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Human Legacy Course/The Persian Empire

Human Legacy Course I The Persian Empire LECTURER: Mr. Blair

Previous Lecture / Course Page / Take The Quiz / Go to Week 3

Hello and welcome to the fourth and final lecture of Week 2. In this lecture, we will be discussing the Persian Empire. Now, our question for the day is:

Could a newborn infant be a threat to a king? According to an ancient legend, the baby who grew up to be King Cyrus the Great of Persia was indeed a threat. Cyrus, the legend says, was the grandson of Astyages, king of the Medes. The king’s daughter had married a prince of the Persians, a people the Medes had conquered. Shortly after the couple’s first son, Cyrus, was born, the king had a dream that the baby would grow up to overthrow him. Afraid the dream would come true, he ordered his servants to kill young Cyrus.

Not wanting to kill a helpless baby, one of the servants took Cyrus out of the city and gave him to an old shepherd to raise. Under the shepherd’s care, Cyrus grew to be a clever and capable leader who wanted to free his people from rule by the Medes. When he reached adulthood, Cyrus led a rebellion, overthrew his grandfather, and made himself the new king.

Growth & Organization
Legends about the rise to power of Cyrus the Great have grown over time. Historians are not sure which of the legends’ details are accurate. For example, they question whether Cyrus was really Astyages’s grandson. What they do not question, however, is the greatness of his achievements. Cyrus conquered the Medes and established one of the largest empires of the ancient world, the Persian Empire.

Persia Under the Medes
The Persians and the Medes were both Indo-European tribes originally from Central Asia. Over time, both tribes settled on the plateaus of what is now Iran. There, the Medes created a new kingdom, Media, and set out to conquer their neighbors.

Among those conquered by the Medes were the Persians. The Medes allowed the conquered Persians to keep their own leaders as long as they did not rebel. In this way, the Persians remained subject to the Medes for centuries.

Cyrus the Great
A new leader arose among the Persians in 559 BC, though, who would change everything. His name was Cyrus II, better known as Cyrus the Great. About 10 years after becoming the Persian king, Cyrus led a revolt against the Medes. He defeated the Median army and united the Persians and the Medes under his rule.

Once Cyrus had taken control of Media, he set out to expand his lands. He marched into Asia Minor and conquered the fabulously wealthy kingdom of Lydia. He also captured several Greek cities in Ionia, a region of Asia Minor along the Aegean Sea. From there, Cyrus moved south into Mesopotamia, where he defeated the Chaldeans and captured the city of Babylon.

When Cyrus conquered a region, he allowed people to keep their own customs rather than forcing them to adopt Persian ones. This tolerance for other people’s customs won Cyrus the respect of those he conquered. The Jews, for example, admired Cyrus and considered him a hero. When he conquered Babylon, Cyrus freed the Jews from slavery and allowed them to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple.

Cyrus died in 530 BC while fighting in Central Asia. At the time of his death, he ruled the largest empire in the world. According to a Greek historian, the Persians summed up Cyrus’s achievements with this inscription carved on his tomb:

"O man, I am Cyrus, son of Cambyses, who founded the empire of the Persians and was king of Asia. Do not therefore grudge me this monument."

After Cyrus died, his son Cambyses II became emperor. Building on a plan first designed by his father, Cambyses invaded Egypt and added it to the Persian Empire. Unlike Cyrus, who was admired for his tolerance, Cambyses was described as a tyrant and a madman. While in Egypt, he received word of a rebellion in Persia. On his way back home to crush the rebellion, Cambyses died and Persia was left without a ruler.

Darius I
Out of the confusion surrounding the rebellion and the death of Cambyses rose a new leader for Persia. His name was Darius I. For the first year of his reign, Darius had to fight to restore order in Persia. Many Persians did not like him and fought to keep him off the throne. Once he had extinguished the last flames of rebellion, Darius began a program to reorganize and strengthen his empire.

The first step Darius took to strengthen the empire was reforming the army. Under Cyrus, the Persians had had no permanent army. The emperor called people to fight for him when he went into battle, and they returned home when the fighting was done. Darius changed that system by creating a permanent army made up of paid soldiers. He also instituted a new training system for the army.

At the heart of Darius’s army was a group of highly trained soldiers called the Ten Thousand Immortals. Hand picked for their skills and dedication, these soldiers often acted as a bodyguard for the emperor. In battle, they were supported by cavalry soldiers mounted on horses or camels and by chariots. The Persian chariots sometimes carried archers, who pelted their foes with arrows from a distance. With this army, Darius won new lands in the east and tried—but failed—to conquer Greece.

Darius also made changes to the Persian government. For example, he surrounded the kingship with ceremony and ritual. As king, Darius was all powerful, and he wanted to demonstrate that power to everyone. Calling himself the Great King and the King of Kings, Darius surrounded himself with symbols of power. He wore embroidered robes and jewelry decorated with gold and gems. Anyone who came into his presence had to bow low to the ground, never looking directly at the king.

Powerful as Darius was, he could not personally control everything that happened in the empire. Persia was simply too large. To help him rule, Darius chose governors called satraps. Each satrap governed a region, or satrapy, in the emperor’s name.

