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Photographic Composition

There are a handful of simple techniques which will improve the quality of your photographic compositions. With practice, they become second nature.

Lesson 1: Framing

 * Framing, in photography, means placing an additional object, or objects, in the foreground of the picture for aesthetic purposes. The object does not have to completely surround the main subject.

 * A foreground object provides a point of reference.

 * It gives a sense of distance and comparative size.

 * It can hide elements which detract from the main subject.

 * It is aesthetically pleasing, and gives a feeling of completeness to the picture.

 * “A tree, a doorway, a window, or even a gap in a fence positioned around the subject can create a frame within the picture’s frame.” (Joy of Photography)

[1]

[2] [3]

[1] Framing devices: wildflowers, river, tree. [2] Framing device: gateway. [3] Framing device: patio.

Lesson 2: Repetition & Reflection

 * Make use of the repetition of shapes, colors, lines, objects, etc. They are all around us, and just waiting to be utilized by the photographer who combines observation with creativity.

 * Repetition gives form and unity to a composition.

 * It can emphasize a theme or a subject.

 * Reflections, such as in water or glass, are an effective form of repetition.

 * The repetition is not created by the photographer, but merely observed and captured in an effective way in the photograph.

[1] [2]

[3]

[1] Reflection is a special kind of repetition which is extremely effective. [2] Repetition of shapes on old buildings in the U.K. [3] Repetition of shapes in an auditorium.

Lesson 3: Closing In

 * Close in on your subject to exclude unwanted elements.

 * This is especially important with portraits, both candid and formal, where the subject usually fills the frame and very little else is visible.

 * It can be accomplished by getting physically closer, using a telephoto lens, or adjusting your zoom lens.

 * It eliminates wasted space within the picture and focuses more attention on the subject.

 * It minimizes background distractions.

 * Even scenics, with their wider panoramic view, should be carefully composed so that only the desired elements are included in the frame. Wide expanses of plain blue sky, for example, should not take up half the picture frame, but can be reduced to a narrow strip across the top of the picture.

 * Closing in can be done after the fact by editing the picture on a computer ("cropping"). However, this is less desireable, as the picture will have to be enlarged after cropping to bring it back to its original size, and picture quality decreases in proportion to enlargement.

 * “Some subjects don’t like you close up, so you’ll have to catch them unawares.” (Tim Fitzharris)

[1] [2]

Above and below: [1] and [3] The pictures include wasted space and unsightly elements. [2] and [4] The photographer closes in, minimizing distractions and emphasizing the subject.

[3] [4]

Lesson 4: Leading Lines

 * The photographer should be on the alert for leading lines. They most commonly take the form of converging lines.

 * Leading lines draw the eye into the picture.

 * They can be used to direct the eye to the main subject.

 * They give form, unity, and depth to a composition.

[1] [2]

[1] The converging lines of buildings, beach, and hills draw the viewer into the picture. [2] The converging lines of the boardwalk focus the viewer’s eye on the subject.

[3] [4]

The straight-on shot [3] seems static compared to the angled shot [4], where the parallel lines become converging lines and draw the eye into the picture. In [4], the photographer has also made the image more aesthetically pleasing by including a framing device (the tree) and moving the clock away from dead center (see Rule of Thirds, below).

Lesson 5: Rule of Thirds

 * As a general rule, it’s a good idea to locate your main subject about a third of the way in from one side or the other, or from the top or bottom, or both.

 * This placement is more aesthetically pleasing than simply placing the main subject in the center, which seems predictable and uninteresting.

 * Sometimes, a subject may be in the center, but the main center of attention on the subject is a third of the way in, such as the face in a portrait, or the clock on the tower of Big Ben (above right).

 * The rule of thirds is a general guideline. There are exceptions to the rule, however. Different types of subject matter or the purposes of the photographer may require a different positioning of the main subject.

[1] [2]

[3]

[1] The ship is one-third from the right, rather than dead center. Note how the lines in the foreground all lead to the ship. [2] If one were to draw horizontal and vertical lines at thirds, the coastline would roughly follow the lines on the top, bottom, and left of the picture. [3] The sun and its reflection on the water are roughly a third of the way in from the left. The shoreline is about a third of the way up from the bottom. The headland and horizon are more than a third from the top due to the sun, but dead center is still avoided.

Lesson 6: Blur the Background

 * Emphasize your subject and minimize distracting elements by blurring the background and/or foreground. This is accomplished by using a large aperture setting. (This requires a camera which allows you to control the aperture size and/or shutter speed.)

 * The distance within the clear focus area is called the depth of field.

 * The depth of field at different settings is marked on better quality lenses.

 * To diminish the depth of field, the aperture size must be increased. However, the larger aperture size lets in more light, so to avoid overexposure, the shutter speed must also be increased. The faster shutter speed will let in less light and balance the effect of the increased aperture size on the amount of light which enters the camera.

 * The balance between shutter speed and aperture size can be used to either increase or decrease the depth of field.

 * Many cameras today have an aperture priority feature. When aperture priority is selected, you can manually set the aperture size and the camera automatically sets the correct shutter speed to go with it. If you have a shutter priority camera, you can increase the shutter speed manually, and the camera will increase the aperture size automatically. Check the readout to see what the aperture size will be, then check the lens markings to see what the corresponding depth of field will be. Some SLRs have a button you can push which lets you see in the viewfinder how a picture would look at a particular aperture setting.

 * This method can also be used in reverse for the purpose of having an extremely wide depth of field, which has everything from very near to very far in sharp focus. To accomplish this, use a smaller aperture. This will require a longer shutter speed to compensate for the light loss. If the shutter speed is too long, a tripod may be required. (If you don't have a remote control, use a shutter release cable with the tripod.) A substitute for a tripod, though not as good, is to find a firm place upon which to steady your camera.

