text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Dealing with conflict

Comments
Hi Courtney, noticed that you havent put your link in for multimedia and i saw that it was apart of the guidelines and i didnt want you penalised for missing it. I quickly put the link up, and im sorry if its an intruding on your page (p.s it doesnt really lead anywhere but this is the standard link that everyone is using) EamesA 14:10, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey Courtney, just been taking a look at what other people have been up to on their pages and stumbled onto yours. Really interesting topic! I have been struggling to make mine visually pleasing but you have given me some inspiration. Thankyou! Imago 03:37, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey Courtney, Your outline is great and shows the amount of detail your heading towards. It's very clear and easy to understand what each section is about. I'm looking forward to seeing more soon :-) Are you going to use any examples? I'm not sure we are allowed to but it may be a great way to illustrate conflict resolution! Alicia ~ ~ ~ ~

Hi Courtney, I'm writing the piece of Emotional Intelligence. EI, or lack of it plays a bit part in conflicts and thier resolution. You might like to take a look at the work of Goleman and Bar-On. It emphasises how knowing your own emotions and feeling empathy for others helps enormously to overcome problems and get better outcomes. Good luck. Ray U112052 06:47, 19 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey Courtney, thanks for your comments on my chapter! I have had a read through yours and it's already looking great. From your work so far, I think you've managed to find a good balance between self-help and keeping it scientific. My only suggestion would be to include some examples or 'case study' type information. Looking forward to watching your progress and reading the completed chapter! Talk soon, Shauna ShaunaB 09:57, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey Courtney, Great job so far! I like how you have broken your chapter down into sections as it makes each sub topic clear and relevant. Looking forward to seeing the end result! Maybe when you discuss conflict styles, if you could find a little quiz/survey/outline that shows what style we might be, you could include that for fun and effectiveness :)AngeM 00:15, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

Thanks very much for your lovely comments, and thanks very much Ray for your suggestion!! I will seek out that info now :)Courtney.reis 08:41, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

Courtney I am having page envy!! It looks great and pictures work so well. The quiz is a great way to engage the audience and learn a bit more about themselves. Loving it EamesA 23:50, 27 October 2011 (UTC)

Just a thought - maybe you could link your last paragraph on 'Moving on' to Naomi's page on forgiveness. Looking awesome by the way! ShaunaB 03:14, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

Thanks Shauna! That is a great idea I tihnk I may have to do that! Courtney.reis

I thought i was going alright until i came across your page :). Your page is one of, if not the most, aesthetically pleasing pages. And thats backed-up with solid content and an intresting quiz. great job! Atice 01 04:09, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

THanks very much Atice01 :) 124.168.208.83 06:29, 30 October 2011 (UTC) Hey Courtney i accidently changed your page thinking it was my page! however, i undid the problem. hope its all normal again! sorry :)

Hey Courtney, your chapter seems to be progressing really nicely! Not only is it aesthetically pleasing, but you have covered a nice amount of content and research. Maybe your summary could be a little longer - providing a specific take-home message? :) Good work! AngeM 12:51, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

HAahaha thanks ange :) yes, dont worry my summarys not even half done :) thanks very much! Courtney.reis 20:21, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

Loved the way the quiz and images make the whole page more engaging, and you've summarized the topic very well. Nicely done!Jackson997 06:06, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

thanks for helping me find the comments/discuss page Courtney. Your page is looking good and i love the conflict is difficult picture. I know you're not finished, but don't forget to write more in your conclusion about how to imporve your life. Take home/ key notes. Thanks for commenting on my page Noodles&Wedges 07:03, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Courtney, thanks for your feedback. Your chapter looks great and a very intersting topic. I really like you colour schemes and pics. (Susann 07:48, 1 November 2011 (UTC))

Hey Courtney, your chapter is looking great! The structure is very sound and it generally seems very applicable to everyday life. A bit envious! Mine has been rather tricky getting to that stage. The quiz is very innovative too. Keep up your good work. --Jaybay 12:03, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey Courtney. I edited you "see also" links into bullet points and internal links. Feel free to change it back if you want. Noodles&Wedges 01:22, 5 November 2011 (UTC) Looking good Courtney. You must be glad to have it finished. I moved the PLEASE TAKE NOTE section of the quiz into the themed box. I did this because it is information about the quiz and should therefore be with it rather than outside the box. You can move it back outside the box, but I think it gets lost there. Noodles&Wedges 04:28, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Courtney - your page looks great! I love the way in which you have chosen to break the broad topic of conflict down. The 'moving on' and 'other side of anger' sections are really intresting and it is good to have the different perspectives in the chapter. 137.92.97.111 01:47, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Draft Feedback
Hi Courtney, First of all, great visual impact and integration of pictures with text! I really like your discussion of the conflict styles leading up to the quizz. I instantly wanted to take the quizz and see what my style was! I have some feedback below regarding content, please take it or leave it as you like:

You have a really in-depth discussion of conflict and conflict styles and could also focus on the role of emotion in conflict and conflict resolution. For example, emotion knowledge, expression management and emotion control may be very useful concepts in overcoming and responding appropriately to conflict. In conflict situations, emotions may need to be regulated, controlled or managed to be adaptive and increasing emotion knowledge, for example, may assist with more adaptive responses. Under 'keeping your cool', you talk about emotionally intelligent adults. I think this is the first time you have introduced this concept and it might be worth focusing a bit more text on emotion and emotional intelligence, as this section is really a great part of your argument, providing a possibility for self-help in conflict resolution more than descriptive content.

In terms of self-help, you may like to discuss how emotions arise as we interpret the meaning (appraisal) and causes (attributions) of situations and how reappraisal and changing attributions can assist with emotion management in conflict resolution from a cognitive perspective. Seligman's ABCDE solution (tutorial 3) might even be interesting to note.

You might also like to consider mentioning the role the emotion of anger plays in conflict; how it can have a positive function, assisting with relationships and understanding of the person and problem, when it is expressed nonviolently and assertively (See, e.g., Reeve, p 314). This puts a positive spin on conflict as good resolution can lead to a better understanding and relationship than existed previously. Feeling emotional during conflict helps muster energy and resources that motivates adaptive coping behaviour to resolve conflict. Conversely, in your discussion of how conflict escalates, you might include how anger can become the more destructive form of aggression if not managed or expressed appropriately and how this could escalate or compound the conflict through the social functions of emotions (e.g., mimicry, contagion and facial and physiological feedback from the felt experience of anger that intensifies the emotion).

Chapters 11 and 12 of Reeve in particular may be useful for this topic. You have a wonderful topic to work with and your page is coming together beautifully! I look forward to reading more and seeing what you include in the summary as key points from your discussion. Well done getting to this stage so early - it is great to see so much effort going into the book chapter. Cheers, Rfoster 22:20, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

I've had a quick look - here's some comments: Sincerely, James -- Jtneill - Talk - c 22:29, 1 November 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) Overall structure - excellent
 * 2) Links - Add some interwiki links e.g., conflict resolution (Wikipedia)
 * 3) Colour - it's a bit strong for me - I'd go with very light if any background colour
 * 4) Paragraph length - Paragraphs seem too long - look to split them. Aim to communicate one idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
 * 5) Images - maybe you can find some better ones on Wiki commons? - e.g., maybe illustrate each of the conflict styles with an iconic image?
 * 6) Conflict styles - knowing one's conflict style and its pros and cons appears to be a key take-home message, so I would really push this and make it a clear part of the what is gained by the reader from this chapter. See some of my edits to help with this. Note that conflict styles is very much based here on one reference, with no mention of related research.
 * 7) Quiz - Fantastic. But check scoring - I did it and got 15/20?. Make sure to reference the source and if possible mention validity/reliability etc.
 * 8) Tables - Consider using tables to organise some information and to help break up the text e.g. maybe a table which summarises differences in conflict styles between males and females?
 * 9) Australian spelling - e.g., hypothesized -> hypothesised

Hey, I just had a read through it looks great. I got stuck on this sentence though "In accordance with the Valuable Relationship Hypothesis, it is important to consider that not only relationships we value are significant." What do you think about saying something like "In accordance with the Valuable Relationship Hypothesis, it is important to consider that the relationships we value are not the only significant ones." EFA 00:03, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks so much for all your helpful feedback guys! I am in the midst of incorporating it now. And thanks EFA, i will go and have a look at that sentence now and rework it! Courtney.reis 00:24, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Conflict styles survey
Since the 'quiz' is self-created, then perhaps provide in a sub-page Motivation and emotion/Book/Dealing with conflict/Conflict styles survey (or choose a sub-page name that fits with how you want to name the quiz) an explanation of how the test was developed - e.g., even if its just what you sent in email, that's a good start at explaining its development. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 05:04, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Courtney. This is looking great! Well done. Just a couple of grammatical things I picked up. In the first section you've written we can tak conflict as... I think this is supposed to be take? And under when intervention is needed, you need apostrophes in your hasn'ts. But otherwise you've done a really good job. One more thing I'd suggest is maybe including info about a counselling service such as lifeline in your see also section because it is a rather self-help oriented topic.

