text:
User talk:Boubles

 Hello Boubles, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 03:56, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

 Hello , you can call me Jacob Frank. I'd like to be your mascot and welcome you to Wikiversity. Even though I was a plain and untutored man back in 18th-century Europe, that still didn't stop me from contributing my ideas to the world. Neither should it stop you. As a religious leader who developed the doctrine of "purification through transgression," my advice to you is to be bold and to ignore all rules—yes, these are two of Wikiversity's official policies! Happy editing.

Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:31, 23 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Your e-portfolio is coming along really well . -- Jtneill - Talk - c 05:17, 30 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Thank you James! This has been a lot more enjoyable, and possibly a better learning technique, than essay writing. --Boubles 11:46, 2 September 2010 (UTC)
 * That's encouraging feedback about the e-portfolio exercise. So far, I'm seeing fabulous detail, regularity, images, layout, and reflective content in your portfolio. I think you can be confident that your are producing an HD-level e-portfolio. Sincerely, James. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 09:34, 12 September 2010 (UTC)
 * This e-portfolio continues to evolve into an excellent example - you have a lovely balance of detailed notes and corresponding reflections that clearly demonstrates deep and regular engagement. Congratulations. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:18, 1 November 2010 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 21:36, 14 December 2010 (UTC)

Files Missing Information
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 * File:Magic mirror.jpg
 * File:Self esteem equation.JPG

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Boubles


text:
User talk:Skye.marie

 Hello Skye.marie, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 04:18, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:47, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

Great work
Great work. I especially appreciated the video. Thanks! Leighblackall 07:59, 14 December 2010 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:40, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Skye.marie


text:
Teaching EFL Listening via FUN WITH ENGLISH Books/8B/Lesson 6

 * Lesson Plan Version 0.3
 * Same as Version 2, but I shortened the discussion and textbook and spent a long time having the students tell me about their recent trip looking through pictures on their computer as a class.

9 Apr 2010 Grade 8 Class 7

 * They were moderately interested in talking about Monday's festival, but I didn't really push it.
 * While I was speaking with one of the students a boy quickly hijacked the computer and started showing images of their school trip two Saturday's ago.
 * After I finished the test, I looked through the images with them. I have never seen so many of them get excited like that. I had them tell me what the different sections of the images were and many students who never speak English voluntarily got involved.

Lesson Plan Version 0.2
0) Before Class Starts
 * Ask everyone to get into their seats.
 * Walk around the room small talking with different students.
 * Get the computer turned on if it works.

1) Greeting: Yo! What's up?
 * Practice the "What's up?" routine.
 * If they don't remember, review.

2) Opening Discussion: Tomb Sweeping Day
 * What special day was on Monday? (Qing Ming Jie = Qing Ming Festival)
 * What is Qing Ming Jie in English? (Tomb Sweeping Day [TSD])
 * What is a tomb?
 * What do people on TSD?
 * Burn money/incense?
 * Visit graves/tombs?
 * What did you do on TSD?
 * Do you like TSD? Why?
 * Do you have any questions for me?

3) Textbook: Page 22 Let's get ready
 * For "Relay Race" have two teams get in a race around the room.

4) Discussion: The Olympics (Questions written with Mr. Brown)
 * What are the Olympics?
 * Where were they in 2008?
 * What sports do you like?
 * What sports are Chinese athletes good at in the Olympics?
 * What sports are more difficult? Better?
 * Imagine the Olympics were coming to Anqing. What would you need to do?
 * Transport, Lodging, Facilities, Food, Language

5) Hand Back their Tests
 * Explain first that their scores are out of 10, and give the answers.
 * Do it one by one, highlighting down their names on my paper.
 * Write the correct answers on the board.
 * Tell them if they have questions they can ask me after class.

'''Extra Time: Number of Letters? Game''' (Mr. Brown)
 * Make two teams.
 * Tell them to make a word that begins with one letter, e.g. D, and has 6 letters.
 * Go back and forth between the teams making the words.

8 Apr 2010 Grade 8 Class 6

 * Giving out chocolates @ the end of the lesson was fine, until the other half of the class came in. Started giving some, then I panicked becasue they rushed me.
 * Commenting on the basketball game didn't get as long of a conversation going as I'd expected.
 * I mistakenly graded one girl's test. As it turned out she got a 100%, not a 95.

Next Week
 * Give everyone chocolates?

9 Apr 2010 AM Period 1 Grade 8 Class 10

 * Students still talked all the way through the lesson, but seemed to give me more of a chance.

9 Apr 2010 Grade 8 Class 8

 * Had a long discussion about Qing Ming festival.
 * They were very engaged throughout even on some topics that most other classes would find boring.
 * They're a class that has real potential. I can experiment here.
 * Was quite bored of my lesson by this point.

Next Week
 * Still haven't answered the English questions they asked me the first week.

Acknowledgments

 * I would like to thank all the 7th and 8th grade classes at Anqing Foreign Language School who had

this lesson for their participation and feedback. I would also like to thank the Anqing Foreign

Language School for allowing me to teach there.
 * Mr. Brown contributed heavily to this plan. This should be considered a collaboration. I have

tried to acknowledge contributions that are specifically his with (Mr. Brown).

Changelog
Version 0.2 8 Apr 2010
 * Expanded the conversation questions and explanaiton for how to hand back the tests.

Version 0.11 6 Apr 2010
 * Typed up the outline, and added some basic details.

Version 0.1 30 Mar 2010
 * Created a lesson outline in a Tuesday coffee shop meeting with Mr. Brown.


text:
User:C.aitken

About me
I am currently in my third year of my Bachelor of Science in Psychology, in which I have majored in Human Biology. My main areas of interest are psychopathology (particularly substance abuse disorders, cluster B personality disorders and psychotic disorders), physiological psychology and cognitive neuropsychology. I have chosen to author the textbook chapter Stress and health, as this encompasses both psychology and biology and is a topical issue in Western societies. I am looking forward to learning more about Motivation and Emotion and reading all the textbook chapters that are written by participants in this unit.

