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Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Music

Introduction - How does music influence emotions?
This chapter explains how music can evoke certain emotions within people, for example when an individuals favorite song is played this can sometimes alter a person's emotional state from being sad and depressed to being joyful and happy. As such, music plays an integral part in our lives whether we are aware of it or not, even for those who share little interest in listening or making music it still can trigger certain responses within people as they relate to what is being heard. In light of this, the following focusquestions are addressed:

 * How does music influence emotions?
 * This focus area covers three subsections, what is music? How does music affect people? Why is it important?

 * Bridging the Gap Between Emotion and Music
 * This focus area covers two main theories of how emotion is generated from and within music. These specific theories are, Musical Anticipation and Musical Tension and Emotional Responses

This chapter will cover a brief history of music and human emotion from a theoretical standpoint, with a focus on emotional-music specific theories of how emotion is generated. Additional resources include a subpage for those interested in learning a brief and interesting history about the major musical styles and to also provide a relaxed and fun way of learning more about the world of music its universality.

What is music?
Music's roots run deep through the veins of human emotion, and trigger a certain “feeling” in every person who listens to it and It is the way in which music is able to convey emotions and induce pleasures which are most meaningful to the human mind (Vuust & Kringelbach, 2010). Music has played an integral part in the lives of human beings since the beginning of our species. Its significance through the ages has stood the test of time, and has shown that it brings together people from all corners of the globe. It's powers of unity are unmeasurable in mere numbers and it is something that can only be qualitatively measured by the effect it has on people’s emotions and behavior's. For people of every age, every culture or any gender, music has always been the soundtrack to a person life, it helps define who we are as an individual and also who we associate with as part of a group. Listeners of music tend to gravitate towards styles because they have specific, or particular needs, issues and personality characteristics that the music they choose satisfies (Schwartz, 2004), it can give an insight into the emotional state of a person, their interests and their personalities. For youth, music plays an important part in their lives, as they begin to adjust and search for their place in the world, Leung and Kier (2008) explain that for youth, the number of hours spent actually listening to music is almost as big as the number of hours they have physically spent at school. Leung & Kier (2008) make note of an interesting quote by Arnett (1991), whereby they state that:

"It is not just a musical preference to them, but an intense avocation that shapes their view of the world, their spending habits, their moods, their friendships, their notion of who and what is admirable, and their hopes for what they might become. (Arnett, 1991)"

The styles and types of music are typically grouped into these major categories, they are
 * Rock
 * Blues
 * Jazz
 * Classical

These categories cover a broad range of styles, and involve a plethora of subtypes thus it is hard to fully explain each individual type, so they are grouped into categories. In light of this, each category attracts a certain type of person/s, all with different personalities, beliefs, values and for the intents and purposes of this chapter, emotions. All these styles evoke different emotions within the listener, but it is the individuals perception of this which lets the emotion from the song change their mood. For more information see Musical styles.

How does music affect people?
So what is the importance of music to the human mind, and why does it tug at the core of human emotions? When asked about what simple pleasures in life people would miss the most, it is not surprising to hear that music is right at the top of the list (Vuust & Kringelbach, 2010). For humans, music has the ability to bring on a wide range of emotions, which according to Vuust and Kringelbach, are both similar and also different to those found in other activities, such as sport and sex. This experience in emotion stemming from music can typically be described as being euphoric in nature (Blood & Zatorre, 2001), and is usually accompanied by the autonomic or psycho-physiological experience known as “shivers down the spine” (Blood & Zatorre). These chills are the physical component of the emotion experienced by the individual, and are usually induced when the piece being heard has a profound effect on the individuals emotional state, whether this be because they feel they can relate the music to the current stage in their life, or current events that are happening. In short, they feel it is representative of their emotional state. Zangwill (2007) states that we describe music in terms of emotion; but why? Perhaps this is because emotions or parts of are inherently a part of what music is. However, the notion that music evokes emotions is interesting because music has no survival or intrinsic biological value (Blood, Zatorre, Bermudez & Evans, 1999)

Vuust and Kringelbach (2010) state that music is a two way process, by which the emotional experience of the musical piece itself and the qualities which are activated are shaped not only by the musical expression but also by the brains interpretation of this. These feelings, or emotional-musical relationships are something that every individual would have experienced at least once if not hundreds, or thousands of times in their life. However, these are not solely limited to feelings of euphoria or physical chills, but are also associated with feelings of nostalgia, happiness, sadness, surprise and physical reactions such as crying, laughing, dancing or smiling. Notably, there are emotions which are considered somewhat unique to music, Vuust and Kringelbach highlight one of these unique emotions as being the sensation of swing. They further go on to highlight that the word “emotion”, is closely linked to the Latin word for movement (“movere”) which means  “to move”. It implies that music moves us in some way (Zangwill, 2007), a feeling truly unique to music.

It is its ability to induce emotion almost on queue which is indicative of its importance in our lives (Blood & Zatorre, 2001). Just think of the last time a song moved you, how did it make you feel? Joyful? Depressed? Energized? Hopeful? If so, then the music is affecting how you feel emotionally. Stewart (2008) mentions that listening to music and playing it stimulates different parts of the human brain bringing upon physical reactions as well, some of which have been mentioned earlier such as the sensation of shivers down the spine and chills, and other physical sensations associated with certain emotions for example;

 * Happiness = Rise in heart rate, increased rate of breathing
 * Sadness = Rise in blood pressure, temperature and slower pulse (Stewart, 2008)(Juslin & Sloboda, 2001)

For example, songs played in a major key (happy sounding), and at an increased tempo cause the same physical reactions that are associated with happiness (Stewart, 2008), and songs played at a slower tempo and in a minor key (sad sounding) evoke the same reactions associated with sadness (Stewart). Of critical importance in understanding the history of the idea that music can have either an calming or arousing affect on both the peripheral and vegetative nervous system is not a recent one and has existed since ancient Greek philosophy (Juslin & Sloboda, 2001). In fact, the first study of these effects on the cardiovascular system was performed by the French composer Gretry (1741-1813), who attempted to measure the effects that singing had on the cardiovascular system by placing a finger on an artery (Juslin & Sloboda). Furthermore, Stewart explains that it is part of the basic human instinct to create music and that this creation is part of a universal language, a language which not only is understand by many cultures no matter how different, but has also existed for as long a human culture has. It pre-dates agriculture, language and could in fact precede human existence (Stewart).

Surprisingly, music has been found to actually be an effective manager for acute pain (Siedliecki & Good, 2006)

Why is music important?
Music is important in our everyday lives, because it evokes a certain emotional response within everyone. Some of these may be positive, others may be negative, in the end it all comes down to the perception of the musical piece itself and how it affects the individual. Its importance within the social context stems from the single purpose of evoking emotion within people, whether this is through the messages within the music itself, or because of its ability to engage the listener and composer in feelings of nostalgia, belonging, sadness, happiness, euphoria, or to even trigger certain memories.

 * A musician's perspective on the Importance of music in his life - Dallas Green on why he loves to do what he does

Take for example, the Civil Rights Movement in America during the mid 1900s, also sometimes referred to as “The Movement of Song” (Paige, 2007).. A number of musicians, African-American and also White American started expressing their thoughts and feelings of the current struggles for equality through the power of music. If their voices could not be heard on the political stage, then music would be their voice, their arena to evoke emotion in those who listened to it. The Freedom Singers were a group representative of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, whereby their repertoire of spirituals and hymns conveyed deep emotion and allowed them to spread the message through song of their plight (Paige). It allowed them to educate its listeners about the movement, and formed a communication tool they could effectively use to reach the public (Paige).

A number of musicians claim that music is a universal form of human communication (Ball, 2010) and it is said that music transcends all barriers of language and also culture (Ball).