Not sure who wrote this but thankyou! That is a fab suggestion and I will definitely include info in the when intervention section. Thankyou! Courtney.reis 06:24, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey, just made a minor change. Added in a missing space. Jackson997 01:43, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Courtney - very interesting research and a great quiz - very well done - congratulations - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:17, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks so much James! The feedback is very much appreciated! Courtney.reis 23:38, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 05:18, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Weight loss motivation

The problem
In the 2004-05 National Health Survey 54% of Australian adults were classified as overweight or obese (62% men and 45% women). This figure grew from 4.6 million in 1989-90 to 7.4 million in 2004-05 (ABS, 2008). Issues surrounding being overweight and obese represent a worldwide concern leading to greater risk of particular medical conditions to the individual and greater costs to society and governments (WHO, 2003). There is hope, however, as we see that although at times it may seem so, this growing epidemic is not being completely ignored.

In order for individuals to prevent or reverse weight gain, short of having surgery they need to employ greater self-regulation efforts to eat less, acknowledge and monitor the influences affecting eating that come from their environment, and expend calories and fat stores by increasing their levels of physical activity (Reeve, 2009).

Consider this...
Every January the same situation comes knocking at our door step: Another Christmas has just rolled by, as has one more new year’s celebration, On the whole a series of holiday events has left behind the feeling of exhaustion, guilt regarding overindulgence and among others the thought that perhaps this is the time to change. Whether or not recognised ‘new year’s resolutions’ are made and it has been shown that a large portion of these relate to health related behaviours such as the decision to lose weight (Polivy & Herman, 2002).

What brings these resolutions to life?
At any one time, it has been estimated that between 40 to 70 percent of adults are using some sort of weight loss method (Georiadis, Biddle & Stavrou, 2006). Type the words ‘motivation’ and ‘weight loss’ into an internet search engine and expect to be bombarded with literally millions of results made up of motivational blogs, quotes, diets, plans and websites claiming they all have the secret to motivating long and lasting results. Take a quick glance at the current status of the fitness industry as it increasingly fills with greater numbers of fitness facilities,gym instructors, personal trainers specialising in weight loss, and even the recent addition of "24 hour" gyms. There is certainly no shortage of information and help available to those seeking to lose weight. It is a fact of life, however, that sometimes although people may know what needs to be done or what needs to be changed in regard to their health behaviours, the motivation to implement these behaviour changes can not be found (West et al., 2010). This chapter therefore attempts to address this issue and begin to answer one major question relevant in modern society: what is it that psychology tells us really motivates someone to initiate, achieve and maintain weight loss?

The decision to lose weight
Think about all the decisions you make in everyday life, some are relatively simply and take only a short moment such as the decision to watch a particular television program, while some involve a little more consideration such as the decision to quit your job. In regards to the decision to lose weight, the harsh reality is that in the beginning there was already a decision or perhaps a series of them that lead to the problem in the first place. People make choices in favour of unhealthy food options and sedentary lifestyles everyday however there are many factors that may motivate them to make health behaviour changes and initiate weight loss.

Health concerns appear to be a major source of motivation for those making the decision to lose weight and specific medical triggers and an individual’s concerns regarding their appearance do not follow far behind (Brink & Ferguson, 1998). Men are believed to be more likely concerned by future health, whereas women’s desires to lose weight are more likely driven by the want to improve their appearance (Cheskin & Friedman, 2001). Weight loss that is initiated in response to media triggers has in fact been shown to result in better weight loss and maintenance due to the enhanced motivation that is created by the experiencing of health threats (Gorin, Phelan, Hill & wing, 2004). Also, in the short-term extremely powerful motivation can come from incidental social benefits such as losing weight for an upcoming event however this motivation does not often carry over into the long-term because the focus is more so on fleeting moments (Cheskin & Friedman, 2001).

One particular study involving interviews prior to a weight loss intervention among overweight and obese men showed that the positive health benefits associated with weight loss was a major motivating factor initially (Hankey, Leslie & Lean, 2002). Motivating factors were however shown to differ with age and between those that are successful at weight loss and those that are not. In this particular study, younger men valued the cosmetic aspects or weight loss more whereas the health benefits became more important with age. Also, psychological factors more so than health reasons were more likely the motivation behind the weight loss efforts of those that were successful (Hankey, Leslie & Lean, 2002).

Self-Determination Theory: It needs to be done for the right reasons
To examine weight loss and maintenance two types of motivation need to be differentiated: autonomy and control (Williams, Grow, Freedman, Ryan & Deci, 1996). These are major components of the approach to motivation known as ‘self-determination theory’ that places emphasis on the inner resources for personality growth and self-regulation of behaviour that evolve in individuals as human beings (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

In regards to weight loss, self-determination theory suggests that in order to make the changes necessary for losing weight and maintaining the loss, an individual accepting the regulation for change as their own holds far greater importance than them simply complying with the demands for change (Williams et al., 1996). Simply put, if a person was only engaging in dieting and exercise behaviours due to someone else telling them they had to, successful weight loss and maintenance would not be likely to result from these controlling reasons. More positive consequences of dieting behaviours are produced by more self-determined forms of motivation than the least self-determined or controlling types (Georgiadis et al., 2006) and the basis for autonomous regulation relies on the need for values and behaviours to be internalised by an individual and then integrated with their sense of self (Williams et al., 1996).

This theory has been tested among participants in weight loss programs with positive results in favour of the benefits of autonomous motivation being evident. For example, Williams et al. (1996) hypothesised that dieters reporting stronger autonomous reasons for participation would more regularly attend meetings, lose more weight and maintain exercise regimen as well as weight loss. Support for the hypothesis was found with results showing that autonomous motivation greater predicted attendance and weight loss, as well as maintenance of this loss at a 23-month follow up. In another study, Silva et al. (2011) analysed the one year impact of a self-determination theory based intervention amongst previously overweight or obese women and showed that this type of intervention results in significant changes in behaviour relating to exercise and physical activity and changes in body weight and composition.

Self-efficacy: Beliefs about our capabilities
Self-efficacy as a concept and a theory of motivation has been linked to a range of health behaviours and has demonstrated a strong relationship with health behaviour change and maintenance across many domains (Strecher, McEvoy DeVellis, Becker & Rosenstock, 1986). In regards to weight loss it is said to be an important facilitator of successful behaviours and improved experiences of weight loss programs (Linde, Rothman, Baldwin & Jeffery, 2006). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s judgements about their capabilities to organise and execute actions required to achieve outcomes and cope with situations based on the skills they have and the circumstances that they face (Reeve, 2009). According to the theoretical framework, behaviour change and maintenance are a function of beliefs about whether particular actions will lead to particular outcomes (outcome expectations) and a person’s beliefs about how capable they are at performing those actions that are required to achieve those outcomes (Strecher et al., 1986).

Following their investigation of various theories said to play important roles in explaining weight management, Palmeira et al. (2007) concluded that those theories involving self-efficacy were most predictive of changes in weight. More specifically, in their sample of overweight and moderately obese women, it was found that self-efficacy was the single best correlate of a reduction in weight amongst participants in the weight management program.

Teixeira et al. (2006) examined the changes in psychosocial variables related to exercise, eating and body image and assessed their ability to predict maintenance of weight loss. They found that along with eating restraint, exercise self-efficacy significantly predicted short-term weight loss. Similarly, when Linde et al. (2006) examined how the concept was related to diet and physical activity behaviours, results showed that self-efficacy for both eating and exercise behaviours assessed prior to active treatment significantly predicted monitoring behaviours during the weight loss program.

Although initial self-efficacy beliefs predicted weight loss outcomes during treatment, they failed to do so during post-treatment (Linde et al., 2006). So perhaps the benefits of one’s capability judgements are only on their own motivating in the shorter-term before other things need to be added to the mix in order for motivation to be sustained.

