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LS3000A Introduction to Wit and Satire

Formally defined, satire is "A composition in verse or prose holding up vice or folly to ridicule or lampooning individuals. . . . The use of ridicule, irony, sarcasm, etc., in speech or writing for the ostensible purpose of exposing and discourage vice or folly."

In other words, satire is a particular use of humour for overtly moral purposes. It seeks to use laughter, not just to remind us of our common often ridiculous humanity, but rather to expose those moral excesses, those corrigible sorts of behaviour which transgress what the writer sees as the limits of acceptable moral behaviour.

Let me put this another way. If we see someone or some group acting in a way we think is morally unacceptable and we wish to correct such behaviour, we have a number of options. We can try to force them to change their ways (through threats of punishment); we can deliver stern moral lectures, seeking to persuade them to change their ways; we can try the Socratic approach of engaging them in a conversation which probes the roots of their beliefs; or, alternatively, we can encourage everyone to see them as ridiculous, to laugh at them, to render them objects of scorn for the group. In doing so we will probably have at least two purposes in mind: first, to effect some changes in the behaviour of the target (so that he or she reforms) and, second, to encourage others not to behave in such a manner.

In that sense, what sets satire apart from normal comedy (and the two often shade into each other in ways which make an exact border line difficult to draw), is that in satire there is usually a clear and overt didactic intention, a clear moral lesson is the unifying power of the work. Whereas in normal comedy, we are usually being asked to laugh at ourselves and our common human foibles, in satire the basis of the humour is generally some corrigible unwelcome conduct in a few people. Normal comedy, if you will, reminds us of our inescapable human limitations; satire focus rather on those things which we can correct in order to be better than we are. It invites us to scorn the target in order to spurn that activity. This is no doubt a somewhat muddied distinction at this point, but it should become clearer as we proceed.

At the basis of every good traditional satire is a sense of moral outrage or indignation: This conduct is wrong and needs to be exposed. Hence, to adopt a satiric stance requires a sense of what is right, since the target of the satire can only be measured as deficient if one has a sense of what is necessary for a person to be truly moral. And if this satire is to have any effect, if it is to be funny, then that sense of shared moral meaning must exist in the audience as well. Satire, if you like, depends upon a shared sense of community standards, so that what is identified as contrary to it can become the butt of the jokes.

This moral basis helps to explain why a satire, even a very strong one which does nothing more than attack unremittingly some target, can offer a firm vision of what is right. By attacking what is wrong and exposing it to ridicule the satirist is acquainting the reader with a shared positive moral doctrine, whether the satire actually goes into that doctrine in detail or not. Dryden in "Mac Flecknoe" does not discuss what good literature is; but by attacking bad literature, he makes it clear what needs to occur if literature is to be valued.

[I should note here that it is possible to write satire in the absence of any shared sense of moral standards, but the result is a curious form of "black" satire. This genre is particularly common today. Modern satire typically makes everything look equally ridiculous. In such a satiric vision, there is no underlying vision of what right conduct is and the total effect, if one tries to think about it, is very bleak indeed--a sense that we might as well laugh at the ridiculousness of everything because nothing has any meaning. Whether we call this Monty Python or Saturday Night Live or This Hour Has Twenty-two Minutes or whatever, it seems to add up to an attitude that since there's no significant meaning to anything, we might as well laugh at everything. That will enable us to retreat with style from the chaos. Such an attitude is certainly at odds with traditional satire, which tends very much to work in the service of a moral vision which is being abused by particular people]

Satire may be very topical, that is, refer directly to people and events known to the readers from their own immediate context (e.g., satires on President Clinton), or it may focus upon more general human characteristics or upon both. Very topical satires which have no interest in universal characteristics tend to lose their impact very quickly, once the details of the context are no longer shared by the readers (e.g. Saturday Night Live). Satires which focus on the lasting characteristics of human experience (in addition to their topical interest) tend to have a longer life (e.g., Gulliver's Travels).

One central challenge to the satirist is to be subtle and varied enough to keep the reader interested in the wit of the piece, while at the same time making it clear (but not obvious) that there is a satiric intent. The major interest satires provoke in the reader often arises from the style, which invites the reader to share the joke. Since most satires depend upon a certain awareness in the reader (awareness of events, of literary models being satirized, of irony working in the language), skilful satires tend to require a certain sophistication in the readers or viewers. A person insensitive to levels of irony in language will normally find satires difficult to follow (unless the irony is very obvious).

Whatever the style of the satire, the writer must avoid at all costs becoming predictable and dull. Satires which are boring are ineffectual, and satires in which the ironies do not register properly simply don't work as satires, since the readers fail to see the satiric intent and take the distortion or the irony literally (e.g., Machiavelli's The Prince (perhaps), All in the Family).

title: LS3000A Introduction to Wit and Satire


text:
User:Adhijyao

Dear All,

Just an introduction.

I just joined Wikiversity recently this month (Aug 09). This site is very intersting and suit my thoughs thats why I decided to get involved either by learning or sharing. Frankly I still fill I just know only a bit part of the knowledge being share here, however I think if I could I would like to share what I have known.

Jakarta, 25 Aug 2009

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Adhijyao


text:
User:FatBoySteve

Under Construction

title: User:FatBoySteve


text:
User:Abi~enwikiversity/Course:Hindi 2

dfdg

title: User:Abi~enwikiversity/Course:Hindi 2


text:
User:Guy Steve

Full name is Steve Narteh Nartey. Resides in Accra,Ghana. Runs a Tailoring Business. Also an itinerant Evangelist. Member of the Anglican Diocese of Accra.

title: User:Guy Steve


text:
Tibetan language/Punctuation and terma marks

Tsheg
There are short breaks in Tibetan punctuation, like a comma is a short break in English; that is the normal tsheg. Then there are long breaks like an English fullstop or period; that is a long tsheg, also called a shad or stroke.

In grammar, a shad is actually a version of a tsheg. What is often understood as a "tsheg" is called a short tsheg and a shad is called a long tsheg. This is so, because tsheg means "break" (literally the sound "snap"). When writing in Tibetan, a shad is actually started as a normal tsheg and then lengthened, thus it is also physically speaking a long tsheg.

Now we may understand that the gter tsheg, which is the equivalent of a long tsheg (shad) is actually a tsheg, but one used specifically for terma.

Terma marks
A dakini text is a kind of terma text. Termas are revealed literature and are a genre unto themselves in the Tibetan spiritual literary tradition. Terma and dakini texts often have special marks and punctuation which is salient to the genre and tradition and often exquisitely beautiful to the eye. There are a vast number of these marks which has posed a significant challenge for Tibetan Unicode and terma translations. Generally, an initial 'yig mgo mdun ma' (U+0F04) or 'zla tshe gnyis' plus a 'shad' are found in the upper left corner of a normal Tibetan text in pecha format. In some pechas the 'zla tshe gnyis' are replaced by special signs and the shad’s are replaced by the terma break 'gter tsheg' or in front of the 'gter ma' alphabet or text. These specific signs belong to the texts itself, not to the tertons (gter ston ). In addition, beside these marks exist a lot of different specific terton signs the 'gter ston gter btags'. In summary, there are terma marks specific to individual terma that often are embellishments or flourishes augmenting standard punctuation. Specific tertons also often have marks which are related to their revealing activity, also known as terma marks or terma signs. Often, the terma mark is all that is revealed to the terton. Within this resides the entire terma. It may also be understood as a seal of authenticity. Similarly, the terton mark specific to the terton is at once their seal of authenticity as a revealer as well as their key to access the terma. That said, this is a very complex and esoteric matter and this is only a cursory introduction.


text:
User:Altera vista/AV Test Page

   Green: Project active Yellow: Project in preparation Red: Project halted     Green: Project active Yellow: Project in preparation Red: Project halted |Dynamic Containment    Everybody is welcome to participate If you are unfamiliar with the Sytax of the site go to .... If you are familiar you will ignore this message anyway Thank you for your contributions

title: User:Altera vista/AV Test Page


text:
User:CQ/What is the difference between differential and integral calculus?

Original Question by CQ

 * Here's the question...

What's Up?

 * Latest discussions on the forum

Calculus-Help

Mathematics-Help

Reply![]


text:
User:SB Johnny

I am a horticulturist and farmer. Spring is here. That means I'm pretty busy! I'm around some days though, so feel free to leave a note on my talk page. de:Benutzer:SB Johnny fr:Utilisateur:SB Johnny

title: User:SB Johnny


text:
Topic talk:History through American Girl

Great project idea! Is it alright if I make this a subtopic of American History? The Jade Knight (d'viser) 19:20, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Go for it, this project is on the back burner for me right now. I'll probably start coming back to it within the next few months; I'll find it wherever it is. Thanks! -Trinity507 01:25, 27 August 2009 (UTC)


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User:Thewinster/HHF/Biology

This page is under construction!

{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="margin:0em 0em 1em 0em; width:100%" Highschool Help Forum : Biology
 * style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; border:1px solid Sienna; background-color:Cornsilk;" |

Help with Biology
Explore the living world by asking questions. Examples of biology topics: 1) Health strategies: learning, friends, diet, sleep, play, drugs, doctors 2) Human biology: reproduction, growth, genetics, social behavior, health, illness 3) Ecology: populations, ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, human impacts 4) Origins and change: chemical evolution, replication, mutation, selection, genetic engineering 5) Structures and systems: anatomy, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules of life 6) Other topics: exobiology
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Allosaurus
Many forms of life are known only through the fossil record.