Although satraps had considerable local authority, they had to obey the wishes of the king. To ensure that the satraps remained loyal, Darius sent officials called the king’s eyes and king’s ears on inspection tours. Satraps who received unfavorable reports from these inspectors were punished or replaced.

Darius’s reforms also strengthened the Persian economy. Under his rule, the first coins ever minted in Persia were issued. He also encouraged trade by building roads throughout the Persian Empire. As a result of this increased trade, the empire grew richer.

Persia In Decline
Most historians consider Darius’s reign the high point of Persian culture. The emperors who followed never achieved the level of power and prestige he enjoyed.

Emperor Xerxes, the son of Darius I, tried to expand upon his father’s success. Like Darius, he invaded Greece, hoping to succeed where his father had failed. His attempt failed, however, and Xerxes returned to Persia in defeat.

Xerxes was the last strong ruler of ancient Persia. Later emperors were mostly weak and could not maintain order. Rebellions were common, and trade slowed. Greatly weakened, the Persian Empire nonetheless survived for about 150 years after the death of Darius I. In the 330s BC, however, a Greek king named Alexander the Great conquered Persia in the course of building an empire of his own.

Zoroastrianism
During the reigns of Cyrus and Darius, a new religion took hold in parts of Persia. It was called Zoroastrianism and was based on the teachings of a man named Zoroaster.

Teachings
Zoroaster taught that the world had been created by a god named Ahura Mazda. To Zoroaster, the god was the source of everything good, true, and pure in the world. He was, therefore, the only god that people should worship.

Opposing Ahura Mazda, however, was an evil spirit named Ahriman. The forces of Ahura Mazda were locked in an eternal struggle against the forces of Ahriman. Zoroastrianism was one of the first religions to teach dualism, the belief that the world is controlled by two opposing forces, good and evil.

Zoroaster believed that people had free will and could act as they chose. He encouraged people to join the forces of Ahura Mazda and to fight evil by telling the truth and avoiding bad deeds. Zoroaster’s teachings on how people should best serve the god were eventually compiled and recorded in the Avesta, the sacred text of Zoroastrianism.

The Avesta says that people who live good lives in the service of Ahura Mazda will be rewarded after death. They will enter a heaven filled with pleasures. Those who are wicked will be punished for their sins. However, the Avesta continues, at the end of time Ahura Mazda will defeat Ahriman and drive all evil from the world. When that happens, the wicked will be purified, and all souls will be restored to life to live happily together.

Spread
By the time Darius I took the throne, Zoroastrianism had spread through much of the Persian Empire. The emperor himself worshipped Ahura Mazda, as did many of the emperors who followed him. Some emperors discouraged the practice of other religions.

When the Persian Empire fell to the Greeks, Zoroastrianism almost disappeared. The Greeks built temples to their gods and convinced many Persians to convert. The teachings of Zoroaster never completely disappeared, though, and gradually they began to spread again, both in Persia and to other parts of the world.

Persian Achievements
The Persian Empire was huge, stretching across most of Asia. Dozens of peoples with their own customs and traditions lived within that vast area. When they became part of the empire, their diverse customs gradually blended into a single Persian culture. Leaders like Cyrus and Darius encouraged this blending, because they knew the importance of cultural unity.

One advantage of this shared culture was peace. For most of its early history, the Persian Empire was relatively peaceful. There were no major conflicts between peoples. Instead, they worked together to improve their empire. Together, the peoples of Persia made some amazing cultural achievements.

Communication
Good communication was essential to ruling the Persian Empire. Rulers in the capital needed to know what was happening elsewhere in the empire in order to make decisions.

The heart of the Persian communication network was its high quality roads, which linked every part of the empire. The longest of these roads was the Royal Road, the world’s first long highway. It stretched more than 1,500 miles and linked the major cities of Susa and Sardis. Smaller roads branched off the Royal Road to connect other key cities.

Following these roads, messengers on horseback could travel across the entire Persian Empire in a matter of days. To deliver urgent messages, the messengers worked in shifts. Like runners in a relay race, each one would travel only a short distance before passing the message to a partner with a fresh horse. After seeing this system in action, one Greek historian recorded his amazement:

"Nothing mortal travels so fast as these Persian messengers…these men will not be hindered from accomplishing at their best speed the distance which they have to go, either by snow, or rain, or heat, or by the darkness of night."

Art & Architecture
The Persians were also widely admired for their art. Many of the objects their artists created were used in the royal court. For example, they crafted delicate drinking vessels out of gold set with precious gems. Many of these golden objects are shaped like animals, such as lions and bulls. Animals were a common subject in Persian art.

Animals were also common decorations in Persian architecture. The walls of the great palace in the capital city of Susa, for example, sported lions, bulls, and giraffes made of painted brick. Lions and bulls also appeared on the gates and columns of Persepolis, another of the empire’s capitals.