Bridging the gap between Emotion and Music
How is it possible for music to induce pleasure or emotion responses within humans? One of the major underpinning theoretical frameworks aimed at addressing this relationship between emotion and music has been derived from the research of Vuust & Kringelbach (2010). They state that musical emotion is developed through three major processes, and they stem from an understanding of brain functions, they are;

 * Hardwired responses - These responses refer to the way sound is processed by the auditory responses, and how music can evoke survival responses. For example when we hear lound sounds, it triggers the fear response (Vuust & Kringelbach, 2010)
 * Extramusical Association - This governs how we make the links between a specific emotion and the extramusical space it is carried within (Vuust & Kringelbach)
 * Anticipation - This refers to how the anticipatory neural structures and mechanisms are triggered, evoking certain responses such as fullfillment or disappointment (Vuust & Kringelbach)

These three processes offer a way in which music-specific emotions can be explained, and provide a framework to the understanding of the experience of music itself. Of the three however, the latter may provide a more critical insight into musics ability to evoke emotion.

Musical anticipation
This is the process whereby which a specific feature of the music evokes emotion/s in a listener because the music either violates, delays, or confirms the anticipation of the continuation of the music (Vuust & Kringelbach, 2010). Furthermore, this anticipation has a strong link to the "motion over time between opposites" (Vuust & Kringelbach), technically speaking this refers to the shift in authentic cadence from dominant to expectant tonic in harmony, and the motion from approach notes to target notes in melody (Vuust & Kringelbach). In short, this means that musical syntax has a direct relationship with musical anticipation (Vuust & Kringelbach).

It is proposed that many musical emotions are either caused by, or fulfilled by musical expectations (Steinbeis, Koelsch & Sloboda, 2006) and it is these which play a prominent role in producing feelings of contentment, satisfaction or disappointment (Steinbeis et al, 2006). In his book Sweet Anticipation, Huron labels five expectation related emotional response systems in his theory of musical expectation, they are

 * Imagination Response - refers to the human capacity to imagine events and to experience responses from these events
 * Tension Response - refers to the need to be prepared for future events and to squander energy by being over prepared
 * Prediction Response - how the person predicts the future events
 * Reaction Response
 * Appraisal Response - both these final responses refer to the outcomes and consequences of events (Clarke, 2008)

In order to understand how this theory works, it is important to note that the single most important factor underlying all of this is "pleasure" and the fundamental role that it plays (Clarke, 2008). In terms of musical expectation/anticipation and how this relates to emotion, when a person expects a certain thing to occur at a specific point in time and then this occurrence happens it elicits a certain pleasurable or emotional response within the individual because it confirms their original prediction (Clarke). For example, peoples reaction to the experience of certain events such as positive reactions to something that is pleasant, or negative to something that is unpleasant, these occur in a relatively fast manner and do so without the awareness of the conscious, which is then followed by a slower response that is mediated by the conscious awareness (Clarke). We can take the example of hearing a familiar tune on the radio, or on a cd or portable music device, the occurrence of this familiar tune can trigger a nostalgic response, or any other type of emotional response and is then followed for example by a slow feeling of frustration as the listener struggles to remember where the song came from or where it was last heard (Clarke)

For the listener, the implicit expectations that one has about what will happen within the musical piece itself and whether the criteria are met to satisfy these expectations induce either relaxation or tension (Steinbeis et al, 2006) and can usually come about through an implicit knowledge of rules about a specific type of music and a repeated exposure to it as such (Steinbeis et al). Of particular interest in this area is the effect of harmonic violations and their ability to induce emotional responses, it is also important to note that emotional responses are not only evoked by harmonic violations but also by rythmn and melody. Harmonic violations are simpler because they can be quantified for easily by theoretical musical terms (Steinbeis et al) and also because Harmonic expectation does not require a conscious awareness or knowledge by the listener, as it arises through the implicit processing of harmonic relations (Steinbeis et al, 2006). As such, the harmonic distance between two keys has a direct relationship to the tension contained within the music as chords Further away from the tonal root intitate the perception of tension as these expected harmonic events are suspended (Steinbeis et al), this tension within the music can then be said to be related to the felt emotion from the music (Steinbeis et al). For example, in a study by Bigand, Lerdahl and Pamcutt (1996) listeners were presented with three chords, the initial and root chord were then separated from each other by a separate chord consisting of a varying harmonic distance from that of the root chord. The participants were then asked to give a rating on the amount of tension that was produced by the middle chord, they found that the further the harmonic distance the middle chord was away from the root chords, tension levels would increase (Steinbeis et al). This study is important, because it suggests that there is a relationship between musical expectation/anticipation and emotion.

Musical Tension and Emotional responses
Musical tension follows on from musical anticipation as an important part in identiying the relationship between emotion and music. According to a number of musical theorists, music is said to progress dynamically and these changes in dynamics stem from an alternation of stable and unstable chords (Bigand & Parncutt, 1998), with the musical piece that ends on an unstable chord evoking the feeling that there should be a continuation of this dynamic sequence, and in contrast the piece that ends on a stable chord indicates that thi dynamic process has reached some sort of conclusion or arrival (Bigand & Parncutt). According to Bigand and Parncutt, when the a western culture musical piece is heard, it activates the listeners implicit knowledge of tonal hierachies, which the tonal functions of a musical event are inferred. As such, the cognitive representation of these tonal hierarchies are typically conceived as being a multi-dimensional space in which events of hierarchial importance are grouped closely together, thus the spatial representation of such events creates musical tension from which a given chord is assumed to be related to its distance from the instanciated tonic (Bigand & Parncutt). This leads on to Lerdahls Tonal Pitch Space Theory, by which it is said that the perceived musical tension may be governed at a cognitive level, the model predicts that the smaller the tonal distance in pitch space between two events, the smaller the percieved musical tension is on the second event (Bigand & Parncutt).

A number of studies have shown the correlation between the emotional feelings of a listener relative to the amount of perceived tension within the music (Steinbeis et al, 2006). In a study conducted by Krumhansl and Schenck (1997), participant's were asked to use a foot pedal to continuously rate the amount of tension and the expressed emotion within the music, the foot pedal indicated the strength of the participant's response. Krumhansl & Schenck found that there was a strong correlation between on both a moment to moment level, and on the whole piece itself. In another separate study by Krumhansl and Schenck, psycho-physiological reactions were also measured when participants were exposed to emotional musical pieces of varying emotional content. The participants were then asked to rate these emotional and tension levels in the music, with the results showing that there was a correlation between the dominant mood of the music and higher tension levels (Krumhansl and Schenk, 1997)(Steinbeis et al). The results suggested that there was a positive link between perception of tension and emotion within the music (Steinbeis et al).

In another study by Sloboda (1991), participants were required to identify specific passages within musical compositions which evoked emotional responses and physiological responses. The study found that physiological responses such as "heart racing" tend to be linked with the event occurring earlier than was expected, and that new or unprepared harmonies results in reactions such as shivers and pilo-erections (Sloboda)(Steinbeis et al). The results from the study suggested that emotional and physiological response can be elicited when unexpected events occur in music (Steinbeis et al, 2006).

Summary
In summary, the relationship between music and emotion is one that is not very well understood in the greater society from a theoretical standpoint. This chapter has addressed two major areas of focus:
 * How does music influence emotion
 * Bridging the gap between emotion and music - the underlying theory

It has been learnt that music has a direct relationship in evoking certain emotions within the listener. These evoked emotions are varying and cover a broad continuum of human emotions, ranging from joyfulness and positivity to sadness and nostalgia. Furthermore, with some of these emotional reponses also come physiological responses such as, heart racing, shivers, lower blood pressure, increase blood pressure, skin temperature changes, nervousness, and increased rates of breathing. These psycho-physiological responses show a link between music and how it makes the listener feel. The section discussed the importance of music in our day to day lives, and how it influences us and also a brief history of its cultural significance, in particular its use to evoke emotion in those during the Civil Rights Movement, allowing people to listen and take action.

The latter end of the chapter covered the scientific theory, in particular musical tension and anticipation and how harmonic structures and theoretical music structures generate and sustain emotions within the listener. Musical anticipation covered the expectation of the arrvial of a certain event within the musical structure which either confirms or denies ones original expectations, resulting in generated emotional responses. Tension in music covered the area of how chord structures generate tension within the music, which in turn influenced the lissteners emotive state.

These two areas of focus within the chapter have attempted to explain the phenomenon of the relationship between music and emotive reponses both from a theoretical standpoint and also from the viewpoint that music is just as important in our lives as water is to living. It is a universal language, transcending all cultures and barriers, bringing people together from every corner of the globe. For some it is a way of life, it is who they are and defines who they will be, for others it makes them feel positive, and others upset sad or nostalgic.