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title: User:Thewinster/HHF/Biology


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Talk:Ethics/Nonkilling/Historiography

This feels like an essay more than a course. How can participants engage? The Jade Knight (d'viser) 20:36, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethics/Nonkilling/Historiography


text:
User talk:Lilou~enwikiversity

Welcome to the English Wikiversity, Lilou! If you're interested in helping out with French, would you mind listing yourself over at the Mentoring Project? The Jade Knight (d'viser) 22:42, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Lilou. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Lilou~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Lilou~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q027 Wind power turbine relation between wind speed and output power

What does "JEE 2000 Screening Q027" mean? What is HHF-Global-Forum-Watch and how does it work? CQ 22:50, 25 August 2009 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Daniel Martins~enwikiversity

hey !!!

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Daniel Martins. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Daniel Martins~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:33, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Daniel Martins~enwikiversity


text:
User:Marf41

--Marf41 01:04, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

title: User:Marf41


text:
User:Vijayhoshiarpur~enwikiversity

Hoshiarpur is having very interesting and also most needed activities for society. It is leading the state of Punjab and actually the North India for promoting Eye Donation, just visit www.eyedonation.co.in It has a unique project called STUDENT BOOK BANK, working for the last 31 years, presently providing books, helpbooks and notes to more than 1200 students every year. The cost of books provided every year is more that Rs. 2000000. To have more information just visit www.bookbankonline.org

title: User:Vijayhoshiarpur~enwikiversity


text: Template:33% done

title: Template:33% done


text: Template:67% done

title: Template:67% done


text:
User:Dave68~enwikiversity

"FAITH @ LIFE"

By David Andrews ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

 * I'm starting this from about the age of eight years of age...

I'm Living in a Californian Style Bungalow at Rosewater Gardens, witch is now called Pennington, built by my Grandparents in 1925. In this home lived my Mother (Mary) her Mother (Kitty) and her Father (David) and myself. My mother and father had been separated for some time at this poit and he was living with his parents at port Adelaide.

title: User:Dave68~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:George (usurped)~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called George (usurped). To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name George (usurped)~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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text:
On representability and authenticity in research on ethnolinguistic minorities/Comments

Comments from Jenny R

I found your paper very interesting and could see many overlaps to questions regarding language politics and ideology that I am working on in my own research. As you bring up in your paper Minority rights and Minority language rights is a rather new phenomena in the Swedish political scene, and became an important issue first with the membership into the EU in the mid 1990-ies. The ratification of the Conventions for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages as well the first explicit language policy documents, Mål i Mun, Bästa språket, the recognized minority languages have gain a stronger position in relation to the languages spoken by immigrant groups in Sweden. I think that this development brings us to the issue of what constitutes a minority and the difference between the recognized minorities in Sweden and other immigrant minority groups. An important argument during the debate and preparation of the language policies was the issue of time. In the webpage of Språkrådet it is written that "Två villkor måste uppfyllas för att språket ska få ställning som minoritetsspråk. Det ska vara ett språk och inte en dialekt. Det ska ha talats kontinuerligt i Sverige i minst tre generationer eller ungefär hundra år". In regard to this definition om minority language, many of the languages regarded as immigrant languages could be included. My aim with raising these questions in regard to your paper, is that I think that it would be useful for you to develop your reflections on the concepts of minority and minority language, as they are central to your research.

The main topic in your texts concerns the relation between the researcher and her research subject. You raise the question: Who is doing academic research on the minorities mentioned above and at which institutions an research environments is the research conducted?. As your own research shows researchers working with Sweden Finns and Tornedalians are to a high extent belonging to the minorities themselves. First of all I would like to raise the question of who belongs to a minority and not. How are the researchers you describe as minority people being identified as belonging to a minority? Do they themselves identify themselves in those terms? You also raise the question whether researcher belonging to a minority have a special position inside the minority group itself. These are all interesting and important questions which all relates to the issue of who can represent who. A central concern among feminist scholars has been the right of white, Western, middle class, heterosexual feminists to define women's emancipation and the feminist struggle. But if one follow such argumentation, we may up in a situation where nobody can represent another person which may result in that political organization becomes impossible. Chandra Mohanty, a leading post-colonial feminist argues that neither a universal nor a relative understanding of women is beneficial but, instead, women should make connections trough a process of dialogue and exchange that recognizes differences between them (Mohanty 1991, 2004). I see many similarities between the questions you raised in your paper and the concerns discussed among feminists and gender studies. Moreover, in relation to the special position of the researcher in regard to her/his own minority community, I think that the text we read by Uni Wikkan discusses power and oppression inside minority groups themselves in an interesting way.

Reply to Jenny's comments:

Jenny, thank you for your interesting viewpoints that I will surely take into consideration in my future research! I feel like many of these questions are not only academical in their nature, but also personal and need thus to be further reflected upon. Speaking of identity (which we have been doing for quite some time now...), I have myself not quite come to terms with what I think of the relation between national and other minorities other that the "official" recognition (and the lack of it) constitutes different kind of conditions for all kinds of groups' future development. And as for any researcher's alleged minority identity, the question could, as you point out, be researched further.

Några tankar från Ingela

Det var spännande att läsa din text, Annaliina, både för att det var ett helt nytt område för mig, som jag fick förmånen att lära mig mer om tack vare ditt paper, och för att det finns många likheter mellan det du lyfter fram och min egen situation och mitt forskningsområde. Just det att många forskare som behandlar minoritetsfrågor och liknande, själva tillhör minoriteten i fråga har jag tänkt på då det gäller döv- och hörselområdet.

Din inledning gav en god inblick i vad du ville med ditt paper och det lockade till fortsatt läsning, dina frågeställningar var intressanta och det finns så mycket mer att fördjupa sig i just de frågorna. Slutsatsen var för mig inte så överraskande, men ändå intressant att se att det faktiskt verkar vara så som man antar.

Vad jag några gånger funderade på i läsningen av din text handlar om varifrån du hämtat fakta eller vilka belägg du har för några av dina påståenden. Till exempel så skriver du under “Minority research – a right and an obligation” följande “The above mentioned charting established what I had assumed: Researchers active in minority research concerning Sweden Finns and Tornedalians are to a high extent minority people themselves – at least in the light of recently published doctoral dissertations. The situation is not by any terms unique for Sweden Finns and Tornedalians, as similar descriptions can be made of many minority groups, be they linguistic, ethnic, or other.” – men just att situationen inte är unik för den här målgruppen – “hur vet du det” för att uttrycka sig lite enkelt. Jag är intresserad av det för min egen del och därför fastnade jag vid detta. Liknande saker finns på fler ställen, t.ex. några rader längre ned, där du skriver ”What needs to be considered is that the idea of a minority being represented and researched by a researcher with minority background has not always been the norm. In fact, I would like to claim that it is rather quite new and associated with postmodernism. Within several research fields, including sociology and anthropology, it has been a long-lived tradition that Western researchers conducted their fieldwork at and interpreted the reality of indigenous peoples.” Jag skulle vilja få lite referenser till detta.

Svar till Ingela: Tack för dina kommentarer. Jag har känt samma sak; det verkar finnas likheter mellan nationella minoriteter och döv- och hörselområdet som forskningsområden. Det är roligt att vi kunnat tillföra varandra nya insikter inom områden vi inte varit insatta i tidigare, hoppas vi får möjlighet att fortsätta med det även efter kursen! Vad gäller din fråga (och Maries nedan) om hur jag uttryckt mig kring forskare som sysslar med minoritetsforskning (bland sverigefinländare/meänkielitalare eller andra) kan jag villigt erkänna att jag formulerat mig för bestämt kring den "kunskap" jag haft. Och den andra frågan kring forskare som tidigare forskat om minoriteter och som inte själva tillhört minoriteten; du har rätt, jag får leta fram en referens (det lär finnas flera).

2009-09-07

Hej Annaliina!

Det är spännande att ta del av dina båda resor! Lycka till! Texten är strukturerad och driver tydligt framåt. Papret handlar till stora delar om dina personliga ställningstaganden och förställningar varför det känns svårt att kommentera sådana. Jag har dock några funderingar som jag har försökt att sammanfatta till frågor.

1.	I ”Introduction” skriver du ”where do I belong in this minority and what it the ”criteria” for being a member of a minority”

Med tanke på att du beforskar ett fält med intresse för identiteter är det intressant att ta del om du ser en tillhörighet eller flera, likaså om det är ett kriterie eller flera, är det medlemskap i en eller flera minoriteter? Kan man, med dina utgångspunkter, tillhöra en minoritet men ej ha medlemskap i den?

2.	I ”Backgroud and purpose” kan du kanske nämna tidsdimensionen beträffande ”erkännande av minoritetsspråk”. Vad tror du händer om några år när arabiska, turkiska etc erkänns? Är samma tidsintervall relevant om 10, 20, 30 år? Problematisera gärna vad ”erkännandet” har för betydelser för individ, grupp, nation, nationer etc.

3.	I ”Table 1” finner jag ingen referens till var du hämtat uppgifterna samt vid vilken tidpunkt de var aktuella. Har jag missat detta?

4.	Beträffande forskares bakgrund undrar jag också var du hämtat de uppgifterna? Jag undrar också, hur du menar att läsaren ska se på upplysningarna om första eller andra generationens invandrare. Problematisera gärna vilka syften detta fyller för forskningen.