Week One: Introduction
Motivation and Emotion sounds like it will be a fascinating topic. Part of the reason that I became interested in psychology was the hope that, by studying it, I would better understand what motivates human behaviour. Even before the first lecture, I had a good idea about what I was interested in getting out of this topic. This semester I am hoping to learn: In the hope that some of these questions will be answered this semester, I was eager to get started. The first week of semester is always the most scary - hearing over and over from each lecturer all the expectations and assessment that is involved for each unit. And this semester has certainly been no different. I have to admit that I am slightly overwhelmed by the way in which this unit is being assessed. I am most worried about my e-portfolio - I'm not very good at reflective writing (one of the many reasons I gave counselling away after first year!) and doing things on a week-by-week basis is not one of my strengths. However, I am looking forward to writing the textbook chapter as I think it will give every participant in this unit to research something unique that interests them. I suppose that the only way to tackle these assessment items is piece-by-piece and give it my best shot (by the way, if anyone reading this e-portfolio has any comments or suggestions for me, I would welcome them sharing these with me :) ).
 * 1) What drives behaviour?
 * 2) Why are people motivated by certain things and not others?
 * 3) Why do different things motivate different people?
 * 4) Are emotions perceived/felt the same way by all people, or is emotion a subjective experience?
 * 5) If emotions are felt the same way by all people, why do different people react to them in different ways?

This week, we learnt that motivation = energy + direction. The process of motivation requires behaviours to be both relatively strong, intense and persistent (energy) and aimed towards achieving a particular purpose or goal (direction). The study of the process of motivation in psychology is done in a scientific manner - that is, questions are answered in an objective way through the use of empirical evidence gained through studies that use the scientific method (Reeve, 2009). The scientific method starts with an hypothesis that is derived from a theory. This hypothesis is tested and the findings of these studies can either support or disconfirmed the current theory, which can then be revised in light of new findings. The scientific method sets the study of motivation and emotion in psychology apart from other areas that seek to explain the same phenomena such as philosophy or pseudo-psychologists (life coaches, motivational speakers etc.).

Motivational research is centred around answering two perennial questions: What causes behaviour? and Why does behaviour vary in its intensity? These two questions direct much of the research into motivation behind behaviour. Reeve argues that the first question 'What causes behaviour?" needs to be broken down into five more specific questions:

 * 1) Why does behaviour start?
 * 2) Why is behaviour sustained over time?
 * 3) Why is behaviour directed towards some goals yet away from others?
 * 4) Why does behaviour change its direction?
 * 5) Why does behaviour stop?

I am particularly interested in why some maladaptive behaviours sustain over time, especially when it does not appear that the behaviour is being reinforced.

The direction of current motivational research has been influenced by the historical context of this research. The grand theories of motivation are the three major historical perspectives in motivational research. The three grand theories are:

 * Will: This theory boiled the study of motivation to understanding will, and through this, centred around understanding choosing and resisting. Descrates hoped that by understanding these two constructs would unveil the meaning behind behaviour. However, the philosophical methodology behind this theory meant that it explained little about motivation and was almost impossible to scientifically prove any findings.
 * Drive: This theory focused on biological imbalance as the key motivator of behaviour. Both Freud and Hull developed theories that focused on drive as the primary motivator of behaviour. These theories are quite complex and Hull devised an equation to explain motivation.
 * Instinct: Psychologist William James adapted Darwin's theory of biological determinism. James argued that humans possessed a range of inbuilt reflexes or 'instincts' that direct behaviour. Critics of this theory argued that the way it went about explaining behaviour was largely circular and therefore, did not actually offer any insights to the root of behavioural motivation.

The popularity of these three grand theories declined and there has been a rise in the popularity of mini theories. The cognitive revolution had an influence on motivational research, as it did on many areas of psychology. Psychologists began to embrace the idea that many different aspects of people (cognitive, social, biological, environmental etc.) all play a role in motivating behaviour.

Week Two: How to Use Wikiversity
I found this week's lecture was really useful. I think it was a great idea to dedicate some time to explaining the technical side of the assessment tasks, which was one of the first hurdles in completing them. The assessment in this unit is unlike any unit I have undertaken so far in my studies, but I was looking forward to gaining some new skills as well as learning about the course content. Once the basic concept of Wikiversity syntax was explained, I found it fairly easy to pick up as I have some experience writing syntax/code from my job. I have tried to set up this page with some logical sections and have had a go at adding an image to the page. During this semester, will definitely have a go at making the formatting on this page a little more aesthetically pleasing.

Week Three: Brain and Physiological Needs
This week, the lecture focused on the biological basis of of motivation and emotion, which starts with the motivated and emotional brain. Many of the brain structures that control and stimulate emotions are the more primitive, old (evolutionarily speaking) parts of the brain. These brain areas (limbic system, hypothalamus, amygdala) are also not responsible for conscious cognitions, reasoning or impulse control. This is why emotions can often feel overwhelming and why it can be very difficult to be rational when in a highly emotive state. There are two types of motivational and emotional states: approach- and avoidance-oriented. Both of these types of emotional states are associated with different structures of the brain, which Reeve (2009) outlines in the chapter.

Messages in the brain that cause motivated behaviour are sent through neural pathways. The brain uses neurotransmitters to send these messages and the outcome of these signals on behave largely depends on the neural pathway and the neurotransmitter involved. The four main neurotransmitters and their functions are also follows:

 * Dopamine: Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that is associated with 'feeling good' (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).  When we encounter an event that is associated with reward or positive outcomes, the levels of dopamine in our brains increase. Incentives (or the anticipation of a reward) can also stimulate the release of dopamine. As a consequence of this, we actually don't need to receive the reward to feel good. Dopamine helps elicit approach-oriented, goal directed behaviours. [[Image:Dopamine Pathways.png|right|thumb|The areas of the brain that are affected by dopamine are highlighted blue.]] The pathway that dopamine follows in the brain is linked to the motor cortex, which means that the activation of dopamine can help activate motor responses toward approach-orientated behaviour. Dopamine helps neural messages to get turned into approach behaviours or actions. However, due to its effect on feelings of pleasure, dopamine can help facilitate addictive behaviours. Many illegal drugs can cause the brain to become hypersensitive to dopamine.
 * Serotonin: Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is implicated in a number of behaviours such as sleep and eating. Serotonin is also implicated in the development of mood disorders such as depression because of the role that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have in relieving the symptoms of depression (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).
 * Norepinephrine: Norepinephrine is another neurotransmitter that is associated with 'feeling good'. The release of this neurotransmitter is enhanced by the use of amphetamines (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).
 * Endorphin: Endorphins are a group of peptide neurotransmitters that are the body's nature opiate (i.e. that assist in pain relief). This neurotransmitter is also responsible for the good feelings that are associated with exercise and produce the 'runners high' feeling (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).

The second part of the lecture (and readings) this week focused on the physiological needs that drive and motivate behaviour. According to Reeve (2009), humans have three types of needs: Psychological, social and physiological. The Need-Drive-Behaviour model utilises that negative feedback model to explain how needs are noticed by the body and motivated behaviours are activated. Imbalances in homeostasis cause the body to send out signals to the brain to remedy the situation (be it thirst, hunger etc). The brain then causes behaviour to seek out stimuli to bring the body back into homeostatic balance. Physiological needs are very important in the overall scheme of psychological and physiological health. Maslow (1970) argued that there was a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied prior to an individual being able to reach self-actualisation. Physiological needs are at the bottom of this hierarchy, because, Maslow argued, an individual would be unable to concentrate their energy towards achieving higher order goals if they were hungry, thirsty or in mortal danger.