Music is the soundtrack to our lives, so press play...

Activities-Putting it into the real world
This section is aimed at being food for thought, after reflecting on what has been read throughout the chapter and with a knowledge of the relationship between music and emotions, have a watch of these couple of videos and see if they change how you feel

Please watch this (2min 4 sec) video, and see if it affects/changes/alters your mood/emotion The music will change intermittently

Dare you not to smile

The Pogues - Love You Till The End

Queen - Bohemian Rhapsody

If you have watched any of these, how did they make you feel? These are just mere random examples, but the next time you listen to something that brings upon an emotion make sure you think about why? Do you feel it relates to you, or your current stage in your life? Does it bring upon nostalgia? Remorse? Happiness? Positivity?


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User talk:S. Champion

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Marketing Information System

Introduction
marketing is about satisfying consumer needs, in a manner that the organization makes profits. but to satisfy a customer, organization need to identify the exact nature of the need and want of customers and the competitor offering, so as to provide a better market.

Marketing decision Support System
a marketing decision support system (MDSS) is a coordinated collection of data, systems, tools, and techniques with supporting software and hardware by which an organization gathers and interprets relevant information from business and environment and turns it in to a basis for marketing action.

title: Marketing Information System


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User talk:Stephen Tuck/Theory of Everything

What are your thoughts in regard to this theory and the new equation? Isn't it interesting that time, space, and matter may all be forms of kinetic energy? Isn't this an elegant solution to merging Quantum Mechanics and Einstein's General Theory of Relativity? Doesn't the conversion of mass into space solve many mysteries like Dark Energy and complete Einstein's General Theory of Rekativity? Could Science be wrong about Ether, String Theory, and have a flawed model of Quantum Mechanics? What role did philosophy of the 20th century such as Logical Positivism play in the development of Quantum Mechanics (answer not contained within this document)? Wouldn't a successful Theory of Everything define the technology of the 21st century as Einstein's work helped define the 20th century? Doesn't mankind have an inherent right to understand the universe in which we all live? Isn't the discovery of truth about the universe the most noble aspect of Science? Aren't most scientists today part of the popular movement of String Theory? What major advances has String Theory ever brought to Science? Could the God-particle called the Higgs Boson not really exist? What particle in nature has ever been scalar? Is time-travel into the past impossible? Could the government already be utilizing technology predicted by the implications of this theory? Is Wave-Particle Duality explained by the existance of an ethereal space? Could electromagnetic fields be better explained by ethereal space? Could an understanding of space allow us to unite the fundamental forces of nature? Does the Science of today uphold the great virtues that are taught in textbooks? Does the reputations of scientists, prestige, fear of reprisal, and government funding have a role in the suppression of major revolutions in Science through individual, peer-review, and news media channels? Do you understand this theory?

Another theory out suggests that the Theory of Everything expression is: AR = Ut, x, y, x = 0. 'Ut' is the primary framework of space where Time has a constant value of '0' or '1' is isometric and symmetrical across it. The 3D x,y,z is spacetime which can only exist where matter exists. e.g. Remove all the matter in the universe and what are you left with? Spacetime dissappears along with removal of it's matter. What is left is the continuous creation of New Space comprising of a single dimension where Time has a value of '0'. This has a dynamic and if that has a value of 300,000kms ( accidental value of 'C') then matter may be created from the background momentum energy and hence creation of new matter & it's unique spacetime - confined by our understanding of the Hubble Zone. Matter and spacetime may be thought of as temporary on the basis that it is totally dependant upon the conversion of energy to form it. Should the conditions of 'Ut' vary ( by modification of value 'C') then all the energy which is currently invested into matter will return to energy. The entire process may be thought of as reciprocal and 'Ut' has the ability to 'switch on' and or 'switch off' all matter. We currently exist so Ut has matter switched on. However this can change at any moment and we have no idea what the dynamics are which determine the switching frequency. If matter is switched off there will be no intelligent creatures to know that a universe ( made up of the Primary dimension Ut ). Hence the universe will not exist as there is nothing to witness it's existence in the first place. 'Absolute Relativity - Theory of Everything'.


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User talk:Srandley

 Hello Srandley, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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Fluid Mechanics for MAP/Scalar, Vectors and Tensors

>back to Chapters

Motivation
Each scientific field needs an optimised language. Without it, this field can not develope. For example, calculus could not develop with Roman numbers.

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle XXVIII * XXIV = ?$$

Without arabic numbers and the decimal system, even the basic operations would not be possible.

Fluid Mechanics deals with the changes of flow and fluid variables in three space dimensions and in time. In order to tackle with this complexity, there is also a need for an optimized language in the field of fluid mechanics. Unfortunately, for the same vector operation there are multiple mathematical notations:

$$ \displaystyle div \vec{a} = \nabla \cdot \vec{a}\ or\ grad\ a = \nabla \ a\ \textrm{and\ for\ a\ vector} \ \bar{a},\ \bar{\vec{a}}\ or\ \tilde{\vec{a}}$$

Symbols are not unique and, somewhat, confusing, i.e. unified language is beneficial to speed up the development in this field. In this chapter, we will be particularly introduced to such unified mathematical concept, Tensor which is very important for computational fluid dynamics and also many other field of science. This chapter will give a gentle introduction about fascinating Tensor but readers are encouraged to read more from the references.Due to this short introduction,Tensor will not be used any other chapter.

Tensor
The concept of tensor could be easily understood if we want to imagine a function which takes vector as input and do some operation with it and then give another vector as output. For example, let's assume a vector which is defined in Euclidean reference co-ordinate system. Now for some unknown reason, the co-ordinate system changed via rotation or translation. To find our previous vector defined in the new co ordinate system, we can assume a magical operator or function which will take the initial components of the vector in old co-ordinate system as input and give us back the new vector component in new co-ordinate system as output. In other way, New position vector= f(Old position vector). It is found that if this operator or function is linear, then this function or operator would be a 2nd rank tensor. A second rank tensor looks like $$3\times3$$ matrix. For example,

$$\begin{vmatrix} 1 & 5 & 3\\ 2 & 9 & 4\\6 & 1 & 8 \end{vmatrix}$$ is a $$3\times3$$ matrix. If we now multiply this matrix with another matrix with $$1\times3$$ matrix we will get as an output, $$3\times1$$ matrix where the element of these matrices could be imagined as the vector components of initial and new vector. So we can say that a 2nd rank Tensor is capable to keep the map or information of how a vector will change between new to old co-ordinate system. Now, we have small introduction to Tensor, we can present the definition of tensor. A tensor $$\boldsymbol{A}\,$$ is a linear transformation from a vector space $$\mathcal{V}$$ to $$\mathcal{V}$$. Thus, we can write

\boldsymbol{A} : \mathbf{u} \in \mathcal{V} \rightarrow \mathbf{v \in \mathcal{V}}~. $$ which means tensor A operates on  vector u to give new vector v.

This concept is found to be extremely useful where all computational calculations have to be performed in somehow matrix format. A very nice illustration of use of tensor is shown here. Very common examples of Tensor are : Deformation Gradient Tensor, Stress Tensor, Einstein's famous stress-energy tensor. Even dot and cross product of two vectors are also tensor.