Many archaeologists consider Persepolis the greatest example of Persian architecture. Designed as a ceremonial city by Darius I, the entire city of Persepolis was a monument to Persia’s glory. At the center of the city was a high-ceilinged audience hall unlike anything else in the Ancient Near East. Larger than any other structure in the city, the hall was highly decorated. The columns that supported the ceiling were brightly painted and topped with stone figures. Carved soldiers and royal officials lined the walls, all bearing gifts for the mighty emperor in whose hall they stood.

Their achievements cannot be all listed because there are too many.

Assignment
That was your lecture. Here is your assignment:

 * Question #1: For what is Cyrus the Great best known?
 * Question #2: Why did Darius I appoint satraps to help rule his empire?
 * Question #3: Why do you think the Persian Empire never again regained the heights it had reached under Darius I?
 * Question #4: What is dualism? How is Zoroastrianism an example of a dualistic religion?
 * Question #5: How did Zoroaster say people should act? Why did he think they should act this way?
 * Question #6: What were two features that made Persepolis an impressive city?
 * Question #7: Why did Darius I have the Royal Road built?
 * Question #8: What might the Greek historian’s amazement about the Persian messenger system tell you about communication in Greece?

Thank you very much for listening to this lecture and please send me a message regarding taking the Week 2 test. Thank you very much and I look forward to seeing you in Week 3. Goodbye.

Helpful Resources

 * Biography: Sargon I
 * Biography: Semiramis
 * Biography: Abraham
 * Biography: Herodotus
 * Literature: Hymn to Inanna: Loud Thundering Storm
 * Primary Source: Ancient Flood Narratives

title: Human Legacy Course/The Persian Empire


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Human Legacy Course/Quiz 7

{Please tell if this statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why: For centuries, the Persians were ruled by the Medes, who had conquered them. -False; They were ruled by the Assyrians. +True -False; The Assyrians were ruled by the Medes. -None of the Above.
 * type=""}

{Please tell if this statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why: When Cyrus the Great rose to power, he abolished the Persian army and signed a peace treaty with the Medes. -True -False; Cyrus the Great strengthened the Persian army and signed a peace treaty with the Medes. -False; This happened when Darius I rose to power. +False; Cyrus the Great led a revolt against the Medes and united the kingdoms.
 * type=""}

{Please tell if this statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why: At the time of his death in 530 BC, Cyrus ruled the largest empire in the world. +True -False; At the time of his death in 530 BC, Cyrus ruled the second largest empire in the world. -False; Cyrus died in 550 BC. -None of the Above.
 * type=""}

{Please tell if this statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why: Zoroastrianism was one of the first religions to teach dualism, the belief that the world is controlled by two opposing forces. -False; Judaism was one of the first religions to teach dualism, the belief that the world is controlled by two opposing forces. -False; There were religions before Zoroastrianism that taught dualism. +True -None of the Above.
 * type=""}

{Please tell if this statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why: During the reign of Xerxes, Persian culture reached a high point. +False; During the reign of Darius, Persian culture reached a high point. -True -False; During the reign of Solomon, Persian culture reached a high point. -False; There were no high points in Persian history.
 * type=""}

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Human Legacy Course/Quiz 7


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Human Legacy Course/Nile Civilizations (5000 BC - 300 AD)

The Nile is the longest river in the world. In addition to this geographic distinction, it is also known as the site of one of the world’s earliest civilizations—ancient Egypt. Egypt, the land of pyramids and pharaohs, is certainly the most famous civilization of the Nile, but it was not the only one. South of Egypt, in the region called Nubia, other civilizations grew and made great cultural advances of their own.

The belief systems of the ancient Egyptians shaped many elements of their culture. In this week, you will learn about Egyptian beliefs and how they led the Egyptians to build pyramids as tombs for their rulers.

Let's Begin!


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Human Legacy Course/The Kingdom of Egypt

Human Legacy Course I The Kingdom of Egypt LECTURER: Mr. Blair

Course Page / Take The Quiz / Next Lecture

Hello and welcome to Week 3, Nile Civilizations. In today's lecture, we will be taking a look at the Kingdom of Egypt. As always, we're going to start out with our first question:

What was the Nile's Gift? Sometime in the 400s BC, a Greek historian named Herodotus traveled to Egypt. Like many people in Greece, he had heard of Egypt but knew very little of life there. What he saw on his journey both impressed and amazed him.

Of all the sights Herodotus witnessed in Egypt, none left more of an impression on him than the Nile itself. For a Greek who was took rain for granted, it was unthinkable that a society could depend on a river for all of its water. He was astounded at stories of the annual floods that brought water to the fields. These floods, he thought, made the work of Egyptian farmers incredibly easy. In contrast, the Egyptians to whom Herodotus spoke listened in disbelief to his descriptions of rain. They did not seem to trust the idea of water that did not come from a river.

Herodotus also could not believe the variety of animals that dwelled in or near the Nile, from fish and birds to crocodiles and hippopotamuses. Without the Nile, Herodotus concluded, Egypt could not exist: “For any one who sees Egypt, without having heard a word about it before, must perceive, if he has only common powers of observation, that the Egypt to which the Greeks go in their ships is an acquired country, the gift of the river.”

