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Learning theories in practice

Welcome to the Practice of Learning Theories (POLT)! This is Indiana University graduate students' book called the Practice of Learning Theories (POLT). The focus of The POLT is on implementation, pragmatic use, or realization of a learning theory in the field.

The Preliminary Work of The POLT: Critiques of Learning Theories Book (COLT-W)
You can find the preliminary work of The POLT, Critiques of Learning Theories book (COLT-W) at http://wow-iu-uh.wikispaces.com. These critiques are collaborative efforts of graduate students from Indiana University in Bloomington and University of Houston in Texas collaborating during the fall of 2007 to review Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology (EPLTT) at Michael Orey’s class at the University of Georgia. We welcome your additions to this book!

The Practice of Learning Theories (POLT)
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The Practice of Learning Theories
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Part I: Introduction to the POLT
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 * Introducing the POLT
 * Overview of Learning Theories

Part II: Addressing Human Behaviors: Theories and Practices
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 * Using Behavioral Changes to Reduce Fall Injuries In Hospitalized Patients

Part III: Active, Learner-Centered, and Constructivist Teaching and Learning
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 * Constructivism in Practice
 * Constructivism...in a Math classroom instruction?
 * /Project-Based Language Learning/
 * Bringing Integrative Learning to Life
 * Jerome Bruner: Guiding Drifting thinkers in the vast sea of knowledge
 * /Constructivist classrooms/
 * Help-seeking Behavior in Learning
 * Creating a Constructivist Learning Environment through Service Learning

Part IV: Empowering, Motivating, and Transformative Teaching and Learning
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 * Motivation and Learning
 * Self-Regulated Learning, Transformational Learning, and Discovery Learning

Part V: Addressing Student Thinking and Intelligence
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 * Multiple Intelligences in English Classroom
 * Imaginary Snapshots (Dual Coding Theory)

Part VI: Adult Education
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 * Adult Education and Generational Considerations in the Classroom
 * Building Self-Efficacy in Higher Education Students
 * Project-Based Learning across the Curriculum in Engineering (P.A.C.E)

Part VII: Language Learning
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 * How Picture Books Work
 * /Content-Based Learning/
 * Content-Based Instruction in Language Learning
 * Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching
 * Motivation in Foreign Language Learning
 * /Vocabulary Learning/

Part VIII: Language Learning
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 * Using WebQuests in English as a Second Language Contexts
 * Process Writing in the L2 Classroom

title: Learning theories in practice


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Bahá'í Faith/Spouse Selection

Signs for Selecting a Spouse for a Successful Marriage Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Understands and Values Love, Marriage, Family Life and Children/
 * /Maturity/
 * /Attraction, Love and Unity/
 * /Character/
 * /Consultation/
 * /Chastity/
 * /Appendix Baha'i Writings/
 * /References and Resources/

Rodney H. Clarken

I began writing this piece in the fall of 2003 after meditating on what was the best service I could do for humanity. In my travels in many different countries I had encountered numerous unhappy marriages and many young people hoping to marry who did not know what to look for in a potential spouse and did not have much guidance on what it took to make a good marriage. I felt if I could help people have happier and healthier marriages, it would have positive repercussions on many lives.

Though my formal training is not in the topic I am writing on here, I have tried to use my skills in education, research and scholarship to bring some understanding to the topic. The research on finding a spouse or selecting a person with whom one would be compatible is growing, along with the business of online matching, but there is still little solid evidence to support one system over another. My approach was to synthesize and categorize the guidance from the Baha'i writings on the topic and then try to bring in what external sources might illuminate these points.

I hope this work may be an assistance to humanity and the many souls seeking a spouse for a successful marriage.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bahá'í Faith/Spouse Selection


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Learning theories in practice/Adult education

Many students in both formal and informal settings are adults. Courses in colleges and universities, continuing education classes for the professional and in-service classes in industry are some examples of the settings where adult learners are found. Teaching environments, approaches and styles of teaching will be more effective if they are tailored specifically to adults and not simply an application of the pedagogies used with teaching children. The educator working with adults, in addition to planning for the differences in the adult learner, also needs awareness that an adult classroom may contain people from different generations. This group identification affects the learning style preferences and best practices for teaching different adult age groups. This chapter will define adult learners, describe the characteristics that make adults different in the classroom and identify the generational considerations that are required when working with adult groups from different generations.

Adult Learners
Several definitions have been used to describe adult learners. Malcolm Knowles’ definition of the adult learner is: One who has arrived at a self-concept of being responsible for one’s own life, of being self-directed. Some simply look at the age of the learner, and define adult learners as anyone over the age of 20. Then there are those who feel that the setting defines the adult learner. In other words, if the learner is in community college, university or work setting, then they are adult learners. As the population ages and life expectancy lengthens, educators can expect more adult learners. A person born in the 1950s for instance, had a life expectancy less than 60 years; a person born in 2004 is expected to live almost 80 years (Source: National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics Reports, vol. 54, no. 19, June 28, 2006. Web: www.cdc.gov/nchs).

Characteristics of Adult Learners
In his work defining andragogy, Malcolm Knowles identified the following characteristics of adult learners. Those characteristics are listed below, with suggestions of how to apply them in a classroom or in-service setting:
 * Adults are autonomous and self-directed.
 * Their teachers should actively involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for them.
 * Allow participants to share responsibility for presentations, discussions and group leadership.
 * Faculty or trainers should act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge rather than simply supplying them with facts.
 * Finally, they must show participants how the class will help them reach their goals.
 * Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education.
 * The teacher should draw out participants' experience and knowledge which is relevant to the topic.
 * They must relate theories and concepts to the participants and recognize the value of experience in learning.
 * Adults are goal-oriented. They have enrolled in a course or taken an in-service training session for a specific goal.
 * Instructors must show participants how this class will help them attain their goals. This classification of goals and course objectives must be done early in the course.
 * Assure that the educational program is organized and has clearly defined elements leading towards the end results and goals.
 * Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something.
 * Show how the learning is applicable to their work or other responsibilities.
 * Instructors should identify objectives for adult participants before the course begins.
 * Theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar to participants. For instance, let participants choose projects that reflect their own interests or field of expertise.
 * Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
 * Demonstrate how the course or class will provide necessary advantage at work.
 * Adults need to be shown respect.
 * Instructors must acknowledge the wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom.
 * Treat the adult learner as valuable, and allowed them to voice their opinions and experiences freely in class.