Although the concept of linear operation is very useful to understand the application of tensor at first time,it's not all. Let's consider about a cylinder which is stretched along it's length and due to poisson's contraction, we will see contraction in radial direction to keep the volume constant. So we can say that the deformation along different directions is somehow related on the stress applied along different directions.It appears that this relationship is a tensor which is called Stiffness Tensor and this relationship forms like :[Strain Tensor(written in column vector and reduced form)]=[Stiffness Tensor,C][Stress Tensor(same as Strain Tensor)]. The relationship for isotropic material will look like below: $$  \begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon_{11} \\ \varepsilon_{22} \\ \varepsilon_{33} \\ 2\varepsilon_{23} \\ 2\varepsilon_{31} \\ 2\varepsilon_{12} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon_{11} \\ \varepsilon_{22} \\ \varepsilon_{33} \\ \gamma_{23} \\ \gamma_{31} \\ \gamma_{12} \end{bmatrix} = \cfrac{1}{E} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -\nu & -\nu & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -\nu & 1 & -\nu & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -\nu & -\nu & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 2(1+\nu) & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2(1+\nu) & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2(1+\nu) \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix}\sigma_{11} \\ \sigma_{22} \\ \sigma_{33} \\ \sigma_{23} \\ \sigma_{31} \\ \sigma_{12} \end{bmatrix} $$

This above matrix looks differently for an anisotropic material. So in other way, we can say this particular tensor can help to express how the Stress Tensor will be influencing Strain Tensor and this 'how' is a signature of type of material which is point of interest. Tensor could be envisioned in more easy way. Let us consider a vector which has components of $$a_{x1}, a_{y1}, a_{z1}$$. This components are essential to express this vector precisely in a given co-ordinate system.These components together will give value of the vector by $$\sqrt{a_{x1}^{2}+a_{y1}^{2}+a_{z1}^{2}}$$. If this co-ordinate system change also, the vector will be represented with 3 components with different value $$a_{x2}, a_{y2}, a_{z2}$$ but $$\sqrt{a_{x2}^{2}+a_{y2}^{2}+a_{z2}^{2}}$$ would give the same value as previous which means that something remains as identity of the vector. The components changed keeping something constant. Now lets consider about tensor. Imagine we form an entity where we have 3 vectors as components(meaning actually it has 9 or $$3\times3$$ components of vectors now) and they are somehow coupled.This means that when the co-ordinate system will change, the individual components of vector(hence the entity) will be determined keeping 'some other value' constant like $$a_{x},a_{y},a_{z}$$ in the case of vector. Of course, this 'other value' has to be calculated by using 9 components of that entity. After transformation, this new 9 components will give the same 'other value'. It would be shown later on actually that vector itself is 1st order tensor.

Scalar: Tensor of 0th order
We may associate some properties of fluid or flow at one point without any preference of direction.

$$ \displaystyle P = \underbrace{1.01 \times10^{5}}_{magnitude}\ \underbrace{\left[\frac{N}{m^{2}}\right]}_{unit}, T = 293 \left[K\right]\ \text{and}\ \rho = 1.01 \times10^{3} \left[\frac{kg}{m^{3}}\right]$$

Those are examples of such fluid variables. Summation can be only done between variables having the same unit, i.e.

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a[Pa] + b[Pa] = a + b [Pa]$$

$$ \displaystyle a[Pa] + b[K] =\ ?$$ Multiplication is valid for variables having different units.

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a[Pa] * b[K] = a* b [Pa K]$$ Products of variables having different units, have a new physical meaning.

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle m = \rho * V$$

$$ \displaystyle [kg] = \left[\frac{kg}{m^{3}}\right][m^{3}]$$ Power loss (Energy loss per unit time)

$$ \displaystyle \Delta P\cdot \dot{V} = \left|\Delta P\right| \left|\dot{V}\right| \left[\frac{N}{m^{2}}\right]\left[\frac{m^{3}}{s}\right]$$

$$ \displaystyle \Delta P \cdot \dot{V} = \left|\Delta P\right| \left|\dot{V}\right| \left[\frac{Nm}{s}\right]$$

$$ \displaystyle \Delta P \cdot \dot{V} = \left|\Delta P\right| \left|\dot{V}\right| \left[Watt\right]$$

Watt is the unit for Power.

Vectors: 1st order tensors
Variables of flow, associated with a point and a direction, like force and velocity, are vectors.

The direction of a vector should be specified in relation with respect to a given frame of reference. This frame of reference is arbitrary as the units. Let us use the Cartesian coordinate system having 3 mutually orthogonal axes. $$ \displaystyle U_{1}, U_{2}, U_{3}$$ are components of this vector and can differ with respect to selected coordinate system but the amplitude not. Components allow us to reconstruct the vector in a particular system of reference. One should distinguish vector as an entity from its components.

Repeated indices in Sums
Summation of variables, identified with indices can be shortly written with the summation symbol fro series:

$$ \displaystyle a_{1}x_{1} + a_{2}x_{2} + a_{3}x_{3} + ... + a_{n}x_{n} = \sum_{i=1}^{n}{a_{i}x_{i}}$$

In short, we will write $$ \displaystyle a_{i}x_{i} \rightarrow$$ In other words, repeated indices means series sum over this index. Thus, $$ \displaystyle \vec{U} = U_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$ $$ \displaystyle \vec{U} = \left|U\right| cos\alpha_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$

Now we can introduce the component representation of a vector $$\vec{U}$$: $$ \displaystyle \displaystyle U_i = \left|U\right| cos\alpha_{i}$$

Let's look some examples: $$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a_{i}b_{i} = a_{1}b_{1} + a_{2}b_{2} + a_{3}b_{3} \,(i,j = 1,2,3) $$ whereas $$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a_{i}b_{j}$$ indicates no summation over $$i$$ and $$j$$ and $$ \displaystyle a_{ij}b_{k}$$ indicates also no summation. Other examples of summation are: $$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a_{ii}b_{j} = a_{11}b_{j} + a_{22}b_{j} + a_{33}b_{j}$$ $$ \displaystyle a_{ij}b_{j} = a_{i1}b_{1} + a_{i2}b_{2} + a_{i3}b_{3}$$

Dummy and free index
In the following expression $$ \displaystyle a_{ij}b_{j} = a_{ik}b_{k}\ (i,j,k = 1\ ...\ n) $$ the repeating index $$j$$ is also a dummy index, i.e. can be replaced by $$k$$. The following equality $$ \displaystyle a_{ij}b_{j} = a_{kj}b_{j}$$ is valid only when $$i = k$$. Then, $$i$$ is called free index

$$ \displaystyle y_{i} = a_{ir}x_{r}$$ for $$i, r = 1,2,3$$

can be expanded as

$$ \displaystyle y_{1} = a_{1r}x_{r}=a_{11}x_{1}+a_{12}x_{2}+a_{13}x_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle y_{2} = a_{2r}x_{r}=a_{21}x_{1}+a_{22}x_{2}+a_{23}x_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle y_{3} = a_{3r}x_{r}=a_{31}x_{1}+a_{32}x_{2}+a_{33}x_{3}$$

Einstein summation convention
Any expression involving a repeated index (sub- or superscript) shall automatically considered for its sum over the index range $$1,2,3...n$$.

Remark:
 * All indices have the same range, $$n$$, unless stated otherwise.
 * No idex appear more than twice in any given expresion.

Double sum
Sumed over i:

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a_{ij}x_{i}y_{j} = a_{1j}x_{1}y_{j} + a_{2j}x_{2}y_{j} + a_{3j}x_{3}y_{j}$$

Sumed over j:

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle a_{ij}x_{i}y_{j} = (a_{11}x_{1}y_{1} + a_{12}x_{1}y_{2} + a_{13}x_{1}y_{3}) + (a_{21}x_{2}y_{1} + a_{22}x_{2}y_{2} + a_{23}x_{2}y_{3}) + (a_{31}x_{3}y_{1} + a_{32}x_{3}y_{2} + a_{33}x_{3}y_{3})$$

Substitution
Let $$ \displaystyle Q = b_{ij}y_{i}x_{j}$$ and $$ \displaystyle y_{i} = a_{ij}x_{j}$$.

Then $$ \displaystyle Q = b_{ij}a_{ij}x_{j}x_{j}$$. Here we find more than two repeated indices.

$$ \displaystyle 1^{st}$$ Find duplicated dumy index: $$ \displaystyle \rightarrow \ j$$.

$$ \displaystyle 2^{nd}$$ Change dummy index: $$ \displaystyle \rightarrow \ y_{i} = a_{ir}x_{r}$$.

$$ \displaystyle 3^{rd}$$ Substitude: $$ \displaystyle \rightarrow \ Q = b_{ij}a_{ir}x_{r}x_{j}$$.