Geography & Early Egypt
As Herodotus noted, the Nile is the most important physical feature in Egypt. The river, the longest in the world, flows more than 4,000 miles through north Africa. For much of this length, the river flows through the Sahara, the world’s largest desert. Without the Nile’s waters, no one could live there.

The Geography of Egypt
Like the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile flooded every year. Unlike floods on the Mesopotamian rivers, however, the Nile’s floods were predictable. These floods occurred every year when spring rains fed the river’s sources south of Egypt. The floodwaters that poured over the river’s banks covered the surrounding land with a rich black silt. Because of these floods, a narrow band of fertile soil stretched all along the Nile. It was in this band that Egyptian civilization developed.

The richest and most fertile soils in all Egypt were found in the Nile Delta. A delta is an area at the mouth of a river, often triangle-shaped, made up of silt deposits. Because the Nile is so long and carries so much silt, its delta is one of the largest in the world.

The dark color of the Nile river silt gave rise to the Egyptians’ name for their country—the Black Land. In contrast, they called the surrounding desert the Red Land. Although the desert was mostly unlivable wasteland, its presence was something of a comfort to the Egyptians. The Sahara was so difficult to cross that it discouraged peoples from invading.

The Nile itself also helped prevent invasions. South of Egypt, the Nile flowed through a series of cataracts, rocky stretches marked by swift currents and rapids. Because of these dangerous currents and falls, boats could not sail through the Nile’s cataracts. As a result, people from the areas south of Egypt could not use the Nile as an easy invasion route.

Two Kingdoms
The first farming villages along the Nile appeared as early as 5000 BC. Over time, these villages consolidated into two kingdoms. The people of these kingdoms spoke different dialects, or versions of the same language, and had different customs.

The northern kingdom, Lower Egypt, was located downriver at the lower end of the Nile. It occupied most of the Nile Delta, where the climate was milder than it was in the south. The people of Lower Egypt worshipped a cobra goddess, and as a result that snake was a symbol of their kingdom.

South of Lower Egypt was Upper Egypt, which lay along the river’s upper stretches. It stretched from south of the delta to about the first cataract. Upper Egyptians prayed to a vulture goddess, so a vulture was their symbol.

Unification
The two kingdoms of Egypt were first unified around 3100 BC. Historians are not sure exactly how the unification came about, but ancient Egyptian legends say that a ruler named Menes from Upper Egypt conquered the north. Menes is also said to have founded the city of Memphis, the capital of unified Egypt.

As the ruler of both kingdoms, Menes adopted the symbols of both Upper and Lower Egypt, the cobra and the vulture. He also wore a crown that combined the traditional red and white crowns of the two kingdoms. Later Egyptian rulers likewise used both sets of symbols to show their power over all Egypt.

Menes founded Egypt’s first dynasty, or series of rulers from the same family. Through its long history, Egypt was ruled by a string of dynasties. Historians use these dynasties as a tool for organizing their studies of Egyptian history. For example, they may refer to rulers of the Seventh dynasty or events that occurred during the Twenty-second dynasty. In total, 31 dynasties held power in Egypt.

The Old Kingdom
The rise of the Third dynasty in about 2650 BC marked the beginning of a long period of stable rule in Egypt. This period, known as the Old Kingdom, lasted about 500 years. Egyptians of the Old Kingdom created many of the institutions for which the civilization is best known.

The Pyramids
The most famous symbols of ancient Egypt are the pyramids. Most of these huge structures were built during the Old Kingdom. The largest and most famous of the Old Kingdom pyramids are located near the town of Giza.

The pyramids were built as tombs for Egypt’s rulers. Inside or below each pyramid was a hollow chamber in which a dead king was buried. To protect the bodies of their kings and the treasures that were buried with them, the Egyptians sometimes placed deadly traps within a pyramid.

Pyramid design changed greatly over time. The earliest pyramids did not have smooth sides. Instead, their sides looked like a series of steps. The smooth-sided pyramids with which we are familiar were built later.

However they changed, building pyramids took a great deal of planning and skill—and time. In fact, pyramids took so long to construct that kings usually ordered their pyramids begun soon after they took the throne. Workers built the pyramids from the inside out, carefully placing limestone blocks cut from nearby quarries. These blocks had to be dragged overland to the building site on rollers. Historians are not certain how workers hauled the heavy stone blocks up the sides of the pyramid, but some think that workers dragged the blocks up specially built ramps with ropes.

Despite what many people believe, the pyramids were not built by slaves. Most of the workers were peasants who were required to work for the government for one month out of the year. While they worked on a pyramid, the peasants received food and clothing and were sheltered in nearby villages.

Not all of the workers on a pyramid were peasants, though. Professional craftspeople were also hired to work on the tombs. Among them were the architects who actually designed the pyramid and surrounding buildings and the artists hired to decorate the interior of the finished tomb.

The Pharaohs
Egypt’s government also took shape during the Old Kingdom. At the head of the government was the king, who eventually became known as the pharaoh. The term pharaoh literally means “great house.” Pharaohs had absolute power in Egypt. They owned all the land in the country, and their word was law. In addition, pharaohs acted as judges and as the leaders of Egypt’s army.

