 02:07, 29 August 2011 (UTC)
 * repeat spamming. User:Findingautoloans created 5 pages linking only this site.
 * See possible prior related spamming by User:Howtogetpaydayloans and User:Acquirepaydayloansonline.

wikiademia.org
I encourage the removal of:
 * \bwikademia\.org\b

this may increase participation at this wiki. EME44
 * Ping EME44
 * How so? Regards, Pmlineditor   ∞  11:48, 19 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Never mind, blocked as sock of disruptive user. Pmlineditor   ∞  14:55, 19 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm uncomfortable about using the spam blacklist for content control. The intention is preventing spam, massive addition of links with no educational value. Wikiademia, like it or not, is an alternate educational wiki, and some of our users or former users edit there. If Wikademia links are disruptively added, the editor should be warned or blocked if it repeats. --Abd 01:23, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

flashpapers.com
✅. Globally blacklisted.

Hunter Mariner
We've had repeated spamming or vandalism -- hard to tell which it is -- with many links to a YouTube video. One of the pages is Hunter Mariner, which I've deleted and salted. The link is to www.youtube.com/watch?v=khM48EQyVdc Blacklisting, legitimate usage is very unlikely. --Abd 19:16, 10 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Remove from local blacklist because now globally blacklisted (with reference to this blacklisting).. --Abd 20:03, 11 September 2011 (UTC)

 * Busy little bee. Blacklisted. --Abd 02:13, 12 September 2011 (UTC)

title: MediaWiki talk:Spam-blacklist


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User talk:Mgul 2752

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Comparative law and justice/Singapore

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Law Enforcement
Singapore has two categories for authorities. One is the Singapore Police Force, and the other is customs authority. Requirement for the Singapore Police Force includes a physical test, education, and citizenship. Males need to get a grade of A or B of the physical test, which is known as the Physical Employment Status. Females are exempt from this portion. Both genders need at least 5 credits in General Certificate of Education (GCE) in the "O" level. This is equivalent to a United States's high school diploma with a C average. The last requirement to qualify for a police officer is to be a Singaporean or be a Singapore Permanent Resident.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Singapore 's legal system is based on the English Common Law system.

title: Comparative law and justice/Singapore


text:
Comparative law and justice/Italy

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
Italy is located in southern Europe. Italy is a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea. The population of Italy is 58,126,212. The age structure of the country is: 0-14 year olds make up 13.5% of the population and out of that population 4,056,156 are males and 3,814,070 are females, 15-64 year olds make up 66.3% of the population and out of that 19,530,696 are male and 18,981,084 are females, 65 years and over make up 20.2% of the population and out of that 4,903,762 are male and 6,840,444 are females. The countries that border Italy are Austria, France, The Vatican City, San Marino, Switzerland, and Slovenia. Italy's total landmass is 301,340 square kilometers. The climate in Italy varies locally. Most of the country has a Mediterranean climate, but the north has an Alpine climate and the south has a very hot and dry climate. The three most popular cities in Italy are Rome (population 2,563,241), Milan (population 1,306,661), and Naples (population 988,972). The major rivers in Italy are the Po River, the Arno River, and the Tiber River. Italy is the home of Roman Catholicism and 90% of people in Italy are Roman Catholic. The other 10% of the population are Protestant, Muslim, and Jewish. The key ethnic groups in Italy are the Italians (96%), North African Arabs (0.9%), Italo-Albanians (0.8%), Albanians (0.5%), Germans (0.4%), Austrians (0.4%), and Italo-Greeks, Frenchmen and other (1%). Most of the people living in Italy are born in Italy and the other groups have migrated to Italy. The official language of Italy is Italian, but local people also speak French, German, and Slovene. Most people do speak Italian, but just in certain regions they speak these other languages.