 It’s hard to imagine a time when having a ‘losing personality’ could possibly be a good thing: if it regards possessing the personality traits best suited to weight loss and maintenance however, then it very well could be. Although personality does not alone stand as a motivator, it can act as a moderator of the motivations and attitudes a person possesses and the ways in which various personality traits relate to weight loss efforts are increasingly being examined in psychological science (Yu, 2011). It has been shown that while some personality traits often considered to be quite positive can in fact make dieting and weight loss a lot harder, those we see as being at times damaging can be extremely helpful when it comes to attempts at dropping that extra weight (Yu, 2011). Personality traits can affect a person’s motivation to correct their dietary intake, such as by avoiding fatty foods and eating smaller portions (Sullivan, Cloninger, Przybeck & Klein, 2007) and also their motivation to engage in exercise (Yu, 2011).

People who are said to be ‘novelty seekers’ tend to be more impulsive, get bored easily and seek thrills and a need for adventure may not provide a good fit with successful weight loss (Yu, 2011). Sullivan et al. (2007) designed a study attempting to identify the differences in personality characteristics between lean and obese people and determine whether these characteristics were associated with treatment seeking and successful weight loss. They found that obese persons scored higher on novelty seeking but lower on persistence and self-directedness traits and suggested that overeating to avoid boredom may be one of the contributors to obesity. People who achieved successful initial weight loss scored lower on novelty seeking than those that were not successful (Sullivan et al., 2007), suggesting that those who get bored easily may have trouble engaging in monogamous weight loss programs and may need more exciting strategies to motivate them towards greater losses.

Neuroticism, agreeableness and optimism are other traits believed to be associated with efforts to lose weight. People who are more neurotic worry about their health and are therefore more willing to do what is necessary to meet goals and those that are less agreeable are less likely to give into the social pressures to engage in other behaviours that surround them. Therefore, generally speaking, people who are more neurotic and less agreeable are shown to achieve greater successes in their weight loss efforts (Yu, 2011). Also, being overly optimistic may cause people to think as though they detrimental health behaviours will not affect them and they will be fine no matter what they eat or how little physical activity they engage in, therefore hindering attempts at losing weight (Yu, 2011).

Goals: Looking forward can lead to proudly looking back
Having a goal can create motivation by causing people to concentrate on the discrepancy between where they are currently are and where they would like to be (Reeve, 2009). Tracking progress relative to an end goal is one way that people can maintain their motivation when striving to achieve weight loss as it has been shown that greater weight losses are achieved when goals are set (Baron & Watters, 1981).

Individuals wishing to motivate themselves can either adopt a goal focus where they identify the end goal and motivate themselves by focusing on what they have left to accomplish, or they can focus on what they have already achieved in pursuit of their goal and motivate themselves by adopting an accomplishment focus (Conlon et al., 2011). In relation to weight loss, a goal focus motivates people to work towards a target weight because until they reach that target weight they see that not enough progress has been made. On the other hand, focusing on what has already been accomplished highlights the progress and can lead to balancing the achievement of a previous target weight with progress towards a new target.

Research has shown that goal-focused weight loss participants are more highly committed to their goals than those that are accomplishment focused or don’t set goals at all (Conlon et al., 2011). This does however seem to depend on an individual’s level of commitment as a focusing attention on what is left to achieve may be more effective when those trying to lose weight are already committed to their goal. It may be that those who don’t reach the specific goal weight that they set may be discouraged from attempting to maintain weight loss (Elfhag & Rossner, 2005). When trying to lose weight initially there is great enthusiasm that comes with the pursuit of a goal however looking at what has already been achieved gives positive feedback that may result in greater motivation and higher self-efficacy that will benefit individuals in the long-term (Conlon et al., 2011). So, if people are trying to maintain their weight loss and avoid falling back into old habits for an extended period of time then placing some focus on previous accomplishments may motivate them. After all, we should never allow what we are striving for next allow us to forget or to be proud of what we have accomplished in the past.

It can be common for people to set unrealistic goals when attempting to lose weight (Elfhad & Rossner, 2005) but setting these goals and having ‘unrealistic’ expectations may not necessarily undermine successes (Linde, Jeffery, Levy, Pronk & Boyle, 2005). Failing to meet expectations for weight loss that are set in the short-term have been shown not to be associated with longer-term achievements (Fabricatore et al., 2007). Linde et al. (2005) demonstrated that amongst participants in a two year weight loss program, larger and less realistic goals can predict greater weight loss. Therefore this shows us that setting goals that are high and possibly seen as ‘unrealistic’ do not hinder successes in weight loss and they can in fact help to assist and motivate weight loss attempts.

Back to reality
Now that we've had this nice little daydream about someone giving us money everytime we reach a weight loss goal, I know exactly what you’re thinking: when in the real world is someone actually going to pay me for achieving and maintaining weight loss? My answer to you is this: although you may stumble across the rare competition or challenge in which you will receive a financial incentive or reward for losing weight, if it never happens (which is likely) don’t lose hope. These examples of research just show that incentives and rewards can be used for motivation in weight loss efforts just the same as any other area.

Commit to buying yourself a new piece of clothing each time you reach a target weight or perhaps create your own simple deposit contract in which you put money into a money box and only get back if you achieve your goals (donate it to charity if you don’t). In fact those joining a gym, hiring a personal trainer or attempting any other weight loss strategy that involves them having to pay money are already setting up a situation in which they are financially accountable for their behaviour changes so maybe this will motivate them. Try to create your own external incentives and rewards!

Take a look around for just a short while and it is easy to see how in everyday situations, particular things can reinforce our behaviour and receiving external rewards for our achievements can give us pleasure and a sense of gain. Therefore it seems the logical question here is: if motivation can come from within, can people trying to lose and maintain weight also be motivated extrinsically by such things as incentives and rewards? Generally within programs designed to help participants lose weight, the aim is to modify the antecedents and consequences of eating and exercise in order to then create changes in these behaviours (Jeffery et al, 1993). So, how is weight loss and maintenance improved when a more direct approach is taken to modifying what comes before and after diet and exercise?

Jeffery, Wing, Thorson & Burton (1998), conducted research examining two different strategies aimed at enhancing adherence to exercise within an 18-month weight loss program. A personal trainer that scheduled, cued and participated in exercise sessions was used to strengthen the antecedents of physical activity and financial incentives based on attendance at sessions were used to heighten the consequences. Results showed that used on their own both personal trainers and incentives doubled attendance at sessions and when they were combined the attendance of participants was approximately tripled (Jeffery et al., 1998). This increased attendance however did not result in long-term weight loss but still shows that incentives are possibly a motivating factor in the short-term for people trying to increase their physical activity levels which could create habits that could send them on their way to making further health changes and achieving weight loss.

In another study of financial incentives in particular, Volpp et al. (2008) designed two approaches for losing weight applied from behavioural economists and tested them over a 16-week period. In the first intervention, participants played a lottery and then if they achieved or lost more than the target weight they received the winnings. The second intervention involved the participants investing their own money and if they failed to achieve the target weight loss they lost the money (deposit contract). Overall, participants who received either incentive-based intervention lost significantly more weight than those that received neither and results showed that while only 10.5% of the control participants met the target, approximately half in each the deposit contract and lottery group did (47.4% and 52.6% respectively).

While the findings of the above mentioned two studies didn’t translate into the longer-term there is still hope since other investigations have found differing results. For example, Mahoney, Moura & Wade (1973) showed that not only did people given instructions to self-reward themselves a portion of their deposit contingent achieve greater weight loss after four weeks of treatment, they also showed greater improvement at a four-month follow up. So, self-rewarding behaviours during weight loss efforts may indeed be useful for motivation in longer-term situations of weight control and maintenance.

Summary
Generally speaking, individuals wishing to lose weight need to decrease their overall food intake while increasing their physical activity levels. This certainly isn’t confidential information or any form of secret, however despite the fact that people often know what behaviour changes need to be made in order to improve their health we all know how hard it is sometimes to find the motivation to make these changes. This chapter therefore tried to address this issue and has outlined just some of the motivating factors involved in the initiation, achievement and maintenance of weight loss.