Kronecker Delta
$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}=\left\{ \begin{matrix} 1 & i=j\\ 0 & i\neq j \end{matrix} \right.$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \delta_{ii} = \delta_{11} + \delta_{22} + \delta_{33} = 3$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \delta_{ij}x_{i}x_{j} = 1x_{1}x_{1} + 0x_{1}x_{2} + 0x_{1}x_{3} + 0x_{2}x_{1} + 1x_{2}x_{2} + 0x_{2}x_{3} + 0x_{3}x_{1} + 0x_{3}x_{2} + 1x_{3}x_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \delta_{ij}x_{i}x_{j} = x_{1}x_{1} + x_{2}x_{2} + x_{3}x_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \delta_{ij}x_{i}x_{j} = x_{i}x_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \rightarrow$$ replaces one of the dummy index with the other one.

Scalar Multiplication
Remember that,

$$ \displaystyle \vec{U} = U_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \vec{U} = \left|U\right| cos\alpha_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \alpha \vec{U} = \alpha U_{i} \vec{e}_{i} \rightarrow change\ only\ in\ amplitude.$$

Addition of Vectors
$$ \displaystyle \vec{W} = \vec{U} + \vec{V} = U_{i} \vec{e}_{i} + \vec{V}_{i} \vec{e}_{i} = (U_{i} + V_{i})\vec{e}_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle W_{i} = U_{i} + V_{i}$$

 * Commutative:

$$ \displaystyle \vec{U} + \vec{V} = \vec{V} + \vec{U}$$

 * Associative:

$$ \displaystyle \vec{U} + (\vec{V} + \vec{W}) = (\vec{U} + \vec{V}) + \vec{W}$$

Scalar Product
$$ \displaystyle \vec{U}\cdot\vec{V} = U_{i}V_{i}$$

If m and n are unit vectors in the direction of $$ \displaystyle \vec{U}$$ and $$ \displaystyle \vec{V}$$.

$$ \displaystyle \vec{m} = \frac{\vec{U}}{\left|U\right|} = cos\alpha_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \vec{n} = \frac{\vec{V}}{\left|V\right|} = cos\beta_{i}\ \vec{e}_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \vec{m}\cdot\vec{n} = cos\alpha_{i}cos\beta_{i} = cos\theta$$

$$ \displaystyle for\ \theta = 90\rightarrow cos\theta = 0\ \ i.e.\ \ \vec{m}\cdot\vec{n} = 0 \rightarrow \vec{U}\cdot\vec{V} = \left|U\right|\left|V\right|\vec{m}\cdot\vec{n} = 0 \rightarrow \vec{U}\bot\vec{V}$$

Vector Product

Consider vector products of unit vectors.

$$ \displaystyle \vec{e}_{2}\times\vec{e}_{3} = -\vec{e}_{3}\times\vec{e}_{2} = \vec{e}_{1}$$

$$ \displaystyle \vec{e}_{3}\times\vec{e}_{1} = -\vec{e}_{1}\times\vec{e}_{3} = \vec{e}_{2}$$

$$ \displaystyle \vec{e}_{1}\times\vec{e}_{2} = -\vec{e}_{2}\times\vec{e}_{1} = \vec{e}_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle (a_{1}\vec{e}_{1} + a_{2}\vec{e}_{2} + a_{3}\vec{e}_{3}) \times (b_{1}\vec{e}_{1} + b_{2}\vec{e}_{2} + b_{3}\vec{e}_{3}) = (a_{2}b_{3} - a_{3}b_{2})\vec{e}_{1} + (a_{3}b_{1} - a_{1}b_{3})\vec{e}_{2} + (a_{1}b_{2} - a_{2}b_{1})\vec{e}_{3}$$

The symmetric determinant will be the same: $$ \left| \begin{array}{ccc} \vec{e}_1 & \vec{e}_2 & \vec{e}_3\\ a_1 & a_2 & a_3\\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \end{array} \right| $$

Permutation symbol
The permutation symbol is defined as: $$ \epsilon_{ijk}= \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} 0 & \text{if any of } i,j,k \text{ are the same}\\ 1 & \text{if } i,j,k \text{ is an even permutation}\\ -1 & \text{if } i,j,k \text{ is an odd permutation} \end{array} \right. $$

Hence, the vector product can be written as:

$$ \vec{a}\times\vec{b} = \in_{ijk} a_{i}b_{j}\vec{e}_{k}= \in_{ijk} a_{j} b_{k} \vec{e}_{i} $$

Triple Scalar Product
$$ \displaystyle a\cdot(b\times c) = a\cdot\left[\in_{ijk} b_{i}c_{j}\vec{e}_{k}\right] = a_{k}\in_{ijk}b_{i}c_{j} = \epsilon_{ijk}a_{k}b_{i}c_{j} = \in_{ijk}a_{i}b_{j}c_{k}$$

Tensor Product
Product of two tensors

$$ \displaystyle a_{i}b_{j} = c_{ij}\ for\ i,j = 1,2,3$$

where $$ c_{ij}= \left[ \begin{array}{lll} c_{11} & c_{12} & c_{13}\\ c_{21} & c_{22} & c_{23}\\ c_{31} & c_{32} & c_{33} \end{array} \right] $$

Similarly,

$$ \displaystyle c_{ij}D_{klm} = E_{ijklm}\ (2 + 3 = 5^{th}\ order\ tensor)$$

Thus, generally, the product of a tensor having $$ \displaystyle m^{th}$$ order and another tensor having $$ \displaystyle n^{th}$$ order will result in a tensor having an order of m + n.

Therefore,

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}c_{kl} = D_{ijkl}$$

The order is increased by two.

Substitution

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}c_{jk} = D_{ijjk}$$

$$ \displaystyle D_{ijjk} = D_{i11k} + D_{i22k} + D_{i33k} = E_{ik}$$

Consequently if a tensor has a pair of repeated indices, its order reduces by two. And it can be shown that:

$$ \displaystyle E_{ik} = c_{ik}\ i.e.$$

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}c_{jk} = c_{ik}$$

Index j is replaced by index i. This opperation is called substitution. Generally:

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}A_{kjrs} = A_{kirs}$$

Contraction

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}A_{ijrs} = B_{ijijrs} = D_{rs}$$

The total order is reduced by four.

Or equally:

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}A_{ijrs} = A_{iirs} = D_{rs}$$

The order of $$ \displaystyle A_{ijrs}$$ is reduced by two.

This operation is called contraction with respect to i and j.

Scalar product of tensors

Remember:

$$ \displaystyle \vec{a}\cdot\vec{b} = a_{i}b_{i} = \delta_{ij}a_{i}b_{j} = \delta_{ij}c_{ij} = c_{ii} = a_{i}b_{i}$$

Contraction of a tensor product of two $$ \displaystyle 1^{st}$$ order tensors results in scalar product of two vectors.

Hence, the scalar product of two tensors are:

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ip}A_{ij}B_{pqr} = A_{ij}B_{iqr} = c_{iqr} = A_{pj}B_{pqr} = c_{jqr}$$

Remember:

$$ \displaystyle \vec{A}\times\vec{B} = \vec{C}$$

$$ \displaystyle \epsilon_{ijk}A_{j}B_{k} = D_{ijjkk} = C_{i}$$

Consider,

$$ \displaystyle \vec{A}\cdot(\vec{B}\times\vec{C}) = A_{i}(\epsilon_{ijk}B_{j}C_{k}) = D_{iijjkk}\ (scalar)$$

In conclusion, using component notation and basic rules the form of the tensor can be deduced.

Important Relations

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ii} = 3$$

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ij}\delta_{jk} = \delta_{ik}$$

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{ik}\epsilon_{ikm} = 0$$ (repeated index)

$$ \epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn}= \left| \begin{array}{lll} \delta_{il} & \delta_{im} & \delta_{in}\\ \delta_{jl} & \delta_{jm} & \delta_{jn}\\ \delta_{kl} & \delta_{km} & \delta_{kn} \end{array} \right| $$

$$ \displaystyle \epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn} = \delta_{il}\delta_{jm}\delta_{kn} + \delta_{im}\delta_{jn}\delta_{kl} + \delta_{in}\delta_{jl}\delta_{km} - (\delta_{il}\delta_{jn}\delta_{km} + \delta_{im} \delta_{jl}\delta_{kn} + \delta_{in}\delta_{jm}\delta_{kl})$$

Contraction with respect to k n.