Generation considerations
What is a Generation? Another aspect of working with adults is that the classroom and workplace likely contain people from different generations. Ages of adults in these learning situations may vary from as young as teen years to as old as in their sixties. These groups bring different backgrounds, needs and expectations to the classroom setting. A generation is basically a group born within about twenty years of each other. Because of their proximity at time of birth, as a group they are exposed to similar societal events and conditions and develop similar characteristics. Of course, these comments are generalizations and individuals vary. However, there is validity in recognizing the generalizations of various generations within the classroom. Three generations will be discussed predominately: Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y. The older adults known as the Veteran Generation born from 1922 – 1942 will not be discussed as they are not encountered much in the classroom, although some may still be in administration, dean or faculty positions. Those people belonging to the Veteran Generation are today from 65 years old to 85 years old.

Baby Boomers – born from 1943 – 1960 The largest single population group active today is the Boomers. There are about 72 million baby boomers. As children, they mostly had two parents and grew up in economic prosperity. They had attention from their parents and came to be known as the “me” generation because of the sense of freedom from authority. Social events that defined the generation included the Viet Nam war and television. Baby boomers make up about 2/3 of the current workforce. In their work they find personal satisfaction and fulfillment (Cordinez, 2002). Boomers are seeking both financial prosperity and also to make a societal contribution. In general they remain suspicious of authority (“don’t trust anyone over 30”), yet have risen in the workplace to take authority positions themselves.

Generation X, Gen X – born from 1961 – 1980 – sometimes called the “sandwich” generation because they are between two larger population groups This is a relatively small generation – about 17 million people. Many grew up as latch key kids – both parents working, or in single mother homes. For many, the normal routine was to come home alone from school and get on the computer. About 40% of Gen Xers were raised in single parent homes because of the divorce rate during their young years (Strauss & Howe, 1991). Being frequently left alone resulted in a generation that is more resourceful and independent. This generation also came to rely on friends more than previous. As children, they were included in discussions about family choices and came to expect their voices to be heard. As adult workers, this is the group that created the dot com boom of businesses. They work hard and play hard; Gen Xers do not want jobs that interfere with their free time. They are media savvy and expect instant information. Because of the large cohort of more experienced workers above them (the baby boomers) coupled with corporate downsizing, Gen Xers often have to change jobs to find scarce advancement opportunities. (Weston, 2006).

Generation Y (Millennials) - born from 1981-2001 The generation known as Generation Y, or the millennial, is a large cohort of about 60 million people. As a group they are the most diverse of all generations: one in three is not Caucasian. As children, their parents were attentive and supportive; about 70% of fathers of Gen Y babies were present at their births (Raines, 2003). In About 60% of homes, both parents work, yet child-support and family structures provided schedule and care for everything from before and after school care, soccer games and music lessons. Gen Y grew up with technology, the first true “digital natives”, and not only are comfortable with it, but also expect inclusion of technology in educational settings. Communication is the cornerstone of this generation; and they expect instant connection through technologies. They grew up in a multi racial, global world and are comfortable with pluralistic backgrounds. This is the generation of the World Trade Center bombings, and as a result is demonstrating renewed family values and patriotism. They are described as sociable, optimistic and confident.

Teaching considerations related to generations
The baby boomer, as a learner and/or teacher Most current college faculty members are Baby Boomers, with an average age of 49. In fact, 73% of all instructors and managers are from the Boomer generation. In the faculty ranks of community colleges, only 22% are between 35-44 years old. (source: http://nces.ed.gov) Baby Boomers prefer a traditional classroom set-up and expect students to be agreeable and respectful. Boomers expect homework and extra assignments, both as a student and as an instructor. They possess considerable professional experience that should be recognized in the classroom. Boomers often have fears about technology and are not naturally comfortable with it. Whereas the younger generations played video games that required characters to “die” (that is required the player to make mistakes to learn how to conquer one level to the next), Boomers do not like to make mistakes and are fearful of making mistakes. Consider the technical changes in the classroom that Baby Boomers must contend with, either as a faculty member or a student:
 * Instead of paper and pencil tests…now test are given on-line
 * Used to be carbon paper copies…then there were ditto machines…now digital copies and internet postings
 * First, there were posters…then, filmstrips…then, video…now, DVD and streaming video and pod casts and video conferencing
 * First, they used chalkboards…then, dry erase boards…now, SmartBoard
 * From overhead projectors…to Elmo and PowerPoint
 * Classes were teacher-driven before…now, student driven
 * Before, assignments were theoretical projects and problems…now, real world constructs
 * Previously, classrooms used lecture…now, active participatory classroom
 * Previously, individual work…now, group collaboration
 * Library stacks vs. internet and data base

GenX as learners As learners or teachers, Gen Xers are independent and seek a relaxed fun atmosphere. They want clear simple directions and can be cynical. Humor can soften this cynical tendency. Gen Xers do not confer respect automatically because of position; they expect the professor to earn it. Neither do they like teachers who are forceful or authoritative; they want to be coached. In the classroom they enjoy visual and dynamic materials instead of staid lectures. Generation X students do not want big homework assignments or heavy reading; they expect to have free time outside of the classroom and are not likely to try to contact the instructor. They do want technical support available via internet if the class has a computer component.

GenY as learners Generation Y expects the appropriate and integrated use of technology in the classroom. They are comfortable with group work and can multi-task with ease. They have short attention spans and need movement in the classroom. Gen Yers require mentoring and expect instant communication and feedback with the instructor. Whereas Baby Boomers would seldom contact an instructor outside the classroom time, Gen Yers frequently seek feedback through the e-classroom, email or instant messaging. Provide realistic expectations for them, i.e. what time frame to expect a response, office hours or virtual office hours, etc. Generation Y is motivated by earning potential and want their education to have practical value in the workplace. So, begin the lesson with practical reasons about how the class will pay off for them in the future. They are stimulated in the classroom by visual and dynamic materials much as Gen Xers are and expect integration of technology into the lesson. Please visit this link for a video made by Gen y students to represent their generation in the classroom. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGCJ46vyR9o

Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education First published in 1987 by the American Association of Higher Education, these seven principles were described by Art Chickering and Zelda Gamson, with help from higher education colleagues, AAHE, and the Education Commission of the United States. They are designed with recognition of the learning styles of adult learners of all generations. The below information is useful but I’d like you to not only just list them but put them into context in your own words.