 * Small aperture: large depth of field. Large aperture: small depth of field.

[1] [2]

[1] and [2] The narrow depth of field in these pictures allows only the main subject to be in focus. This eliminates background distractions. It also results in a soft texture which both highlights the main subject and creates a pleasing contrast with the subject's sharp outlines.

Other Tips

 * Light Source: Always be aware of your light source and how it is acting on your main subject, as well as how it is acting on the scene as a whole.

 * Exposure: Expose your main subject correctly, even at the expense of other elements in the picture. This will require a knowledge of how exposure works in your particular camera.

 * Fill Flash. If your main subject is in shadow, but set against a bright background (this is often the case with informal portraits), you can set the exposure for the subject, but this usually results in an unpleasant overexposure of the background. If you expose for the background, the subject will be underexposed. The solution is to override the automatic flash and set it to the "on" position. The flash will light up the shadow areas so that both subject and background are correctly exposed.

 * Haze: Haze will destroy your scenics, except at sunrise and sunset. When the sun is low, the light acts on the haze in a different, often dramatic, way. But when the sun is high, shoot scenics when there is little or no haze.

 * Protect Your Eyes: If your camera is an SLR, and you are using the viewfinder rather than the screen, keep in mind that it is dangerous to look at the sun through a zoom or telephoto lens. These lenses act like magnifying glasses and intensify the sun’s rays.

 * Computer Editing: The principles of photographic composition can also be applied to the computer editing of photographs, but there is no substitute for taking a good picture in the first place. The less editing required afterwards, the better.

 * Quote: “Once you have mastered a few basics, taking pictures becomes easy.” (Ernst Haas)

Test Yourself
Without looking at the descriptions below, see what compositional elements you can identify in the following photographs, then scroll down to see the analyses.

[1] [2]

[3]

[4] [5]

[6] [7]

Analysis of the Above Pictures

[1] This example of leading lines is unmistakeable. The lines of the road, both the edges and the painted lines, draw the eye into the picture toward the mountains in the distance.

[2] The shadow replicates the shape of the sculpture, forming a repetition which is aesthetically pleasing and emphasizes the main subject. Note how the placement follows the rule of thirds, with the sculpture being a third of the way in from the right and the shadow a third of the way in from the left. Finally, the subject and its shadow fill the frame, so that the picture does not contain more wasted space or distracting elements than necessary.

[3] A different type of repetition, this time created by the flawless reflection of the building in the water, which creates an inverted image of the subject. Rather than being taken straight on, the buildings are shown from an angle, creating converging lines which add interest to the composition.

[4] This photo shows that leading lines can be more subtle than those of the highway picture (top left). Note the faint lines in the snow, the row of trees, and the fence, all converging towards some unknown place in the woods farther on, and drawing our focus along with them. The picture's center of focus is about a third of the way up, obeying the rule of thirds. There is repetition in the fence posts, and also in the trees on the right with their snow-covered branches.

[5] There is a little of everything in this picture. The lookout obeys the rule of thirds, being about a third of the way down and about a third of the way in; the greenery at the top and bottom forms a framing device; and due to the angle, the lines of the wall lead the eye to the focal point of the photograph: the lookout. The photographer has covered an otherwise empty patch of sky with attractive leaves and branches, giving us the feeling that we are in the scene, standing under the tree looking out. Finally, there is a repetitive pattern in the two palms at the bottom of the picture, which adds interest to what is already a captivating composition. The only flaw is that the camera is slightly tilted. This is a common problem, but can be corrected by taking greater care when clicking the shutter button, or after the fact with a good photo software program.

[6] There is a great deal of repetition going on in this picture: the curves of the handles, the tightly wrapped cloth, the points of the umbrella frames, the ripples on the wood, and the parallel lines of the edges of the wooden slats and cross pieces. Yet within all of this repetition there is also variety in the different patterns of wood grain, and the different colors and patterns in the cloth. It may be that the photographer arranged the contents of this picture, rather than just stumbled across it. Or it may be that the umbrellas were already there, but he saw the potential for a picture and just rearranged them a little to suit his purpose. He then closed in tightly so that anything which would take away from the unity of the composition was shut out. All of these things combine to result in a very effective photograph.

[7] The rule of thirds is observed in the placement of the face, which is the visual center of interest, a third of the way down from the top. The picture appears to be set in a busy marketplace, but the photographer has minimized clutter and distracting elements by closing in tightly and filling the frame with his subject.

title: Photographic Composition


text:
User:Chih-wei Wang

In-class Active Quiz

1. How do you open the Select Pane in PowerPoint 2007? Go to Home> Edit >Select> Selection pane

2. In PowerPoint 2007, how do you change the maximum number of Undoes to 30? Go to start button/powerpoint options/advanced/editing options/ Maximum number of Undos> Choose 30

3. How do you save a PowerPoint 2007 file as a web page? click on office button/save as/save as type/web page

4. How do you change the color of a SmartArt object in PowerPoint 2007? Go to smart art tools/design/smartart styles/change colors

5. In PowerPoint 2007, how do you include slide numbers on every slide? Go to insert/text/slide number/click on the slide number button/apply to all

6. How do you change the slide orientation of a PowerPoint 2007 presentation to portrait? Go to design/page set up/slide orientation/portrait

7. How do you modify a textbox so that its text shrinks to fill the space in the shape in PowerPoint 2007? Right Click on the shape> Format Text Effects> Text Box> Auto Fits> Pick Text on overflow

8. How do you add a circle shape to a slide in PowerPoint 2007? Go to Insert> Illustration> Shapes> Basic Shape> click on the circle 9. On the Ribbon in PowerPoint 2007, how do you change text in the textbox to WordArt? Go to Insert> Text> Word Art> Choose one

10. How do you open a current presentation in PowerPoint 2007? Kepboard Shortcut = Shift+F5 or Go to Slide show/Start slide show/from current slide