Brief History
Italy has a very important history that dates back to the 7th and 8th centuries BC. Ancient Rome started out as a small farming area, but soon became the center of the Roman Empire because of its location on the Mediterranean Sea. Italy battled for 13 centuries with Germanic tribes to become a nation-state. In the 15th and 16th centuries Italy was the home of the Renaissance. The Renaissance is a time in history when European culture flourished: painting, poetry, and sculptures in Italy were the center of art in the world. Most of the artwork still remains and is still very famous throughout the world. In the 17th through 19th centuries Italy was dominated by foreign nations. Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states, with Sardinia and Sicily, were brought together under King Emmanuel II. Italy was a country that believed in a parliament government until 1920 when Benito Mussolini created a dictatorship in the country. He allied himself with Nazi Germany and this lead to Italy's defeat in the World War II. In 1946 Italy became a democracy and the country has since improved. The country is a member of NATO and the European Economic Community. There have been many historical problems such as organized crime (mafia), corruption, illegal immigration - the latter three all due to unprofessional and the first top unethnical police and high unemployment.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Italy's economy is an industrial economy. In the north there is a developed industrial economy, but in the south there is a less-developed economy that battles with a high unemployment rate. Italy deals with a lot of high-quality consumer goods that are produced by small and medium sized companies that are for the majority part family owned. Italy also has a big underground economy that consists of agriculture, construction, and service sectors. This underground economy accounts for 15% of the GDP. Italy has implemented a number of programs for their citizens. They have brought structural reforms, like reducing graft, getting rid of costly entitlement programs, and increasing employment opportunities for young people, particularly women. The government of Italy has struggled to limit its spending and this has gotten Italy into lots of debt. In 2009 Italy implemented a tax amnesty program to repatriate untaxed assets that are held in other countries and it brought the government $135 billion. The GDP of Italy is $1.739 trillion. The GDP per capita is $29,900. The key industries in Italy are tourism, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, food processing, textiles, motor vehicles, clothing, footwear, and ceramics. Key imports are engineering products, chemicals, transport equipment, energy products, minerals and nonferrous metals, textiles and clothing, and food, beverages, and tobacco. Key exports are engineering products, textiles and clothing, production machinery, motor vehicles, transport, equipment, chemicals, food, beverages, tobacco, minerals, and nonferrous metals. The infant mortality rate of Italy is 5.51 deaths/1,000 live births. The life expectancy of males is 77.26 years and the life expectancy of females is 83.33 years. The literacy rate of the country is 98.8%. Males have a literacy rate of 98.8% and females have a literacy rate of 98%. The average educational attainment is 16 years of education for males and 17 years of education for females.

Governance
Italy is a democratic republic. Italy has a Constitution that was passed on December 11, 1947. The Constitution has been amended 13 times. The Constitution was being drafted around the same time as the abolition of the monarchy. The Italian government is organized by branches. There is the executive branch which is made up of the president, prime minister, and the cabinet. There is the legislative branch which is made up of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Then there is the judicial branch and that is made up of the Constitutional Court. Italy was a fascist country from 1922-1945 and that was because of Benito Mussolini. After World War II Italy changed their government to a republic. This happened on June 2, 1946. Laws can be made in Italy by the legislative branch. The people of Italy can create a law by way of proposal. Most laws are made by both houses of the legislative branch. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies must review the laws and then the laws get passed on to the president for approval.

Elections
The government officials are elected differently. The president is elected by the electoral college system made up of both houses of parliament and fifty-eight regional representatives. The president is elected to a seven year term. The President of Italy today is Giorgio Napolitano. He was elected in 2007. The president nominates a prime minister and he must be confirmed by parliament. Italy has a bicameral parliament consisting of a Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The members of the Senate are elected by proportional vote with the winning coalition in every region receiving 55% of the seat from that region. The members of the Senate serve five year terms and up to five senators can be appointed for life. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by a popular vote with the winning national coalition earning 54% of chamber seats. The members of the Chamber of Deputies serve five-year terms. The Senate has 315 seats and the Chamber of Deputies has 630 seats. . The elections in Italy are conducted under a proportional representation electoral system. To vote in the Chamber of Deputies election people must be 18 years old and to vote in the Senate election you must be 25 years old. The age requirement for holding the presidency in Italy is 50 years old. The requirement for members of the Senate is 40 and the requirement for the Chamber of Deputies is 25. People are not required to vote in Italy it is their right as citizens to decide whether they want to or do not want to. .