A free copy is available from Seven Principles Resource Center Winona State University PO Box 5838 Winona, MN 55987-5838

The 7 principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education: Good practice… 1. Encourages contacts between faculty and students 2. Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students 3. Uses active learning techniques 4. Gives prompt feedback 5. Emphasizes time on task 6. Communicates high expectations 7. Respects diverse talents and ways of learning

Using these principles with technology in a classroom or online. Since Generations X and Y expect technology use in learning environments, here are some examples of how to incorporate these best practice principles through technology.

1. Good practice encourages contacts between students and faculty 	This is good practice in that it increases student motivation and involvement, encourages them, and enhances their commitment to learning. 	 Technology can increase contact through –	On-line office hours –	E-mail communication availability –	Discussion boards, encouraging shy students to speak out and share their ideas without pressure of public performance –	Computer conferencing to enable small group and faculty communication, i.e., clinical post-conferences for nursing students –	Non-native English speakers have more time to process faculty comments electronically, and form a response 2. Good practice develops reciprocity and cooperation among students 	Learning is enhanced when it is collaborative and social instead of competitive and isolated. 	Technology enhances possibilities of student interaction, without requiring a physical presence. 	Same methodologies mentioned in Principle 1 can be applied with student to student contacts. 	Some student uses of technology: study groups, collaborative learning, group problem solving, group discussions, group assignments.

3. Good practice uses active learning techniques 	An anonymous quote recognizes that “Telling is not teaching, listening is not learning.” 	The degree of learning is directly proportionate to the active participation of the learner. 	Technology affords a huge range of tools to encourage active learning: –	Simulation activities –	Design and “dimensional” practice –	Demonstration and practice of practical skills –	Software providing “real world” models students can manipulate, i.e. weather

4. Good practice gives prompt feedback 	As soon as a practice session or test has been completed, a student benefits from immediately knowing what aspects were mastered, and which need more work. 	This allows a student to focus learning. 	Technology supports this principle very well –	Pre-assessment to assure entry-level behaviors exist –	Recording and organizing performance milestones –	Storage of portfolio products –	Tracking of early efforts, comparing to show growth –	Testing on-line gives immediate score and feedback 5. Good practice emphasizes time on task 	Increased time spent by the learner on task increases chances of mastery for most students. 	Time management by the learner and faculty is important in maximizing outcomes. 	Technology features help monitor time and plans, i.e. calendar features with reminders 	Practice sessions on the computer are timed, tallied and recorded. 	The “fun” aspects of computer learning games encourage more time on learning practice.

6. Good practice communicates high expectations 	Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. 	Technologies can communicate high expectations efficiently… –	Allowing exemplary assignments to be posted as a model. –	Posting and explaining a rubric for grading to encourage achievement of objectives.

7. Good practice respects diverse talents and ways of learning 	Different students bring different styles and talents to college 	Technological resources can –	Use powerful visuals for visual learners –	Well organized, colorful print –	Add audio for audio learners –	Virtual experiences and tasks requiring analysis, synthesis, and evaluation with real-life applications can engage the kinesthetic learner –	Technology can supply structure for those needing it; and open-ended assignments for others –	Self-paced student learning accommodates any style

Resources and references
Baker College. (2005). Effective Teaching and Learning [PowerPoint Presentation]. Retrieved June 20, 2006 from www.baker.edu/departments/etl/resources/Teaching%20across%20Generations%20with%20notesv3.ppt

Chickering, A.W., and Ehrman, S.C. (1996, October). Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever. American Association of Higher Education Bulletin. pp. 3 – 6. Retrieved June 10, 2006 from http://icebreakerideas.com/implementing-the-seven-principles/

Cordinez, J.A. (2002). Recruitment, retention and management of generation x: A focus on nursing professionals. Journal of Healthcare Management, (47), 237 – 249.

Raines, C. web site about working with generations. http://www.generationsatwork.com/articles/millenials.htm

Strauss, W. and Howe, N. (2000). Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation. New York: Vintage Books.

Weston, M. (2006). Integrating generational perspectives in nursing. On-line Journal of Issues in Nursing, (11)2.

World Campus Faculty Resources. (2000). 10 Characteristics of Adults as Learners. Retrieved June 1, 2006 from https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/public/faculty/adults.html

Zemke, R., Raines, C. and Filipczak, B. (1999). Generation Gaps in the Company Classroom. Training. Retrieved June 21, 2006 from http://web.archive.org/web/20070122145557/http://www.aacrao.org/sandiego/tuesday/T6_176.pdf


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Learning theories in practice/Behavioral changes

Once learners have gained self-confidence and understanding of the material, they can rely less on the teacher and more on others in the community via collaboration. In an attempt to avoid situating the activity within one particular context, multiple perspectives are provided to layer the content. The goal is to create a situation where the knowledge can be decontextualized in such a manner that it allows the learner to use it in other contexts. Another way to promote the possibility of transfer is by creating an environment that not only supports the thinking about novel problems, but also encourages the articulation and reflection of ideas. Learners who articulate and reflect on their problem-solving procedures develop metacognitive skills that enable them to compare their learning and knowledge to others. It also makes visible any misconception that may exist in the learner’s understanding, while allowing the teacher to determine what is simply being spit back for school purposes.


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Learning theories in practice/Content-Based Instruction

Introduction
Let’s think about the following conversation. The conversation is fictional but plausible.

Teacher: Why were you absent yesterday, Jeffery?

Jeffery: Cause I had to take my little sister to the hospital, cause she had a fever and was crying. My parents were not at home, so I call my aunt, then I wait for her to come and get my sister. We took her to the hospital.

Jeffery’s oral English competence is excellent. Meaning is clearly delivered to the teacher regarding why he was absent with minimal hindrance to communication. However, Jeffery’s speech indicates that he does not consistently mark the verbs for the past tense. This kind of speech is typical among English Language Learners (ELLs).

When ELLs’ basic conversational English skills are as high as Jeffery’s, what language teachers could do to help learners have an even higher level of English? Should language teachers drill more to assist learners express themselves more concisely or conduct additional grammar practice for mastery of verb tenses? The answer to these questions is definitely no; not for learners who have this level of fluent communicative competence. Learners who could produce this level of high oral language can survive in social settings but surviving in academic areas is another matter (Echevarria, & Graves, 2000). What these ELLs need is strong academic English proficiency that helps them perform successfully in content areas because a strong proficiency in oral English does not necessarily translate into ELLs’ academic success (Cummins, 1980).