11. How do you turn on the grids in PowerPoint 2007? Right click on the presentation background/Grid and Guides/Grid seetings section/pick display grid on screen/click ok

12. at will allow you to quickly make a PowerPoint presentation as quickly as you can type? Outline Tab

13. How do you go to Handout Master in PowerPoint 2007#What does the Contrast function do in PowerPoint 2007? Go to view/presentation views/handout master

14. PowerPoint 2007, how do you print out the slide you are currently looking at? Go to office button/print/on print range section/pick on current slide/ok

Homework 5

 * CPU: INTEL775 Q550 Speed at 2.83GHz (Core2 Quad)
 * 1) Memory (RAM): 4 GB DDR III 1600 OCZ FLEX 3F1600LV4GK (CL7)
 * 2) Hard Drive: 1.5 TB.7200 RPM SEAGATE SATA
 * 3) Optical Device : HP 22X 1140I AP LightScribe (DVD-RW)
 * 4) Monitor: LCD 20'' LG W-2043T-PF (20" LCD Screen 1600 x 900 Resolution 16:9 Aspect Ratio 5ms response time)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Chih-wei Wang


text:
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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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User:Patcharaporn/homework5

the best and quickest pc aviable now is Velocity Micro Edge Z30 specification: CPU (intel core i7 860 3.2 Ghz overclock) memory: 8GB 1,333MHz DDR3 SDRAM hard drive: 1TB 7,200 rpm optical device: dual-layer DVD burner monitor: n/a Graphic: 896MB Nvidia GeForce GTX 260 (216 core) Motherboard chipset: Intel P55 Express Operating system:Windows Vista Home Premium SP1 (64-bit)

title: User:Patcharaporn/homework5


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User:Epunderwood~enwikiversity

Under Construction.

title: User:Epunderwood~enwikiversity


text:
US States/Florida/Everglades history

In many ways, the history of the Everglades is the story of Southwest Florida. Always a remote and demanding area, only a handful of white settlers lived along the banks of the Allen River (now the Barron River) and inside what are now the city limits, until Barron G. Collier made Everglades the headquarters for his Tamiami Trail road-building company in 1923. The Calusa Indians had lived in the area even earlier, of course, and more than three centuries earlier had built a large shell mound on nearby Chokoloskee Island.

The families of John Weeks and William Smith Allen are believed to be the area's first permanent residents, settling along the Allen River just after the Civil War. They were farmers and had to eke out livings on the banks of the river, the only naturally high ground around. This was only 10% of the territory, which is now Everglades City; the rest of the high ground today is the result of Collier's dredging operations in the 1920s. The town's first transportation link to the outside world came when Collier built a railroad 14 miles from Deep Lake to the north, down to the Allen River, and eventually the town grew and became a shipping depot for produce.

Between 1921 and 1923, Collier acquired 90% of the land in southern Lee County, including what is now Collier County. Collier would then start to build the Tamiami Trail, linking Tampa with Miami, which crossed the state through the swamp. This road would become a lifeline for Everglades - but before Collier could build in the town, he had to create a high and dry base for it. From 1926 to 1929 a dredge pulled muck from the Allen River and piled it up to make a town; when the river's supply was diminished, the dredge moved to the east side of town and created Lake Placid. This dredging expanded usable land from less than 100 acres to 660 acres. It also made the town an island with the river on the west, a canal and lake on the east and noth and Chokoloskee Bay to the south.

With land to build on, the town grew - by 1929 there was a trolley, hospital and clinic, movie house, library, railroad depot, common garage for autos, two hotels and, of course, a jail. Although many construction jobs were lost when the Tamiami Trail was completed in 1928, commercial fishing grew during the late 1920s and 1930s. By 1953, the town had grown large enough to take over its own municipal operations and bought the water, sewer, electric, street, fire and other public services from the Collier company. Soon after, the Collier companies moved thir headquarters to Naples, and the town became less of a construction-related community. Sponge fishing flourished in the 1940s, shrimping in the 1950s, and stone crabbing in the 1960s. Today, the Everglades includes areas of Carnestown, Chokoloskee, Copeland, Everglades City, Lee Cypress, Monroe Station, Ochopee, Plantation Island, Port of the Islands and Seaboard Village. Often considered a "walk back in time" life, the Everglades is more typical of earlier days of Florida's development than in the communities found on either coast. Many of those who live in the area have deliberately chosen to take a slower approach to life and live closer to nature, enjoying and preserving the resources of the area. Visitors will find much to do - from the annual Seafood Festival to daily backwater and deepwater boat tours and excursions. Restaurants for every taste can be found - but, of course, seafood is usually the natural choice. Accommodations are available for every budget and preference. In short, Everglades represents much of the "oldie Florida" without the capital "o" - small, friendly communities, good food, comfortable accommodations, and churches to welcome visitors to Sunday services. Everglades, The South Coast of Florida, where there's still time to be friendly.

Brief History of the Everglades
America’s Everglades once covered almost 11,000 square miles of south Florida. Just a century ago, water flowed down the Kissimmee River into Lake Okeechobee, then south through the Everglades marsh to the flats of Florida Bay – the ultimate destination of the pure sheet flow. Dubbed the River of Grass for the saw grass that flourished throughout the marsh, the Everglades is a mosaic of freshwater ponds, prairies and forested uplands that supports a rich plant and wildlife community. The river spans as much as 60 miles in width, yet is only six inches deep in some places.