One reason for the pharaoh’s great power was the belief that he was a god. The ancient Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was really a god in human form. As such, people thought that the pharaoh was responsible for Egypt’s prosperity. He and his priests had to perform elaborate rituals every day to ensure that the sun would rise, the Nile would flood, and crops would grow. For his role in keeping Egypt safe and secure, people honored the pharaoh.

Because the pharaoh was thought to be a god, religion and government were closely intertwined in the Old Kingdom. Egypt was a theocracy, a state ruled by religious figures.

Egyptian Bureaucracy
Powerful as the pharaoh was, he could not rule Egypt alone. The kingdom was simply too big and too complex for one person to govern. To aid him in ruling, the pharaoh was surrounded by a well-established bureaucracy, a highly structured organization managed by officials. In Egypt, many of these officials were the pharaoh’s relatives.

Officially, members of the Egyptian bureaucracy had no power of their own. They simply acted upon the wishes of the pharaoh. In fact, however, many government officials were quite powerful. The most powerful official in Egypt was the vizier, sometimes chosen for his ability but usually a relative of the pharaoh. He was responsible for advising the pharaoh, carrying out his orders, and trying court cases. The position of the vizier was hereditary. When a vizier died, his son took over his duties.

Serving below the vizier were hundreds of lesser officials. Their duties—and by extension, their influence—varied widely. Some officials served as governors of small territories within Egypt. Others were irrigation supervisors or crop inspectors. Census takers kept track of the kingdom’s population, while tax collectors gathered the grain and goods that supplied the kingdom. All together, these officials kept Egypt running smoothly and efficiently.

The Middle Kingdom
Although the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom had tremendous authority, they eventually lost power. Powerful local nobles began to assert their own authority as rivals of the pharaoh. As a result, Egypt’s internal order and stability gradually disappeared.

The government of the Old Kingdom collapsed around 2100 BC. For almost 200 years, economic problems, invasions, and civil wars racked Egypt. Famine and widespread disease added to the chaos. Finally, in about 2055 BC, a new dynasty rose to power and began the Middle Kingdom.

The strong leadership of this dynasty brought stability to Egypt. Along with this stability came economic prosperity. From their capital at Thebes, Middle Kingdom pharaohs encouraged sailors and merchants to import goods from surrounding lands. Historians have found evidence that Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom traded with the Nubians, who lived south of Egypt, the Phoenicians, the Minoans of Greece, and other peoples.

Trade routes into Egypt were not always safe, and bandits and hostile tribes sometimes attacked merchants. To protect their people, pharaohs sent armies to secure these routes. As part of this protection, the Egyptians built fortresses all along the Nile. They also took over Nubia as far south as the second cataract.

Despite these improved defenses, the Middle Kingdom fell to invaders around 1650 BC. Raiders from Syria whom the Egyptians called the Hyksos invaded the Nile Delta and conquered Lower Egypt. The Hyksos had military technologies unknown in Egypt, including the horse-drawn chariot, armor, and a strong bow. Armed with these technologies, the Hyksos easily defeated the Egyptians.

The New Kingdom
The Hyksos ruled Egypt for almost 100 years. They were not harsh rulers, but the Egyptians resented being ruled by foreigners. Eventually, they rose up and drove the Hyksos out of their kingdom. The army that defeated the Hyksos was led by nobles from Thebes, who declared themselves the new rulers of Egypt. Their reign marked the beginning of the New Kingdom.

Securing Egypt
Years of Hyksos rule had taught the Egyptians a hard lesson: they could not depend solely on geographic barriers to protect them. The desert and the sea would no longer keep invaders out of Egypt. As a result, pharaohs had to find a new way to secure Egypt’s borders and keep the kingdom safe.

New Kingdom pharaohs decided that the best way to protect Egypt from further invasions was to build a powerful military. To this end, they created the Egypt’s first permanent army. In addition to traditional foot soldiers, the Egyptian army included archers and charioteers equipped with weapons adopted from the Hyksos.

To prevent a foreign people from taking over Egypt again, pharaohs decided to create an empire of their own. If Egypt ruled lands beyond the Nile Valley, they thought, then these lands would serve as a buffer between their kingdom and others. As part of their empire building, the pharaohs headed south into Nubia, which they had lost during the period of Hyksos rule. In Nubia, they conquered the kingdom of Kush and forced its rulers to pay tribute to Egypt.

Even as their armies were invading Nubia, the pharaohs led campaigns east into Asia. They attacked and took over almost the entire Sinai Peninsula and parts of Phoenicia and Syria. The Egyptians formed an empire that reached from southern Nubia all the way to the Euphrates.

The Reign of Hatshepsut
While Egypt’s territory was expanding, pharaohs were also increasing trade. Goods poured into Egypt from as far away as Greece, Babylonia, and Africa south of Kush. One of the pharaohs best known for encouraging trade was Hatshepsut, one of the few women to rule Egypt. She took power around 1500 BC when her husband, the pharaoh, died. Officially, Hatshepsut was only the regent, ruling in the name of her young son. Before long, however, she proclaimed herself to be Egypt’s pharaoh, the only woman ever to do so.