5.	I stycket ”Minority research – a right and an obligation” skriver du om Bourdieu’s “most important works”. Vilka är de? På vilka grunder är de utsedda? Är uttalandet ditt eller Swartz, i referenser finner jag ingen Bourdieu.

Vänligen

Marie

Svar till Marie: Tack för dina kommentarer! Det är intressant att du lyfter upp i din första fråga just detta med en eller flera identiteter eller tillhörigheter, för ämnet i sig var något som jag funderade ett tag på att skriva hela papret om. Personliga identitetsfrågor (vilka anknyter även till dina följdfrågor) är naturligtvis något som jag inte kunnat ta reda på med hjälp av en enkel kartläggning, då hade nog en betydligt djupare studie behövts, helst med etnografiska inslag. Därav anledningen till att jag avstått från att ta grundligare ställning i identitets- och tillhörighetsfrågan. Jag håller med dig om att vissa källor skulle behöva förtydligas i texten. En sista kommentar gäller punkt 2 och det eventuella erkännandet av andra minoritetsspråk som nationella minoritetsspråk. Det är förstås en spännande diskussion, men i dagsläget en spekulativ sådan. Som jag ser det, erkännandet av de fem minoritetsspråken som nationella minoritetsspråk år 2000 hade att göra med dels överrensstämning med kriterier som gällde då (bl.a. tidsaspekten), men även andra faktorer på både nationell och EU-nivå. I vilken riktning minoritets-, integrations- och språkpolitiken kommer att utvecklas i Sverige inom de närmaste 10, 20, 30 åren är det svårt att sia om. Vad erkännandet betytt för gruppen, individen och andra aktörer är en väldigt spännande fråga, som jag definitivt tänker forska vidare på.

Hi Annaliina,

you ask "who has the right to do research on whom?". I think this a very interesting question. It's easy to use binaries, like we and them and so forth. Now you are in a situation that you are, maybe, planning to do research on your "own" minority group. The question is essential and important to ask. Would the results from the dissertations in your text be the same with another minority group? Is this a way to increase the amount of objectivity? I think all your questions are highly relevant. It's a good sign that you ask them so early. Other future tools might be to use the term of intersectionality more than you do in this first paper. What other social categories affect the individual's experiences? You are belonging to this minority group, but if you compare yourself and your own experiences with others they might differ. And why is that?

Finally I would like to congratulate to your good English. You have an important skill here which you must use :)

See you, Catarina

// Catarina


text: User:Leah4 11

title: User:Leah4 11


text:
Hinduism/Books

Ramayana
Ramayana is an Epic Hindu Text.

If the Mahabharata seems to be about normal flawed human beings with their insecurities and jealousies, the Ramayana is about utopian ideals and lofty principles. Ramayana creates the perfect: the virtuous elder brother, the obedient, ever-devoted younger brothers and the self-sacrificing, ever-loving wife. All those who appear to be flawed in some way – like Dhashratha, the father of lord Rama, Keikeyi, the step-mother, and above all Ravana the villain – seem to have been put in the story only as examples of how-not-to-be and to enhance the goodness of the principle characters.

Mahabharata
The Mahabharata, originally called Jaya - (victory)

The Mahabharata, perhaps with some justification, is said to be the longest poem in the world. 100,000 stanzas strong, the epic has a story which is as relevant to the world today as it was then. If the Greek Epics - Iliad and the Odyssey - are considered to be long, then it wouldn’t be amiss to mention that the Mahabharata is eight times longer than Homer’s two epics – combined!

Ramayana and Mahabharata
Tradition has it that the Ramayana (see Ramayana) was written at the date much earlier than the Mahabharata. History, however, tells another tale. Polyandry was an early Aryan concept. Further, the Ramayana talks about the southern peninsula, which had not been penetrated into in the time of the Mahabharata.

title: Hinduism/Books


text:
Psychological disorders

Definition
A psychological disorder is a condition that causes significant disturbance to thinking, emotional regulation, or behavior. Psychological disorders are defined by either the DSM-V-tr or the ICD-11-tr. Both have listed over 300 disorders.

title: Psychological disorders


text: User:Leah4 11/Spanish

title: User:Leah4 11/Spanish


text: Research design

title: Research design


text:
Operationalization

Operationalization is the process of defining a fuzzy concept so as to make the concept measurable in form of variables consisting of specific observations. In a wider sense it refers to the process of specifying the extension of a concept.

Survey design involves operationalizing fuzzy concepts - questionnaires and surveys are examples of operationalization.

title: Operationalization


text:
Fuzzy concept

Reading: Fuzzy concept (Wikipedia)

title: Fuzzy concept


text:
Votian

Votic language is a Finnic language spoken only by few people in Russian Kingissepp district. However there are significant collections of folklore kept mainly in Russia, Finland and Estonia. Moreover Votic songs are still sung by some Estonians and there are people trying to revitalize North-Eastern dialects of Estonia, which have been interpreted as Estonian dialects of strong Votic influence or even entirely independent Finnic dialects.

The current project will focus on grammatical analyse of all those dialects spoken both in Russia and Estonia.

Its main source is "Votic grammar" (Vadja keele grammatika) by Paul Ariste  (Tartu, 1948.). Thus the orthography  used for samples follows the one of that book, with few exceptions:
 * Small capital letters like  ʙ, ᴅ, ɢ  etc. are replaced with their big counterparts  B, D, G .
 *  ɑ, ɑ̈  are replaced with  a, ä .

Samples found elsewhere (in "Dictionary of Votic language" (Словарь водского языка - Vadja keele sõnaraamat) by Elna Adler  and  Merle Leppik  etc.) are reverted to the transcription of Ariste.

Orthography of Votian names and toponyms follows those of Ariste and "Dictionary of Votic language" (Словарь водского языка - Vadja keele sõnaraamat).

Votian morphemes are represented by  transdialectal morpho-phonemic writing.

If the source dialect  is not refferred to, then the sample is most likely originated from  Kattila dialect.

Syllabus

 * Introduction to Votian dialects
 * Dialects
 * Phonology
 * Orthography
 * Morphophonology
 * Vowel harmony
 * Consonant stem
 * Consonant gradation

 * Morphology
 * Verb moods, voices and tenses
 * Imperative
 * 2. person
 * Introduction to Votian morphophonology
 * 1. & 3. person
 * Prohibition
 * Indefinite voice
 * Indicative
 * Present tense
 * Negation
 * Indefinite voice
 * Medial voice
 * Answering commands
 * Imperfect tense
 * Negation
 * Indefinite voice
 * Conditional
 * Potential-future

 * Answering questions
 * Nouns and their derivation
 * Cases
 * Plural nominative
 * External locative cases
 * Plural
 * Main cases: subject, object and predicative;  total  and  partial
 * Genitive, accusative, instructive
 * Partitive
 * Internal locative cases
 * Abessive
 * Comitatives
 * Essive
 * Exessive
 * Translative
 * Prolative
 * Lative
 * Terminative
 * Postpositions and prepositions
 * Pronouns: interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite
 * Personal and reflexive pronouns
 * Possessive suffixes
 * Reciprocal pronouns
 * Compound sentences
 * Adverbs and their derivation
 * Adjectives and their derivation
 * Comparison of adverbs and adjectives
 * Numerals
 * Verbs and their derivation
 * Compound verb expressions
 * Non-finite verb
 * Agent and participles
 * Verbal nouns: gerund and infinitives
 * Auxiliary verbs
 * Copula and compound tenses
 * Syntax and agreement
 * Vocabulary

Audio samples

 * Eesti Keele Instituudi fonoteek (Institute of the Estonian Language)

title: Votian


text:
Votian/Phonology

Vowels
Votic dialects have 9 to 10 vowels. The chart represents short vowels of Kattila dialect.

 * occurres only in Russian loanwords e.g. štobi̮ ('so as to').
 * occurres in the same stems in neighbouring Vaiga (East-Estonian) and Alutaguse dialects of Estonia unlike in all the other Estonian dialects e.g. e̮ksaD ('boughs') versus Estonian oksaD.
 * However it is missing in Kukkuzi dialect. Corresponding stems have e, o or a instead like in neighbouring Finnish and Ingrian dialects e.g. oma ('own') versus e̮ma of all the other dialects (including those of Estonia).
 * ö is found in the first syllable only, except some Ingrian and Finnish loanwords and derivation suffixes e.g. tüttö ('girl'), itšävöimε̆ä̀ ('long for something' in Lempola dialect).

All these 10 vowels may occur long as well, even if the syllable they belong to carries no stress.
 * In some Eastern Votic dialects, in the nearest villages to Kattila and in Pontizõõ village all the long mid vowels ē, ō,  have been diphthongized to ie, uo, üö e.g. tüö ('work') versus tȫ. Also Alutaguse and Vaiga dialects of Estonia (and many other Finnic dialects) uderwent the same vowel shift.