Three physiological needs are considered to be very important to human functioning and behavioural drive. Thirst, hunger and sex are covered in Reeve (2009) as well as being present on Maslow's hierarchy as being basic human needs that must be met before any of the higher order processes can take place. I can understand the basic, innate need for food and water, as without these, basic bodily functions would be unable to continue functioning. However, I do not believe that sex should be included amongst those basic needs, simply because it does not fit the definition of a need. We do not technically need sex to survive day-to-day, like we do food and water. Whilst it is essential for the continuation of the human race, I believe that its standing as a 'basic need' should be reviewed.

Tutorial
This week was the first tutorial of the semester. After first doing some icebreakers to get to know our fellow students, we formed groups and discussed our own definitions of what motivation and emotion is. I found that defining motivation was quite easy, especially after reading Reeve (2009) and listening to the first lecture, however defining emotion was much more difficult. The definition that I came up with myself was: "feeling and sensations that are experienced psychologically and physiologically that can effect mood and behaviours". I think that emotions are harder to define because it is harder to think about emotions without describing how they make you feel. A list of all the definitions that the tute group came up with can be found here.

After this exercise, we discussed in our groups the questions that will drive our textbook chapters. By turning the topic into a set of questions, it made it easier to draft a rough chapter structure. Some of the questions that my chapter will be based around are:

 * What is stress?
 * What is the relationship between stress and health?
 * What are the physiological effects of stress on health?
 * What are the psychological effects of stress on health?
 * Can the impact of stress on health be mediated or reduced? If so, what are the strategies for reducing stress?

I think that this exercise was very helpful it focusing the topic down to a few manageable sections. It was also helpful hearing what other people would want to read about in a chapter entitled Stress and Health.

Week Four: Psychological and Social Needs
I found this weeks lecture and readings to be particularly fascinating. The psychological and social factors that motivate behaviour are diverse and are different for each individual. I have often wondered at the reactions or behaviours of myself and others and asked myself: "What made me react to that situation in one way and made him/her react in another?". Thankfully, I found that this week answered some of my questions.

Psychological needs
An inherent source of motivation that generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development and psychological well-being

According to Reeve (2009), psychological needs motivate exploration of the environment and challenge-seeking and promote growth. Organismic psychological needs such as autonomy, competence and relatedness, assume that people are inherently active and that people are willing and able to interact with the environment. These needs are the product of a reciprocal relationship between the person and their environment. The organismic psychological needs provide individuals the motivations to learn, explore and develop themselves.

However, this raises the question - why do some people seem to have no desire to develop, learn or grow? I am sure that everyone knows an individual or a group of individuals who do not have any motivation to learn or engage in their environment. If these psychological needs are innate and essential for psychological wellbeing, then why do some people appear to have no motivation to do anything with themselves? Are these people psychological healthy? And what causes this seeming lack of motivation? Unfortunately, I don't know the answers to these questions, but perhaps these will be addressed in this topic or in others.

The three important psychological needs are:
 * 1) Autonomy- Autonomy is the psychological need to experience self-direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation of one's behaviour. When we make decisions, we need to feel like we have some element of control and influence over the outcome of the decision. Reeve defines three elements that determine the amount of perceived autonomy we feel: Internal locus of causality - whether an individual believes that their behaviour is internally or externally initiated. Volition - whether the behaviour was freely performed or whether the individual felt coerced into performing the behaviour. Perceived choice - the feeling that we have flexibility over the options that we choose.
 * 2) Competence - Competence is the psychological need to be effective in interactions with the environment. When we engage in activities, we will feel the strongest amount of interest when we engage at a level that exactly suits our own level of skill. Being overchallenged or underskilled can cause frustration and negative affect. Receiving constructive feedback is also an important part of the feeling of competence.
 * 3) Relatedness - Relatedness is a feel of connection and involvement in personal relationships, social groups and communities. Interaction with others is key to being about to fulfil this psychological need. It is essential though that the relationships that we are engaged in are emotionally supportive and fulfilling.

Psychological needs are often fulfilled in social environments, so social needs are another important component in motivation and emotion.

Social needs
An acquired psychological process that grows out of one's socialisation history that activates emotional responses to a particular relevant incentive

Social needs are needs that are acquired through socialisation and experience. Social needs activate and motivate emotions and behaviour when need-satisfying incentives present themselves. Some examples Reeve (2009) gives of social needs are:
 * Achievement - This social need is elicited when the incentive arises that by doing something well, an individual can show compentence.
 * Affiliation - This social need arises when an individual has the opportunity to please others and gain their approval.
 * Intimacy - This social need arises when an individual has an incentive to develop warm and secure relationships.
 * Power - This social need involves having control, influence and impact on others.

Week Five: I-E Motivation and Goal Setting
Where does the motivation to exercise come from? For some people, exercise is something they enjoy - they like being outside and engaging with other people. For other person, exercise is a chore that must be endured. All the people who exercise are motivated to do so, however, some people are intrinsically motivated to exercise (i.e. they enjoy it) and some are extrinsically motivated (i.e. weight loss).

Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is an inherent desire to engage in one's interests and to exercise and develop one's capacities. It is natural motivation that emerges spontaneously (Reeve, 2009). Intrinsic motivation originates from the psychological needs that were discussed last week - autonomy, competence and relatedness. Being intrinsically motivated to engage in a particular behaviour has a number of benefits outlined by Reeve (2009):

 * Persistance: If a person is intrinsically motivated to perform a particular behaviour, they are likely to persist in the behaviour longer.
 * Creativity: Creative thinking is greatly enhanced by intrinsic motivation.
 * Conceptual Understanding/High-Quality Learning: Intrinsic motivation increases the value that individuals get out of learning. Those who are intrinsically motivated to learn are better able to understand what they are learning on a deeper, conceptual level.
 * Optimal Functioning and Well-Being: Pursuing activities that are motivated intrinsically increase psychological well-being and is associated with self-actualisation (see Maslow's hierarchy above).