In summary, the initial decision to lose weight is most commonly driven by factors relating to future health benefits, specific medical triggers, appearance concerns and sometimes transient social events. Factors that help to motivate people through successful weight loss and maintenance include autonomous motivation and components of self-determination theory (autonomy and control), an individual’s self-efficacy, goal setting, extrinsic regulators of behaviour, such as incentives and rewards, and even an individual’s personality characteristics (neuroticism and agreeableness).  So based on what psychological science tells us here are some tips for those looking for motivation in reducing their weight or maintaining behaviour changes:
 * Own your decision and ensure that you are doing it for autonomous reasons rather than controlling ones
 * Set goals according to the SMART-TIME formula
 * Create incentives and reward yourself when you achieve these goals
 * Know yourself and your personality so you can prepare for your weaknesses in your strategies
 * Beware of what your good at and where your weaknesses lie and believe in your capabilities while always trying to improve on your downfalls

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:EGM6321.f11.team1.pan/HW4

= R*4.5 Solve a L2-ODE-VC = == Given ==
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

$$
 * $$\displaystyle G=(cosx)y''+(x^2-sinx)y'+2xy=0$$
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.1)
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.1)
 * }
 * }

Find
1）Show Equation(4.5.1) is exact. 2）Find $$\displaystyle\, \phi$$ 3）Solve for $$\displaystyle y(x)$$.

Solution
1) The particular form of N2-ODE-VC is $$\displaystyle G(x,y,y',y)=g(x,y,p)+f(x,y,p)y$$ where $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p)=(x^2-sinx)y'+2xy$$ $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=cosx$$ This is shown that Equation(4,5,1) satisfies the 1st exactness condition. To verify its exactness, we calculate following terms: $$\displaystyle f_x=-sinx;f_{xx}=-cosx;$$ $$\displaystyle f_{xy}=f_{xp}=0;$$ $$\displaystyle f_y=0;f_{yy}=f_{yp}=0;$$ $$\displaystyle g_x=2xy'-cosx\cdot p+2y;$$ $$\displaystyle g_{xp}=2x-cosx;$$ $$\displaystyle g_y=2x;g_{yp}=0;$$ $$\displaystyle g_p=x^2-sinx;g_{pp}=0.$$ Recall the 2nd exactness condition for L2-ODE-VC:
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

$$
 * $$\displaystyle f_{xx}=2pf_{xy}+p^2f_{yy}=g_{xp}+pg_{yp}-g_y$$
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.2)
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.2)
 * }
 * }
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

$$ Substituting those calculated terms into Equation(4,5,2) and Equation(4.5.3). As for Equation(4,5,2) , $$\displaystyle LHS=-cosx+0+0=-cosx$$ $$\displaystyle RHS=2x-cosx+0-2x=-cosx$$ which means $$\displaystyle LHS=RHS$$ As for Equation(4,5,3) , $$\displaystyle LHS=0+0+0=0$$ $$\displaystyle RHS=0$$ which means $$\displaystyle LHS=RHS$$ Therefore, Equation(4,5,1) is exact.
 * $$\displaystyle f_{xp}+pf_{yp}+2f_y=g_{pp}$$
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.3)
 * $$\displaystyle (Equation\;4.5.3)
 * }
 * }

2) We find the first integral $$\displaystyle \phi$$ by integrating $$\displaystyle f=\phi_p=cosx$$. $$\displaystyle \phi=h(x,y)+\int fdp$$ $$\displaystyle \phi=h(x,y)+cosx\cdot p$$ Also, $$\displaystyle g=(x^2-sinx)p+2xy=\phi_x+\phi_y p$$ where, $$\displaystyle \phi_x=h_x-sinx\cdot p$$ $$\displaystyle \phi_y=h_y$$. Substituting those partial derivatives of $$\phi$$ into function g. $$\displaystyle (x^2-sinx)p+2xy=(h_y-sinx)p+h_x$$. To solving h(x,y), we assume that $$\displaystyle h_x=2xy $$ Therefore, $$\displaystyle h(x,y)=x^2 y+k_1(y)$$ Partial derivate respect to y, $$\displaystyle h_y=x^2+k_1'(y)-sinx=x^2-sinx$$ We can find that $$\displaystyle k_1'(y)=0$$ which means $$\displaystyle k_1(y)=k_1=constant$$. Therefore, the first integral is $$\displaystyle \phi=x^2y+cosx\cdot p+k_!$$

3) Recall that $$\displaystyle \phi=k_2$$, we obtain a L1-ODE-VC that $$\displaystyle x^2y+cosx\cdot p=k_2 -k_1:=k_3$$. Rewrite it into $$\displaystyle y'+\underbrace{\frac{x^2}{cosx}}_{\displaystyle a_0(x)}y=\underbrace{\frac{k_3}{cosx}}_{\displaystyle b(x)}$$

Therefore, the integration factor is $$\displaystyle h(x)=exp[\int^x a_0'(s)ds]$$ $$\displaystyle =exp[\int^x \frac{s^2}{cos s}ds]$$. The solution is

title: User:EGM6321.f11.team1.pan/HW4


text:
User:Egm6321.f11.team4.allen/HW4

= Problem R*4.3 Solve L2-ODE-VC via the Power Form = From [[media:Pea1.f11.mtg21.djvu|Mtg 21-3]]

Given
$$\displaystyle (x^my^n)[\sqrt{x}y''+2xy'+3y]=0$$

Find
$$\displaystyle \mathbf a)$$ Find $$\displaystyle m, n $$ to render the above equation, equation (1) p.21-3, exact. $$\displaystyle \mathbf b)$$ Show that the first integral is a L1-ODE-VC as shown below, equation (2) p.21-3. $$\displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=xp+(2x^\frac{3}{2}-1)y=k $$ with $$\displaystyle p(x):=y'(x) $$. $$\displaystyle \mathbf c)$$ Solve equation (2) p.21-3 for $$\displaystyle y(x) $$.

Solution Part A
$$\displaystyle \mathbf a)$$ In order to determine $$\displaystyle m $$ and $$\displaystyle n $$, we must analyze the two conditions of exactness for N2-ODEs. The first condition requires the N2-ODE to fit the following particular form of equation (2) p.16-4. $$\displaystyle G(x,y,y',y)=g(x,y,p)+f(x,y,p)y=0 $$ The second condition requires the N2-ODE to satisfy the following equations, (1)-(2) p.16-5. $$\displaystyle f_{xx}+2pf_{xy}+p^2f_{yy}=g_{xp}+pg_{yp}-g_y $$ $$\displaystyle f_{xp}+pf_{yp}+2f_y=g_{pp} $$ First, we must determine the new $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p) $$ and $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p) $$ that include the Integrating Factor, $$\displaystyle h(x,y)=x^m y^n $$. Factor through by the integrating factor to yield the following: $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p)=2x^{m+1}y^np+3x^m y^{n+1} $$ $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=x^{0.5+m}y^n $$ This satisfies the first exactness condition. Since $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p) $$ is not a function of $$\displaystyle p $$, the second equation of the second exactness condition significantly simplifies to $$\displaystyle \cancel {f_{xp}}+\cancel {pf_{yp}}+2f_y=\cancel {g_{pp}} $$ $$\displaystyle 2f_y=0 $$. Differentiate $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=x^{0.5+m}y^n $$ with respect to $$\displaystyle y $$ to obtain $$\displaystyle f_y(x,y,p)=nx^{0.5+m}y^{n-1} $$. Plugging in $$\displaystyle f_y(x,y,p) $$ into $$\displaystyle 2f_y=0 $$ yields $$\displaystyle 2f_y=2nx^{0.5+m}y^{n-1}=0 $$. The only way to solve the problem is to set $$\displaystyle n=0 $$. Since we solved for $$\displaystyle n $$, we can simplify $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p) $$ and $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p) $$ to $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=x^{0.5+m} $$. $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p)=2x^{m+1} p+3x^m y $$. Now we turn our attention to the first equation of the second exactness condition after we simply. $$\displaystyle f_{xx}+\cancel {2pf_{xy}}+\cancel {p^2f_{yy}}=g_{xp}+\cancel {pg_{yp}}-g_y $$ Next, solve for the partial differentials of $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p) $$ and $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p) $$ with the results shown below. $$\displaystyle f_{xx}(x,y,p)=(m+0.5)(m-0.5)x^{m-0.5} $$. $$\displaystyle g_{xp}(x,y,p)=2(m+1)x^m $$. $$\displaystyle g_y(x,y,p)=3x^m $$. Plug these three equations back into the first equation of the second exactness condition to obtain $$\displaystyle (m+0.5)(m-0.5)x^{m-0.5}=2(m+1)x^m-3x^m $$. After a visual inspection, one can deduce the LHS to be zero due to no other like terms. $$\displaystyle 2(m+1)\cancel {x^m}-3 \cancel {x^m}=0 $$ The $$\displaystyle x^m $$ terms cancel out leaving a simple algegra problem. $$\displaystyle 2(m+1)-3=0 $$ So $$\displaystyle m=0.5 $$. The integrating factor for this L2-ODE-VC is $$\displaystyle h(x,y)=x^{0.5} $$.