Votic has various diphthongs: e̮a üe ue̮ ai oi ui e̮i äi ei öi üi ao io uo e̮u eu iu iä üä eü öü oa ua ia au öä iü äü

Consonants

 * k, p, t are not aspirated. They are pronounced very much like the voiceless stops in Finnish or Estonian Alutaguse dialect e.g. kana ('hen').
 * g, b, d are voiced like their counterparts (г, б, д) in Russian e.g. pe̮dra ('moose').
 * Ending a phrase they become voiceless (semi-voiced) like their counterparts in standard Estonian e.g. annaD ('you give').
 * Their counterparts are semi-voiced or completely voiceless in Alutaguse and Vaiga dialects regardless of their position.
 * The final k of Eastern Votic dialect may be borrowed from Ingrian, because it is sometimes added to words, where it was originally absent e.g. sūre̮piG  ('bigger' comparative), sūre̮ssiG  ('to (become) big' translative).
 *  ocurres only as a combinatory phone in front of k or g e.g. kaŋgaz ('fabric').
 *  occurres only in Russian, Finnish or Ingrian loanwords e.g. staruxa ('old woman' ~ Russian старуха), mettsä-xāmo ('forest elf'). It is articulated in the same place as k or g.
 *  becomes a bit voiced in front of voiced sounds e.g. voho ('goat').
 *  is no semi-vowel (as it is in Estonian), but an intensive voiced fricative e.g. ujun ('I swim').
 * š  and it's voiced counterpart ž  occur only in Russian or Ingrian loanwords and in onomatopoeia e.g. ženixa ('bridegroom' ~ Russian жених), karjušiD ('shepherds'), širizeB ('(a bird or insect) sings'). They are pronounced like their counterparts in Russian.
 * ' reminds voiceless ' of Estonian e.g. musaD ('black (things)'). It's Finnish and Ingrian counterpart is more velar.
 * The voiced counterpart of ' is ' e.g. lidnaza ('in the town').
 * Ending a phrase  becomes voiceless (semi-voiced) like it's counterpart in standard Estonian e.g. vē̮raZ ('stranger').
 * ' and ' are actually combinatory allophones. ' ocurres with front vowels and ' with back vowels ' sounds like it's Estonian counterpart and ' sounds like it's Russian counterpart (л) e.g. ʎahsi ('child'), litši ('near').
 *  sounds like in standard Finnish and Estonian (i.e. not English but Spanish) e.g. repo ('fox').
 *  occurres only in (Russian) loanwords e.g. frovva ('Madam'), fšoravno ('anyway, regardless ...' ~ Russian всё равно).
 *  is more intensive than in standard Estonian (i.e. the lower lip indeed presses the upper teeth) e.g. varai ('early').
 * tš  sounds less palatalized and deeper than Russian ч  e.g. tšako ('cuckoo').
 * dž (dʒ) is the voiced counterpart of tš  for the weak grade. It may be found mainly in the Eastern Votic dialect e.g. audžiD ('pikes' < autši 'a pike').
 *  š́tš́ occurres only in Russian loanwords (as a counterpart of щ) e.g.  š́tš́etina ('brush, mane ...' ~ Russian щетина).
 *  is an alveodental affricate e.g. metsässä ('from a forest').

== Phonological history == Votian phonemes underwent following sound changes after Proto-Finnic stage:
 * *k > tš in front of front vowels e.g. *käsi > tšäsi ('hand')
 * However it is not the case in Vaiga, Alutaguse and Kukkuzi dialects e.g. *käsi > ḱäsi ('hand (Kukkuzi)').
 * *k > g in the week grade with back vowels e.g. *sika+n > sigā ('pig' Genitive)
 * but *k > ø in the week grade with front vowels e.g. *mäke+n > mäē ('hill' Genitive)
 * *s > z and *š > ž in the week grade e.g. *isä+n > izǟ ('father' Genitive)
 * However it is not the case in Vaiga and Alutaguse dialects (except in southern and central Iisaku) e.g. *isä+n > isä ('father' Genitive).
 * *ks > hs and *ps > hs e.g. *uksi > uhsi ('door'), *lapsi > lahsi ('child').
 * However it is not the case in Vaiga and Alutaguse dialects.
 * *st > ss e.g. *musta > mussa ('black').
 * It has ocurred in Vaiga and Alutaguse dialects as well e.g. *pes+tä > pessä ('to wash').
 * *o >  in the same stems as in neighbouring Vaiga (East-Estonian) and Alutaguse dialects of Estonia unlike in all the other Estonian dialects e.g. e̮ksaD ~ e̮hsaD ('boughs') versus Estonian oksaD.
 * However it is missing in Kukkuzi dialect. Corresponding stems have e, o or a instead like in neighbouring Finnish and Ingrian dialects e.g. oma ('own') versus e̮ma of all the other dialects (including those of Estonia).
 * Late diphthongs "ae äe oe ue > ā ǟ ō ū" e.g. *laulat̆essa > laulāza ('singing'), *kevät̆ellä > tševǟllä ('in spring'), *uhtot̆essa > uhtōza ('flushing'), *olut̆en > e̮lū ('beer' Genitive).
 * However it is not the case in Vaiga and Alutaguse dialects.

title: Votian/Phonology


text:
Self-action in a system of elementary particles

Potential energy in Schrödinger equation does not contain the potential energy of the interaction of the elementary particle considered with the field, created by this same particle. If someone will average quantum mechanically Schrödinger equation, he/she will see that the total energy does not contain the particle potential energy, as it is not present in Schrödinger equation. Hence in quantum mechanics action of the elementary particle on itself, that is a self-action, should not be taken into account. It is a well known fact1. Thus, a charged elementary particle does not possess an electric potential energy in quantum mechanics, as it is not present in Schrödinger equation. From this follows, in particular, that the electrostatic energy of the charges in a hydrogen atom in a ground state consists of the negative interaction energy of the negatively charged electron with positively charged proton only2. In classical electrostatics electric potential energy is always positive, as it is proportional to the electrostatic field in square. In a positronium (a hydrogen type atom, which consists of a positron and electron) the masses of both particles are equal. The charges of the particles are of the same value, but of the opposite signs. That is why the wave functions of both particles are identical. From this follows that in a positronium in a ground state there is no local electric charge, no electric field, but there is negative electrostatic energy2. Since Schrödinger equation was introduced in 1926, it is a well known fact that self-action in quantum mechanics should not be taken into account. It is a mainstream opinion, not an alternative one. In particular, when performing calculations in many-body theory3,4, self-action of any electron was never taken into account. Calculated spectra are in a very good agreement with experiment3,4. The simplest example is the atom of hydrogen spectra. They were also never calculated, taking into account self-action of the electron in a hydrogen atom. So, in2 there is no one single result of Y. Kornyushin, as well as it contains no one new result at all. All what is written here and in2 was very well known more than 80 years ago. Today the concepts discussed here are as important as they were 80 years ago and should be studied well.

References

1. Landau, L. D., and Lifshitz, E. M., 1987, Quantum Mechanics (Oxford: Pergamon).

2. Y. Kornyushin, 2009, http://arxiv.org/abs/0806.3828v5.

3. Hartree, D., 1957, The Calculation of Atomic Structure (New York: WileyInterscience).

4. Fock, V. A., 1930 Z. Phys. 61 126.


text:
Biblical Studies (NT)/I. Introduction to Revelation

 NEW TESTAMENT

 Lesson 14

 REVELATION: VISIONS OF THE END   I. Introduction

''NOTE: Revelation is an enigmatic work which presents a challenge for interpreters. While most of the ideas presented in these lessons can easily be found in numerous published works, they are not presented here as definitive, but as a starting point for further analysis and discussion.''

A Dramatic Conclusion to the Bible Story
It may seem strange that this course devotes five lessons to Revelation, but given Revelation's structure, the five-lesson arrangement works well. Revelation requires a fairly comprehensive analysis to assist the beginning student in making sense of it. Even then, much of what can be said is tentative, given the extensive use of symbolism and the cryptic nature of the book in general. These lessons, together with their assignments, will enable the student to discuss the book in an intelligent and knowledgeable way.

Revelation is a fitting climax to the Bible story. We see the final and decisive confrontation of the forces of good and evil. It is a battle like none before it, and it takes place on an astonishingly grand scale. We see the final triumph of light over darkness, the redemption of the people of God, and the damnation of the wicked. We see “a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away” (21:1). Genesis opens the Bible story with Earth’s creation; Revelation ends it with Earth’s destruction.

Revelation, sometimes known as The Apocalypse, is the best example of a genre known as apocalyptic literature, which is a prophetic style of literature which concerns itself with future events, especially those pertaining to such things as the coming of the Messiah, divine judgement, the end of the age, or the end of the world. There are numerous examples of apocalyptic literature both in and outside of the Bible. In the Bible, good examples can be found in chapters 7-12 of Daniel and chapter 24 of Matthew. Revelation takes its name from the first word of the book, apokalypsis, which is Greek for revelation.

The Author
The document opens with these words: “The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants - things which must shortly take place. And he sent and signified it by his angel to his servant John” (1:1). Thus, in the opening sentence, we are made aware that we are about to hear a message which was given: a) from God, b) to Jesus, c) to an angel, d) to John, e) to the servants of God. Apart from a few exceptions where Jesus speaks directly to John, John is guided through the vision by the angel. Revelation, therefore, purports to be a message from God himself, though it comes by way of an angel and John.

The traditional view is that the person named as “his servant John” (1:1) is the apostle John, who was the author, not only of Revelation, but also of the gospel and the epistles which bear his name. This position is supported by the writings of Irenaeus, who lived within a generation of John and had mutual acquaintances with him. In recent years, especially since World War II, some scholars have objected to this view on the basis that there are marked differences in style between Revelation, John's gospel, and the epistles of John. Furthermore, Revelation does not specify that the John who wrote it is the apostle of the same name. Those who defend the traditional view have countered that these works represent three different genres; were written at different times, under different circumstances, and possibly with the assistance of different amanuenses; and that there is no likely alternative in that time period by the name of John who has the necessary background. Where dissenters see differences in style, supporters of apostolic authorship claim that there are significant similarities between Revelation and the other Johannine works.