Known throughout the world for its abundant bird life, the Everglades is home to several species of large wading birds such as the roseate spoonbill, the wood stork, the great blue heron and a variety of egrets. The mix of salt and freshwater makes it the only place on Earth where alligators and crocodiles exist side by side. In 1905, former Florida Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward began a concerted effort to drain the Everglades to make the land suitable for agriculture and development. Large tracts of swamp were transformed into productive farmland, and cities such as Miami and Fort Lauderdale began sprouting up along the coast. As the population grew, so did the need to provide flood control to the new residents of South Florida. In 1948, the U.S. Congress authorized the Central and South Florida Project, which created the most effective water management system in the world. Today, the project's extensive network of man-made canals, levees and water control structures channel 1.7 billion gallons of water daily from the Everglades out into the ocean.

The loss of water changed the natural characteristics of the marsh. As the water receded, so did the natural habitat of wading birds, fish and dozens of animals. Saltwater flowed farther into the marsh from the ocean, and pollution flowed in from neighboring farms and cities. Changes in water quality stifled the growth of native plants, allowed exotic plants to take root and fueled the growth of algae which worsened the loss of natural habitat. As a result of this cycle continuing for the last half of the 1900, the Everglades today is half the size it was a century ago. Despite the damage that was done more than 50 years ago, the Everglades is still considered a national treasure just as extraordinary as the Grand Canyon, the Great Lakes or the Redwood Forests. A remarkable coalition of highly diverse and bipartisan interests has joined forces to make the restoration possible.

To revive and protect this national treasure, Florida is undertaking the largest environmental ecosystem restoration in the world. It is Florida’s top priority to improve the quality of life for all south Floridians, provide adequate water supply for south Florida’s growing population and provide improved flood control, all while preserving America’s Everglades and Florida’s Liquid Heart – Lake Okeechobee - and protecting natural wildlife and plants for future generations.

Park History
It is apparent that the Everglades have been inhabited for over 10,000 years, perhaps even 20,000. By 4,000 years ago the area with its ample food supplies-fish, shellfish, plants, and land animals--supported a substantial population. Europeans first appeared on the scene in 1513 when Ponce de Leon explored portions of the Florida peninsula. On a later visit he was killed in the area by a Calusa arrow. When the Spanish arrived in the 1500's, two primary groups of Indians, the Calusas and the Tequestas--lived in the area. Population estimates range between about 5,000 and 20,000. The Tequestas were fishermen, while the Calusa ate shellfish, clams, and oysters. However, the Indian population was largely eliminated by the diseases introduced by the Spanish explorers, such as tuberculosis, influenza, and polio.

After the initial Spanish attempts at conquest, the south Florida area returned to isolation for 300 years. After 1700, Indians of the Creek Confederacy from Georgia and other areas north of Florida migrated into the areas vacated by the extermination of the previous inhabitants. These Indians came to be known as Seminoles ("free man" in an Indian language), but they were largely eliminated and eventually forcibly moved as a result of the Seminole Wars (1835-1842, 1855-1859) which followed the acquisition of Florida by the United States in 1821. Whites begin to settle the coastal areas of the present park in the 1880's and 1890's. Piioneers supported themselves with a combination of farming, fishing, hunting, and hunting of birds for their plumage.

For potential visitors, ParkVision recommends "Story Behind the Scenery" guides and "Trails Ilustrated" maps.

However, threats to the integrity of the Everglades ecosystem became a reality with the arrival of people. Many birds were hunted to the brink of extinction for their plumage. The sheet flow "river of grass" which forms the basis for the existence of the glades came under attack as Floridians began to divert the waters flowing south from Lake Okeechobee to control floods and provide water to the burgeoning population. In the early 1900's Governor Napolean Bonaparte Broward campaigned on promises to drain the wetlands. In 1909 the Everglades Drainage District completed the Miami Canal connecting Lake Okeechobee to the Miami area, and additional channeling projects were completed by the Army Corps of Engineers. A dam on the south rim of the lake itself was completed in 1930. Later, the Tamiami Trail road which runs east and west through the Everglades was completed, interrupting the flow of water to the south.

During this period the characteristics of the glades began to attract attention. In 1832 J. J. Audubon visited and observed and studied the amazing concentration of birds. The Audobon Society later spearheaded efforts to save the bird populations from the ravages of hunters. In 1901 this effort culminated in a law prohibiting hunting of many of the area's birds (except for game birds).This effort was highlighted in 1905 when one of the Audobon wardens, Guy Bradley, who was charged with prevention of bird poaching, was murdered by a hunters. Eventually, interest in preservation of parts of the glades began to develop. In 1916 the Paradise Key area was established as Royal Palm State Park, a result of effort by the Florida Federation of Women's clubs.

However, threats to the resources of the park continued to mount, as a result of oil drilling, lumbering, and other activities. These threats generated interest in preservation of the natural wonders. National Park Service Director Stephen Mather advocated a national park for the Everglades in 1923. In 1929, the Florida legislature created the Tropical Everglades National Park Association under the leadership of landscape architect Ernest Coe to investigate the possibility of establishment of a national park. Coe's tireless efforts resulted on May 20, 1934 in the passage of a bill authorizing creation of the park, and although the boundaries of the park were to enclose 2 million acres no land was to be actually acquired for 5 years. In fact, land acquisition was further delayed until after World War II when the park was finally dedicated on December 6, 1947 by President Truman in a ceremony at Everglades City. It was the first park to be founded to protect primarily biological resources.

Despite creation of the park, threats to the Everglades environment have continued. Water supplies and quality remain a problem, and in the 1960's an enormous airport on the eastern border of the park, planned to cover 39 square miles, was planned. This plan was opposed by environmental groups and finally abandoned. In 1962 water suppolies to the Everglades was seriously diminished when the water flowing under the Tamiami Trail was restricted through only 4 water control gates. Water was on occasion shut off completely; among other casualties of this action, half of the existing alligator population was lost.

In 1971 Congress mandated a minimum flow of water into the park. And, in 1974, the Big Cypress National Preserve was created. This area had been part of the original authorization in 1934 but had not actually been included in the park when it was officially created.In 1979, an additional 107,600 acres was added to the park.