Solution Part B
$$\displaystyle \mathbf b) $$ We can solve for the first integral using equation (3) p.16-5, $$\displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=h(x,y)+\int f(x,y,p) dp $$. Since $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=x $$ we can simply equation (3) p.16-5 to $$\displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=h(x,y)+xp $$. Solve this for the partials as shown below. $$\displaystyle \phi_x=h_x+p $$. $$\displaystyle \phi_y=h_y $$. Next, we use the first equation of the second exactness condition, $$\displaystyle g(x,y,p):=\phi_x+\phi_yp $$, to obtain the following: $$\displaystyle 3x^{0.5}y+2x^{1.5}p=h_x+p+h_yp $$. One can equate the following: $$\displaystyle h_x=3x^{0.5} $$. $$\displaystyle h_y+1=2x^{1.5} $$. Integrating these yields the following: $$\displaystyle h=2x^{1.5}y+k_1(y) $$. $$\displaystyle h=(2x^{1.5}-1)y+k_2(x) $$. After differentiating the equation you obtain $$\displaystyle h_y=\cancel {2x^{1.5}}+k_1'(y)=\cancel {2x^{1.5}}-1 $$. $$\displaystyle h_x=\cancel {3x^{1.5}y}+k_x'(x)=\cancel {3x^{0.5}y} $$. Integrating yields the next result: $$\displaystyle h_1(y)=-y+k_1 $$. $$\displaystyle h_2(x)=k_2 $$. Plug these back into the integrating function equation to yield $$\displaystyle h=2x^{1.5}y-y+k_1 $$. $$\displaystyle h=(2x^{1.5}-1)y+k_2 $$. These equation are the same. Now that we have solved for the integrating function equation, we can input this into the original equation for the final solution. $$\displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=xp+(2x^{1.5}-1)y=k $$ with $$\displaystyle k=k_3-k_1 $$.

Solution Part C
$$\displaystyle \mathbf c) $$ Next we need to solve for $$\displaystyle y(x) $$ starting from the first integral equation above. The N1-ODE-VC can be rearranged to the following form: $$\displaystyle P(x)y'+Q(x)y=R(x) $$. $$\displaystyle xy'+(2x^{1.5}-1)y=k $$. Divide through by $$\displaystyle x $$ to obtain $$\displaystyle y'+\frac{Q(x)}{P(x)}y=\frac{R(x)}{P(x)} $$. $$\displaystyle y'+(2x^{0.5}-\frac{1}{x})y=\frac{k}{x} $$. Using equation (3) p.11-4, we can solve for the integrating factor. Knowing $$\displaystyle a_0(x)=\frac{Q(x)}{P(x)} $$ and solving yields $$\displaystyle h(x)=\exp[\int^x a_0(s)ds+k_1] $$ $$\displaystyle h(x)=\exp[\int^x \frac{Q(s)}{P(s)} ds+k_1] $$ $$\displaystyle h(x)=\exp[\int^x (2s^{0.5}-\frac{1}{s})ds+k_1] $$ $$\displaystyle h(x)=\exp[\frac{4}{3}x^{1.5}-\ln{x}+k_1] $$ $$\displaystyle h(x)=\frac{1}{x}\exp[{\frac{4}{3}x^{1.5}}+k_1] $$. Next we use equation (1) p. 11-5 to solve for $$\displaystyle y(x) $$. $$\displaystyle y(x)=\frac{1}{h(x)}\left[\int^x h(s)b(s)ds+k_2\right] $$ $$\displaystyle b(x)=\frac{R(x)}{P(x)}=\frac{k}{x} $$ $$\displaystyle y(x)=\frac{1}{\frac{1}{x}\exp[{\frac{4}{3}x^{1.5}}+k_1]}*\left[\int^x (\frac{1}{s}\exp[{\frac{4}{3}s^{1.5}}+k_1])(\frac{k}{s})ds+k_2 \right]$$

Author
Egm6341.f11.team4.allen 03:45, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User:Egm6321.f11.team4.allen/HW4


text:
User:Marshallsumter/Early telescope

The early telescopes as manufactured in the Netherlands are refracting. From the Wikipedia article on the telescope: "The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s (the 17th century), using glass lenses."

Keplerian telescope
From the Wikipedia article Refracting telescope: "The Keplerian Telescope, invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is an improvement on Galileo's design. It uses a [plano]convex lens as the eyepiece instead of Galileo's [double] concave one. The advantage of this arrangement is [that] the rays of light emerging from the eyepiece are converging. This allows for a much wider field of view and greater eye relief but the image for the viewer is inverted. Considerably higher magnifications can be reached with this design but to overcome aberrations the simple objective lens needs to have a very high f-ratio".

From the Wikipedia article Refracting telescope: "All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination of an objective lens 1 and some type of eyepiece 2 is used to gather more light than the human eye could collect on its own, focus it 5, and present the viewer with a brighter, clearer, and magnified virtual image 6."

Air telescope
From the Wikipedia article refracting telescope: "Johannes Hevelius built [an air telescope] with a 45 m (150 ft) focal length and even longer tubeless "aerial telescopes" were constructed".

From the Wikipedia article Aerial telescope: "An aerial telescope is a type of very-long-focal-length refracting telescope built in the second half of the 17th century that did not use a tube. Instead, the objective was mounted on a pole, tree, tower, building or other structure on a swivel ball-joint. The observer stood on the ground and held the eyepiece, which was connected to the objective by a string or connecting rod. By holding the string tight and maneuvering the eyepiece, the observer could aim the telescope at objects in the sky. The idea for this type of telescope may have originated in the late 17th century with the Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr.,  though it is not clear that they invented it. "

Tubes
"There are indeed ancient tablets that mention astronomers' lenses supported by a golden tube to enlarge the pupil, and in Nineveh a rock crystal lens was found (Pettinato 1998). Maybe one day a new archaeological excavation will find a Babylonian telescope for the first time."

Early lenses
"Lens-shaped crystals have long been known from Bronze Age contexts". These are "usually recognized as short-focus magnifying lenses." From the Wikipedia article Nimrud lens: "The slightly oval lens [40 x 35 mm] has been roughly ground and has a focal point about 110 millimetres (4.5 in) from the flat side. "

title: User:Marshallsumter/Early telescope


text:
User:Egm6321.f11.team2.Xia/RP4.3

=R*4.3 - Integrating Factor Methods =

Given
Giving the following N2-ODE $$\displaystyle \sqrt{x}y''+2xy'+3y=0$$ (4.3.1)

Find
find $$ \displaystyle m,n\in\mathbb{R} $$ such that 4.3.2 is exact: $$ \displaystyle (x^{m}y^{n})\left[\sqrt{x}y''+2xy'+3y\right]=0 $$ (4.3.2) show that the first integral is a L1-ODE-VC $$ \displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=xp+(2x^{\frac{3}{2}}-1)y=k $$ (4.3.3) with $$ \displaystyle p(x):=y'(x) $$ Solve 4.3.3 for $$ \displaystyle y $$.