Hatshepsut wanted to be treated like any other pharaoh, so she acted the part. She dressed like a man, even wearing the false beard that male pharaohs wore. She referred to herself as the son—not the daughter—of the sun god and had statues made in which she appeared to be a man.

The reign of Hatshepsut is best known for a huge trading expedition she sent to Punt, a kingdom on the Red Sea. This expedition returned to Egypt with such products as gold, apes and other wild animals, and myrrh, a valuable perfume. Hatshepsut had images of this magnificent journey carved on the walls of the temple in which she was buried.

When Hatshepsut died, her nephew took over as pharaoh. One of his first acts as ruler was to destroy nearly everything his aunt had created. He destroyed statues, removed her name from monuments, and tried to remove all record of her reign. Historians still do not know why he did this.

Monotheism In Egypt
Around 1353 BC a new pharaoh took power in Egypt. His name was Amenhotep IV, but he is more commonly known by another name: Akhenaten, which means beloved of Aten. Egyptians had been worshipping many gods for centuries, but Akhenaten changed that. He worshipped only one god, Aten the sun god, and thought everyone should do the same.

As part of the changes he introduced in Egypt, Akhenaten banned the worship of any gods but Aten. He stripped power from the priests of other gods and ordered the gods’ images destroyed. Out of respect for his god, he built a new capital called Akhetaten. He built a temple there to Aten and is thought to have written beautiful hymns to the god.

The worship of Aten did not survive Akhenaten’s death. The very next pharaoh, Tutankhamon, or Tut, restored the worship of Egypt’s traditional gods and moved the kingdom’s capital back to Thebes.

Ramses the Great
For most of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians continued to expand their empire, fighting campaigns in Nubia and Syria. By about 1250 BC, however, a new foe had appeared to threaten the empire. The Hittites from Mesopotamia invaded Egyptian-held Syria and began to take territory.

Pharaoh Ramses II, also called Ramses the Great, led his army out to confront the Hittites. Accounts of the battle vary widely. According to Hittite records, the Egyptians lost the battle. Egyptian records, however, claimed a great victory for Ramses. However the battle turned out, the two armies agreed to a truce. As a sign of the peace, Ramses married a Hittite princess. With this marriage, the conflict with the Hittites ended.

Ramses ruled Egypt for more than 60 years. His reign was marked by extravagant splendor. With his great wealth, Ramses built more temples and monuments than any other pharaoh, including two huge temples at Abu Simbel in Nubia and another at Karnak in Egypt. Due to his political achievements and artistic legacy, no other pharaoh is as remembered or admired as Ramses.

Egypt's Decline
The reign of Ramses II marked the last period of Egypt’s greatness. His successors faced many challenges to their authority. Most of these challenges came in the form of invasions by foreign powers.

The first of the major invasions of Egypt was by a group that the Egyptians called the Sea Peoples. Today, no one is sure who the Sea Peoples were, where they came from, or even if they were a single people. All we know is that their invasions were devastating to empires in the area. Their invasions helped bring an end to the Hittite Empire and weakened Egypt’s control of Syria.

As the empire declined, priests and nobles struggled for power, and Egypt broke into small states. This breakup made the kingdom an easy target for foreign invasions. Over the next 700 years, many foreign rulers controlled Egypt. The Libyans from west of Egypt conquered Egypt and established themselves as a ruling dynasty, as did the Kushites from Nubia. Later, the Assyrians from Mesopotamia swept in and took over Egypt. In the late-500s BC, the Persians added Egypt to their huge empire.

After about 120 years of Persian rule, the Egyptians managed to drive the Persians out and once more rule Egypt themselves. Before long, however, the Persians returned. In 343 BC, they took over again and deposed the last Egyptian-born pharaoh. Never again would an Egyptian rule in ancient Egypt.

The second Persian conquest of Egypt did not last long, though. In 332 BC, a Greek army under Alexander the Great marched in and took over. The Greeks would rule Egypt for about 300 years before it fell to another power, perhaps the greatest power of the ancient world—Rome.

Assignment
That is the end of this lecture. Here is your assignment:

 * Question #1: What were the delta and the cataracts? How did these features affect life in Egypt?
 * Question #2: Why was the Nile so important to Egypt?
 * Question #3: Why do you think many historians consider the unification of Egypt under Menes the beginning of Egyptian civilization?
 * Question #4: What was the purpose of Old Kingdom pyramids?
 * Question #5: How did the perception of pharaohs as gods add to their power?
 * Question #6: How could a bureaucracy increase the speed and efficiency with which a government operates?
 * Question #7: What led to the end of the Middle Kingdom?
 * Question #8: Why were pharaohs able to increase trade during the Middle Kingdom?
 * Question #9: For what deeds are Hatshepsut and Akhenaten best known?
 * Question #10: Why did some New Kingdom pharaohs want to build an empire?
 * Question #11: Do you think Ramses II deserves to be known as Ramses the Great? Why or why not?