However, the Everglades has often been called the most endangered national park. Water supplies and the natural flow and cycle are still problems. Diminished flows of water from the north have increased the intrusion of salt water into the southern section of the park near the coast. The water which does flow into the park is somewhat polluted by agricultural runoff. Very high levels of mercury have been detected in the park's fish. The park is under serious stress from three major sources--the increasing domination of non-native plants, water quantity, and water quality.

Everglades Landforms
To many people the name "Everglades" conjures up images of a deep, dark swamp. And while swamps exist in the Everglades, particularly in the Big Cypress National Preserve, most of the land area of the park is quite different from that. Very different types of land and vegetation can be found in the park, often dependent on how high the land lies and where differences of a few feet have substantial effects.

Sawgress Marsh The heart of the Everglades is the vast sawgrass marshes, the largest of its kind in the world. Prior to the engineering efforts of the human residents of Florida, these marshes were once part of a huge, shallow river 50 miles wide and 120 miles long running from Lake Okeechobee in the north to Florida Bay in the south. Noted naturalist and defender of the Everglades Marjorie Stoneman Douglas appropriately termed these areas the "River of Grass." This river was created from overflowing water from the lake running slowly--on the order of a foot or so a minute--across the slightly inclined floor of south Florida. From a geological perspective, this environment and the Everglades themselves are quite young, perhaps 5000 years.

There are two seasons in the Everglades--the dry season, from about November through April, and the wet season, from May until October when an average of 53 and even 100 inches of rain might fall. Approximately 60 inches of rain falls during the wet season and the limestone base of the sawgrass areas are covered by water. The sheet of water which flows through the Everglades results from overflow from Lake Okechobee in the north after the summer rains.

However, the "River of Grass" from Lake Okeechobee through the Everglades no longer flows freely. Over the past 60 years it has been interrupted by 1400 miles of canals, levees, and spillways, designed to control flooding and provide water to the ever increasing population of south Florida. The current park embraces only about 1/10 of the original Everglades area. Surprisingly, to some, the sawgrass marshes are not soft, but have a porous but extremely hard limestone bottom. It is quite possible to walk across these prairies even during the wet season without sinking. The sawgrass plant itself is actually a sedge, one of the oldest green plants on earth. It's low requirements for nutrients makes it well adapted for the Everglades environment. The leaves of the sawgrass plant have serrated edges which can easily cut a person if he or she runs a hand along the plant in the wrong direction. During the wet season the roots of the plant are completely covered by water; in the dry season the marshes are occasionally devastated by fire. Periodic fire is actually helpful, as it eliminates dead, matted sawgrass which otherwise accumulates. The sawgrass marsh is the emblem of the Everglades, in some ways calling to mind the African savanna. But there is no real equivalent to the sawgrass marshes and the sheet flow anywhere in the world; the ecosystem is unique. Marjory Stoneman Douglas, in her famous book Everglades: River of Grass, wrote in 1947 that "there are no other Everglades in the world."

Pine Forest The highest areas of the park, which lie several feet above the low areas, are covered by forests of slash pine and plants like the saw palmetto which grows in the mulch of fallen pine needles. These are called "pinelands" or "pine flatwoods." The term "slash pine" is derived from the old practice of slashing their bark to get sap to make turpentine. Other pines which are found in these areas include longleaf pine, southern Florida slash pine, and pond pine. The floor of these forests is rough, rugged, and rocky.

At one time much of the eastern border of the park was covered by these forests, as they ran in a band about 4-5 miles wide some 50 miles to the south from Ft. Lauderdale. The Miami and Ft. Lauderdale areas used to be part of these pinelands.The only remaining portion of this forest is that which exists in the park. The land in the Everglades is very flat (the highest point is only 8 feet!) and the wetlands are quite shallow, so elevations of even a few feet make a considerable difference in the character of the land and the vegetation which grows on it. Pinelands are located on the highest points which are rarely covered with water where there are pockets of fertile soil laying on the limestone base. Fires which periodically sweep park areas are necessary for the survival of the pine forests, clearing undergrowth and promoting growth. Without fire, pineland areas will become overgrown, rather than open, and eventually dominated by hardwood trees. The slash pine itself has a corky bark which is quite resistant to fire. Hurricanes, however, can be a different matter. Hurricane Andrew's powerful winds snapped the trunks of about 30% of the parks pines in 1992. The pine forests are rich with vegetation, supporting fully half the plant species in the park. Within the pine forests, based on the limestone floor, solution holes can be found. Alligators used to live in these pockets sin the limestone, but there isn't usually enough water anymore to support them.

Hardwood Hammocks Few trees grow within the sawgrass marshes themselves since their roots would be covered by water during a significant portion of the year. However, within the marsh are places where the limestone is just a couple of feet higher, high enough to permit hardwood trees like mahogany, gumbo limbo, cocoa palm, and other plants to grow. These areas, which may range from an acre or so to hundreds of acres, remain dry year round. The hammock creates ins own protective environment, often cooler than the surrounding glades. The leaves cast off by the hammocks trees mix with rainwater to form an acidic solution, dissolving limestone downstream from the hammock, surrounding the hammock with a moat which provides additional protection in the event of fire.

Because they are dry the hammocks served as places for the Indians of the glades to live. They also grew crops in the soil of the hammock; the word "hammock" may be derived from the Indian term for "garden place." The damp shade, however, also provides a wonderful environment for the mosquitoes which can often be found there in great numbers. One of the most well-known of the hammocks is Mahogany Hammock, below.

The interior of the hammock is dark and thick with vegetation, the floor spongy with rotting leaves. Mahogany Hammock also features a .3 mile boardwalk nature trail (left) which allows the visitor to experience the interior of a hammock. Mahogany Hammock happens to contain America's largest mahogany tree, a portion of which is seen below. Many of these trees have been logged for the superior quality and durability of their wood. So many trees have been destroyed by fire, hurricanes, and logging that they no longer reseed naturally, and therefore are likely eventually to disappear. This is considered a natural occurrence and thus will be allowed to happen.