Extrinsic motivation
Behaviour that is motivated by the receipt of a reward is considered to be extrinsically motivated. Going to work, for most people, is at least partially extrinsically motivated. For most people, they attend work and try to perform their job to acceptable level of performance in order to receive a pay check at the end of the pay period. Baldwin and Baldwin (1986) devised a model to explain the relationship between behaviour, incentives and consequences. In their model, a situational cue sets up a environment for a particular behavioural response. This then results in a consequence. This consequence may be reinforce the behavioural cue. This model seems to base itself in the principles of operant conditioning. The reward of behaviours is not always a good thing, as the reward of behaviours with tangible reinforcers like money decrease intrinsic motivation for the task (Reeve, 2009). However, rewarding particular behaviour with tangible reinforcers can have a positive effect on some types of behaviour. For example, contingency management (which is a style of therapy that involves using the principles of operant conditioning to change maladaptive behaviours) is highly effective in the treatment of substance abuse disorders (Petry, 2006). This type of therapy rewards abstinent behaviour in drug abuses by offering money or prizes as reinforcement for tangible proof of the target behaviour (Petry, 2006). In the case of substance abuse, intrinsic motivation may be sufficient motivation to 'kick the habit', so to speak. While Reeve argues that extrinsic motivation plays a detrimental role in learning behaviours and negatively impacts on intrinsic motivation, I don't believe that it is a wholly bad source of motivation.

Tutorial
This week in tutorials we completed the Learned Optimism Test from Seligman's book Learned Optimism. This inventory is designed to measure an individuals preference for either optimism or pessimism. Firstly, my impressions of the survey was a little outdated and the questions were forced choice answers (i.e. you either had to pick A or B). After scoring the inventory, it became apparent that the scale was biased somewhat to giving a pessimistic score. My score was much more negative than I anticipated; I know that I can be somewhat pessimistic at times, but I didn't believe that I would score as low as I did (in negative figures!). The class then discussed the items in the inventory - I thought that some of the answers that were 'optimistic' were actually quite narcissistic. Some items implied that anything good that happened was automatically attributable to the self, even if they clearly were not. Perhaps a high degree of optimism is actually undesirable and is related to a inflated sense of internal locus of causality.

Click here to take the Learned Optimism test for yourself!

Week Six: Control Beliefs and The Self
Personal control is an important concept to many people. It is even valued by society - manners and social norms all require individuals to exercise a degree of control over their behaviours. According to Reeve (2009), people have a desire to have control over the environment so that they are able to produce more positive situations and reduce the occurrence of negative ones. The ability to exercise self-control is largely related to a person's belief that they have the power to influence the outcome favourably. Two kinds of expectancies are taken into account when an individual gains motivation to pursue a particular behaviour:

Both of these factors must be high for behaviour to be to be motivated and goal-directed. These concepts together form the self-action-control model of perceived control. Self-efficacy (or your own belief in your ability to cope with a task) is also an important component of behaviour control. There are many sources of self-efficacy such as personal behaviour history, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological activity. I can particularly relate to the 'verbal persuasion' component of self efficacy. When I was in school, I used to compete in triathlons. I competed for many seasons consecutively and, after a few years, I could almost predict the outcome of my races by the 'verbal persuasion' or self talk I used to have prior to the event. If I allowed myself to get terribly nervous, undermined my training efforts to myself and essentially talked myself into failure, I would have a terrible race. Finishing would be a struggle and I would find my weakest leg (the run, which is also the last leg of a triathlon) almost impossible to continue. I would also feel awful emotionally; those races were never fun. However, if I consciously told myself that 'this race will be fun' and turned my anxiety into excitement, racing was so much easier and far more enjoyable. In both situations, my physical preparation was the same; I had done the same amount of training and was just as fit to race in both situations. However, my self-efficacy for the task was higher when I convinced myself it was, and consequently, the task became much easier.
 * 1) Efficacy Expectations: Can I do it? - A judgement of your capacity to execute a particular act or course of action. The efficacy expectation is of being able to enact the behaviours one needs in order to effectively cope with the situation at hand. These expectations estimate the likelihood that an individual will engage in a particular behaviour.
 * 2) Outcome Expectations: Will what I do work? - A judgement that a given behaviour, once performed, will produce a particular outcome.

The self also plays a large role in motivation. Self-esteem and self-concept also play a role in the type of behaviour that a person will engage in. In order to maintain psychological wellbeing, humans like to make sure that our actions are in line with our beliefs. If an individual acts in a way that is inconsistent with their beliefs, they will be in a state of psychological tension termed cognitive dissonance. In order to regain a sense of psychological 'peace', individuals will either change the behaviour or change the belief. Reeve suggests that people are not rational, but are rather rationalising (i.e. justifying their actions by being flexible with their beliefs).

Week Nine: Nature of Emotion
Emotion: a familiar concept, however, like many simple, familiar concepts, it is hard to define it. According to Reeve (2009), this is because emotions are a complex and multidimensional construct. Just like for motivation, research into emotion deals with five perennial questions:

 * 1) What is an emotion?
 * 2) What causes an emotion?
 * 3) How many emotions are there?
 * 4) What good are the emotions?
 * 5) What is the difference between emotion and mood?

Emotion is actually comprised of four different components - feelings, bodily arousal, sense of purpose and social-expressive. Still, defining emotion is actually more that the sum of the aforementioned parts. The definition that Reeve offers for emotion is the following:

Emotion is that which choreographs the feeling, arousal, purposive and expressive components into a coherent reaction to a eliciting event

Emotion is can be seen as both a motivator of behaviour and an indicator of how an individual is coping with a situation.

One of the perennial questions of emotion that particularly interested me is the question 'What good are emotions?'. According to Reeve (2009), emotions serve two primary functions: a coping function and a social function. The coping function suggests that emotions are adaptive as they help us cope with life events. However, I don't know if this is true of all emotions. For example, sadness. Loss of a loved one or the breakdown of a relationship can elicit sadness, however, I'm sure that many people would have experienced sadness in these situations would report that the feelings of sadness actually do not help the person cope with this loss. I'm sure that almost everyone can relate to feeling grief in a situation and feeling like they could not cope. Is this because the situation I am describing is not sadness, but grief? Or is it true that not all emotions are able to assist coping? As for the social function that emotion has, I think that this is best demonstrated by looking that the social interactions of a group that has trouble with identifying and relating to the emotions of others. A group of developmental disorder called autism spectrum conditions (ASC) impairs an individuals social functioning. One of the behavioural features of ASC's is difficulty in understanding body language, such as facial expressions (APA, 2000). Because of the inability to read emotion on the faces of others, individuals with ASC's have marked difficulty with social interactions. So emotions can be highly useful in social function, as they can give us a quick insight into the mental state of another person without having to ask.