Thank you very much for listening to this audio lecture and goodbye.


text:
User:TutorJDD/boundary wellness

boundary wellness and exploration

 * "Do as I mean, not as I say." (As far as I know, I originated this saying probably in the late '90's, adapted from variations on the popular "do as I say, not as I do" I hear teachers telling students) (usually I say it to my computer).
 * If you think I'm "nuts," then your therapist needsan enlightening vacation.
 * "Cannon, n. An instrument employed in the rectification of national boundaries." (Ambrose Bierce, The Devil's Dictionary)
 * "'[…] things I cannot change, […] things I can, […] know the difference'." (variant of The Serenity Prayer mentioned at Wikiquote)

Interpersonal relationships
including and
 * Interpersonal relationships @ Wikipedia
 * Polyamory
 * Platonic love

Psychotherapy:
On a microcosmic level, therapy is a process of learning how to give and take, surrender and assert, merge and individuate, unite and separate—without being trapped in a whipsaw of opposites. Therapist and client, [ ... ] seek to find a constructive balance between separation and union. In psychological health, the contact boundary that links I and Thou " harmoniously [ fuses ] the edges of each without confusing them, " Rank wrote in Art and Artist (1932/1989, p. 104). Joining together in feeling, therapist and client do not lose themselves but, rather, re-discover and re-create themselves. In the simultaneous dissolution of their difference in a greater whole, therapist and client surrender their painful isolation for a moment, only to have individuality returned to them in the next, re-energized and enriched by the experience of " loss. " (Otto_Rank article @ Wikipedia, August, 2010)

Biology:
Lignin plays a crucial part in conducting water in plant stems. The polysaccharide components of plant cell walls are highly hydrophilic and thus permeable to water, whereas lignin is more hydrophobic . [ ... ] lignin is an obstacle for water absorption [ ... ] Thus, lignin makes it possible for the plant's vascular tissue to conduct water efficiently. (Lignin article @ Wikipedia, August, 2010)
 * Immune system
 * Lignin

title: User:TutorJDD/boundary wellness


text:
User talk:Mamamax~enwikiversity

 Hello Mamamax, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --JWSchmidt 16:43, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mamamax. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mamamax~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:15, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mamamax~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Numiri

 Hello Numiri, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 17:29, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

Copyright problems on photos
Hello. There is a problem with one or more files you have uploaded. Every file you upload must have a clear statement of the copyright position. If you took the photos yourself, add PD-self if you are placing it unreservedly in the public domain. If you wish to retain minimal rights, add Cc-by-sa-3.0. If you did not take the photo, please add an explanation of why it can be hosted here. I am afraid that if you do not do this, the file wil be deleted. Let me know if you have any problems.--Collingwood (talk) 16:51, 18 July 2012 (UTC)
 * If this is your own work, just edit the file and add a template, as above. If it is not your own work, explain where it came from.  A good example is ;File:MobileDevice.svg.  Thanks.--Collingwood (talk) 20:31, 19 July 2012 (UTC)

Files Missing License Information
Thank you for uploading files to Wikiversity. See Media for copyright and license requirements for Wikiversity files. All files must have copyright and/or license information added to the file.

Instructions for adding copyright and/or license information are available at License tags. Files must be updated within seven days or they may be removed without further notice. See Requests For Deletion for more information.

The following files are missing copyright and/or license information:
 * File:Linear-system-example.jpg

MaintenanceBot (discuss • contribs) 03:50, 11 November 2013 (UTC)

I've replaced the image in question with a Public Domain version Linear-system-example-1.jpg Numiri (discuss • contribs) 19:46, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

Stop
Please stop adding your bad grammar and false info onto KinderCalculus. --Goldenburg111 18:48, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

Goldenburg111, thank you for looking over my work. Can you please specify the "false info" you are referring to so I can correct it? Numiri (discuss • contribs) 19:18, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

 * sorry, not false info. The grammar is a little bit of the "building". --Goldenburg111 19:37, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your clarifications Goldenburg111, but I'm afraid I don't know what you mean by the grammar being "building". I will glad try to fix it once I understand the issue.  Numiri (discuss • contribs) 19:55, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

Files Missing Information
Thanks for uploading files to Wikiversity. All files must have source and license information to stay at Wikiversity. The following files are missing and/or License tags, and will be deleted if the missing information is not added. See Uploading files for more information.

 * File:Trap-keypoints-a.png
 * File:Trap-keypoints.png

MaintenanceBot (discuss • contribs) 00:55, 4 December 2017 (UTC)

page moves

 * To see what is in your userspace click here

Here are two wikitext scripts that you can use to keep track of subpages in your userspace.

creates a page called My subpages

creates a list of all subpages in your userspace.