Mangrove Swamp In areas near the coast where the salt water of the gulf and Florida Bay meets the fresh water traveling from 13:42, 4 February 2010 (UTC)13:42, 4 February 2010 (UTC)—–—the Lake Okechobee is realm of the mangrove trees. These trees prefer brackish water, and are responsible for creation of much new land because their roots and trunks trap organic material in the water. Mangrove swamps cover more than 500 square miles in the park. The photograph below shows Buttonwood Canal through the mangrove groves. This channel was built by the National Park Service and was somewhat controversial as it allow salt water from Florida Everglades.

The Everglades is a two million acre wetland ecosystem that reaches from central Florida, near Orlando, all the way south to Florida Bay. During the wet season, Lake Okeechobee overflows, releasing water into a very slow moving, shallow river dominated by sawgrass marsh--dubbed the "river of grass." The water flows southward, passing through diverse habitats, including cypress swamps, wet prairie and mangroves, until it reaches Everglades National Park and eventually Florida Bay.

Originally, the Greater Everglades Ecosystem had a large diversity of habitats connected by wetlands and water bodies. Since the 1800's, human actions have been altering the Everglades landscape. Water diversions and flood control projects cut water flows and connections between wetlands throughout the Everglades. Combined with agricultural and urban development, the size of the Everglades has decreased dramatically.

People and the Everglades
The Everglades are surrounded by human development, including the cities of Miami and Ft. Lauderdale. Its wetlands and wildlife draw large numbers of birders, anglers, boaters and other outdoor enthusiasts. The Everglades also provide critical, and often undervalued, services to people, called ecosystem services. The waters of the Everglades ecosystem support agriculture and provide drinking water for south Florida. The wetlands improve water quality by filtering out pollutants and absorbing excess nutrients, replenish aquifers, and reduce flooding.

Wildlife in the Everglades
The Everglades is internationally known for its extraordinary wildlife--from Florida panthers, to crocodiles, manatees, and a huge host of birds such as roseate spoonbills, egrets, and wood storks.

Plants
The diversity of Everglades' habitats means there's also a great diversity of plants. There are wetland plants from sawgrass and bladderwort to cypress and mangrove trees. There are pine trees, hardwoods, and even beautiful orchids.

Birds
Over 350 bird species can be found in Everglades National Park alone. The Everglades is known for its many wading birds, such as white and glossy ibises, roseate spoonbills, egrets, herons and wood storks, but it also hosts huge numbers of smaller migratory birds. Some species, such as the snail kite, wood stork and Cape Sable seaside sparrow have become endangered species. Reptiles: Both alligators and socrocodiles live in the Everglades and are sometimes mistaken for each other. American alligators like deep, freshwater channels of water called sloughs and wet prairie, where they dig out ponds for nesting. The American crocodile lives in the coastal mangroves and Florida Bay. Everglades National Park has 27 different kinds of snakes alone.

Mammals
The Everglades' most endangered animal, a mammal, is the Florida panther, of which about 80 now survive. Other well-know Everglades mammals are water-dwellers--the West Indian manatee, which is also endangered, and the bottlenose dolphin.

Invasive Species
When an ecosystem is out of balance and native plants and animals are struggling, species from other parts of the world can take advantage of the changed conditions to establish themselves. Some introduce species become a small part of the landscape, while others thrive at the expense of native plants and wildlife. When an introduced species puts additional stresses on native wildlife and threatens habitats, it is called an invasive species. An invasive species is able to spread throughout new ecosystems, because it doesn't have the natural predators from its native land to keep it in check. Once they've become established, these invaders are hard to stop. The Everglades is being threatened by numerous plant and animal invaders. Invasive species in the Florida Everglades were introduced both on purpose and by accident.

Altering water flows and the natural pattern of wildfires allowed exotic plants, such as the Brazilian peppertree, Chinese privet, melaleuca and Old World climbing fern to invade. 1.5 million acres of the Everglades have been invaded by nonnative plants.

title: US States/Florida/Everglades history


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User talk:Yoavd

 Hello Yoavd, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Gbaor 14:08, 4 February 2010 (UTC)

 Hi , I am Percy. Nice to meet you. I love the beach, swimming, fishing, and I am currently doing some research at Wikiversity on oceanography. I am also learning to play piano. What do you like? Can I be your mascot?

Hello, My main hobby is chess, and I write a lot about it in the Hebrew wikipedia. Apart of this I am a former teacher of financial modelling and accounting in the Tel Aviv University (for 25 years) but I almost never writing about those subjects. I like to listen to classical music but I do not play any instrument. How can you be my mascot?? --Yoavd 05:46, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yoavd


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User:Anthockey00

Graduate Student in Clinical Psychology

title: User:Anthockey00


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User:Chris.uhlik

I'd like to see some user page templates from which I could select a starting point for my user page. I am not an expert profile page designer, so I'm afraid my profile page will suck. Maybe I can search for other user profiles that have been voted up as particularly well designed. Then I could copy their design... How would we add such a feature to wikiversity? Does wikipedia have a mechanism for hi-lighting pages that have been particularly well designed?