It has also been suggested that Revelation was not written by just one author, but by several, and that possibly an original Jewish apocalypse was later updated by a Christian writer. The main objection to this hypothesis is that Revelation displays a clearly-defined structure and an overall unity of form and style which make multiple authors unlikely.

Date and Location
According to the second century church leader and historian, Irenaeus, John received the Revelation towards the end of Emperor Domitian’s reign, which would place it around 95 A.D. (Some modern scholars dispute this date. For further discussion, see the Wikipedia article entitled Book of Revelation.) If we accept the words of Irenaeus, the period from the angel’s announcement of the births of John and Jesus until the writing of Revelation is approximately (perhaps even exactly) one hundred years, spanning the whole of the first century.

The location of writing was the island of Patmos, which was one of several islands in the Aegean which were used as penal colonies or places of exile by the Roman authorities. If one looks at a modern map, one finds Patmos in the southern Aegean, less than forty miles from the Turkish mainland. However, like most of the numerous islands in the Aegean, it is actually within the boundaries of Greece. It is about sixty miles southwest of the site of Ephesus and about a hundred and fifty miles east of Athens. It is of volcanic origin and is barren and rocky. It is about ten miles by six, but due to its irregular shape, it has a total area of only about twenty-five square miles, rising to about eight hundred feet at its highest point. Today, there are about three thousand inhabitants, who are centered around the main town of Scala. Near the town, there is a cave in which John is believed to have lived, and there is also a monastery named after him.

The Roman Empire and Religious Persecution
Religious persecution had traditionally not been a practice of the Roman Empire. On the contrary, Rome had been extremely tolerant of different faiths until the time of Nero, who ruled from 54 to 68 A.D. Nero himself did not persecute Christians until 64 A.D. when, according to the Roman senator and historian Tacitus (56-117 AD), they became the scapegoat for the Great Fire of Rome (Annals 15.44). According to the Westminster Historical Atlas to the Bible (Westminster, 1956):
 * The Roman policy concerning religion was to maintain the ancestral worship of the gods of Rome and at the same time show tolerance toward the deities of other peoples in the empire. Even the Jews, who insisted on a monotheistic faith and would join in no pagan rites, found tolerance, especially from the time of Julius Caesar on, and received special privileges which protected them in the exercise of their worship.

A significant development, however, was the practice of emperor worship. The seeds were being sown as early as the time of Julius Caesar, who after his death in 44 B.C. was declared a god. In 29 B.C., the time of Augustus, a temple for the worship of the emperor was erected at Pergamos. Caligula (37-41 A.D.) sought to have his statue erected in the temple at Jerusalem. Domitian (81-96 A.D.) openly claimed to be “lord and god” and demanded that residents of the empire worship him as such. In his commentary on Revelation (Cambridge University Press, 1965), T.F. Glasson writes:
 * The poet Juvenal said that to talk with Domitian about the weather was to risk your life. He took much more seriously than his predecessors the issue of emperor worship. He ordered all official proclamations to begin with formulae recognizing his deity: ‘Our lord and god orders this to be done.’ To refuse to worship the emperor was treason.

The demand of Domitian to be worshiped as a god led to a second persecution of Christians. John was one of those who fell victim to the persecutors, and he was banished to the island of Patmos. In the Encyclopedia of Early Christianity (Garland, 1990), Michael McHugh writes:
 * Under Domitian, persecutions of Christians occurred at Rome and particularly in [the Roman province of] Asia, but there is not sufficient evidence to show that a decision was made to attack them throughout the empire as a matter of policy. The emperor's increasing suspicion and intolerance certainly played a role, and his assumption of the title "Lord and God" with the accompanying demand for divine homage was bound to bring him into conflict with the new religion (cf. Rev. 13:4; 14:9-11; 16:2). According to tradition, (Irenaeus, Haer. 5.30.3) it was in Domitian's reign that John, the writer of the Book of Revelation, was exiled to Patmos, where he received his apocalyptic visions; in the same book [i.e. Revelation], mention is made of a martyrdom in Pergamum (2:13). (273)

When the persecution broke out, John was living in Ephesus and was the overseer of the seven regional churches of "Asia" (in western Turkey today) to whom the Revelation is addressed. Tourists in Patmos today can go to see a cave where John is said to have lived during his time of exile there.

Major Characters
There are a number of players in the drama which is the Revelation, and some of these are quite dramatic in and of themselves. Of these characters, some are earthly, some are spiritual, and some are clearly symbolic and not intended to be understood as individual personalities, earthly or otherwise. The main character is Christ, represented through most of Revelation as “the Lamb.” Other noteworthy characters are the two witnesses, Satan (represented by a dragon), the archangel Michael, the antichrist and the false prophet (represented by two beasts), the woman Babylon (representing a combined political and religious system), and the angel who led John through the vision. We are told almost nothing about this angel. We only know that he considers himself a servant of God, differing from God’s earthly servants only in the place of his service. At the end of Revelation, in response to John’s inclination to worship him, he says, “See that you do not do that. For I am your fellow servant, and of your brethren the prophets, and of those who keep the words of this book. Worship God!” (22:9).

Ways of Interpreting Revelation
In the first chapter of Revelation, John has a vision of Christ who tells him, "Write the things which you have seen, and the things which are, and the things which will take place after this" (1:19). This commission identifies the three major divisions of the book:
 * a) Chapter 1 forms the introduction of the book and includes the "things which you have seen," i.e. John's vision of Christ.
 * b) Chapters 2-3 contain the messages to the seven churches in the Roman province of Asia -- "the things which are."
 * c) Chapters 4-22 describe the “things which will take place after this," though whether the entire section, or indeed any of it, refers to future events is a matter for interpretation.

Due to Revelation’s cryptic nature, there have been many interpretations, but generally they fit into one, or a combination, of the following categories:

The Preterist Interpretation: The word preterist comes from the Latin praeteritus meaning gone by. According to this interpretation, Revelation is chiefly referring to the events of the apostolic era (essentially, the first century). Proponents see in Revelation the fall of Jerusalem and the Temple in 70 AD; the first-century persecutions of Christianity; and the expansion of Christianity from a Jewish sect to a major religion. Those who hold this view often equate the Roman emperor and empire with Revelation's "beast" and "Babylon," respectively.

The Historicist Interpretation: The historicist interpretation holds that Revelation presents us with the major events in the history of Israel and the Church from the time of Christ until the end of the world. Its proponents claim to see in Revelation the foretelling of such events as the fall of imperial Rome, the rise of the Papacy, and the Reformation. The beast has been equated to various historical personalities.

The Futurist Interpretation: The futurist interpretation says that, while parallels may be drawn with historical events, Revelation is chiefly referring to events which as yet have not come to pass, but which will come to pass at the end of the age when Christ returns to establish his kingdom. Futurists point out that there has been no complete fulfillment of the prophecies of Revelation up until this time, and many questions concerning its contents remain unanswered.

The Symbolic Interpretation: In the symbolic method of interpretation, also known as idealist or spiritualist, the events described in Revelation are neither past, present, nor future. Revelation is purely symbolic, dealing with the ongoing struggle of the forces of light and darkness, and with the ultimate triumph of good over evil. Revelation is an allegory of the spiritual path which is equally relevant in all ages and for all people.

The Literary Approach: The above interpretations represent the four traditional approaches to Revelation. However, in more recent times, many critics have taken a purely literary approach. (Textual criticism, which is often applied to the Bible, is one branch of literary studies). The literary approach sets aside the issues of divine inspiration and predictive prophecy and approaches the book as it would any other piece of literature. It still concerns itself with factors such as authorship, historical and social background, and meaning, but it also evaluates the book in terms of style, plot, structure, characterization, themes, unifying elements, and other literary considerations.

NOTE: It should be remembered that these approaches are not mutually exclusive. While it is useful to have a conceptual grasp of them, in practice they all work together as we seek a more complete understanding of this complex and fascinating document.

John’s Commission
John writes that he was “in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day” (1:10) when he heard a voice speaking to him, saying, “I am the alpha and the omega, the first and the last. What you see, write in a book and send it to the seven churches which are in Asia” (1:11). John says of the speaker, “His countenance was like the sun shining in its strength” (1:16). John is apparently having a vision of Christ in heaven, who instructs him to write down what he sees. In the vision, Jesus describes himself in this way: “I am the first and the last. I am he who lives, and was dead, and behold, I am alive forevermore. And I have the keys of Hades and of Death” (1:17:18).

Outline of Revelation
The outline is a reference tool for use while working through the lessons on Revelation. It does not interpret Revelation, but merely presents the details of the book in the manner, and in the order, that they appear. Some words (e.g. "locusts") are placed in parentheses to indicate that their description in the text does not match our normal conception of them. Each of the seven churches is listed with the opening words of the message to that church.