Keep in mind that these two scripts here on this talk page, and on your user page User:. They won't work on most Wikiversity pages.--Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 01:48, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Numiri


text:
User talk:Keegan

 Hello Keegan, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 19:30, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

- :) Ottava Rima (talk) 19:30, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Keegan


title: User:Jtwsaddress42


text:
User talk:Jtwsaddress42

 Hello Jtwsaddress42, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --JWSchmidt 22:28, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

Cavalier-Smith
I've been reading a recent Cavalier-Smith article and making notes at Life origins. --JWSchmidt 22:32, 10 July 2010 (UTC)

Wikiversity Mission
Please help me understand how your use of Wikiversity is consistent with the Mission. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 03:03, 25 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi Dave,
 * Thank you for asking. I try to address this issue at the top of my userpage, |User:Jtwsaddress42 Welcome...
 * If I understand the Wikiversity:Mission properly, it says:
 * Wikiversity is a centre for the creation and use of free learning materials and activities. Its primary priorities and goals are to:
 * Create and host a range of free-content, multilingual learning materials/resources, for all age groups and learner levels
 * Host learning and research projects and communities around existing and new materials
 * I am using my wikiversity User:Jtwsaddress42 namespace to organize, develop, and archive web-related and open-source academic-related resources, biographical and bibliographic resources, quotations, and other material that can be used to construct educational resources and potential wikiversity projects I'd like to submit.
 * I am also using my user namespace to experiment with the coding possibilities of the wiki system... experimenting with creating galleries, clades, the various templates, etc...
 * I'm also trying to make things modular - so that I and others can construct a variety pages that share common material via transclusions.
 * I have reorganized the space multiple times as I learn more about the possibilities... I've been experimenting...  both with my userpage and the wiki system overall...
 * I hope I am not violating any rules... When I first signed on to this account in 2010 I was welcomed to my user page with a greeting from JWSchmidt that ended with the following conclusion...
 * And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --JWSchmidt 22:28, 10 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Anyway, I hope this helps to answer you question. If you have further questions or there is an issue, please let me know.
 * Jtwsaddress42 (discuss • contribs) 07:13, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * So far, your contributions appear to be using Wikiversity for personal website hosting rather than as a resource that would promote learning with, for, or by others. You currently have more than 1,500 subpages in your user space. Even using automation, it would take more than four hours for anyone to clean up what you have created. In the past, we have blocked users who create this much content without adding value for others. It simply becomes unmanageable. I would have said something before, but I don't spend a lot of time looking at experienced user's content and didn't realize how far out of scope your efforts had become.
 * Regarding the coding possibilities of the wiki system, your efforts would be much better focused on using Wikidata for this rather than Wikiversity. Wikidata is specifically designed for content like this. Content like this doesn't appear to have any value as a wiki page to be edited by others. As a Wikidata item, it can be incorporated into a variety of wikis, simply by adding it to Wikidata.
 * In terms of how this violates Wikiversity policies or procedures, Wikiversity does not duplicate other Wikimedia projects. Please transition this single-item data pages to Wikidata. Thank you. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 15:30, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi Dave,
 * My apologies. I saw that others had customized their user pages and was told it was fine to experiment on the user page and sandbox...  I had no intention of abusing Wikiversity resources.  I saw that there were project boxes for notes, bibliographies, and other such other such resources... I assumed that these were acceptable projects to put together.  I had not submitted to the main wikiversity space yet, since I got caught up in exploring the possibilities, but I had definite intentions to do so once I had something coherent to offer.
 * I'm a bit disappointed that you didn't see any educational value in the material, but I understand. I had a specific set of themes I was hoping to focus on.  Primarily, the origin and evolution of critical stages/structures in the evolution of unicellular and animal biology.  I had hoped to introduce a focus on mechanistic continuity and physiological viability.  I had also hoped to emphasize the role of somatic selective systems in the organization of biological systems.  I was hoping to have the presentation properly sourced and referenced, so that others could make an independent assessment and confirmation of the material.  I was looking forward to seeing what others might have to contribute to the venture.
 * While not an expert of any kind, I have personally spent decades exploring these issues from an academic and scientific perspective and felt that I could initiate a worthwhile project about this using the bibliography I had assembled as a spring board to share the work of scientists and academics with the wikiversity community. I saw my user page as a way to direct people to useful resources...
 * Anyway, your words lead me to believe that Wikiversity is probably not the appropriate space for the kind of intellectual conversation, exploration, and knowledge I was hoping. There is much more that I could say, but I'll leave it at that.  You are free to remove/delete everything if that is your wish.
 * Again, my apologies for whatever trouble I have caused. I know it can't be easy administering a project like Wikiversity.
 * I wish you the best in your endeavors,
 * Jtwsaddress42 (discuss • contribs) 05:04, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Your efforts may have educational value, but the structure would be better supported by using Wikidata for the underlying bibliography entries. Unfortunately, I don't currently have any time to dedicate to helping you with the data migration. You might check with the folks at Wikidata to see if there are easy ways to import the data you have. Once you have the data in Wikidata, you can link to it (transclude it) from Wikiversity. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 01:12, 1 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Hello Dave,
 * I appreciate the suggestion. You have inspired me to go deeper down the wiki rabbit hole and explore the wikidata, wikisource, and wikiquotes branches... It might take me awhile to figure it out, but I'll see if I can move the bibliographic citations over to wikidata as you have suggested. I may reach out to you for further guidance at some point if that is o.k.; if I get stuck, but I'll see what I can figure out on my own for the time being.
 * Thank you for your time Sir,
 * Jtwsaddress42 (discuss • contribs) 03:05, 1 December 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jtwsaddress42