Traditionally, language instruction focuses on language forms; that is, learners know what to say and how to say it in various situations along with basic reading and writing skills. Nevertheless, language teachers could achieve those goals as well by moving beyond the functional language syllabus and by adopting Content-Based Instruction (CBI) in their syllabus which targets content-rich and high-standard curriculum with critical thinking skills(Kasper, 2000).

What is Content-Based Instruction?
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is “an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.204). In other words, CBI involves integrating the learning of language with the learning of content simultaneously; here, content typically means academic subject matter such as math, science, or social studies. In CBI, the language is utilized as the medium for teaching subject content (Mohan, 1986). The language learning objectives are achieved through content learning. The syllabi in most CBI courses are derived from content areas, and vary widely in detail and format. In a word, CBI is a method of teaching language and content in tandem.

CBI requires better language teachers. Language teachers must be knowledgeable in content areas and be able to elicit knowledge from students. In addition, language teachers have such responsibility as to keep context and comprehensibility foremost in their instruction, to select and adapt authentic materials for use in class, to provide scaffolding for students’ linguistic content learning, and to create learner-centered classrooms (Stryker & Leaver, 1993). CBI requires better learners as well. Students are hypothesized to become autonomous and independent in CBI, so that they are conscious of their own learning process and can take charge of their learning. Furthermore, students are expected to support each other in collaborative modes of learning. Finally, students need to make commitment to this new approach to language learning (Stryker & Leaver, 1993). Typically, the materials in CBI are used with the subject matter of the content course. It is recommended that “authentic” materials are identified and utilized. There are two implications of authenticity. One implication is that the materials are similar to those used in native-language instruction; the other relates to the use of newspaper and magazine articles and any other media materials “that were not originally produced for language teaching purposes” (Brinton et al., 1989). Some realia such as tourist guidebooks, technical journals, railway timetables, newspaper ads, or TV broadcasts are also recommended by many CBI practitioners (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

CBI in language teaching has been widely used in a variety of different settings since 1980s such as English as Specific Purpose (ESP) Programs for Students with limited English Proficiency (SLEP), Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), immersion programs, and ESL/EFL Language Programs. Since CBI refers to an approach rather than a method, no specific techniques or activities are associated with it. At the level of procedure, teaching materials and activities are selected according to the extent to which they match the type of program. Finally, CBI provides the opportunity for teachers to match students’ interests and needs with interesting, comprehensible, and meaningful content (Brinton et al., 1989).

Foundation
The theoretical foundations supporting CBI derive from cognitive learning theory and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research. Cognitive learning theory posits that in the process of acquiring literacy skills, students progress through a series of three stages, that is, the cognitive, the associative, and the autonomous. In the cognitive stage, learners notice and attend to information in working memory, and they gradually develop a rough mental presentation of task requirements. In the associative stage, learners refine and strengthen this representation but still consciously attend to rules and sometimes need outside support when performing the task. Finally, in the autonomous stage, the task representation is increasingly refined, and learners are now able to perform the task automatically and autonomously. (Anderson, 1983). Progression through these stages is facilitated by scaffolding, which involves providing extensive instructional support during the initial stages of learning and gradually removing this support as students become more proficient at the task (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978). Krashen (1982) states that language structures are most efficiently acquired when presented through comprehensible input that is just beyond the learners’ current proficiency level, thereby forcing them to reach beyond the linguistic input and use previous knowledge and communicative context to gather the meaning of unfamiliar structures. Hence, Krashen’s model provides a theoretical foundation for CBI that provides students contextualized language curricula built around meaningful and comprehensible input through which not only language but information is required. SLA research emphasizes that literacy development can be facilitated by providing multiple opportunities for learners to interact in communicative contexts with authentic, linguistically challenging materials that are relevant to their personal and educational goals (Brinton et al., 1989). Cummins (1980; 1981; 1996) theorized that there are two kinds of English proficiency that ESL students must learn. The first Basic Interpersonal Conversational Skills (BICS) involves the ability to converse with others and to articulate needs in L2, and can be developed only 2-3 years. The other is Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). CALP involves the acquisition of academic literacy skills, and the use of L2 to understand complex, decontextualized linguistic structures, and to analyze, explore, and deconstruct the concepts presented in academic texts. It takes between 5-7 years to master CALP. Cummins argues that ESL learners cannot acquire cognitive academic language skills from everyday conversation. Developing these cognitive skills requires task-based, experiential learning typified by learners’ interactions with contexts, tasks, and texts that present them with complex interdisciplinary context. Thus, Cummin’s model provides another theoretical foundation for CBI.

In the fictional conversation vignette, Jeffery has high BICS English level; however, he needs strong CALP English to assist him to be academically successful in school performance.

Three Prototypes of CBI
According to Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989), there are three CBI teaching models that practitioners can apply.

1.Theme-based language instruction In this program, a language curriculum is developed around selected topics or themes drawn from content area such as global warming, women’s rights, pollution, and marketing, or from across the curriculum like Civil War and U.S history. Materials in theme-based language instruction are usually teacher-generated or adapted from outside sources. An attempt is often made to integrate the topic into the teaching of all skills (Brinton et al., 1989). The goal is to assist learners in developing general academic language skills through interesting and relevant content. Theme-based language instruction is the most widespread of the three content-based models because it can be implemented within virtually any existing institutional setting, and the theme or the topic can be selected to match students’ interests.

2.Sheltered content instruction  This model uses a content curriculum adapted to accommodate students’ limited proficiency in the language instruction. Consequently, sheltered courses are closely in keeping with the tradition of elementary and secondary immersion education in which L2 learners are separated or “sheltered” from native-speaking students. This sheltered arrangement places all second language learners in “the same linguistic boat,” thereby from the adjustments and simplifications made by native speakers in communicating with L2 learners and from a low-anxiety situation (Krashen, 1981). Sheltered courses usually make certain modifications for the L2 population. Typically, the instructors will select texts of a suitable difficulty level for L2 learners and adjust course requirements to accommodate L2 learners’ language capacities (Brinton et al., 1989). This model was originally developed for elementary foreign language immersion programs in order to allow some portion of the curriculum to be taught through the foreign language (Kasper, 2000).