Judicial Review
There is some judicial review in Italy. There is partial judicial review of the legislation. The Constitutional Court can review laws that deal with human rights. The court can reject anti-constitutional laws if they feel the need to. The Constitutional Court is the only court that has the power to reject laws in Italy

Courts and Criminal Law
The criminal law system in Italy is designed for deterrence. The police are responsible for preliminary investigation of alleged offenses and detection of the criminals. The police are also responsible for gathering evidence. The defense counsel has the right to be present when their client is being interviewed by police. The defense counsel must be present at any interrogation. The police have the right to hold a suspect for two days. The judicial process begins with a judicial investigation. In a case where the evidence is very clear and the suspect has admitted guilt, then the investigation is done by a magistrate of the prosecutor's office. If the evidence is not really clear then there will be an investigating judge who goes out and conducts the investigation on his own. The judge has thirty days to make a decision in cases involving less-serious crimes and they have a year and a half to make a decision involving serious crimes. If a suspect is found guilty they have the ability to appeal the decision. The Italian criminal law system is a mix of the inquisitorial and adversarial systems. The adversarial part of the criminal law system is the idea of an appeal after the original ruling. The inquisitorial system is the main system used. The trial process is more about finding the truth. The judge actually goes out and investigates the case and makes his decision based upon that.

Italy is a country who has a history of corruption in its governments, but with the decline of organized crime in Italy the corruption level has declined. Italy ranked 40th out of 159 that were measured in 2005. . The Italian military in the form of the Carabinieri (the military police basically) work together with the Italian police forces to try to prevent crime. The Guardia di Finanza is a paramilitary police force that mainly deals with financial crimes and acts as Italy's main customs and border protection law enforcement agency. The Guardia di Finanza is under the authority of the Ministry of Finance.

Punishment
The types of sanctions that Italy uses are imprisonment, fines, probation, house arrest, and semi-custody. All crimes in Italy are divided into two categories, delitti which are the serious crimes, and contravvenzioni which are less serious crimes. The minimum age for crime responsibility is 14. For murder, a person is imprisoned for a period not less than 21 years. For robbery, a person is placed in prison for 3-10 years and fined. For theft, a person is placed in prison for up to three years and faces a big fine. For assault, a person is placed in prison from 3 months to 3 years. The country uses fines along with imprisonment as a form of punishment. The fines differ in every crime that is committed. Italy does not use corporal or capital punishment. The imprisonment rates in Italy are 100 people per 100,000 people. The prison conditions in Italy are actually really good. The inmates get to do a variety of things. Some prisoners are able to get out early due to good behavior. Italy tries to emphasize rehabilitation in their prison system. The convicts do education work, play sports, work, participate in religious activities, and are encouraged to keep in contact with friends and family. There are 27 male prisons and only 2 female prisons which show that there are some gender disparities. There is a juvenile justice system that deals with juveniles up to the age of 18. The juvenile court consists of two stipendiary judges and ts. There is the Justice of the Peace, the Tribunale Court, and the Corte d'Assise. Each court has their own specific jurisdiction and each leads into their own separate appeal process. The Justice of the Peace court deals with petty offenses like slander or libel. There is one honorary judge in this court and if you are convicted you can appeal your sentence to the Tribunale Monocratico which has one judge. The Tribunale Court has three judges and they decide cases that fall between the crimes listed in the Justice of the Peace court and the Corte d'Assise. If you are convicted in the Tribuanle court you can appeal your case to the Court of Appeals which has three professional judges. The Corte d'Assise deals with only serious crimes such as murder or terrorism. The Corte d'Assise has two professional judges and six lay judges. If you are convicted in this court you can appeal your case to the Corte d'Assise d'Appello. There is another court in Italy that has the most power and that is the Court of Cassation. This court functions like a supreme court and this court is arranged in divisions that each have a president and a deputy. These courts typically are composed of five judges, but could use nine in certain cases. . The final court in Italy is the Constitutional Court of Italy which is also a supreme court. This court is made up of 15 judges and it deals with the constitutionality of laws. In the court process there is a prosecutor, a defendant, and a judge or judges. The defendant can be called to the stand but does not have to testify against themselves or even tell the truth because they are not under oath. There is no jury in the Italian court, so it is up to the judge or judges to decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. The prosecutor's role is to gather evidence to try to find the truth about what happened. The prosecutor also does the interrogations of the suspects. Italy's judges are trained professionals and they are the ones who decide whether the person is guilty or innocent. The judges must hold a Masters of law degree. They are selected through public national competitions and train under an experienced judge. The only judges that are appointed are the judges in the Constitutional Court. Those judges are appointed by the President, Parliament, and other judges. Lawyers in Italy are trained in law school and must hold a degree in law to practice in Italy. The accused person comes into the trial and is viewed as not being guilty. Italy uses punitive damages in civil lawsuits. In dealing with civil matters the court uses justices of the peace, judges, tribunals, appeal courts, and the supreme court.