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) John identifies himself, his addressees, and the divine source of his visions. (1:1-8)
 * 3) Messages to the Seven Asian Churches
 * 4) Description of the "Son of Man" as John sees him in his vision. (1:9-20)
 * 5) Ephesus: "I know your works, your labor, your patience, and that you cannot bear those who are evil." (2:1-7)
 * 6) Smyrna: "I know your works, tribulation, and poverty – but you are rich." (2:8-11)
 * 7) Pergamos: "I know your works, and where you live, where Satan's throne is." (2:12-17)
 * 8) Thyatira: "I know your works, love, service, faith, and your patience." (2:18-29)
 * 9) Sardis: "I know your works, that you have a name that your are alive, but you are dead." (3:1-6)
 * 10) Philadelphia: "I know your works. I have set before you an open door, and no one can shut it." (3:7-13)
 * 11) Laodicea: "I know your works, that you are neither cold nor hot... Because you are lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spew you out of my mouth." (3:14-22)
 * 12) The Throne of God
 * 13) John comes before the throne of God. (4:1-3)
 * 14) John sees twenty-four elders and four "living creatures" praising God. (4:4-11)
 * 15) Only the "Lamb" is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. (5:1-7)
 * 16) The creatures in heaven give praise. (5:8-14)
 * 17) The Lamb Breaks the Seals
 * 18) First Seal: One who is both a king and a conqueror rides forth on a white horse. (6:1-2)
 * 19) Second Seal: A rider on a red horse brings war. (6:3-4)
 * 20) Third Seal: A rider on a black horse brings famine. (6:5-6)
 * 21) Fourth Seal: A rider on a pale horse brings death. (6:7-8)
 * 22) Fifth Seal: The martyrs in heaven cry out for vengeance.	(6:9-11)
 * 23) Sixth Seal: There are earthquakes and natural disasters. (6:12-17)
 * 24) 144,000 of "all the tribes of Israel" are "sealed." (7:1-8)
 * 25) A great multitude is saved from the Tribulation. (7:9-17)
 * 26) Seventh Seal: The breaking of the seventh seal begins another series: the seven trumpets. (8:1-5)
 * 27) The Angels Sound the Trumpets
 * 28) First Trumpet: Hail and fire destroy a third of the trees and grass. (8:6-7)
 * 29) Second Trumpet: A third of the oceans are destroyed. (8:8-9)
 * 30) Third Trumpet: A third of the rivers and springs are poisoned. (8:10-11)
 * 31) Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sky is darkened. (8:12-13)
 * 32) Fifth Trumpet: A plague of "locusts" terrorize the Earth for five months. (9:1-12)
 * 33) Sixth Trumpet: An army of 200 million kills a third of Earth's population. (9:13-21)
 * 34) John eats a little book which is sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach. (10:1-11)
 * 35) Two witnesses prophesy for 3½ years, are killed, and come back to life. (11:1-14)
 * 36) Seventh Trumpet: The ark of the covenant appears in the heavenly temple. (11:15-19)
 * 37) John sees a woman clothed with the sun, the moon, and the stars. (12:1-6)
 * 38) Satan is cast down to the Earth. (12:7-12)
 * 39) The dragon persecutes the people of God. (12:13-17)
 * 40) The beast from the sea makes war with the people of God. (13:1-10)
 * 41) The beast from the land forces people to worship the beast from the sea. (13:11-18)
 * 42) John sees 144,000, "having his Father's name written on their foreheads," with the Lamb on Mount Zion. (14:1-5)
 * 43) Three angels proclaim judgment. (14:6-13)
 * 44) The angels reap the harvest. (14:14-20)
 * 45) The Angels Pour Out Their Bowls on the Earth
 * 46) Seven angels are given golden bowls containing of the wrath of God. (15:1-8)
 * 47) First Bowl: A "foul and loathsome sore" afflicts the followers of the beast. (16:1-2)
 * 48) Second Bowl: The sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
 * 49) Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4-7)
 * 50) Fourth Bowl: The sun scorches the Earth with intense heat. (16:8-9)
 * 51) Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain. (16:10-11)
 * 52) Sixth Bowl: Preparations are made for the final battle between the forces of good and evil. (16:12-16)
 * 53) Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17-21)
 * 54) Babylon the Great
 * 55) The great harlot who sits on many waters: Babylon the Great. (17:1-18)
 * 56) Babylon is destroyed. (18:1-8)
 * 57) The people of the earth mourn Babylon's destruction. (18:9-19)
 * 58) The permanence of Babylon's destruction. (18:20-24)
 * 59) The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
 * 60) A great multitude praises God. (19:1-6)
 * 61) The marriage supper of the Lamb. (19:7-10)
 * 62) The Millennium
 * 63) The beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire. (19:11-21)
 * 64) Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit for a thousand years. (20:1-3)
 * 65) The people of God live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4-6)
 * 66) After the Millennium
 * 67) Satan is released and makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7-9)
 * 68) Satan is cast into the lake of fire. (20:10)
 * 69) The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with death and Hades, are cast into the lake of fire. (20:11-15)
 * 70) The New Heaven and Earth
 * 71) The Earth is replaced with a new, heavenly world where there is no more suffering or death. (21:1-8)
 * 72) The people of God dwell with Christ in the New Jerusalem. (21:2-8)
 * 73) The New Jerusalem described. (21:9-27)
 * 74) The tree of life (from Eden) reappears. The curse is ended. (22:1-5)
 * 75) Conclusion
 * 76) Christ's reassurance that he will come. Final admonitions. (22:6-21)

Test Your Knowledge
{Which of the following is included in apocalyptic literature? -The end of the world -Divine judgment -The return of Christ +All of the above
 * type=""}

{Which of the following is true? -Genesis begins with the creation of the world -Revelation ends with the destruction of the world -Genesis and Revelation were both written in the first century AD +a and b
 * type=""}

{According to the traditional view, who wrote Revelation? +John the apostle -John the Baptist -Peter -Matthew
 * type=""}

{According to the 2nd century author, Irenaeus, when was Revelation written? -When Christ was crucified in about 30 AD -When the Jerusalem temple was destroyed in 70 AD +Towards the end of Emperor Domitian’s reign, around 95 AD -During the persecution under Nero, around 65 AD
 * type=""}

{Where was the author when he wrote Revelation? -On vacation in Athens +Exiled to the Greek isle of Patmos -At the Pentecost festival in Jerusalem -Staying with the emperor Domitian as his personal guest
 * type=""}

{What is the probable reason for Domitian's persecution of Christians? +They refused to worship him as a god -He was an atheist -He was anti-semitic and most of the leading Christians were Jewish -He was insane and making erratic decisions
 * type=""}

{What is the nature of the characters in Revelation? -Physical -Spiritual -Symbolic +All of the above
 * type=""}

{Given that there are several ways to interpret Revelation, which is the best approach? -To decide on one preferred method and stick with it -To decide on one method, but use one other for the sake of comparison +To take all approaches into account for the most complete understanding -None of the above
 * type=""}

{What was the chain of communication through which Revelation was passed? -From God to Christ -From Christ to an angel -From an angel to John +All of the above
 * type=""}

{To whom was the author instructed to send the vision after he had written it down? -The churches in Palestine +The churches in the province of Asia -The church in Rome -The emperor Domitian
 * type=""}

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Biblical Studies (NT)/II. The Seven Asian Churches

 NEW TESTAMENT

 Lesson 15

 REVELATION: VISIONS OF THE END  ''' II. The Seven Asian Churches '''

''NOTE: Revelation is an enigmatic work which presents a challenge for interpreters. While most of the ideas presented in these lessons can easily be found in numerous published works, they are not presented here as definitive, but as a starting point for further analysis and discussion.''

Jesus Speaks to the Churches
John writes, “I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day, and I heard behind me a loud voice, as of a trumpet, saying, ‘I am the alpha and the omega, the first and the last,’ and ‘What you see, write in a book and send it to the seven churches which are in Asia: to Ephesus, to Smyrna, to Pergamos, to Thyatira, to Sardis, to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea.’” (1:10-11). These churches were in the Roman province of "Asia", an area which is in western Turkey today. Chapters 2 and 3 consist of messages addressed specifically to these seven churches. Jesus says, “I know your works!” reminding them that he knows what is happening in his churches. He outlines the strengths and weaknesses of each church, warning them to steadfastly hold on to the faith which they have received. He promises great rewards to those who resist temptation, saying, “Because you have kept my command to persevere, I also will keep you from the hour of trial which shall come upon all the world” (3:10). He adds, “To him who overcomes, I will give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God” (2:7).

Although Revelation is addressed in the first instance to these seven churches, it is clear that what Jesus says to them is meant ultimately for the Church in all times and places, for after each church’s message, seven times in all, Jesus says, “He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22). Since these churches are presented as an example for all of us, it is of interest to us to know a little about them.

Ephesus
Not far from the isle of Patmos on the Asian mainland was the port city of Ephesus, which was situated at the estuary of the River Cayster. It was the chief city of the region and one of the most important business and cultural centers in the empire outside of Rome. Although in John’s time it was on the coast, it is now several miles inland due to natural changes in the coastline. Its ruins have been extensively explored and excavated.

Ephesus was the chief of the seven churches in Asia. Paul, Peter, and John all spent time there, with John being in the position of leadership at the time of his exile. The Ephesians possibly had some pride with regard to their position of prominence among the Asian churches, but Jesus reminds them to whom the churches really belong, saying, “These things says he who holds the seven stars in his right hand, who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands” (2:1). Apparently, the Ephesians had strayed from their original purpose, for Christ warns them, “Repent and do the first works, or else I will come to you quickly and remove your lampstand from its place” (2:5). It seems the warning was not heeded, for despite efforts to save it, the famous port gradually silted up and Ephesus was left high and dry, cut off from the main source of its wealth. All that remains of Ephesus today are its ruins.