3.Adjunct language instruction  In this model, students are enrolled in two linked courses, one a content course and one a language course, with both courses sharing the same content base but differ in their focus of instruction. The language teachers emphasize language skills, while content teachers focus on academic concepts. Such a program requires a large amount of coordination between the language and content teachers, and usually language teachers make the extra efforts to become familiar with the content. In order to ensure that the two curricula are interlocking, modifications to both courses may be required. The rationale behind this model is that the linked courses will assist students in developing academic coping strategies and cognitive skills that will transfer from one discipline to another (Brinton et al., 1989). This model integrates the language curriculum with the academic language demands placed on students in their other university courses. As a result, an adjunct program is usually limited to cases where students have language skills that are sufficiently advanced to enable them to participate in content instruction with native speakers.

The three prototype curriculum models offer practitioners and teachers with concrete frameworks to follow and to know how to integrate the learning of language with the learning of content.

Issues of CBI
Stryker and Leaver (1993) state that there may be a challenge for learners to participate in CBI courses. CBI is in the “learning by doing” school of pedagogy. Learners are expected to be active in different roles and cooperative with each other. In addition, they need a commitment to learn language in CBI courses. This is an issue for students who are accustomed to whole-class, independent, and traditional learning and teaching models. Additionally, learners need to possess a minimum level of language proficiency so that they can understand the quantity of new information in CBI courses. Stryker and Leaver (1993) suggest that students need to be prepared both psychologically and cognitively for CBI, and if they are not adequately prepared, then teachers should offer the missing schemata needs for students. Or students need to be kept from enrolling in CBI courses until they are ready. In my opinion, I would suggest that teachers need to design a lesson that is intriguing and appealing enough to encourage students to participate in the lesson. Moreover, teachers must know how to shelter the content to make it accessible to students. Another issue is that language teachers have been trained to teach linguistic knowledge rather than a content subject. Hence, language teachers “may be insufficiently grounded to teach subject matters.” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.220). Indeed, language teachers have not been trained to teach content subjects, and may be questioned about their credibility in CBI courses. From my perspective, I would say that language teachers can ask for assistance from content teachers. Additionally, language teachers can choose a content subject that they are familiar with to instruct. Do not try to teach all subject matters, that is, language teachers should start small. Finally, language teachers can attend professional development workshops to let themselves have second, third, or even fourth profession. Another problem associated with CBI is that language teachers are too concerned with content area teaching and neglect teaching related language skills. Language teachers seem to forget the main purpose of CBI is to enhance language development though content areas rather than content learning per se. If language components are missing, it can not be called CBI. The language learning aspect should have equal priority with the content learning facet in CBI (Cristopher, 1996).

An example of CBI
The following example is based on ideas from Larsen-Freeman (2000). Here a tenth grade class in an international school in Taipei is studying both geography and English through CBI. The teacher asks the students in English what a globe is. Some students call out “world.” Others make a circle with their arms. The teacher then reaches under her desk and takes out a globe. She puts the global on her desk and asks the students what they know about it. Students reply to the teacher’s question enthusiastically as the teacher records their answers on the blackboard. When they have trouble explaining a concept, the teacher provides the missing language. Next, the teacher distributes a handout that she has prepared based on a video, “Understanding Globes.” The top of the handout is entitled “Some Vocabulary Need to Know.” Listed are some key geographical terms used in the video. The teacher asks the students to listen while she reads the ten words: degree, distance, equator, globe, hemisphere, imaginary, latitude, longitude, model, and parallel.

The teacher tells the students to read the passage on the handout. Students also need to fill in the blanks in the passage with the new vocabulary. After students are finished, the teacher shows them the video. As students watch the video, they fill in the remaining blanks with certain of the words that the teacher has read aloud.

The passage: A ____________ is a three-dimensional ____________ of the earth. Points of interest are located on a globe by using a system of ____________ lines. For instance, the equator is an imaginary line that divides the earth in half. Lines that are parallel to the equator are called lines of __________. Latitude is used to measure ___________ on the earth north and south of the equator… After the video is over, students are paired up to check their answers.

Next, the teacher calls attention to a particular verb pattern in the cloze passage: “are located,” “are called,” and “is used.” The teacher tells students that these are examples of the present passive, which they will study in this lesson and the following week. The teacher explains that the passive is used to defocus the agent or doer of an action.

And then, the teacher elucidates how latitude and longitude can be used to locate any place in the world. She gives students several examples. Students then utilize latitude and longitude co-ordinate to locate cities in other countries. By stating “The city is located at latitude 60° north and longitude 11° east,” the teacher integrates the present passive as well as the content focus at the same time. Hands go up. The teacher calls on one boy to come to the front of the classroom to find the city. He correctly points to Oslo, Norway on the globe. The teacher offers other examples.

Later, students are formed in small groups to play a guessing game. In small groups, they think of the names of six cities. They then locate the city on the globe and write down the latitude and longitude co-ordinates. Next, they read the co-ordinates out loud and see whether other students can guess the name of the city. The first group says “ This city is located at latitude 5° north and longitude 74° west.” After several misses by their classmates, group 4 gets the correct answer: “Bogotá.” Group 4 then give new co-ordinates to the class: “This city is located at 34° south latitude and 151° east longitude.” Group 6 raises their hands and call out loudly: “Sydney.”

For homework, students are given a map and a description of Australia. They have to read the description and then label the major cities as well as points of the interest on the map.

Conclusion
Incorporating CBI into the curriculum is a way of providing a meaningful context for language instruction and learning with higher order thinking skills. At the same time, CBI offers a vehicle for reinforcing academic skills. Teaching and learning through content is fun and worthwhile for not only teachers but learners. Although it takes more time to plan and create materials for CBI, and issues such as learner readiness, teacher knowledge, and the balance between language and content should be taken into consideration, the results will be rewarding.

Reference
Anderson, J.R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Haevard       University Press.

Brinton, D., Snow, M., & Wesche, M. (1989). Content-based second language instruction. NY: Newbury House.

Brown, C. (2004). Content Based ESL Curriculum and Academic Languag Proficiency. TESL Journal, 10, 1-5.

Chamot, A.U., & O’Malley, J.M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Cristopher, E. R. (1996). Enriching learners’ language production through content-based instruction. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC) database.

Cummins, J. (1980). Psychological assessment of immigrant children: Logic or institution? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1(2), 97-111.

Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 132-149.

Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating Identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.

Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2000). Making content comprehensible for English language learners: the SIOP model (pp.1-16). Boston: Allyn and Bacon: 2000.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kasper, L.F. (2000). Content-based college ESL instruction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning.Oxford: Pergamon.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford, UK: Pergamon.