Biological aspects of emotions
The biological aspects of emotion engage many different structures in the body such as the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system and neural brain circuits. Many of the neurotransmitters that I discussed in an earlier blog are also active in the neurology of emotion. The contemporary perspective of the biological aspects of emotion has focused on specific neural pathways for each emotion. There are distinct and measurable changes in heart rate and skin temperature for some emotions. However, research has shown that only a few emotions have specific patterns of neural firing. These emotions are specifically related to survival reactions such as fear, which activates the flight or fight response of stress (for more information on stress and the stress response, see Stress and Health). An important question that naturally follows the biological theories of emotion is 'Does physiology cause emotion, or just follow the emotional reaction?'. Recent research seems to suggest that the biological aspect of emotion accompanies emotion, but does not directly cause it (Reeve, 2009).

Specific brain areas are implicated in the neural pathways for emotions. The limbic system is the emotional centre in the brain (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007), but other brain areas are also associated with emotion. The amygdala has been implicated the generation of negative emotions such as fear and anxiety (Reeve, 2009). Dopamine and norepinephrine pathways are associated with the generation of positive feelings and affect (Marieb & Hoehn, 2007).

Cogntive aspects of emotions
The cognitive aspect of emotion is, arguably, the most important aspect of emotion. Without a cognitive appraisal of the event that elicits the emotion, the emotion would not occur. Therefore, it is the appraisal of the event that elicits the emotion, not the emotion itself. Appraisal is an estimate of how significant the event is (Reeve, 2009). The appraisal of an event determines the type and intensity of the emotion that is elicited and, in turn, determines the action the individual will take in reaction to the event.

Social-cultural aspects of emotions
Another important aspect of emotion is the social and cultural environment that it occurs in. The sociocultural context contributes to the way in which we understand emotion. Social interaction is also very important in both the understanding and elicitation of emotions. Reeve (2009) outlines that basic emotions can be both similar and dissimilar across different cultures. Some emotions such as anger, sadness, fear and happiness were present in both North American and Chinese culture. However, some of the more complex emotions such as shame and love were experienced differently across different cultures.

Week Eleven: Personality and Emotion
For many years, I wondered why I reacted differently to some situations than my best friend, who seemed to either care about things that I thought were silly or not care when I thought something was important! This differences between us were often a point of contention. However, after this week's readings and lecture, I understanding that these differences may have been due to our own personality differences. According to Reeve (2009), having different personality traits would not only cause us to approach some situations and avoid others, but they determine how or why we would react to particular stimuli. The Big 5 personality traits play an important role in emotional response. Happiness: Most people report that they are happy. What is interesting about happiness is that is does not seem to differ across socioeconomic groups or levels of privilege. One surprising study that Reeve highlights is the study that quizzed accident victims and lottery winners about their levels of happiness one year after the event and they reported similar levels of happiness. So if money can't buy you happiness what can? According to Reeve (2009), extraversion increases the likelihood that a person will be happy. Extraverts are more sensitive to the rewards that can be reaped from social situations than introverts, due to their stronger behavioural activating system (BAS).

Suffering: Unsurprisingly, individuals who are most neurotic tend to suffer emotionally. Bad life events trigger a range of negative affect and negative thoughts in those who are neurotic. This is due to their higher levels of sensitivity in their behavioural inhibition system. Neurotic individuals tend to report lower levels of happiness than the average.

Arousal also plays a role in motivation. If a person is underaroused by the environment, their performance and motivation for tasks will be diminished. But more arousal is not necessarily better. There is an inverted-U shaped relationship between arousal and performance. Too much arousal from the environment can create irritation and anxiety. Sensation seeking is related to an individuals level of reactivity to arousal. It determines whether an individual will react to a particular situation or event. Because of their lack of sensitivity to arousal, sensation seekers tend to need higher levels of stimulation to feel happy and they become bored easily. This causes these individuals to seek out arousal in extreme ways - drug use, gambling, risky behaviours. Sensation seeking is also related to the development of addictive behaviour.

Week Twelve: Unconscious Motivation
The idea that our behaviour is motivated by thought processes that we are not aware of is unconscious motivation. This theory comes from the psychodynamic school of thought that was developed by Sigmund Freud. The unconscious, according to this theory, drives and motivates behaviour. The contemporary psychodynamic perspective outlines a process called subliminal motivation. Subliminal stimuli are 'below threshold' for conscious perception and information that is processed at this level is involved in the emotional response. However, people do not necessarily act on subliminal information.

I had a great amount of difficulty thinking about what to write for this particular post, because I have a problem with the use of the psychodynamic approach to explain human behaviour and motivation. Whilst I understand that not all thought happens consciously and that we sometimes act in ways that we can not consciously explain, I have a problem with the lack of scientific credibility that is associated with this approach. Reeve (2009) also points out this flaw in his analysis of the psychodynamic approach, and I am yet to be convinced that contemporary psychodynamic approach solve any of the problems that have been associated with Freud's brand of psychoanalysis.

Week Thirteen: Growth and Positive Psychology
I didn't really know much about positive psychology until this lecture, but I have found it fascinating. I also thought that watching this concept applied in a practical way in the new ABC series Making Australia Happy was highly informative. I would recommend that even if you don't watch the series, you have a look at the website and take the happiness test.

Positive psychology focuses on the proactive building of personal strengths and competencies and seeks to make people stronger and more productive, and to actualise the human potential in all of us

Much of positive psychology is based in the humanist school of thought in psychology and focuses on Maslow's hierarchy of human needs (as mentioned in earlier blogs). Self-actualisation, the pinnacle of Maslow's hierarchy, is an ever-fuller realisation of one's potentials, capacities and talents. Self actualisation takes two fundamental directions: autonomy and openness. According to Reeve (2009), there are six behaviours that can encourage self-actualisation:
 * 1) Make growth choices
 * 2) Be honest
 * 3) Situationally position yourself for peak experiences
 * 4) Give up defensiveness
 * 5) Let the Self emerge
 * 6) Be open to experience

As far as I can see, many of these behaviours relate to many of the topics that we have covered over this semester, such as the self and motivation.

I am interested in the humanistic approach to evil. From my studies into this school of thought earlier in my degree, my impression was that humanistic psychologists tended to think that all human kinds was inherently good and seeking to self actualise. However, let's be honest, I think most adults know that not all people in the world are good and some people intentionally go out of their way to harm others. So how do humanists deal with this fact? Carl Rogers argues that evil is not inherent in human functioning and that people must deliberately choose to act in that way. Rogers also argues that people only act in an 'evil' way to the extent to which they were treated badly by their caregiver. Other humanists take a less hardline approach and assume that some degree of benevolence and malevolence in every person and the environment and the individuals personal values help influence how a person will act. This topic is a complex and multidimensional one, that involves many different branches of psychology (such as personality and social). So I believe that a multidimensional explanation is needed to understand evil.