Law Enforcement
Italy is a country that uses a centralized, multiple uncoordinated police structure. There are many different types of divisions of law enforcement in Italy. There are the Carabinieri, which is a form of military police who has police duties. There is the Guardia di Finanza who are in charge of economic, financial, judiciary, and public safety. Next there is the Polizia di Stato, which is a civilian police force. Also, there is the Polizia Penitenziaria who are in charge of the Italian prisons. Next, there is the Corpo Forestale dello Stato who are responsible of national parks and forests. There is the Coast Guard who are the law enforcement on the sea. Italy also has provincial police who operate in 109 provinces and mainly enforce laws regarding hunting and fishing. Lastly, there is a municipal police who work in each commune to enforce traffic laws and local regulations. . The Carabinieri trains officers by the following ways. If an officer wants to be a Military Academy candidate they must go through a two year training process and then a year of law school. If you want to be a reserve or a warrant officer you must go through a one year training program. There is also a technical logistic role in the Carbinieri which requires a one year training program. In the Carbinieri training school the school looks to provide officers with a basic military, technical profession. The school also uses a shooting training program and a field training program. The Guardia di Finanza has a separate training school. There are two year and three year courses in the academy. The training academy deals with functions that the officer is expected to fulfill on the job. There is also an athletic training program. The officers are selected upon how they do in the academy. The Polizia di Stato are trained at a college called the Interagency College Of Advanced Studies For Law Enforcement Officials. .

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Italy is a country that uses a civil law system as their family of law. Crime in Italy varies from area to area. The total crime victims are 24.6% When people think of Italy they usually think of the mafia and organized crime. The mafia was prevalent at times, but today there really is not too much organized crime in Italy and if there is the organized crime does not involve violent crime. Italy has a very low rate of violent crime. Italy's crime rate is very similar to the other countries in Europe. The most typical crimes in Italy are car theft, burglaries, robberies, and fraud. The reported homicide rate is 1.06 per 100,000 people. The reported rate of robbery in Italy is 0.649295 per 1,000 people. The reported rape rate is 0.0402045 per 1,000 people. The reported assault rate is 0.500284 per 1,000 people. The problem with reporting in Italy is under reporting, people are scared to report some crime and have to deal with consequences. This happened a lot more in earlier years because of the mafia, but it is still a problem today. You can get the information about crime in Italy through the International Crime Victimization Surveys. Nowadays people feel very safe in Italy. Violent crime rates are very low. The mafia has been pushed out of most of the country and people really do not have to worry about them anymore. The crime that typically occurs happens to tourists mostly. People try to take advantage of the tourists and steal their belongings and cars. Crime in rural areas is very scarce, it is the cities where most of the crime takes place. Italy is one of the safest countries in the world and the Italian people are very proud of that.

Family Law
In order to get married in Italy the couple must appear in front of a civil registrar in the town that they will be married in with two witnesses. They must present their birth certificate, passport, and a divorce/death certificate if they were married previously. If the couple is under 18 they must have their parents consent. Divorce in Italy started in 1970. A person may be divorced in Italy if they were married there or if you are Italian or a resident of the country. Divorce in Italy is a very confusing matter. A couple that is divorcing with consent must wait three years to be divorced. Couples not divorcing by consent must wait five years after fault has been proved. Divorce by consent does not cost much money, but divorce without consent may cost thousands of Euros. The couple must go in front of a judge who offers them a choice of reconciliation or separation. The financial matters are also dealt with in the court. The mother is usually awarded custody of the children. The father still has access to the children. At a certain age the children can pick who they want to live with. . Adoption in Italy is very common. In 2006 3,158 children were adopted. The prospective parents must go through assessment and evaluation to see if they are able to adopt. Adopters must be married or living together for three years in order to be able to adopt. There are age restrictions on the parents who adopt and the children they are adopting. Single parents and gay people are not allowed to adopt in Italy. Everyone in Italy is allowed to be married except same-sex couples. Everyone in Italy is treated by the legal system equally. Juveniles have their own court system. Anyone over eighteen falls into the adult court. Everyone living in Italy has citizenship rights. If you are born in Italy you are able to be a citizen. If one of your parents is Italian you are an Italian citizen. In Italy there are certain laws the are used in the case of inheritance. There are three main ways to decide inheritance. They are legal succession, testamentary succession, and succession by necessity. Legal succession is when the deceased person does not leave a will. His property will be given to their children or relatives. Testamentary succession is when the deceased leaves a will and the distribution of assets is sorted out by what the will states. Succession by necessity is the misappropriation by the deceased. The law states that successors can gain a share of property even if they were not mentioned in the will.