Smyrna
Also on the coast, about forty miles to the north of Ephesus, was the city of Smyrna, the “glory of Asia.” It still exists today, though it is now called Izmir. Like Ephesus, Smyrna had the double advantage of being located on a major highway and having an excellent port. Rich farmland surrounded the city, and it was a natural terminal for a busy inland trade route. The city had been destroyed by the Lydians in 627 B.C. and was little more than a village for three centuries. But in the third century B.C., Smyrna began to revive as a business and cultural center, and by the end of the first century, it had made so much progress that it rivaled Ephesus in importance. Smyrna, therefore, was known as the city that had died and come back to life. So Jesus’ opening words were especially significant for the church there. He says, “These things says the first and the last, who was dead and came to life” (2:8).

The city’s leadership was consistently loyal to Rome. This loyalty had initially been inspired by the threat of Antiochus the Great of Syria at the beginning of the second century B.C. This threat made Rome a very desirable friend and ally. As a token of Smyrna’s loyalty, a temple was erected in the city to “the goddess Rome” in 195 B.C. Over two hundred years later, in 26 A.D., construction was begun on another temple for the worship of the Roman emperor, who at the time was Tiberius.

The city was famous as a center of learning, particularly in the fields of science and medicine. It was also known for its architecture, especially its beautiful temples and its public buildings, which formed a ring around the top of Mount Pagos, like a crown. In reference to this “crown of Smyrna,” Jesus says to the church there, “Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life” (2:10).

Pergamos
Pergamos, or Pergamum, was about a hundred miles north of Ephesus, in the region known as Mysia. It was situated about fifteen miles inland. There is still a small town on the site today, though over the years the name has changed slightly and it is now called Bergama. Pergamos’ time of glory had been in the third and second centuries B.C., when it was the capital of a small independent kingdom. In the second century, at the instigation of King Eumenes II (197-159 B.C.), a library was built which was second only to that of Alexandria, in northern Egypt. There was also a famous school of sculpture. The city’s affluence was tied to a number of flourishing industries, including agriculture, wool products, silver, and parchment, which was invented there. It became a part of the Roman province of Asia when King Attalus III, probably sensing the inevitability of Roman domination, bequeathed the kingdom to Rome in 133 B.C.

Jesus says, “These things says he who has the sharp two-edged sword” (2:12). The sharp, two-edged sword is apparently a figurative way of referring to the power of words, for in the previous chapter, John describes Jesus as having a sharp, two-edged sword coming out of his mouth (1:16), and later on in this chapter, Jesus himself refers to the sword of his mouth (2:16). This is a fitting introduction for a city which was famous for its parchment and its library. Jesus continues, “I know your works, and where you dwell, where Satan’s throne is” (2:13). This is a reference to the “throne of Zeus” which was located on the top of a hill overlooking the city. Zeus, as the chief of the gods, was a particular symbol of paganism, and the city was a major center for pagan cults. In addition to Zeus, there were temples dedicated to Athena (goddess of wisdom), Apollo (god of prophecy, music and poetry), and Asklepios (god of healing). It also became the site of the first temple erected for the worship of Caesar in 29 B.C., during the reign of Augustus. Some of these temples employed “priestesses,” who were actually prostitutes, as a part of their worship.

Thyatira
About eighty miles to the north of Ephesus and about fifty miles inland lay the city of Thyatira, known today as Akhisar. The city had been founded by Seleucus I in the early third century and was therefore a “son of Seleucus.” It was not a city of great importance, but it was a commercial center, and there were a number of trade guilds. It was also a garrison town. The Thyatirans were expert metalworkers who were known for their work with alloys, with which they made helmets, swords, armor, and no doubt other useful implements of a more domestic nature.

Jesus’ opening words to the city, as a son of Seleucus which was famous for its metalwork, will have immediately caught the church’s attention. He says, “These things says the Son of God, who has eyes like a flame of fire, and his feet like fine brass” (2:18). Also, as a military town, his closing words would have made an impression: “He who overcomes, and keeps my works until the end, to him I will give power over the nations” (2:26). Unfortunately, the heathen practices common to the other cities in the area were practiced in Thyatira also, for Jesus says, “You allow that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess, to teach and beguile my servants to commit sexual immorality and to eat things sacrificed to idols” (2:20).

Paul’s first convert when he crossed into Europe was “a certain woman named Lydia, a seller of purple from the city of Thyatira” (Acts 16:14), but as far as we know, the city did not play an important role in the growth of the early church.

Sardis
Sardis was about fifty miles to the northeast of Ephesus. There is still a town on the site, but over the years it has come to be known as Sart. It was the provincial capital of the region of Lydia, which five hundred years before Christ had controlled most of the coast of Asia Minor and its offshore islands. Sardis was famous for its arts and crafts. It was also the first place to mint gold and silver coins. In the past, the Lydian kings had been so wealthy that King Croesus, who ruled in the middle of the sixth century B.C., had become a legend for his riches, and it was said that the sands of the River Pactolus, which ran through Lydia, were golden. Croesus overstepped himself in 549 B.C., however. He attacked the mighty Persian Empire, who defeated him soundly and colonized Lydia. Sardis then became the seat of Persia’s regional governor. The story of how the Persians had overcome the supposedly invincible citadel at Sardis with a surprise attack was well-known. Hence Jesus’ words: “If you will not watch, I shall come upon you as a thief, and you shall not know what hour I shall come upon you” (3:3).

Three hundred years after the defeat by Persia, Lydia was conquered again, this time by the Romans. It was still under their control at the end of the first century A.D. when Revelation was written. Despite huge relief efforts by Rome, Sardis never recovered its former glory after it was devastated by a great earthquake in 17 A.D. The town, though humbled, did continue to exist however, and the passage in Revelation is evidence that there was a Christian community there in the late first century. Jesus alludes to the city's diminished glory when he says to the church, “I know your works, that you have a name that you are alive, and yet you are dead” (3:1). The church, like the town, had a reputation because of a former glory which no longer existed. Sardis was also famous for its garment industry (hence our word sartorial). With this in mind, Jesus says, “You have a few names even in Sardis who have not defiled their garments; and they shall walk with me in white, for they are worthy. He who overcomes shall be clothed in white garments, and I will not blot out his name from the book of life” (3:4-5).

Philadelphia
Philadelphia, which today is the Turkish town of Alaşehir, was about seventy miles inland from Ephesus. The name means “brotherly love.” The city derived its name, not from a reputation for brotherly love among its inhabitants, but from its founder, King Attalus II Philadelphus, who ruled the region from 159 to 138 B.C. He was so named because of his devotion to his brother. In addition to being an agricultural center, Philadelphia was a producer of leather goods and textiles. It also served as a commercial link between other cities. Like Sardis, Philadelphia was devastated by the earthquake of 17 A.D. Located right on the fault, it is said to have suffered after-shocks for twenty years.

Philadelphia’s church had been faithful in spite of persecution, hence Christ’s introduction: “These things says he who is holy, he who is true” (3:7). Christ continues his description of himself with a quote from Isaiah: “…he who has the key of David, he who opens and no one shuts, and shuts and no one opens” (3:7). If this message follows the pattern, these words had a special meaning for Philadelphia in some way, but it is no longer clear how.

Christ closes the message by saying, “He who overcomes, I will make him a pillar in the temple of my God, and he shall go out no more” (3:12). The church in Philadelphia has indeed been a pillar, surviving to the present day in spite of the advance of Islam. It can take comfort in the words of Jesus: “Because you have kept my command to persevere, I also will keep you from the hour of trial which shall come upon all the world” (3:10).

Laodicea
The last of the seven churches which Jesus addresses in Revelation is Laodicea, the “lukewarm” church (3:16). Laodicea was situated about a hundred miles inland from Ephesus. Its ruins can be found near the modern Turkish town of Eskihisar. Colossae and Hierapolis were neighbors of Laodicea, and there was much communication between the churches in these cities. Paul writes in his epistle to the Colossians, “Now when this epistle is read among you, see that it is read also in the church of the Laodiceans, and that you likewise read the epistle from Laodicea” (Col. 4:16). Unfortunately, the epistle to Laodicea which Paul mentions has not been preserved for us. It probably disappeared along with the church to which it was addressed.

Laodicea was founded by the Seleucid king, Antiochus II, who controlled the area between 261 and 246 B.C. He named the city for his wife, Laodice, who ironically was later responsible for his death, after he divorced her and married another woman for political reasons. The city was situated on a busy trade route which was largely responsible for its considerable prosperity. This prosperity was such that after suffering extensive damage in the earthquake of 60 A.D., the city refused an offer of assistance from Rome and rebuilt the city using money from its own coffers. It was a major banking center, and Cicero himself is said to have cashed drafts there en route to Cilicia in 51 B.C.

Laodicea was also famous for its black wool, from which were made clothes and carpets, and as a center of medicine. Its eye salve was particularly famous. However, despite all of these advantages, the city was spiritually poor. In reference to those things for which it was famous, Jesus says, “I counsel you to buy from me gold refined in the fire, that you may be rich; and white garments, that you may be clothed, that the shame of your nakedness not be revealed; and anoint your eyes with eye salve, that you may see” (3:18).