Hi, I'm Chris Uhlik. I am an engineering director at Google in Silicon Valley, California. My wife has a master's degree in education technologies and is home-schooling 4 children ages 14, 12, 10, and 7. We strongly emphasize the use of online educational content in our approach to homeschooling. I am particularly interested in how the Internet and volunteer collaboration can be used to bring high-quality, and effective education to the world's population at very low costs relative to traditional methods of teaching and education. I believe that effective education combines:

 * high quality content (accurate, engaging, balanced)
 * a great user interface
 * a social learning experience
 * an integration with human interaction to facilitate a social learning experience with teachers, teaching assistants, senior students, peer students, and junior students
 * addresses a variety of learning modes including reading, lecture, examples, exercises, assessments, challenges, guided discovery, and free exploration.
 * motivating the student
 * rewarding all participants

Contributions to the Wikiversity
My contributions are mostly related to TBD.

title: User:Chris.uhlik


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User:Plankton~enwikiversity

Hawaiian Creole English

title: User:Plankton~enwikiversity


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User talk:Plankton~enwikiversity

Historical Background of Hawaiian Creole English
When people who don’t speak a common language try to communicate, a new language called pidgin emerges. Pidgin has a lexifier, or a language whose vocabulary it is mainly based on. When pidgin starts to become spoken by the children of the community as their first language, it is called a creole, which has its own grammatical rules. (This is different from a pidgin, which allows variability in grammar.) The majority of Pidgin speakers in Hawai’i speak a creole, often called Hawaiian Creole English or HCE. The local residents of Hawaii however, call this language “Pidgin.” To make a distinction however, the linguistics call Hawaiian Creole English Pidgin with a capital P. Hawaiian Creole English emerged after the influx of visitors from other countries and they needed a language of communication. The plantation workers of Hawaii have especially influenced this language. Pidgin has influences from languages like Portuguese, Hawaiian, and Chinese. Because workers from other countries such as Japan, the Philippines, and Korea have come to Hawaii as well during the plantation era, there are various loan words in the Pidgin language using these languages as well. Pidgin is often used by local residents of Hawaii and is an indication marker of their local identity. Pidgin is often used in advertisement as well. However, attitudes and feelings towards Pidgin vary. ]] External Sites http://www.hawaii.edu/sls/pidgin.html

Evaluations of Hawaii Creole English: A Study Among University Students
Attitudes toward Hawaii Creole English (HCE) have always varied, even among 'local' Hawaii residents. Evaluations of HCE range from affinity to revulsion stemming from HCE's precarious link to both a sociocultural identity and stigmatization as 'broken', 'bad', and 'non-standard'. While HCE remains an ever-evolving fixture in Hawaii homes and in social contexts, and despite studies which showed that HCE speaking children do, in fact, possess complex linguistic abilities (e.g., Watson-Gegeo 1994, Day 1972 ), HCE continues to be met with resistance both in and out of the classroom. As a further example of the precarious link between identity and stigmatization Sato (1991) describes how the Hawaii Board of Education's policy on Standard English (SE) communication in the classrooms was met with community backlash, resulting in the reversal of the policy (p.653). Nevertheless, despite the support that HCE seemingly receives in the community, stigmatization—whether forcibly or self imposed—persists. In a study published in the Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Ohama, Gotay, Pagano, Boles, and Craven (2000) evaluated common associations with HCE and SE. The intent of the study was to examine whether HCE is, indeed, perceived more negatively than SE. The researchers hypothesized that HCE would be viewed less favorably on traits of superiority and quality; however, it was also hypothesized HCE would be rated more favorably on other less career-oriented traits (p. 360). The researchers sampled 197 students (181 undergraduate and 16 graduate) from the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Classes of students were assigned to listen to one or two 45-second stimulus audiotapes which played a short message in either SE or HCE by an individual who spoke both SE and HCE natively. The students were then asked to fill out a questionnaire rating SE and HCE on four factors: Quality, Attractiveness, Dynamism, and Superiority (p. 361-368). Results confirmed the initial hypothesis. The speaker’s language was correlated to traits of superiority, quality and dynamism: listeners rated SE higher on traits of superiority (e.g., education, intelligence, upper class, etc.) and quality (e.g., appropriateness, grammaticality, etc.) while HCE was rated higher on dynamism (e.g., active, confident, and talkative) (p. 370). However, as the researchers noted, several additional factors affected the ratings of SE and HCE. For example, ethnicity played a significant role in evaluations of SE and HCE: Hawaiians, in general, rated HCE higher than SE on traits of attractiveness. Furthermore, the knowledge of HCE was the strongest indicator of higher ratings of dynamism, attractiveness, and quality in favor of HCE (p. 371, 373). This study, while a singular example of research on evaluations of HCE and SE, situates HCE within the larger social and, perhaps more importantly, educational context, and once again, we see HCE’s precarious position between identity and stigmatization. Appropriately, the researchers in the above study conclude by considering the role of perceptions toward SE and HCE in the educational context—whether positive or negative: “Creoles and dialects denote thought patterns and processes that are unique to the culture using them. Losing a dialect or creole may mean losing the ability to think or view life in a certain way” (p. 374).

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Plankton. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Plankton~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:41, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:18, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Plankton~enwikiversity


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User:Kawood78

Maturational Constraints on Language Learning
Is it harder to learn a second language as we age?

If we look at both first language learning (L1) and second language learning (L2) it seems quite clear that young children are equally successful language learners regardless of whether it is their 1st or 2nd language acquisition. While on the other hand adults, who have more developed cognitive capabilities, typically struggle with language acquisition (Newport 1990). At age six, studies have shown, a child's heightened capabilities to learn language begins to diminish. Past the age of six children begin to suffer from the similar problems both adolescents and adults share when learning languages, this change is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis].

This generally agreed upon theory claims that as we age, it becomes increasing difficult to acquire new and useful languaging skills. Before the age of six, most children have the capacity to learn up three languages, with remarkable vocabulary, and many of these children are able to continue speaking the learned languages into adulthood as long as they continue to practice and use all three languages as equally as possible. For example, immigrants to the US may speak their native language at home and then English in the schools. For children before the age of six, as long as the native language is continually used at home and English is used in school it may be possible for this student to become bilingual in both languages. Bilingualism children have shown signs of heightened cognitive development and increased creativity in communication.