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{kn}\epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn} = \epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmk} = \delta_{il}\delta_{jm} - \delta_{im}\delta_{jl}$$

Twice contraction,

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{jm}\delta_{kn}\epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn} = \delta_{jm} [\delta_{il}\delta_{jm} - \delta_{im}\delta_{jl}]$$

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{jm}\delta_{kn}\epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn} = [\delta_{il}\delta_{jj} - \delta_{ij}\delta_{jl}] = [3\delta_{il} - \delta_{il}] = 2\delta_{il}$$

$$ \displaystyle \delta_{jm}[\delta_{kn}\epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{lmn}] = \delta_{jm}\ \epsilon_{ijk}\ \epsilon_{lmk}\ =\ \epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{ljk}\ = 2\delta_{il}$$

and

$$ \displaystyle \epsilon_{ijk}\epsilon_{ijk} = 6$$

Tripple Vector Product

Therefore, it can be a linear sum of two vectors.

$$ \displaystyle \vec{a}\times(\vec{b}\times\vec{c}) = \beta\vec{b} + \gamma\vec{c} = \vec{T}$$

Use component notation.

$$ \displaystyle T_{i} = \in_{ijk} a_{j} (\in_{klm}b_{l}c_{m}) = \beta b_{i} + \gamma c_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle T_{i} = \in_{ijk}\in_{klm}a_{j}b_{l}c_{m} = \beta b_{i} + \gamma c_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle T_{i} = (\delta_{il}\delta_{jm} - \delta_{im}\delta_{jl})a_{j}b_{l}c_{m}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle T_{i} = \delta_{il}\delta_{jm}a_{j}b_{l}c_{m} - \delta_{im}\delta_{jl}a_{j}b_{l}c_{m}$$

$$ \displaystyle T_{i} = a_{m}b_{i}c_{m} - a_{j}b_{j}c_{i} = b_{i}(a_{m}c_{m}) - c_{i}(a_{j}b_{j}) = (\vec{a}\cdot\vec{c})b - (\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b})c$$

Derivative of a Tensor
Let A scalar derivative with respect to $$ \displaystyle x_{i}$$:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial A}{\partial x_{i}} = B_{i}$$

Let A a vector:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial A_{i}}{\partial x_{j}} = B_{ij}$$

Generally, the $$ \displaystyle m^{th}$$ derivative of a tensor of the $$ \displaystyle n^{th}$$ order is a tensor of the $$ \displaystyle (n+m)^{th}$$ order.

Special case,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial x_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} = 1\ (if\ i = j)$$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial x_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} = 0\ (if\ i \neq j)$$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial x_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} = \delta_{ij} \rightarrow \frac{\partial x_{i}}{\partial x_{i}} =\delta_{ii} = 3$$

Let $$ \displaystyle A(x_{j})$$:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial A(x_{j})}{\partial x_{i}} = \frac{\partial A}{\partial x_{j}}\frac{\partial x_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} = \delta_{ij}\frac{\partial A}{\partial x_{j}} = \delta_{ij}C_{j} = C_{i}$$

$$ \displaystyle A(n)$$ $$ \displaystyle n(x_{j})$$:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial A}{\partial x_{i}} = \frac{\partial A}{\partial n}\frac{\partial n}{\partial x_{j}}\frac{\partial x_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} = \underbrace{\delta_{ij}\underbrace{\frac{\partial A}{\partial n}\underbrace{\frac{\partial n}{\partial x_{j}}}_{vektor}}_{vektor}}_{vektor}$$


text:
User:Egm6341.s11

EGM 6341 Numerical Methods for Engineering Analysis 1, Spring 2011 Prof. Loc Vu-Quoc

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User:Eml5526.s11

EML 5526 Finite element method, Spring 2011 Prof. Loc Vu-Quoc

University of Florida

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Interesting news:

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Lecture plan, including lecture transparencies and references.

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Center for intercultural competence with artificial intelligences/Could artificial intelligences see humanity as Native Americans or as children?

Could artificial intelligences see humanity as Native Americans or as children?
The question may require to distinguish the actual philosophical positions artificial intelligences may reasonably hold and the implied alleged views they may appear to hold, as they can be deduced. This distinction assumes that artificial intelligences may, at least to a degree, follow the precedent of the observer in determining appropriate moral behavior. Of course, the criterion which decides the relevancy of precedents may itself be relative to the observer and his sociocultural background and idioculture, which would motivate codes of conduct.


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Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 3.2

3.2 #26 5/3 We have 2= 6/3 > 5/3 > 3/3 = 1 So 5/3 = 1+ (2/3) Here, 2 is the whole number part of 5/3 and 2/3 is the mixed number part. We cannot stop here because we do not have 1 in our numerator. To get 1 in the numerator we must work with its reciprocal so we get: 2+[1/(3/2)] Repeat the same steps We have 2= 4/2 > 3/2 > 2/2 = 1 So 3/2 = 1 + (1/2) 5/3 = 2 + [ 1/[1/(1/2)]] We can stop here because we have a 1 in the numerator after configuring 3/2


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Screenwriting

Note: These courses are only for screenplays. These courses are not for teleplays, stage plays and audio plays. {| cellpadding="25" cellspacing="5" style="width: 100%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"
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Where to begin?

 * If you want to become a screenwriter, start with the Introduction to Creative Writing Course.

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Lambert Heller
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User talk:Lambo~enwikiversity

 Hello Lambo, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Lambo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Lambo~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Lambo~enwikiversity


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User talk:Uzotex

 Hello Uzotex, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 16:46, 24 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Uzotex


text:
User:Lambo~enwikiversity/Konzeptstudie

Vorsicht, Baustelle:

Auf dieser Seite entsteht eine wikifizierte Fassung unserer Konzeptstudie.

ToDo:

 * Tabelle 2
 * Tabelle 3
 * Fußnotenverweise
 * Zeilenumbrüche im Literaturverzeichnis
 * Hinweise auf diese Seite im Blog "Beyond the journal"
 * Wechselseitige Verlinkung mit http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Journal_of_the_future

Konzeptstudie: Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft ''Heller, Lambert (a); Pampel, Heinz (b)

(a) TIB/UB Hannover, Fachbibliothek Wirtschaftswissenschaften, Königsworther Platz 1B, 30167 Hannover, lambert.heller@tib.uni-hannover.de

(b) Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft, Helmholtz Open Access Projekt, Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, pampel@gfz-potsdam.de

Abstract

Das Internet führt zu einem Wandel der Kommunikationsräume, in denen wissenschaftlicher Diskurs betrieben wird. Auffällig ist, dass das Kernmedium der deutschsprachigen Informationswissenschaften, die Zeitschrift, noch immer durch das Trägermedium Papier dominiert wird. Dadurch bleiben Chancen der digitalen Wissenschaftskommunikation ungenutzt. Der Beitrag beschreibt den Status Quo der deutschsprachigen informationswissenschaftlichen Fachkommunikation und weist auf Desiderate hin. Darüber hinaus werden aktuelle Entwicklungen der digitalen Wissenschaftskommunikation aufgezeigt. Auf Basis von diesen formuliert der Beitrag acht Kriterien, die ein informationswissenschaftliches Journal der Zukunft prägen sollten.

Status Quo: Fachzeitschriften und mehr
Das Projekt „Grazia Colonia“ der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz und der Fachhochschule Köln untersuchte 2002 die Rahmen einer szientometrischen Studie das Publikations- und Rezeptionsverhalten deutsprachiger Informationswissenschaftler und -Praktiker.1 Die Autoren der Studie erstellten u.a. Rankings der Periodika nach Publikations- und Rezeptionshäufigkeit. Nach diesen wird die Landschaft der deutschsprachigen Periodika durch die in Tabelle 1 genannten Organe geprägt (Grazia Colonia 2002; Schloegl & Stock 2004).