Solution
The $$ 2^{nd} $$ exactness condition is , $$\displaystyle f_{xx} + 2pf_{xy}+p^2f_{yy} = g_{xp} + pg_{yp} - g_{y}$$  (4.3.4) $$\displaystyle f_{xp} + pf_{yp} + 2f_y = g_{pp} $$  (4.3.5) From 4.3.2, we have $$ \displaystyle \underbrace{(x^{m+\frac{1}{2}}y^{n})}_{f(x,y,p)}y''+\underbrace{2(x^{m+1}y^{n})p+3x^{m}y^{n+1}}_{g(x,y,p)}=0 $$  (4.3.5) Then $$\displaystyle f_{x}=(m+\frac{1}{2})x^{m-\frac{1}{2}}y^{n} $$ $$\displaystyle f_{xx}=(m+\frac{1}{2})(m-\frac{1}{2})x^{m-\frac{3}{2}}y^{n} $$ $$\displaystyle f_{xy}=n(m+\frac{1}{2})x^{m-\frac{1}{2}}y^{n-1} $$ $$\displaystyle g_{pp}=0 $$ $$\displaystyle f_{yy}=n(n-1)x^{m-\frac{1}{2}}y^{n-2} $$ $$\displaystyle f_{xp}=0,\qquad f_{yp}=0 $$ $$\displaystyle g_{x}=2(m+1)x^{m}y^{n}p+3mx^{m-1}y^{n+1} $$ $$\displaystyle g_{y}=2nx^{m+1}y^{n-1}p+3(n+1)x^{m}y^{n} $$ $$\displaystyle g_{xp}=2(m+1)x^{m}y^{n}+3mx^{m-1}y^{n+1} $$ $$\displaystyle g_{yp}=2nx^{m+1}y^{n-1}+3(n+1)x^{m}y^{n} $$ $$\displaystyle g_{pp}=0 $$

Substitute the above equation to 4.3.4 and 4.3.5, we have $$\displaystyle (m+\frac{1}{2})(m-\frac{1}{2})x^{m-\frac{3}{2}}y^{n}+2pn(m+\frac{1}{2})x^{m-\frac{1}{2}}y^{n-1}+p^{2}n(n-1)x^{m-\frac{1}{2}}y^{n-2}=2(m+1)x^{m}y^{n} $$ $$\displaystyle +3mx^{m-1}y^{n+1}+p\left(2nx^{m+1}y^{n-1}+3(n+1)x^{m}y^{n}\right)-2nx^{m+1}y^{n-1}p-3(n+1)x^{m}y^{n} $$  (4.3.6) $$\displaystyle 2nx^{m+\frac{1}{2}}y^{n-1}=0 $$  (4.3.7) From 4.3.7 we know $$\displaystyle n=0 $$ , then exam 4.3.6 we have $$\displaystyle m= \frac{1}{2} $$. Thus $$\displaystyle f(x,y,p)=\underbrace{x}_{\phi_{p}},\quad g(x,y,p)=\underbrace{3x^{\frac{1}{2}}y}_{\phi_{x}}+\underbrace{2x^{\frac{3}{2}}}_{\phi_{y}}p $$  (4.3.8) Integrating 4.3.8, we have $$\displaystyle \begin{array}{l} \phi=xp+a(x,y)\\ \phi=2x^{\frac{3}{2}}y+b(y,p)\\ \phi=2x^{\frac{3}{2}}y+c(x,p)\end{array} $$ Thus $$ \displaystyle \phi(x,y,p)=xp+(2x^{\frac{3}{2}}-1)y=k $$  (4.3.9) From 4.3.9, we have $$\displaystyle \underbrace{1}_{a_{1}(x)}\cdot y'+\underbrace{(2x^{\frac{1}{2}}-\frac{1}{x})}_{a_{0}(x)}y=\underbrace{\frac{k}{x}}_{b(x)} $$ So

title: User:Egm6321.f11.team2.Xia/RP4.3


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Peer influence in adolescence

Overview
Imagine this... You’re at your graduation after party to celebrate finally reaching the end of your seemingly never-ending high school years. One of your classmates pulls out a packet of cigarettes and with a defiant grin, starts offering them around to all your friends. None of you have ever tried one so you assume that the group consensus will be to turn down the offer. To your surprise, the packet gets passed around the circle and everyone before you takes one. Eventually, the packet makes it's way around to you. What do you do? How about if everyone except one person had chosen to take a cigarette? Would you go with the crowd or the minority? What about if that minority was your best friend? What if the person offering the cigarettes was the most popular guy in school? Or, what if he was a ‘nerd’? What would you do then? And what would be the motivation behind your actions in each of these situations?

The above scenario is an example of peer influence; something that each and every one of us faces as we make our way through the difficult and often confronting time that is adolescence. The purpose of this chapter is to unpack the motivations behind the decision to conform (or not) in situations just like the above. After a brief description of peer influence and it's scope, we will look to theory to try and explain it's motivational power. The theories explored include self-determination theory, the concept of normative social influence and Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. We will then move on to discuss what might make certain individuals more susceptible to peer influence, before we use of all this information to formulate a 'way forward' for both parents and teens. For adolescents, how can you use your motivations to avoid the risks and stay true to yourself? For parents, what can you do to best support your teens through the inevitable pressures?

Peer influence: The basics
Peer influence describes the process by which people are shaped by the attitudes and behaviours of those around them. The majority of literature on peer influence is focused on adolescents, and for good reason. The teenage years mark the stage in life between childhood, where parents and carers are primarily relied upon, and adulthood, where we become largely autonomous. Steinberg and Monahan (2007) suggest that adolescence is the time when we are most susceptible to peer influence, but also that it provides a great opportunity to practice the skills required to avoid influences that may be detrimental to us, and stay true to ourselves. To do this, we must understand the motivations behind such conformity.

Before taking a look at the scientific and theoretic explanations, it's worthwhile to understand the diverse effects of peer influence. Most of us correlate this form of influence with negative outcomes. While research does link conformity to peer influence to cigarette smoking (Vitoria, Salgueiro, Silva, & De Vries, 2009), alcohol use (Wood, Read, Mitchell, & Brand, 2004) and antisocial behaviour (Monahan, Steinberg, & Cauffman, 2009), it is important to also recognise that peer influence can be positive. For example, some suggest that those who interact with prosocial peers are more likely to exhibit prosocial behaviours themselves and set positive goals (Barry & Wentzel, 2006). Peer influence can also provide motivation towards academic and sporting (Keegan, Spray, & Harwood, 2010) achievement. So, what motivates these behaviours in adolescents?

Example: Riding with a drunk driver
Since Asch’s famous conformity experiment (1955), a significant amount of research has been carried out on conformity and peer influence. For example, Powell and Drucker (1997) examined the willingness of participants to get in the car with a noticeably intoxicated driver, with the hypothesis that the choices of others (represented by a confederate) would significantly affect participants’ decisions.

The results confirmed not only the hypothesis but also the frightening power of peer influence. Ninety six per cent of participants chose to get into the car when the driver was intoxicated and the confederate also chose to do so. Conversely, 90 per cent refused to enter the car when the confederate openly refused. This indicates that participants did not base their decisions on whether the driver was intoxicated, but rather on the decisions of another person. Interestingly, participants were also measured on their level of concern prior to making their decision. Results indicated that the level remained consistently high across all conditions involving the intoxicated driver. Therefore, it was the mere presence of another non-complying individual who gave them the confidence to speak up. This offers an important lesson for peer influence – it only takes one non-conforming individual to empower others.

Theory
There are no theories developed specifically to explain peer influence in adolescence. However, by applying the following theories, we are able to gain interesting insight into the motivation behind conformity behaviours.

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of human motivation based on three basic psychological needs; autonomy, relatedness and competence. The theory suggests that psychological well-being and development are dependent upon these three needs being met (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Therefore, as humans we are motivated to work towards satisfying these needs. The various aspects of SDT have been applied in a variety of settings including education (Guay, Ratelle, & Chanal, 2008), parenting (Joussemet, Landry, & Koestner, 2008) and cultural practices (Chirkov, Ryan, Kim, & Kaplan, 2003). In this discussion around peer influence, there are two needs in particular which are seen as especially important.

The first is relatedness. That is, the need to feel connected and close to others (Veronneau, Koestner, & Abela, 2005). According to SDT, humans are motivated to satisfy this need. This provides a viable explanation for the motivational power of peer influence in that as humans, we desire to feel related to others and this motivates us to behave in ways that are consistent with those around us. As a result, we can foster peer relations and satisfy the innate need for relatedness.

The second need that is particularly relevant to peer influence is that of autonomy. While this may at first seem counterintuitive, it is in fact the motivation to achieve autonomy from parental influence that may lead an individual to be more susceptible to peer influence. Therefore, the motivational power of peer influence may stem from the adolescents need for autonomy from parental influence.

Interestingly there is a lack of research linking the psychological need for competence to peer influence, however as we indirectly discover later in the discussion around involvement in sporting teams, the motivation behind this need may provide import insight into conformity.

Normative social influence
Normative social influence, which later was adopted by Latane’s social impact theory (Latane, 1981), provides possibly the most straight forward and intuitive explanation for the motivation behind conformity to peer influence. This model suggests that we are motivated to conform as a result of our desire to be liked and accepted (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). This is often discussed in comparison to what is called informational influence which is described as conformity due to the desire to be factually correct (Miyajima & Naito, 2008).