Human Rights

In the Italian Constitution there are 47 different articles that have to deal with human rights. These articles list certain rights that are protected by the state. Some of the rights that they include are the right to assembly, freedom of the press, the right to no cruel and unusual punishment, the right to freedom, and the right to privacy in the home. These are just a few of the rights that are listed in the Constitution, but there are many more. In Italy everyone is considered equal. There is no discrimination against anyone and people are treated equally by the law. Everyone is able to do what they want as long as they are not breaking the law. There is no discrimination in schools or the work force. The Constitution of Italy lays down the fundamental rights of all human beings in the Republic of Italy.

title: Comparative law and justice/Italy


text:
User:Egm6341.s10.team3.ynahn81/HW3-5

= (5) Comparison of Romberg table with Taylor, Trap and Simpson's Rules = Ref: Lecture notes [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg19.djvu|p.19-2]]

Problem Statement
This problem is continued from the HW on [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg6.pdf|p.6-5]]

i) Modify matlab code to make the computation of $$\displaystyle T_{0}(2^{j}) $$ efficient, i.e. $$\displaystyle T_{0}(2^{j}) = T_{0}(2^{(j-1)}) + \cdot\cdot\cdot $$.

ii) Construct Romberg table and compare to previous results, i.e. compare Romberg table to Taylor, Trap. and Simpson's rules.

Solution
 i)  Recall the formula of comp. Trap. rule.

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

T_{0}(n) = h\left[\frac{1}{2}f(x_{0}) + f(x_{1}) + f(x_{2}) + \cdot\cdot\cdot + f(x_{n-1}) + \frac{1}{2}f(x_{n}) \right] $$ $$ where $$\displaystyle h = \frac{b-a}{n} $$ and $$\displaystyle x_{0} = a,\quad x_{n} = b $$.
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle (Eq. 1)
 * }
 * }

Also, realize the fact that if we want to double the number of sub-intervals, we don't have to calculate the functions at even point, i.e. $$\displaystyle f(x_{0}), f(x_{2}), \cdot\cdot\cdot, f(x_{n-2}), f(x_{n}) $$ because we already calculated the functions at these even point at the previous step. Therefore, all we have to do is evaluating the functions only at the odd points and combine them with the calculated values at the previous step. As a result, we can use the following inductive formula.
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

T_{0}(2n) = T_{0}(n) + h\sum_{i=1}^{n}f(x_{2i-1}). $$ $$
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle (Eq. 2)
 * }
 * }

In the following table, we summarize $$\displaystyle T_{0}(n) $$ for $$\displaystyle n = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 $$. The Matlab code for this calculation is provided in the end of this document.

ii)

In order to construct Romberg table, recall that the following inductive formula from the lecture note [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg19.djvu|p.19-2]],

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

T_{k}(2n) = \frac{2^{2k}T_{k-1}(2n) - T_{k-1}(n)}{2^{2k}-1}. $$ $$
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle
 * $$\displaystyle (Eq. 3)
 * }
 * }

Since we already obtain $$\displaystyle T_{0}(n) $$ in part i), the following Romberg table can be constructed using Eq.(3).  Matlab code to make this table is provided in the end part of this document.

'''Note the fact that the first and second columns of the above table correspond to Trap. and Simpson's rules respectively.'''

In order to compare the Romberg integration table to Taylor, Trap. and Simpson's rules, let's evaluate errors of the Romberg integration table.

In the previous HW (i.e. HW on [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg6.pdf|p.6-5]] of the lecture note), we already found that we can achieve $$\displaystyle E_{n} = O(10^{-7})$$ when $$\displaystyle n = 8$$ in Taylor series expansion. As we shows the first and second column of above table, to achieve $$\displaystyle E_{n} = O(10^{-7})$$, $$\displaystyle n > 128$$ for trap. rule and $$\displaystyle n = 8$$ for Simpson's rule. On the other hand, we can achieve the same order of error when $$\displaystyle n = 4$$ using Romberg table (see. the third column of above table).

Therefore, Romberg integration table is the most efficient and accurate integration method.

Matlab code for part i) and ii)

Yong Nam Ahn 15:18, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

title: User:Egm6341.s10.team3.ynahn81/HW3-5