Mohan, B. (1986). Language as a medium of learning. In Language and content (pp.1-22). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Stryker, S., & Leaver, B. L. (1997). Content-based instruction: Some lessons and implications. In S. B. Stryker & B. L. Leaver (Eds.), Content-based instruction in foreign language education: Models and methods (pp. 285-314). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.


text:
Learning theories in practice/Content-Based Learning

Introduction
Content-based instruction has been used in a variety of language learning contexts for the last twenty-five years, though its popularity and wider applicability have increased dramatically in the past ten years. Early versions of content-based instruction (CBI) were used in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programs, second language immersion programs for K-12 students, early foreign language magnet classrooms, and a variety of second language (L2) vocational and workplace instructional contexts. More recently, content-based language instruction has extended into other settings. For instance, it has become a widespread approach in K-12 classrooms (in both first language (L1) and L2 contexts), in university-level foreign language instruction, in various bilingual education contexts in Europe, and in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs. In short, the development of content-based language curricula is gaining prominence in a wide range of contexts. A number of factors account for the rise in popularity of CBI. (Stoller, 1997)

Purpose
Content-based learning is not a new methodology in the U.S.; however, for Asian students, such as those Taiwanese students, it’s still an unfamiliar learning approach. For instance, teachers in Taiwan tend to ask students to learn the vocabularies, grammar, and pronunciations by memorizing, instead of providing a vivid explanations, activities, or relative circumstances. The other reason is that Taiwan is an EFL(English as Foreign Language)context, rather than ESL (English as Second Language)setting. Hence, students regard learning English as a boring, tiring, and torturing task. As a result, even though Taiwan government has been promoting and practicing English education for a long time, to most citizens, English is still a foreign language, not a second language. This chapter’s purpose is to make the cotent-based pedagogy widely known to educators in Taiwan.

What is content-based instruction?
The focus of a CBI lesson is on the topic or subject matter such as global warming, the Civil War, science, math, or social studies. During the lesson, students are made to focus on learning about something. This could be anything that interests them, from a serious science subject to their favorite pop star, or even a topical news story or film. They learn about this subject using the language they are trying to learn, rather than their native language, as a tool for developing knowledge, so they develop their linguistic ability in the target language. This approach is thought to be a more natural way of developing language ability and one that corresponds more to the way we originally learn our first language.

What does a content-based instruction lesson look like?
There are many ways to approach creating a CBI lesson. Listed below is one possible way.

Preparation:
1. Choose a subject of interest to students.

2. Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. Be aware that these could be websites, reference books, or audio or video of lectures or even real people.

During the lesson:
1. Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a source of information to use to help them fulfill the task.

2. Then once they have done their research they form new groups with students that used other information sources and share and compare their information.

3. There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of information which could take the form of a group report or presentation of some kind.

Teachers' perspectives
Teachers in content-based instruction may be content specialists who use the target language for instruction, or language specialists who are using content for language instruction. To be effective in their roles, they will need the knowledge, skills and concepts required for content delivery in the target language. All teachers in content-based instruction have similar professional needs, but the degree to which they will need certain knowledge or skills may vary by their assignment. To be successful, it will be helpful for teachers to be well prepared in the following areas.

Content knowledge:
Obviously, it will be hard to teach content if teachers do not know it themselves. While content teachers will be prepared in their own disciplines, it may be particularly challenging for teachers trained as language specialists who are not familiar with the content. Some language teachers are uncomfortable teaching content in fields they may have struggled with themselves, such as mathematics.

Content pedagogy:
There are identifiable strategies that make content instruction more effective. Some content specialists have had no training in pedagogy, particularly at the postsecondary Level. Because learning content in a new language can pose difficulties for students, it is essential that teachers (regardless of their content or language orientation) have a repertoire of strategies at their disposal to give students multiple opportunities to access content in meaningful,and comprehensible ways. Language specialists, in particular, will need opportunities to become skilled in content-appropriate instructional strategies if they are to teach or use content appropriately. For example, while few secondary school art teachers would deem it appropriate to lecture students as slides of famous works of art paraded on the screen, some language teachers have used this approach when incorporating art into language lessons.

Understanding of language acquisition:
All teachers in content-based instruction will benefit from an understanding of the processes involved in second language acquisition. Selecting and sequencing appropriate learning experiences will be facilitated if teachers understand how language develops in instructed settings.

Language pedagogy:
Promoting language growth can and should be done by content-based teachers, even those who work in settings where content, not language, is a primary program goal (Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989). Language learning can be planned as part of every content lesson, and teachers can use strategies drawn from language pedagogy to help students gain language skills. In fact, in doing so, they will further the goals of content instruction, since the better students know the language, the more easily they can learn content through it.

Knowledge of materials development and selection:
When students learn content through a new language they will need a variety of instructional materials. Print and non-print resources developed for native speakers may need modification or adaptation. Teachers may also need to develop their own materials. Criteria for selecting and developing materials include accessibility of language, text organization that facilitates comprehension (e.g., headings and sub-headings), availability of non-linguistic supports to meaning (illustrations, graphs, and diagrams), and degree of cultural knowledge required for comprehension.

Understanding of student assessment:
Teachers will need to understand the principles that undergird assessment across disciplines. It will be helpful for teachers to be familiar with a range of assessment options, and the contexts in which they are most likely to provide answers regarding student progress. These options may also need to integrate language and content assessments as well as allow learning to be measured independently.

Motivation:
CBI can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use the language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and confident.

Developing wider knowledge:
Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through CBI which can feedback into improving and supporting their general educational needs.

Academic purpose:
CBI is extremely popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from texts.

Transferable skills:
Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information can help students to develop valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.

Improving social skills:
The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value. By social interaction, they can learn from each other and bring their strengths into their groups.