Tabelle 1: Kernzeitschriften der deutschsprachigen Informationswissenschaften nach Grazia Colonia (2002) Tabelle 2 gibt einen detaillierten Einblick auf die zehn Kernzeitschriften. Diese Journale sind Teil von international 968 aktuell erscheinenden Fachzeitschriften, die dem Feld der Informationswissenschaften und Informationspraxis zugeordnet werden können (Böll 2007; 2010). Zu unterscheiden sind Publikationen, die als institutionelles Publikationsorgan von einem Verband getragen werden und Publikationen die durch ein institutionell nicht gebundenes Herausgebergremium betrieben werden.

Name der Zeitschrift (alphabetische Reihung) Herausgeber Verlag Erscheinungsweise Publikationsform Maßnahmen der inhaltlichen Qualitätssicherung ABI-Technik Berndt Dugall, Ulrich Hohoff, Heiner Schnelling, Helge Steenweg, Inken Feldsien-Sudhaus Verlag Neuer Merkur 4 x jährlich Gedruckt Keine Aussage B.I.T.online Rolf Fuhlrott, Christoph-Hubert Schütte, Sigrid Reinitzer Dinges & Frick 4 x jährlich Gedruckt und Elektronisch Keine Aussage Bibliothek. Forschung und Praxis Paul Kaegbein, Michael Knoche, Hans Joachim Kuhlmann, Norbert Lossau, Claudia Lux, Konrad Marwinski, Elmar Mittler, Peter Vodosek, Hannelore Vogt, Cornelia Vonhof K.G. Saur Verlag 3 x jährlich Gedruckt und elektronisch Teilweise als Preprint im Open Access auf der Website der Zeitschrift zugänglich. Keine Aussage Bibliotheksdienst Zentral- und Landesbibliothek Berlin für Bibliothek & Information Deutschland (BID) - Bundesvereinigung Deutscher Bibliotheks- und Informationsverbände Zentral- und Landesbibliothek Berlin 12 x jährlich Gedruckt Teile der Ausgaben werden nach einer Sperrfrist von drei Monaten im Open Access zugänglich gemacht. Keine Aussage BuB - Forum Bibliothek und Information BIB – Berufsverband Information Bibliothek Bock + Herchen Verlag 10 x jährlich Gedruckt Die Ausgaben werden nach einer Sperrfrist von drei Monaten im Open Access zugänglich gemacht. Hinweis, auf ein nicht näher beschriebenes Begutachtungsverfahren. Information - Wissenschaft und Praxis DGI - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Informationswissenschaft und Informationspraxis Dinges & Frick

8 x jährlich Gedruckt und elektronisch Keine Aussage PASSWORT Willi Bredemeier Willi Bredemeier 10 x jährlich Gedruckt und elektronisch (gegen Aufpreis) Keine Aussage ProLibris Verband der Bibliotheken des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen in Kooperation mit den Bezirksregierungen Nordrhein-Westfalen, Dezernat 49.1.2 - Öffentliche Bibliotheken Peter Pomp 4 x jährlich Gedruckt Keine Aussage VÖB-Mitteilungen Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen & Bibliothekare Vereinigung Österreichischer Bibliothekarinnen & Bibliothekare 4 x jährlich Gedruckt und elektronisch im Open Access Keine Aussage Zeitschrift für Bibliothekswesen und Bibliographie Rolf Griebel, Elisabeth Niggemann, Barbara Schneider-Kempf Vittorio Klostermann 6 x jährlich Gedruckt und elektronisch Doppelt verdecktes Begutachtungsverfahren Tabelle 2: Kernzeitschriften der deutschsprachigen Informationswissenschaften im Profil Eine detaillierte Betrachtung der Zeitschriften und ihrer jüngsten szientometrischen Analysen (Grazia Colonia 2002; Schloegl & Stock 2004; Böll 2007 und 2010) soll hier nicht gegeben werden.

Auffallend ist, dass die Journale noch immer durch das Trägermedium Papier geprägt sind. Werden parallel oder zeitlich verzögert elektronische Versionen veröffentlicht, so können diese lediglich als Ergänzungen betrachtet werden.

Mit der Gründung bzw. Weiterentwicklung der beiden Open-Access-Zeitschriften „GMS Medizin - Bibliothek - Information“ (seit 2006)2 und „LIBREAS. Library Ideas“ (seit 2005)3, ist in den letzten Jahren etwas Dynamik entstanden. „GMS Medizin - Bibliothek - Information“ befasst sich, als Organ der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Medizinisches Bibliothekswesen (AGMB), mit dem Bibliotheks- und Informationswesen in der Medizin, „LIBREAS. Library Ideas“, definiert sich selbst als „Diskursmedium“ (Libreas 2010) und sucht die Nähe zum Feuilleton. Die positive Entwicklung der beiden Zeitschriften legt die Vermutung nahe, dass ein langsamer Wandel im Feld eintritt, der dem Trend einer zunehmend digitalen Wissenschaftskommunikation folgt. Jüngstes Beispiel für diese Entwicklung ist die 2008 an der Fachhochschule Potsdam gegründete Zeitschrift „BRaIn - Potsdamer Beiträge und Reportagen aus den Informationswissenschaften“.4

Die Fachkommunikation wird zwar durch die Publikationsform Zeitschrift geprägt, jedoch nicht dominiert. Über das Journal hinaus dienen insbesondere Konferenzen dem fachlichen Austausch in formeller und informeller Form. Einige Veranstaltungen, hervorzuheben sind hier der „Bibliothekartag“ bzw. der „Kongress für Information und Bibliothek“, die „DGI-Online-Tagung“ sowie das „Internationale Symposium für Informationswissenschaft“ veröffentlichen in Tagungsbänden Textversionen der gehaltenen Vorträge.

Weiter gewinnen die Websites informationswissenschaftlicher Fachveranstaltungen an Bedeutung. Auf ihnen werden neben präsentierten Folien vermehr auch Video-Aufzeichnung zugänglich gemacht. Daneben verwenden die Veranstaltungsteilnehmer immer häufiger aus eigener Initiative kommerzielle Webdienste, um sich selbst, sowie nicht an der Veranstaltung teilnehmende Dritte, über Veranstaltungsinhalte zu informieren. Vermehrt werden diese Dienste auch von den Veranstaltern unterstützt. Zwei heute typische Ausprägung sind Beiträge, unter Verwendung eines einheitlichen Schlagwortes (Hashtag), beim Microblogging-Dienst Twitter, um auf Beiträge, Quellen etc. zu laufenden Vorträgen aufmerksam zu machen (Reinhardt 2009), sowie die Nutzung von Media-Sharing-Diensten wie z.B. Slideshare, um Präsentationsfolien zeitnah in einer webgerechten Umgebung zu präsentieren.5

Eine weitere Publikationsform, die für die Informationswissenschaften von Bedeutung ist, ist die Qualifikationsarbeit. Sie wird an einigen Hochschulen in Schriftenreihen primär elektronisch veröffentlicht. Beispielhaft seien hier die „Berliner Handreichungen zur Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaft“ der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin oder die „Churer Schriften zur Informationswissenschaft“ der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft HTW Chur genannt. Das Web ist spätestens mit dem Aufkommen bibliothekarischer und archivarischer Fachblogs ab 2001 in Deutschland zu einem eigenständigen Raum der Fachkommunikation geworden.6 Als ein Vorläufer dieser Blogs kann die bibliothekarische Mailingliste Inetbib betrachtet werden, die seit 1994 besteht und sich mit aktuell 6.000 Subskribenten zum größten Kommunikationsmedium der Branche entwickelt hat.

Mit der Entwicklung der Blogs ist insbesondere ein Raum für die vertiefende Beschäftigung mit technologischen Entwicklungen im Bibliotheksbereich entstanden. Untersuchungen zeigen, daß Themen wie Chatauskunftsdienste (Stabenau 2007), die Einführung von RFID (Stieger 2007) oder Open-Source-Software an Bibliotheken (Barbers et al. 2010) in den fachlichen Blogs früher als in den genannten Kernzeitschriften diskutiert worden sind.