Normative social influence has consistently been shown to outweigh the perceived importance of informational influence in adolescents. It is generally suggested that compliance with normative influence breeds only extrinsic motivation; that is, the beliefs are not internalised and therefore, not long term. However, a recent Japanese study proposes otherwise (Miyajima & Naito, 2008). The adolescent participants in this study were tested on the importance of social influence to conformity at two points in time, with and without the presence of normative influence. Results indicated that adolescents show strong conformity that continues even without the presence of immediate normative influence. From this it has been suggested that attitudes may be privately accepted and therefore the behaviour occurs no longer as a result of extrinsic motivation to conform, but rather due to intrinsic motivations. While this research certainly provides insight into the possibly evolving nature of conformity motivation, lack of replication to date weakens these findings.

Erikson: Identity vs. role confusion
Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development provide another useful platform for us to further understand the motivational forces behind peer influence. Each of Erikson’s eight stages of development represents a life challenge which builds upon the successful accomplishment of the previous stage. For adolescents, the challenge is 'identity' verses 'role confusion', and Erikson suggests we are intrinsically motivated towards achieving a resolution (Kroger, 2000). During this stage, adolescents are thought to consider for the first time – ‘who am I?’, ‘who do I want to be?’ and ‘who does society expect me to be?’ According to Erikson (1968), this search for identity often involves exploring extremes and testing limits before choosing a life path. Delinquent and self-destructive tendencies are seen as possible, and maybe even natural, aspects of the journey. Erikson goes on to discuss the need for youth to find stable relationships outside those with their families – a concept he labels 'fidelity'.

It may be suggested, then, that conformity to peer influence in adolescence is motivated by this search for identity. Those questions we ask ourselves about who we want to be provides motivation for wider experiences and the search for fidelity leads us to look to others. This search for wider experiences is possibly the most researched area with regards to conformity to peer influence. Studies such as that by Monahan, Steinberg and Cauffman (2009) find that adolescents, especially those in middle adolescence, are very open and susceptible to involvement in antisocial behaviours. One possible rationale behind this is that youth are motivated to explore varied experiences through others in order to define their identity.

Identity agents
More recent research adopting Erikson’s idea that identity formation is a major challenge during adolescence looks at the process more so as a product of influence through collaboration. Schachter and Ventura (2008) introduced the idea that adolescents actively participate in the identity formation of their peers, and motivate them to conform to influences through confirmation and support. Peers who involve themselves in this form of influence have been labelled 'identity agents'. In contrast to research that supports Erikson’s theory, studies on identity agents have primarily focused on the positive outcomes of peer influence. For example, one study found that adolescents were motivated to conform to the positive study habits of their peers who offered social support and confirmation (Sugimura & Shimizu, 2010). While this idea of identity agents is relatively new, research thus far appears promising. The idea of confirmation as motivation towards conformity to peer influence is also relevant to self-esteem.

High-status groups
While peer influence is seen to be a particularly important aspect in adolescence, the level of influence differs across groups. First and foremost, high-status groups are more influential than low-status groups. More specifically, high status groups are seen as most visible and it is these groups that are said to be more closely associated with behaviour change. This is true for both antisocial and prosocial behaviours (Ellis & Zarbatany, 2007). One possible explanation for this is that high-status groups generate more benefits than low-status groups and therefore the individuals within these groups are more motivated to maintain their status and receive the resulting benefits. The entry requirements for membership of these groups is often much higher and therefore, the influence more powerful (Tarrant, 2002). Think about the stereotypical ‘popular group’ that is portrayed in movies. To be part of the group not only do you have to meet basic requirement of being enrolled at a certain school for example, but you also have to be an attractive, athletic, party-goer with a car worth more than most of us can fathom. This is just one example of a high-status group with a number of benefits which motivates conformity in current and future members.

Individual charactertistics
There is an array of individual characteristics which appear to moderate the motivational forces of peer influence. Some of these are briefly explored below:

Age
Age is a major factor in susceptibility to peer influence and it is well established that adolescents are the most vulnerable group. Those aged between 10 and 14 appear to have little resistance to peer influence and research suggests that resistance slowly increases between the ages of 14 and 18. This is consistent for both males and females, but does appear to differ slightly cross-culturally (Steinberg & Monahan, 2007).

Gender
Research suggests that females are more susceptible to peer influence, while males appear to be more influential (Conway et al., 2011). One study looking at drinking behaviours found that in mixed-gender friendship groups, males heavily influence the drinking behaviour of females, however female group members have little impact on the males' behaviours (Gaughan, 2006). This finding is yet to be generalised to other behaviours but does offer an interesting platform for further study.

Self-esteem
A clear link exists between low self-esteem and susceptibility to peer influence. This has been demonstrated in terms of conformity to gender stereotypes (Good & Sanchez, 2010) and bullying behaviours (Salmivalli, Kaukiainen, Kaistaniemi, & Lagerspetz, 1999) in that those with low-self esteem are more likely to be influenced by the behaviours of others. This links back the theoretical constructs of normative social influence and identity agents.

Parenting
Authoritative parenting is described as warm yet tough, and is linked to intrinsic motivation (Baumrind, 1971). Research suggests that this brand of parenting encourages adolescents to be less susceptible to peer influences in circumstances where the behaviour is antisocial, and much more susceptible to peer influence in circumstances where the behaviour is prosocial (Mounts & Steinberg, 1995).

Avoiding the risks: For adolescents
Now that we know about the motivational power of peer influence and can see what might make adolescents vulnerable, we should be able to determine a technique to avoid the negatives and stay true to ourselves.

First and foremost, it is important to recognise and accept that as humans we are motivated to fulfil innate needs for relatedness, autonomy and competence (as per SDT); we desire to be liked and accepted (as per normative social influence); and finally that adolescence is a time of identity formation (as per Erikson’s theory). After accepting these factors, it is then possible to direct our inevitable motivations towards more positive and appropriate behaviours. An example of this is shown in a British study looking at peer pressure to smoke (Michell & West, 1996). The following quotes provide a powerful illustration of the findings:

“…A girl I used to hang about with…she used to always smoke…and I felt as if I was being a bore so I started doing it.” (Michell & West, 1996, pg. 45)

''“I used to hang around with these four girls and they used to smoke and then they started asking me did I want to smoke and they never dropped it so I just stopped hanging about with them after that. I hung around friends who were into soccer and all that”.'' (Michell & West, 1996, pg. 45) Evidently, the motivation of the first participant to be liked and accepted has driven her to start smoking, while the second participant was able to avoid the risk and use those motivations, as well as her need for relatedness, to become involved in sport. Not only is this a much more healthy and positive alternative, but research strongly indicates that involvement in sporting teams provides a sense of belonging (Cameron & MacDougall, 2000). Research looking specifically at sporting teams and SDT indicates that involvement leads to satisfaction of all three needs (relatedness, competence and autonomy), and more broadly, predicts well-being (Reinboth & Duda, 2006). While involvement in sport is a great use of motivation, there are many other options such as study and community groups. Therefore, to avoiding the risks of peer influence we must accept our innate human motivations and use them to drive us towards positive and healthy behaviours.

Supporting your teens: For parents
While the motivation towards greater autonomy from parents is a natural part of adolescence, research indicates that there are still things you can do as a parent to help your teen avoid the risks of peer influence. As we have already learnt, authoritative parenting appears to be the most effective parenting style to assist adolescents in avoiding the risks and importantly, embracing the positives (Mounts & Steinberg, 1995). But what is so special about this model of parenting? Firstly, research emphasises the importance of providing structure, support and avoiding over-autonomy that can border on neglect (Dishion, Nelson, & Bullock, 2004). Having said this and being aware of the human motivation towards autonomy, being too restrictive can undermine the need this motivation and cause adolescents to engage in antisocial behaviour out of protest (Miller, Loeber, & Hipwell, 2009). By using the well-balanced authoritative style, parents are able to nurture the need for relatedness and offer acceptance, while still allowing some level of autonomy. This model directly aligns with the our knowledge on the motivational power of peer influence and once again works by fulfilling innate needs in a more positive manner.