Assessing students' progress
What determines student progress in content-based instruction? What are some appropriate approaches to assessing what students have learned? The answers to these questions are likely to reflect course priorities and where on the continuum a program lies. In content-driven programs, it is important to ascertain whether students are gaining mastery over the content. This issue may be of particular concern if content is important and students are learning it in a language in which they are not proficient. It is possible that students will know content relatively well, even if they cannot demonstrate the depth of their understanding through language. Since good content teaching uses strategies that allow learners to access content even when their language skills are limited, students may be able to show rather than explain their understanding. To demonstrate their academic progress, students may call on the same strategies that teachers use during instruction, using concrete objects, diagrams, body language, or other paralinguistic supports to convey meaning. For example, students may understand how simple machines work, or be able to carry out complex algebraic tasks, but not be able to explain how they arrived at their answer. Teachers will need to decide when content learning should be assessed independently of language. Often, however, it may be desirable for content and language to be assessed in an integrated manner. The need to verbalize thought frequently requires more precise control over concepts than does demonstrating understanding. Writing requires clear thinking, and helps pinpoint fuzzy understanding. Some advocates of cooperative learning have argued that it is through the verbal interactions of peer teaching that students begin to deepen their own understanding of content (Davidson & Worsham, 1992). Thus, it may be important to require that students in integrated content/language programs be assessed on content through the target language. For example, content learning is the ultimate goal for ESL learners, and academic English is the key to success. For these students, it can be important to assess language and content learning together. In the adjunct model, language and content share equal importance and may need to be assessed together.

In contrast, teachers are more likely to assess language growth than content mastery in language-driven courses. Since content is a vehicle for promoting language outcomes, teachers and students do not usually feel accountable for content learning. However, some aspects of content may need to be integrated into language assessments. Good and equitable assessment tasks mirror those used for instruction. Since language cannot be used in a vacuum, and must be used to communicate about something, it is likely that language assessment will need to be based on the topics and tasks used in instruction. As a result, while content mastery may not be a focus of assessment in theory, it may be difficult in practice to separate content from language.

Weakness
The benefit of such a program from an instructor's point of view is that motivation levels of students are high. The student needs to understand language in order to get the vocational skills. However, as has been said, it is important that the student is at a language level which is close enough to comprehend. If this is the case, the student is in a position to improve language skills within the context of pursuing a career path. On the other hand, if the language skills are not at a level where the student can comprehend the input, he will be in a double-bind: he cannot improve his language and he is missing out on the content. The administrators and instructors must be careful to ensure that all students in a classroom are at a level where the cognitive load of language and content learning is not too great.

What are the potential problems?
• Because CBI isn't explicitly focused on language learning, some students may feel confused or may even feel that they aren't improving their language skills. You can deal with this by including some form of language focused follow-up exercises to help draw attention to linguistic features within the materials and consolidate any difficult vocabulary or grammar points.

• Particularly in monolingual classes, the over use of the students' native language during parts of the lesson can be a problem. Because the lesson is not explicitly focused on language practice, students find it much easier and quicker to use their mother tongue. Try sharing your rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target language rather than their mother tongue.

• It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels can understand. Also the sharing of information in the target language may cause great difficulties. A possible way around this at lower levels is either to use texts in the students' native language and then get them to use the target language for the sharing of information and end product, or to have texts in the target language, but allow the students to present the end product in their native language. These options should reduce the level of challenge.

• Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information. Avoid this by designing tasks that demand students evaluate the information in some way, to draw conclusions or actually to put it to some practical use. Having information sources that have conflicting information can also be helpful as students have to decide which information they agree with or most believe.

Conclusion
While CBI can be both challenging and demanding for the teacher and the students, it can also be very stimulating and rewarding. The degree to which teachers adopt this approach may well depend on the willingness of students, the institution in which one works, and the availability of resources within the environment. It could be something that the school wants to consider introducing across the curriculum or something that teachers experiment with just for one or two lessons. Whichever you choose to do it should be beneficial to try to involve other teachers within your school, particularly teachers from other subjects. Such involvement could help you both in terms of finding sources of information and having the support of others in helping evaluating the work.

Lastly, try to involve the students. Get them to help you decide what topics and subjects the lessons will be based around and find out how they feel this kind of lessons compares to your usual lessons. In the end, they will be the measure of your success.

Scope
Students in the 12-20 age brackets coincide with a time of rapid transition and change, both mentally and physically. As teenagers begin to develop more cognitive ability, they can be exposed to language learning techniques that require more logical and/or abstract thinking. Probably the most important considerations for these learners are "affective" ones. Issues related to ego and self-esteem are at their height, and teenagers can be incredibly sensitive to the ways others see their physical, mental, and emotional development. Teachers of these students need to be able to find ways to draw on and develop cognitive, analytical, and logic skill. In view of this, content-based learning provides mental and cognition mature students a more effective and significant learning approach in acquiring vocabulary, reading, listening and writing. They will not only learn the subject knowledge but also the language usage in that field in academic way and day-to -day way.


text:
Learning theories in practice/Constructivism

Purpose
The purpose of Constructivism in Practice is to explain the possible advantages of practicing constructivism within the classroom setting. A constructivist classroom is one that concentrates on students forming his or her ideas, concepts, and conclusions while encouraging a more student-centered approach to education. Where as in a traditional, didactic classroom, a teacher may simply instruct and leave little time for classroom discussion; in comparison, a constructivist classroom would expect and reinforce a more egalitarian setting where students construct or co-construct their knowledge and focus on their learning process rather than learning products. When the teacher is in the role of a facilitator and students are actively engaged, then constructivist learning is being promoted within the classroom.

Goals
The goals of the chapter are the following: first, to shed some insight on what constructivism looks like in the classroom setting; second, to provide some context in the area of classroom transformation or reform; and third, to help explore the concept of constructivism as a tool for promoting student-centered learning.

Scope
The full scope of constructivism would require more to be written on the use and practice of constructivist teaching. For this chapter, the area of concentration will be in providing a resource section for further learning and discussion. For example, links will be provided for video, online research, and possible articles in relation to constructivism in practice. By encouraging the reader to explore on his or her own, this section is promoting constructivism in practice by reinforcing notion of developing a student’s personal insight or take on learning.

An Explanation of Constructivism
The term constructivism alone may refer to a progressive or a more active form of classroom instruction and student learning. In a constructivist classroom setting, for example, a teacher is expected to facilitate information and foster learning among students. Such facilitation takes place in an attempt to encourage active or social engagement that is geared towards enhancing learning, discovery of new knowledge, and an increase in personal insight (Perkins, 1999). The more that student-to-student classroom interaction occurs, the more opportunity there is for constructivism in practice to take shape. It is through this social interaction among the students and the teacher that a more autonomous classroom emerges. When the classroom provides opportunities for collaboration, discussion, or dialogue, then the emphasis on student learning is placed on developing, reevaluating, and reflecting upon the ideas of students. A teacher, in a constructivist classroom, will intentionally seek to help students learn new information by encouraging the communication of prior knowledge as well as the awareness of personal insight or context, as a means for better understanding and future discourse within and outside the classroom setting (Brooks & Brooks, 1993).