Test Your Knowledge
{What does Revelation mean by the word “Asia”? -A continent east of Europe -The Middle East +A Roman province in what is now western Turkey -The region around Rome
 * type=""}

{Ultimately, who was Revelation intended for? - The seven Asian churches -The church at Rome -The church at Jerusalem +The universal church
 * type=""}

{Which of the following is true of Ephesus? -It was the major city in Asia and an important city in the Roman Empire -Paul, Peter, and John all spent time there -All that’s left of it today are its ruins +All of the above
 * type=""}

{Which of the following was true of Smyrna? -It had experienced a remarkable recovery after hard times -It had become self-sufficient and declared independence from Rome -It was known for its architecture and as a center of learning +a and c
 * type=""}

{What was Pergamos famous for? -The invention of parchment -A library second only to that of Alexandria in Egypt -A bathhouse where Zeus himself is said to have bathed +a and b
 * type=""}

{What was Thyatira known for? -Its high standards of sexual morality -Its metalwork -Its army base +b and c
 * type=""}

{Sardis is associated with: -The fabulous wealth of King Croesus (6th century BC). -A devastating earthquake in 17 AD from which the city never fully recovered. -Its garment industry, from which we get our word sartorial. +All of the above
 * type=""}

{What do we know about Philadelphia? -It was named for King Attalus II’s devotion to his brother. -Christ promised to keep the church there from the “hour of trial” because of its faithfulness. -Notwithstanding the advance of Islam, the Philadelphian church still exists to this day. +All of the above
 * type=""}

{Laodicea is known for which of the following reasons? -Extreme poverty -A famous eye salve -Christ’s description of the church there as “lukewarm” +b and c
 * type=""}

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Biblical Studies (NT)/III. The Seven Seals

 NEW TESTAMENT

 Lesson 16

 REVELATION: VISIONS OF THE END  ''' III. The Seven Seals '''

''NOTE: Revelation is an enigmatic work which presents a challenge for interpreters. While most of the ideas presented in these lessons can easily be found in numerous published works, they are not presented here as definitive, but as a starting point for further analysis and discussion.''

The Lion/Lamb Takes the Book/Scroll
After hearing the Christ’s messages to the churches, John of Patmos is brought before the heavenly throne where four beasts, “full of eyes in front and in back” (4:6), and "twenty-four elders" are worshiping God. God's form appears to be something like that of a human being, because we are told that in his hand is a "book/scroll sealed with 7 seals"* which contains information kept secret and the judgments which are about to come upon the Earth. John writes, “I wept greatly, because no one was found worthy to open and read the book/scroll, or to look at it” (5:4). No one, that is, except “the Lion of the Tribe of Judea, the root of David” who "has prevailed to open the book/scroll and loose the seven seals" (5:5). This prompts great celebration and worship in heaven. John says, “I looked, and I heard the voice of many angels around the throne, the living creatures, and the elders; and the number of them was 10,000 x 10,000, and thousands of thousands, saying, ‘Worthy is the Lamb who was slain to receive power and riches and wisdom, and strength and honor and glory and blessing!’” (5:11-12).

This incident is reminiscent of the words of Paul to the church in Rome: “There is none righteous, no not one...for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Rom 3:10,23), and those of the Epistle to the Hebrews: “We do not have a high priest who cannot sympathize with our weaknesses, but was in all points tempted as we are, yet without sin” (Heb 4:15). After taking the book/scroll, the Lion/Lamb begins to open the seven seals, one by one. As each seal is broken, a devastating judgment falls upon the earth. The opening of the first four seals unleashes The Four Horsemen.

(*The King James Version of 1611 [1st revision 1629] refers to "book" in The Revelation Chapter 5 while later English Bible versions refer to "scroll".)

The First Six Seals
First Seal

The opening of the first four seals releases the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.” When the Lamb opens the first seal, the first horseman rides forth. He rides a white horse and is a both king and a conqueror, for John writes, “A crown was given to him, and he went out conquering and to conquer” (6:2). Later on, in Chapter 19, Christ is depicted riding a white horse. For this reason, some have suggested that the rider in this passage also represents Christ. However, this rider does not ride alone, but is merely one of four of different colors. Also, the timing of this rider’s appearance does not coincide with our understanding from other passages in the Bible of Christ’s appearance. There may, therefore, be no connection between the two. Another suggestion, quite contrary to the first, is that the rider is the Antichrist, who comes in imitation of Christ, and the horse represents his kingdom. This is a possibility. But beyond what is clear from the passage, that he is a ruler and a conqueror, we cannot say for sure who this person is, or what he represents.

Second Seal

When the second seal is broken, a second horseman rides forth, this time on a red horse. He has power “to take peace from the earth” (6:4). Just as the first horseman is a conqueror, this second horseman causes war on a widespread scale.

Third Seal

When the third seal is broken, the third horseman rides forth on a black horse. He brings famine on the earth. This famine is probably caused in part by the wars of the first two horsemen, but there may also be drought or other natural catastrophes which cause the crops to fail.

Fourth Seal

The opening of the fourth seal reveals a horseman who rides a “pale” horse, “and the name of him who sat on it was Death, and hell followed with him” (6:8). This rider causes the death of a quarter of the earth’s population through war, hunger, sickness, and predatory animals.

Fifth Seal

When the Christ opens the fifth seal, John sees the martyrs of Christ in heaven, crying out for vengeance. They are told that they will soon be avenged, but that they must wait a short time until their numbers are completed. This again calls to mind the words of Paul, who said, “Do not avenge yourselves, but rather give place to wrath; for it is written, ‘Vengeance is mine, I will repay,’ says the Lord” (Rom 12:19).

Sixth Seal

The breaking of the sixth seal unleashes huge earthquakes and other natural disasters, so that “every mountain and island was moved out of its place” (6:14). Everyone, from the least to the greatest, will seek a place to hide, “for the great day of his wrath has come, and who is able to stand?” (6:17). This last statement adds weight to the futurist interpretation, because it indicates that God has set aside a specific time for judgment, “the day of his wrath.” Furthermore, we have not yet seen catastrophes of the scale described, so that, according to the futurist, they must be still in the future. It must be remembered, however, that the futurist interpretation (and any interpretation which sees a fulfilment of Revelation's prophecies after the first century) is based on faith. Many scholars reject such a view of Revelation on the premise that it is impossible to foresee future events.

144,000 Israelites
There is a delay before the seventh seal is opened. Four angels protect the earth and its people from coming to any more harm until 144,000 servants of God “of all the tribes of the children of Israel” can be “sealed” (7:4). Many people make the mistake of assuming that the Israelites in this passage are all Jews. However, Revelation says that there will be 12,000 people from each of the twelve tribes of Israel, and in the following verses, it specifically mentions each tribe by name (7:5-8). Our modern day Jews are principally descended from only two of these tribes: Judah and Benjamin. The other ten tribes were lost to history after the Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered in 722 B.C. by the Assyrians, who forcibly resettled them in other parts of the empire. We have lost track of their descendants, but they must number in the millions today.

The 144,000 appear again later, in Chapter 14. In that passage, we are told that they “follow the Lamb wherever he goes” (14:4). This may be a hint that they are the resurrected martyrs, for they follow the Lamb wherever he goes, and he goes to his death. For this reason, they are “without fault before the throne of God” (14:5) and are the “firstfruits to God and the Lamb” (14:4), meaning that they come first in the Resurrection. Christ is also described in this way in Paul’s first epistle to the Corinthians (1 Cor 15:20). It is also possible that they are the martyrs who John sees crying out for vengeance when the fifth seal is broken (6:9-11) (see above).

In addition to the 144,000 there is “a great multitude which no one could number, of all nations, tribes, peoples, and tongues” (7:9). These have been saved from the great tribulation for they “have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb” (7:14). These, together with the 144,000, appear to comprise the resurrected people of God. The 144,000, as martyrs, are elevated to a special status. The rest of the resurrected souls form a much larger group "which no one could number." This passage is the first word of comfort in what has rapidly become a terrifying scenario.

The Seventh Seal
Reading Revelation for the first time, the reader will probably be breathing a sigh of relief at this point, knowing that six seals have been opened and there is only one remaining. However, there is an unpleasant surprise in store, for the opening of the seventh seal, rather than revealing one final judgment, begins a whole new series of seven, greater in severity than the first series. These are referred to as the “trumpet judgments,” because each one is heralded by a trumpet blast from an angel.

/Commentary/
Commentary and opinion about the seven seals may be found on or linked from the subpage.

Test Your Knowledge
{Who is the only person found worthy to take the book/scroll from God’s hand? -The dragon +The lamb -The woman clothed with the sun and the moon -The archangel Michael
 * type=""}

{The horsemen who ride forth at the opening of the first four seals have come to be known as: +The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse -The Riders of the Scroll -The Four Cavaliers of Revelation -The Knights of the Round Table
 * type=""}

{The notion that Revelation accurately predicts future events is: -Gullible -Insightful +Faith-based -Psychic
 * type=""}

{The 144,000 are from all 12 tribes of Israel. From which tribes are modern-day Jews principally descended? -Ephraim, Dan, and Gad +Judah and Benjamin -Simeon, Levi, and Naphtali -All 12 tribes
 * type=""}

{What does the opening of the seventh seal reveal? -One last judgment -144,000 Israelites -A great celebration in heaven because the time of judgment is finished +Another set of seven judgments
 * type=""}

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