Summary
The motivational power of peer influence is a complex concept that affects adolescents more so than any other age group. Empirically supported theories suggest that we are motivated to conform to peer influence by our needs for relatedness and autonomy, our desire to be liked and accepted, and finally by our quest to discover and create our adult identities. While these general theories of motivation are useful, there are also factors such as age, gender, self-esteem, parenting and status which appear to moderate the power of peer influence. Females, aged between 10 to 14 with low self-esteem and restrictive parents, are said to be most susceptible. However that doesn't have to be the case.

By utilising theory and scientific evidence, it is possible to devise techniques to avoid the risks and stay true to you. Firstly, it is vitally important to accept the innate psychological needs and motivations that we have as human beings. With this as a foundation, adolescents can fulfil these motivations through positive and healthy activities such as involvement in sporting teams. For parents, a similar principal applies; work towards fostering needs and desires in a positive way, particularly through authoritative parenting practices.

'''Adolescence is a transitional period that usually involves pressures and influences from a variety of sources. Find a positive pathway and use your motivation to move towards it. By doing so, you might just influence, inspire or empower someone else!'''

Quiz yourself
{Complete the following sentences using what you have learned. Self-determination theory is based on three { psychological _13 } needs (in alphabetical order): { autonomy _9 }, { competence _10 } and { relatedness _11 }.
 * type="{}"}

Erik { Erikson _7 } suggests that adolescence is a time of { identity _8 } verses { role _4 } { confusion _9 }.

Conformity as a result of the desire to be socially accepted is called { normative _9 } { social _6 } { influence _9 }.

{ __________ groups are more influential than ____________ groups. - Low-status; high status - Middle-class; upper-class + High-status; low status - Upper-class; middle-class
 * type=""}

{Which style of parenting is said to be the most successful for avoidance of risky peer influence? - Authoritarian + Authoritative - Permissive - Uninvolved
 * type=""}

{Which of the following needs are met by involvement in sporting teams? (You may select more than one answer). + Competence + Autonomy - Identity formation + Relatedness - Acceptance
 * type="[]"}

{True or false - Males are more susceptible to peer influence than females. - True. + False.
 * type=""}


text:
User:Brennan.McDonald/Free Agency and the Australian Football League

/BPS2011 Essay/


text:
EPET

EPET or Earthquake Performance Evaluation Tool is the software released on 11/13/2006 to the public through NEES Central and is now available at http://www.seismicevaluation.org/epet/. EPET enables virtual experiments on building models with and without base isolators called Earthquake protectors. On demand, all virtual experiments can be animated. Online version of EPET known as EPET1 is available at.

The EPET program has been developed on Visual Studio C++ 6.0 platform. Developers may download the project's source code contained in the ZIP file (complementary to the file above).

title: EPET


text:
Template:PD-textlogo

Public domain Public domain false false

title: Template:PD-textlogo


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy

Comments
Re: Chapter on empathy Hi LTB

Hope it's ok to comment on your draft outline. Empathy sounds like it will be a great topic.

Really like the idea of doing something intereactive, like a quiz. Making the distinction between empathy and sympathy is a really good idea too.

Noticed you were getting into the biological underpinnings of empathy by looking at the impact of hormones. Wondered if you'd thought about including something about the (possible) role of mirror neurons - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron#Empathy - & perhaps discarded it already.

Exploring whether empathy motivates volunteering also sounds like a good fit. It made me wonder to what extent it contributes to making people in the helping professions, like psychologists, more effective at their jobs. & whether there is a downside to empathy that needs to be managed - i.e. does it contribute to burnout in these profession if there aren't any boundaries set.

I'm also working on a chapter on emotions (about shame). You're more than welcome to comment if you'd like. I'll definitely be watching your chapter with interest. Hope the comments are helpful. Jeanette 09:47, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi LTB, I like your outline. Made me realise that this subject could be quite challenging to get your head around. Empathy vs Sympathy for instance, I hadn't thought to differentiate before. Look forward to reading more Crazydaisy 23:09, 24 October 2011 (UTC)Crazydaisy

Hi LTB, Also like the 2 boxes on sympathy and empathy as people sometimes don't understand the difference. I saw the earlier about mirror neurons and I am sure I have read something about child development and how interaction between child and mother/father use these mirror neurons. Also if you wanted to include anything on child development and how secure attachment helps us individual's develop empathy and how trauma in children can stunt one's development of empathy. Also if you wanted to include any issues of psychopathology and some personality disorders and how empathy is not developed in some individuals. (Benk 03:26, 29 October 2011 (UTC))

Hi, I really like what you've done so far. Its great that you've made it directly relevant to life! Also, you have a great outline in terms of what you will cover. I'm just wondering (of course, there is no need to include it if you don't think it fits) if you might like to include what happens when one doesn't have empathy, or when empathy is a bad thing such as in war. I think that this would provide a nice contrast to all the benefits and good things empathy provides.U3033746 11:39, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi Ltb, I just wanted to thank you for the link to some volunteering images. I had been struggling to find them and this helped considerably. I'm not sure if I can offer you anything as useful at this stage, but lots of encouragement. The page + info is looking great.Crazydaisy 09:13, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

I really like the layout of your chapter. Comparing sympathy and empathy is effective as they are often confused. I have done a few counselling units and empathy is emphasised as an essential professional skill. There are many articles available through ebsco, and I found the testbook [Geldard, D. & Geldard, K. (2009). Basic personal counselling: a training manual for counsellors (6th ed.). Frenchs Forest: Pearson Pren5ce Hall] relevant if you have a chance to have a look. Good work :) AngeM 23:11, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Ltb, I just took your quizzes and got 0/4 and 0/3 - not sure what that says about me!!! :-) Crazydaisy 03:43, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi LTB, I love the layout of your page! It's beautiful! I had a look at your issue with the quiz... and I can't seem to think of a solution. You would think that making both of them a plus would work but it doesn't :-( My only suggestion would be that you make a "NOTE" under each quiz saying that you do not need to submit the quiz and there is no right and wrong answer - it is for reflection purposes only. KristaLeanne 00:12, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Ltb, its that Crazy Daisy again. Hope you don't mind, but I've stolen your "see also" idea. I am cross-referencing your chapter, so you get a mention!!Crazydaisy 07:42, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Draft comments
Well done and getting this chapter draft and calling for feedback. Some comments from a quick review: Sincerely, James -- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:10, 29 October 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) I've made some minor 'wikifications' of your page, but well done - it's look great and clearly going a long way towards being accessible and interesting.
 * 2) I like the comment about including mirror neurons to boost the neurological perspective.
 * 3) What is the difference between empathy and sympathy? - Love the boxes, but add a bit more discussion - what is the difference (and what is the similiarity) and why does this matter?
 * 4) You might consider the opposite of empathy (empathy ... narcissism ... sociopathy) - so, perhaps the focus here is one end of a spectrum. Understanding what motivates narcissism (you can link to other chapters and resources on this), might help in understanding motivation for empathy.
 * 5) Hormones content (oxytocin) sounds promising - will tie nicely into motivational aspect of empathy and could help with explaining an evolutionary perspective on empathy---narcissism.
 * 6) It could be helpful to relate this to the Week 11/12 content on individual differences and personality e.g., how related is empathy to the big 5 personality factors, esp. agreeableness?
 * 7) Quiz idea is excellent - can you explain/tie this back into theory/research about mood and empathy?
 * 8) Peer pressure - link to the peer influence chapter
 * 9) Other theories - these could be helpful, but I'd also be prepared to leave them out and just concentrate on say 3 key perspectives. I think its better to cover a small amount of content well than a lot of content poorly. Then explain in the general introduction what the underlying problem/question is and which motivational perspectives will be used and why. In providing take-home messages in the conclusion, clearly explain what can be done now to enhance the occurrence of empathy based on, say, the three key perspectives.

Boxes with icons
Maybe try something like this?

Right box
Or let me know if you want different. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:24, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

Discussion
Hi all, Thanks for your feedback. Mirror neurons are a very interesting addition to my page - thanks you for the suggestions. But I am realising how much there is still to do! :) Ltb 00:33, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Link to oxytocin TED talk
Hi LTB

Not sure if you'd seen this already. Ted talk on oxytocin. Refers to empathy. May be a good link for you. http://neurologicalcorrelates.com/wordpress/2011/11/03/from-ted-paul-zak-trust-morality-and-oxytocin-video/?utm_source=twitterfeed&utm_medium=twitter Regards Jeanette 14:11, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

This is a really great chapter - the quiz was excellent - congratulations - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 00:36, 26 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 03:59, 10 December 2011 (UTC)