Constructivism in Practice
According to Schulte (1996) the following aspects are often encouraged and integrated into the classroom setting: an awareness of a student’s prior knowledge, the construction of knowledge through reciprocal student-to-student or student-to teacher interaction, and an emphasis on the learning process by actively engaging in activities as much as possible. Therefore, each attempt at constructivism is an opportunity for experimentation, risk, and challenge. Whereas a traditional classroom setting may have the teacher present content information without considering student-to-teacher dialogue, in comparison, a constructivist teacher works to take on a more creative, spontaneous, and interactive classroom encouraging discussion and debate. As a teacher attempts to spur student thought, reflection, interaction, and collaboration, the active communication that occurs may push students as well as themselves in a direction towards expanding upon cognitive, social, and behavioral territory that previously would not have been traversed.

When comparing a constructivist versus traditional classroom, the intentions of a teacher and how the learners receive the classroom may differ in a variety of ways. The following listing of descriptions of a constructivist classroom setting versus a traditional one, adapted from Disney Learning Partnership in collaboration with 13 EdOnline, provides insight into what aspects align with each perspective. In addition, the scenario following the listing may also help to distinguish further as to what a constructivist classroom would look like.

Constructivist Classroom Setting:

 * Introduction of an overarching concept followed by expansion of individual components.
 * Knowledge is compiled through active dialogue between students and teacher.
 * Group interaction is encouraged to foster negotiation among students.
 * Value is placed on the process of learning through experience and interaction.
 * Learning occurs as students gain exposure to a variety of individual perspectives.
 * Construction of knowledge based upon a comprehensive view of learning.
 * Student-centered learning is the essence.

Versus

Traditional Classroom Setting:

 * Lessons begin often start with the components of a particular concept presented first.
 * Teacher instruction without much dialogue encouraged.
 * Students work individually versus in groups.
 * More value is placed on testing or results versus the process or application of knowledge.
 * Learning is best assessed based upon the scores on exams.

To better understand the practice of constructivism, consider the following example.

A constructivist activity in the classroom has a teacher present an issue to the class and then provides the student with a multiple,diverse range of opportunities for further exploration. In a middle school science classroom, for example, a teacher may present the following question: what is global warming and how does it impact us? From here, a teacher may choose to break students into groups and present each with a component of global warming—yet allowing for the group to build from this hint and also add too it based on any prior knowledge. Then, each group can present to the entire class what they were able to gather through collaboration and the exchange of ideas. As each group presents, the teacher acting as a facilitator, can place the overarching ideas presented on the board while informing the class to watch for any links or connections that can be made from everyone’s input. Next, a teacher may help fill-in the blanks or any gaps of information that the students may not have considered. In addition, such an activity may also provide an opportunity to tie in various skills and tools that may be applied to enhance a student’s approach to finding information or problem solving.

If this activity were to occur over the course of several days, then perhaps each day could be designed to expose the students to an array of activities such as a day dedicated to searching the Internet for more information and then another day dedicated to hearing a guest speaker or lecturer on the given subject. Each new experience that the student encounters or is exposed to may help him or her to build upon prior knowledge, construct new knowledge, or potentially spark interest in a related subject. Therefore, in the case of a lesson on global warming, a student may enter the activity with some knowledge of the term global warming, but, theoretically, the main idea is to have the student leave the activity better informed and with the capability of becoming more informed if he or she chooses to.

Recognizing Challenges to Constructivism
In the previously mentioned comparison and scenario on constructivism, a stronger emphasis is placed on fostering an autonomous classroom within the classroom setting. A question, however, that still may remain is whether one approach works best over the other. Although the shift from a traditional approach to classroom instruction may appear more innovative and promising on the surface, will it also likely have some challenges present, along with it. Inexperienced teachers, for example, may find that placing too much attention on being creative is too time consuming and may be difficult to fit into the weekly schedule of moving towards improving high stakes test scores. If a new teacher has never had experience in teaching in such a manner, a constructivist approach may appear to be too demanding. As such, a significant amount of skill, practice, and appreciation for the process necessary to run an effective constructivist classroom setting might be considered, at least by some educators, as a challenging process (Windschitl, 1999).

A teacher may need to practice and also look to make adjustments overtime such as considering including more group activities and student feedback. In addition, it may take a teacher’s willingness to try a variety or mixture of teaching approaches, emphasizing the facilitation of knowledge and focusing on actively including students in classroom discussions. The effort placed in trying to combine several teaching approaches to the classroom setting may ultimately be the best solution to teaching and leaning (Alesandrini & Larson, 2002). Case in point—in the previously mentioned scenario about the lesson on global warming, a significant amount of time and planning may likely need to occur for this type of approach to be effective.

Reflection
In retrospect, however, what if the teacher does have experience in teaching in such a manner? What if the students learning can be enhanced or reinforced by a constructivist classroom? Although a constructivist approach to teaching and learning may appear to be challenging, what if one classroom or many are successful?

Imagine a classroom setting where teachers engage with their students with the intention of redistributing information, not for just teaching sake, but for student empowerment. Perhaps this already occurs, but then again perhaps students have yet to experience this type of transformative instruction. Constructivism in practice seeks to do just that—move away from a traditional classroom setting and into a more hands-on approach to teaching and learning intended to spark a student's interest, while motivating them and allowing them to reflect upon as well as construct information (Palmer, 2005). Further research on constructivism is needed to rally enough proof that it can actually provide a greater sense of autonomy in the classroom and that the students, as much as teachers, benefit from such a classroom setting. The links at the end of this chapter provide a rich variety of resources to help shed additional insight into constructivism.

Constructivism is vital to progressive education and school reform. While we must not neglect didactic and lecture-based forms of instruction, thoughtfully integrating knowledge exploration, construction, and sharing episodes should spark student interest in learning. Constructivism is just the means; enhanced learning and motivation is the goal.

Useful Links
Constructivist Learning Environments:
 * http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/constr.htm

Selected articles to better inform teachers and educators alike:
 * http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Teachers_Page/Language_Learning_Articles/articles_on_language_teaching_an.htm

Powerpoint presentation linking the math and sciences to constructivism:
 * http://www.sedl.org/scimath/compass/v01n03/welcome.html

Video: Groups of two or more students discuss and debate about how to best solve math problems:
 * http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8169031051294852669