There is opposition to this theory. Studies are showing that the critical hypothesis theory has flaws. One idea is that it is the amount of time spent on the acquiring the learner language and total immersion in the learner language that truly determines the learners fluency level not the age at which the learning begins. For example, for four years an adult L2 learner is dedicated to learning French and is immersed in French culture, he will acquire fluency in French at a much faster pace then an adult learner simply learning in a university setting for four years.

Language learning is still being studied and new results continue to change and shape old theories into new beliefs of how humans learn languages. --Kawood78 20:09, 4 February 2010 (UTC)Kimberly --Kawood78 20:06, 9 February 2010 (UTC) --Kawood78 10:58, 16 February 2010 (UTC)

title: User:Kawood78


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User:Nappa74

Heritage Language

Definition
The term heritage language is used to identify any languages other than the dominant language(s) in a given social context Other researchers defined the term heritage language as the language associated with one's cultural background and it may or may not be spoken in the home Van Deusen-Scholl (2003) states that the term heritage language cannot be identified in a static, definitive sense; rather, it is more a metaphor in relation to the structuring of attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions that enable or constrain linguistic practices.

Thus, for example, languages other than English in the U.S. and Canada (e.g. Spanish, French, Chinese and etc...) can be called heritage language regardless of their major & large number of population speaking the languages in a global context. There have been critical views on the use of the term heritage language. Despite the term heritage language, heritage language speaker, and heritage language learner are gaining currency, the concept remains ill defined and is sensitive to a variety of interpretations within a social, political, regional, and national contexts Using the label heritage itself has been challenged by many and has been regarded as extremely negative -even offensive- by some and counterproductive by others. Baker and Jones state that the term heritage language points more to the past and less to the future, to traditions rather to the contemporary so that the danger is that the term becomes associated with ancient cultures, past traditions and more "primitive times" and so may fail to give the impression of a modern language that is of value in a technological society

Alternative terms for heritage language proposed by researchers and used or preferred in different countries and contexts are: Though some of these terms are equally problematic as heritage language. For example, native language is also problematic because we cannot assume that the language does not necessarily students' native language. Those students may have a limited knowledge of the language or simply may not speak it at all. Ancestral language also conveys a negative connotation that it belongs to the distant past or a previous generation which does not have a present or future affiliation.
 * native language
 * minority language
 * ancestral language
 * immigrant minority language
 * allochthonous language
 * home language
 * language of origin
 * community language

Heritage Language Learners
Valdés provided three main criteria to identify heritage language learners. According to the proposal, heritage language learners are individuals who:

 * are raised in homes where a non-English language is spoken
 * speak or merely understand the heritage language
 * are to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language

We have to keep in mind that heritage language learners are not a monolithic group so that we cannot assume or overgeneralize their proficiency. Rather, degree of heritage language fluency, proficiency, cultural background, connection or knowledge are widely varied among students. For example, heritage language learners include students of fluent native speakers to nonspeakers who may be generations removed but who may feel culturally connected to a language (Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003).

title: User:Nappa74


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User:Mwilso24

 Interwiki redirect Please visit my user page on Wikipedia.

title: User:Mwilso24


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User:Jobjams

This is my page.

I made it to contribute to the topic:Turing_Programming_Language article, a programming language I frequently use. I want to finish it. Yay. Despite the fact that programming may sound boring, making games is fun. I would put one in, but it would take like 100 lines.

title: User:Jobjams


title: File:Egm6341.s10.mtg13.djvu


title: File:Egm6341.s10.mtg14.djvu


title: File:Egm6341.s10.mtg19.djvu


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User:Davidbenovoy

Notes de cours pour Common Law - uOttawa Classe de 2013

Notes de cours Hiver - 2010

Droit des Contrats

Droit des Biens

Droit Constitutionnel I

Droit Pénal

Délits Civil - Boivin

title: User:Davidbenovoy


text:
User:David B/UOttawa CMLfr

Notes de cours pour Common Law - uOttawa Classe de 2013

Notes de cours Hiver - 2010

Droit Pénal

Droit des Contrats

Droit des Biens

Droit Constitutionnel

Délit Civil - Boivin

title: User:David B/UOttawa CMLfr


text:
User:David B

Salut

Notes de cours

title: User:David B


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User:David B/CML1603

Ceci est un test

title: User:David B/CML1603


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User:David B/uOttawa CMLfr-2013

Notes de cours Hiver - 2010
Droit Pénal - CML1603-2010

Droit des Biens - CML1608-2010

Droit des Contrats - CML1602-2010

Droit Constitutionnel I - CML1613-2010

Délits Civil - Boivin

États de Droit - 2010
Droit Pénal - CML1603-2010

Droit des Biens - CML1608-2010

Droit des Contrats - CML1602-2010

Droit Constitutionnel I - CML1613-2010

Délits Civil

Réponses aux Examens Pratiques Hiver - 2010
Examen X

N.B. Ajoutez vos réponses aux examens pratiques en suivant la struture de nomenclature suivante : http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:David_B/uOttawa_CMLfr-2013/Examen_date

Comment contribuer
Modifier le contenu

Simplement cliquez sur 'edit this page'

Créer une nouvelle page

1. Ouvrir un nouveau tab (ctrl-t (PC) ou cmd-t (mac)).

2. Ajoutez le lien suivant dans l'espace du URL du nouveau 'tab': http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:David_B/uOttawa_CMLfr-2013/Titre de la nouvelle page

3. Cliquez 'enter'

4. Vous mène à une nouvelle page. Cliquez 'Start the User:David_B/uOttawa_CMLfr-2013/Titre de la nouvelle page.

5. Ajoutez le contenu en cliquant sur 'edit this page'

OU

Envoyez moi un email: davidbenovoy@gmail.com

title: User:David B/uOttawa CMLfr-2013