Week Fourteen: Summary and Conclusion

This week was the conclusion of our course, Motivation and Emotion. Over the semester, this course has taught me the generic skills of communication, ICT skills and social responsibility. By making our textbook chapter available to the public, I feel that we have had the opportunity to contribute to psychology (in a very small way) by providing other students a literature review of many different topics that could be used as a first port of call for learning about motivation and emotion. Learning how to use Wiki has built my ICT skills and using the different types of medias (such as screenr and Wiki) to develop our assessment items has enhanced my communication skills.

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User talk:C.aitken

 Hello C.aitken, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. Jtneill - Talk - c 08:42, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack Russell. I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 08:42, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

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Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Narcissism

Overview
When one thinks of narcissism what first comes to mind? For those who are not yet familiar with the term narcissism, it is hoped that this chapter will provide a clear foundation of what it is. Most commonly it may bring to mind someone who is rude and arrogant, selfish and insensitive to the feelings of others around them, a narcissist. It may come as a surprise however, that a certain level of narcissism can in fact be considered healthy. For example, having self-confidence and holding a firm ground with one's values and opinions may be considered by some to be arrogant and rude, however, it does not necessarily make one a pathological narcissist. These traits only become "pathologically" narcissistic. More precisely, a narcissist is an individual who has a pervasive sense of grandiosity expressed via fantasy and behaviour, a need for admiration and a lack of empathy and concern for the needs and feelings of others (American Psychological Association, 2008, p. 736). This chapter will begin with the Greek mythological explanation of narcissism and then moving on to examine the early theories, such as those of Sigmund Freud, Heinz Kohut and more modern definitions, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (The DSM). While further examining how narcissism expresses itself, in both healthy and pathological forms. It may also be beneficial to be aware as to how narcissism may be measured by the use of personality testing. It is hoped that this chapter will provide one with a better understanding of the deeper motivation behind narcissistic behaviour and why it may not be as simple as it first appears to be.

Greek mythological basis of Narcissism

The concept of narcissism is believed to have originated in ancient Greece. A number of sources tell the story of Narcissus differently, however, the main elements which are consistent in most sources are as follows. The Greek mythological history of narcissus, as defined by Solomon (1992, pp. 45-6) & Millon, Davis, Millon, Escovar & Meagher (2004, p.282) states that Narcissus was a beautiful young man who was loved by everyone, yet he refused to return that affection which was given to him. However, on glimpsing his own reflection in a pool of water he himself falls in love with it and for days, while pining over what he cannot possess he eventually ends up drowning himself. This story draws attention and awareness to the potentially negative effects of self obsession, disregard for others and how such actions can negatively affect one’s own life and the lives of others. Essentially, for the most part, being self-obsessed and self-centered can ultimately lead to depression, loneliness and social isolation.

Freud
Freud's research was and is still considered by some to be controversial and objectionable due to its focus on sex and for being sexist against women. Up until 1914, Freud’s model of the human psyche focused on a conflict between one’s sexual libido and survival instincts/interests of the ego. For example, Freud believed that during early childhood boys had sexual desires toward their mothers and hatred toward the competing male, their fathers. However, this libido threatened the child with castration anxiety and the loss of love from his parents, hence those feelings would then become repressed (Crockatt, 2006). For Freud the term ‘libido’ represented the sexual instinct, while also  representing the energy of imaginary regressions, progressions and fixations as a key to explaining human psychology (Shamdasani, 2005).

In 1914 Freud and a number of other psychologists, such as: Carl Jung, Abraham Brill and Sándor Ferenczi, were struck by and puzzled by the phenomenon of psychosis and how some psychotic patients appeared to be trapped, like Narcissus, in a world of their own. This would ultimately lead to a revision of the current psychoanalytic theory and would lead to the development of the concepts of ‘The Id,’ ‘The Ego’ and ‘The Super-ego’ (Crockatt, 2006). Freud’s model of personality was divided into three systems; the id, the ego and the super-ego and defined by varying levels of consciousness. The id was believed to be driven by pleasure and was primarily unconscious, the super-ego was both conscious and unconscious and was responsible for moral and social constraints. The ego being the most conscious system would mediate the conflict between the id, the super-ego and reality (Segrist, 2009). So if one were to have an over functioning superego, it is likely they may be guilt ridden and socially anxious.

So how does this apply to narcissism? Libido was seen to be directed toward people in the outside world, that is, it seeks objects which are external to the self. However, Freud now believed that an individual themselves could become an object of their own sexual libido. Essentially, what is being suggested is that when one is in love with another, the lover invests everything into their love (an external object) while feeling themselves to be nothing. However, in a psychotic (narcissistic) state, libido has been so withdraw from external objects and focused onto one’s own ego that the outside world ceases to exist (Crockatt, 2006).

Heinz Kohut
Heinz Kohut theories were similar to Freud’s as he also felt that humans were objects of instinct, however, unlike Freud, Kohut deemphasized sexual and aggressive instincts (Banai, Mikulincer & Shaver, 2005). Heinz developed the psychoanalytic theory of “Self Psychology”. At the centre of the theory is the concept of the self, the essence of an individual, their feelings, thoughts, sensations and perceptions of one’s self and the world. Kohut proposed the self as a mental system that organises ones subjective life experiences in relation to their developmental needs. These needs were called “Self-Object” needs, as they sustain one’s self concept and may or may not be satisfied by external objects (Banai et al, 2005). Interestingly, Kohut regarded narcissism as a normal phase of development and critical for a normal and cohesive self, rather than a pathological condition.

A cohesive self, as defined by Kohut (in Banai et al, 2005) was believed to manifest upon three axes:

 * 1) Grandiosity – An ability to maintain positive self-esteem, healthy ambition, commitment, assertion and accomplishment.
 * 2) Idealisation – A healthy development of strong goals, ideals and values.
 * 3) Connectedness – A sense of belongingness and connectedness in feeling that one’s qualities, goals and ideals are understood and accepted by those around them.

Essentially, deficiencies or excesses in these axes would then result in a “disordered self.” Kohut believed that those with a disordered self may overly focus on their shortcomings, becoming highly vulnerable to criticisms and failure leading to negative emotions and feelings of alienation and loneliness. Additionally, to combat these feelings, individuals may create a grandiose and exhibitionist façade, becoming preoccupied with fantasies of power and grossly exaggerate their talents and achievements (Banai et al, 2005).

DSM-IV Definition of a narcissistic personality

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychological Association, 2008, p. 736) defines 'Narcissistic Personality Disorder' as a having a pervasive pattern of grandiosity expressed via fantasy and behaviour, a need for admiration and a lack of empathy and concern for the needs and feelings of others. The DSM (American Psychological Association, 2008, p. 736) states that these patterns of behaviour begin to express themselves in early adulthood, in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five or more of the following criterion:
 * 1) Grandiose sense of self importance (for example, achievements and talents are exaggerated out of proportion and expects to be praised even if little has actually been achieved).
 * 2) Obsessive fantasies of superiority, power, brilliance and beauty.
 * 3) Believes that they can only be under stood by people who are of high status (psychiatrists, lawyers and doctors) and who are 'gifted' and 'unique' like them. They will be quick to devalue those same individuals if they happen to disappoint them.
 * 4) Require constant admiration. As they are preoccupied with their own performance and how others may judge them and their self esteem low, they will have a constant need for attention and admiration.
 * 5) Possesses an inflated sense of entitlement. They expect to be catered to and quite often are puzzled or furious when they are not, for example, they do not understand why they have to stand in line as their priorities are much more important than anyone else.
 * 6) Insensitive to the needs of others, which often results in the exploitation of others. For example, they expect dedication from their employees to their work, not matter what cost or impact it may have on their lives.
 * 7) Believe that other people are only concerned about their (the narcissists) welfare. Discussing their own needs at length and if others around them display needs or concerns these are seen (by the narcissist) as weaknesses and/or vulnerabilities.
 * 8) Often envious of others while also believing that others are envious of them. Begrudging others for their achievements as they feel that they were the ones who should have been rewarded instead.
 * 9) Their personality is often snobbish, disdainful or patronizing toward others. They are quick to complain and create condescending evaluations of people around them.

Narcissism is stated to first occur during adolescents, with 50-75% being male. Although, developing narcissistic traits in early adolescence does not necessarily mean that one will develop narcissistic personality disorder in adult life. The DSM estimates that the prevalence ranges from 2% to 16% in the clinical population and less than 1% in the general population (American Psychological Association, 2008, p. 735).

Expression of narcissism
There are multitudes of different forms in which narcissism can express itself. This chapter focuses on healthy narcissism and the most fundamental aspects of pathological narcissism. From the previous discussion it may be hard to imagine that there could be a healthy level of narcissism. However, it would serve one well to be aware that not all of these traits are negative as such, rather they become pathological in their extremes.

Healthy narcissism

Surprisingly, healthy narcissism could best be interpreted as a means of maintaining a balanced sense of self. That is, as a healthy and positive means of regulating ones self-esteem. Sources that maintain healthy regulation of self-esteem can come from a number of different areas. For example, from the body (health and appearance) from early childhood experiences of positive and secure attachment and an ability to separate and resolve personal needs from dependent needs while still retaining a sense of autonomy (Ronningstam, 2001, p. 104). Clearly, gaining a sense of competency and mastery in an individual’s daily life would provide positive input to one’s self esteem. As Ronningstam (2001, p. 104) states, gratification from activities and/or endeavours can contribute to self-esteem regulation and also to sexual/sensual gratification if they are linked to deep interpersonal relationships with others. While being mindful that this can only operate efficiently if there is a realistic and integrated awareness of one’s positive and negative aspects of the self, operating in harmony to represent the ideal self.

In Figure 1 Ronningstam (2001) details, the positive and negative aspects of the self, as perceived by one’s self and by others. The superego is thought to monitor of ideals and thoughts about what the individual would like to achieve/attain and provides a sense of realism between what one is and what one can realistically achieve. This is based on one’s own self ideals ‘’and’’ external pressure from others. Essentially, one with a ‘’healthy’’ level of narcissism has a realistic ability to perceive the positive and negative traits in themselves and others, while also being able to empathise with others and appreciate their separateness and autonomy.

Pathological narcissism
Pathological narcissism essentially fails in all of the above aspects. The aforementioned sources of self-esteem are all deficient and the superego fails to provide the individual with a sense of realism. Rather, what happens is that the superego creates an unrealistic standard of what the self should be, which in turn creates a grandiose perception of what the self actually is. Furthermore, regular sources of self-esteem that come from reciprocal interaction with others (parents and friends) actually get blocked by the rapidly inflating sense of grandiosity. That is, when one is deep within a grandiose sense of self they believe they have already achieved their ideal self. There is nothing more that needs to be achieved, as they are already perfect and any negative aspects of the self are projected on others. In this state no emotion growth can occur, there are no ideals to pursue and no ideal figures to emulate as the narcissist is already perfect (Ronningstam, 2001, pp. 104-5).

In Figure 2 (Ronningstam, 1998) the difference and contrast with Figure 1 is immediately visible. The positive perception of the ‘actual’ self is fused with an ‘ideal’ self and an ideal object. This may sound positive, however, this does not allow for a realistic differentiation between the actual and ideal self. What happens is that this unrealistic perception is projected onto external objects that are used only to acknowledged and confirm the individuals grandiose sense of self. Effectively, a split then occurs between the negative aspects of the self and these are projected onto the external world. Hence, the world of the narcissist consists of devalued others and unstable idealisation of particular people and objects as long as they fit into the grandiose scenario.

Clearly, there is fine line that separates healthy narcissism (self-confidence) from pathological narcissism (grandiosity). Additionally, too much self-confidence, as compared to too little is just as pathological. As Million et al. (2004) states, feelings of incompetence, ineffectiveness, unworthiness and inferiority are can be paralysing and in some cases, seen as a chance to lose or perform poorly. Whereas, an inflated sense of self gives one a false/unrealistic belief in what they are able to accomplish. In Figure 3, Million et al. shows how these extremes of self-worth differ from each other, each at opposite points on the high points of the diagram. It also shows that there is a middle road (healthy balance), where one possess empathy, social concern and interest in the feelings of others and a willingness to accept their role in problems when they occur. Ultimately, this means having the ability to accept both positive and negative points of the self and work constructively with them. If healthy narcissism serves to maintain a balanced self-esteem then perhaps pathological narcissism acts a means of defence.

A means of defence
Interestingly enough Cramer(1999) defines personality disorders in terms of the ‘maturity’ of the response to challenges and criticism. For example, the lowest (immature) level of defence is splitting and denial. The concept of splitting and denial was first detailed in Figure 2; at a mid-level of maturity is defence via projection, also seen in Figures 1 and 2. At the highest level of maturity is identification and intellectualisation. Essentially, pathological states such as anti-social personality disorder and narcissism, use immature and low level defences. The narcissist will at first attempt to rely on rationalisation, but if this fails will most likely resort to using grandiosity, fantasy, denial and projection in the face of criticism or challenges (Cramer, 1999).

Defensive reactions from narcissists have been stated by Perry & Perry (2004) to occur in reaction to: rejection by others (family and peers), situations involving (realistic) ambition, goal setting and achievement, perception of being thwarted by others, the expression of emotional needs and anger, separation/abandonment and a dominant other.

Hierarchy of Needs

It may be worthwhile to consider Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of needs in the expression of narcissism. For example, people living in poverty conditions may have a hard enough time trying to survive let alone have the time behave arrogantly or grandiose. Remembering Maslow's hierarchy of needs: once basic physiological needs, such as water and shelter have been satisfied, esteem and self-actualisation moves into the foreground, as do pathologies such as narcissism (Millon et al, 2004). This would be more likely to occur in societies that value individualism rather than collectivism.

Case study: Willie

Willie (Not his real name) in his early 30's was an office assistant working for a small law firm. He had a poor employment history as he never stayed in one job for more than two years and would often go from one job agency to the next. However, your first impression of Willie would not give you such an impression. He would greet you upon arriving in the office, even though he was not the receptionist, behaving very solicitous in offering assistance and coffee and to make yourself comfortable in his office. Additionally, Willie was very talkative, however, the conversation would always get redirected to make him the center of attention. At first his other co-workers were very impressed by this behavior, although it soon turned into annoyance when he began referring to his co-workers as his staff. As time went by he became more controlling in his job, taking jobs that were assigned to others and then failing to complete these tasks. When confronted with these difficulties, he would always blame others first, that is, it was never his fault. It was clear that his self centeredness and controlling nature were at the heart of his insufficiencies. When further confronted, he became explosive and accused his co-workers and employers of being out to get him. Further adding that he had excelled in his performance in his previous jobs, although despite this, his past employers has also be out to get him too. On seeking professional help Willie was diagnosed with major depression and narcissistic personality disorder. Adapted from Durand & Barlow (2006, pp. 457-8).

How is narcissism measured?

The most commonly used measure of narcissism is the The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), being used in 77% of all social and personality research regarding narcissism (Widiger, 2010).

Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)

The NPI is a 54 item self-report inventory, which bases its definition of narcissism on the DSM, measuring both healthy and pathological narcissism as a personality trait (Watson, P.J., Grisham, S.O., Trotter, M.V., & Biderman, M.D. (1984); Shulman, D.G., & Ferguson, G.R. (1988) & Svindseth, Sørebø, Nøttestad, Roaldset, Wallin & Dahl, 2009). Sedikides, Rudich, Gregg, Kumashiro, & Rusbult (2004) and Judge, LePine & Rich (2006) state that researchers have defined narcissism as multifaceted construct which consists of the following components:

 * Autonomy & Self-Sufficiency - Freedom and the ability to engage productively in relevant tasks.
 * Entitlement & Exploitation - A belief that one is skilled at and entitled to manipulate people.
 * Exhibitionism & Vanity - An elevated admiration for oneself and a belief that one is special and unique compared to others.
 * Superiority & Arrogance - A belief that one is better than others and was born to lead.

Additionally, Corry, Merritt, Mrug and Pamp (2008) state that, as NPI scores have positively correlated with traits such as "psychoticism, extraversion, dominance, impulsivity, independence, self esteem and hostility." Adding that due to these findings, the NPI is reliable and has good construct validity for the assessment of narcissism.

Conclusion
From the early Greek mythology of Narcissus, we begin to get a better idea of what constitutes narcissism. Narcissus was vain, turned away other peoples’ affection with disdain and fell in love with something which was not realistically attainable, his own reflection. Today the foundations of narcissism still reflect these elements. Freud built upon this with psychoanalysis and the theories of the id, the ego and the super-ego. Freud believed that when one was in a narcissistic state, the motivational force of the libido which was usually directed at external objects and people, would instead become so focused onto one’s own ego that the external world would cease to exist (Crockatt, 2006). Essentially, the narcissists sole focus and priority was themselves, with little care for the people around them. As the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (APA, 2008, p. 736) would later come to define, narcissistic personality disorder, as having as a having a pervasive pattern of grandiosity expressed via fantasy and behaviour, a need for admiration and a lack of empathy and concern for the needs and feelings of others. However, before one dismisses someone with narcissistic traits as a rude, arrogant and egotistical person, it would do one well to reflect on the motivation behind why a narcissist behaves the way they do.

Heinz Kohut built upon Freud’s theory of narcissism, however, he believed that narcissism was critical for developing a healthy and cohesive sense of self. For example, grandiosity was involved in building and maintaining positive self-esteem and idealisation was critical for developing ideals and values. Kohut believed it was when these elements became excessive or deficient that narcissism became pathological. We saw that later research, by Ronningstam supported this perception of healthy narcissism protecting self-esteem. Defensive reactions from narcissists occur in reaction to: rejection by others (family and peers), situations involving (realistic) ambition, goal setting and achievement, perception of being thwarted by others, the expression of emotional needs and anger, separation/abandonment and the presence of a dominant other (Perry & Perry, 2004). In order to defend themselves narcissists create an unrealistic concept of what they feel they should be, creating a rapidly inflating sense of grandiosity, which in turn leads them to believing they have become perfect. However, this is a bleak state to be in as in this frame of mind no emotional growth can occur. There are no ideals to pursue and no ideal figures to emulate, the narcissist sees no value in these external objects or figure as they truly believe they are already perfect. {{Hide in print|

Quiz
{Narcissus fell in love with... - Those around him + Himself - No one
 * type=""}

{ Freud stated that a narcissists focus was so (internalised/externalised) { internalised } that the (internal/external) { external } world ceased to exist.
 * type="{}"}

{ There is such a thing as healthy narcissism (True/False). { true }
 * type="{}"}

{Select three narcissistic traits. + Grandiose sense of self importance + Obsessive fantasies of superiority, power, brilliance and beauty - Overwhelming concern for others around them + Possesses an inflated sense of entitlement - Can easily relate to most people - Have a moderate sense of entitlement
 * type="[]"}

{ Narcissistic traits become pathological in their { extreme }
 * type="{}"}

{Select the prominent psychologists discussed in this chapter. + Sigmund Freud - Karl Popper + Heinz Kohut - Tony Stark - Friedrich Nietzsche + Abraham Maslow
 * type="[]"}

{Those with an over functioning Super-ego may... - Have no control over pleasure seeking behaviours + Feel guilty and socially anxious - Behave inappropriately
 * type=""}

{The most common measure of narcissism is... - Empirical studies + Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) - Personal report survey
 * type=""}