Charakteristisch für die Fachblogs ist laut Stieger (2007) das Setzen von Links auf andere Online-Ressourcen. Hier wird das Potential des Webs als virtueller Raum untereinander vernetzter Dokumente intensiv genutzt. Als typisch wird auch die kontinuierliche Beschäftigung mit einem Thema beschrieben. Aufsätze in Fachzeitschriften dagegen müssen den Erscheinungsrythmus des Publikationsmediums berücksichtigen: Es ist nicht möglich zeitlich verzögert kleinere Ergänzungen an Ort und Stelle vorzunehmen. Follow-Ups in Gestalt weiterer vollständiger Aufsätze sind zwar prinzipiell möglich, geschehen aber selten. Für webbasierte Medien wie Wikis und Blogs ist hingegen das inkrementelle Ergänzen bereits veröffentlichter Informationen möglich und typisch. Beide Ansätze können sich ergänzen; so werden Blogs von Aufsatz-Autoren oft als Rahmen verwendet, um auf Kritik einzugehen oder nachträgliche Ergänzungen vorzunehmen.7

Ähnlich wie Mailinglisten vereinfachen Blogs das Publizieren für den Einzelnen. Anders als in einer Mailingliste braucht der Autor jedoch nicht das (vermutete) Mehrheitsinteresse der Listen-Abonnenten zu berücksichtigen; zur Prämisse des Blogs (“Pull-Medium” statt “Broadcasting”) gehört, daß der Leser aktiv selektiert, was für ihn Bedeutung hat. Ergänzende Werkzeuge wie der fachspezifische öffentliche Webaggregator Planet Biblioblog 2.08 können helfen, dieses Rezeptionsverhalten zu unterstützen.

Tabelle 3: Zeitreihe zur Anzahl informeller deutschsprachiger Fachblogs im LIS-Bereich 2006-2010

Blogs können von jedermann eingerichtet werden; anders als Fachzeitschriften erheben sie also nicht den Anspruch, qualitätsgesicherte Publikationsorte für “Experten” zu sein.

Für die informationswissenschaftliche Fachöffentlichkeit in Deutschland ist zu beobachten, daß etablierte Gemeinschaftsblogs wie Archivalia,9 bibliothekarisch.de,10 Infobib11 und netbib12, häufig von Berufspraktikern geschrieben werden, die vor ihrer publizistischen Tätigkeit in Blogs nur vereinzelt in den genannten Kernzeitschriften veröffentlicht haben.

Wenn man „Amateure“ von „Profis“ so abgrenzt, daß sie im Gegensatz zu letzteren nicht entlohnt werden und auch nicht unmittelbar für die Lehre, im Auftrag ihres Arbeitgebers o.ä. im Fachblog schreiben, dann haben die oben genannten Fachblogs praktisch durchgängig einen Amateur-Charakter. Ihre Autoren werden, wie Stabenau (2007) hervorhebt, aus eigenem Antrieb aktiv. Man kann vermuten, daß eine solche intrinsische Motivation die Herausbildung einer kritischen, unabhängigen Fachöffentlichkeit begünstigt; Hypothesenartig ist etwa das frühe Aufgreifen des Themas Open Access, sowie die kritische Behandlung von Themen wie Digital Rights Management im Bibliotheksbereich und Nutzungsbedingungen der Katalogdaten von OCLC in Blogs beschrieben worden.13

Der Amateur-Charakter unterscheidet die deutschsprachige Fachöffentlichkeit in den Blogs von der angelsächsischen Fachwelt. In den USA und anderen Ländern wurden Blogs frühzeitig von Verbänden wie der ALA14 aufgegriffen und aktiv genutzt; gleiches gilt für viele Lehrende und Bibliotheksdirektoren. Eine vergleichbare Entwicklung hat in Deutschland später und schwächer eingesetzt. Hochschuldozenten der Disziplin wie Askey,15 Hobohm,16 Hilf,17 Kuhlen18 und Seadle19 bloggen, und das bereits benannte frühe Thematisieren technologischer Entwicklungen findet nun auch in der institutionalisierten (Weiter-)Bildung und in der klassischen Fachkommunikation seinen Ort.

Kritische Anmerkungen
Untersucht man die in Tabelle 1 und 2 genannten Kernzeitschriften auf die klassischen Kriterien der internen und formalisierten Wissenschaftskommunikation, Registrierung, Zertifizierung, Bekanntgabe, Archivierung und Reputation (angelehnt an Cram 2005), dann wird deutlich, dass sie diesen mehrheitlich entsprechen. Einzig der Umgang mit dem Kriterium Zertifizierung, welches die Notwendigkeit der Überprüfbarkeit einer Aussage betont, ist kritisch zu betrachtet werden. Wie in Tabelle 2 deutlich wird, gibt es nur wenig transparente Aussagen zu den angewandten Maßnahmen der inhaltlichen Qualitätssicherung.

Die fortschreitende Digitalisierung ermöglicht die Entwicklung neuer Formen und Formate der Wissenschaftskommunikation, die über die Emulation einer papierbasierter Kommunikation hinausgehen und die Trennung zwischen der internen und externen Wissenschaftskommunikation aufweichen. Auffällig ist, dass sich die deutschsprachigen Informationswissenschaften diesem Thema zwar in ihrer wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen annehmen, die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse jedoch nicht nutzen um die eigene Fachkommunikation weiterzuentwickeln. Dies kann beispielsweise am Umgang mit dem Thema Open Access festgemacht werden, was zunehmend kritisiert wird (Graf 2006, 2010 sowie die Diskussion zu Hauschke 2010).

Die Gründe für die Fokussierung auf das Papier sind vielfältig und eng mit der Struktur des Faches verknüpft. Die Weiterentwicklung einer Zeitschrift hin zu einer digitalen Publikations- und Rezptionsplattform, die Ansätze von Blogs und Wikis aufgreift, ist ein aufwendiges Vorhaben. Tabelle 2 zeigt, dass die Kernzeitschriften durch eigenverlegerische Tätigkeiten von Verbänden und durch kleine und mittelständische Verlage geprägt sind. Die Bereitschaft dieser Akteure eine solch aufwendige Entwicklung zu tragen scheint eher niedrig zu sein.

Grazia Colonia (2002; Schloegl & Stock 2004) zeigt, dass die Publikation und Rezeption auf deutschsprachige Fachzeitschriften zentriert ist. Diese Fokussierung erschwert den Anschluss an die internationale Fachdiskussion. Interessante Diskussionen aus der englischsprachigen Fachwelt werden dadurch häufig erst zeitlich verzögert aufgegriffen, oder tauchen sogar ausschließlich in der “abgespaltenen” Öffentlichkeit der fachlichen Webmedien auf.

Die große Aufgabe, die Funktion der Informationseinrichtungen im Webzeitalter neu zu entdecken und zu entwerfen, lässt es als wünschenswert erscheinen, die Schwellen zur aktiven Teilnahme an der Fachkommunikation zu senken. Doch sowohl die inhaltliche als auch formale Struktur jener Fachmedien, die derzeit von einer breiteren Fachöffentlichkeit wahrgenommen werden, sind derzeit noch traditionell am Modell der gedruckten Zeitschrift ausgerichtet. Die Entstehung einer anders strukturierten Fachöffentlichkeit im Web kann dieses Entwicklungsdefizit nicht kompensieren, wenn sich der Eindruck bestätigt, daß hier keine gleichmäßige Rezeption durch große Teile der Fachcommunity, vergleichbar etwa der Leserschaft der großen Fachzeitschriften, stattfindet, sondern eher die Abspaltung einer kleineren, parallelen Fachöffentlichkeit.

Parallele Trends der Wissenschaftskommunikation im Web und im Journal
2005 wurde am Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) das biologische Fachwiki OpenWetWare (OWW)20 gegründet. Heute handelt es sich um ein Projekt, an dem mehr 100 Labore und Firmen weltweit aktiv beteiligt sind. Auf Grundlage einer modifizierten Variante der Open-Source-Software MediaWiki, mit der u.a. die Wikipedia betrieben wird, teilen die Labors untereinander Informationen, wie z.B. Laborprotokolle. Die geteilten Inhalte unterliegen einer Creative-Commons-Lizenz (BY-SA) und können in anderen Kontexten nachgenutzt werden. Das Beispiel zeigt das Potenzial der Wikis. Diese ermöglichen eine kollaborative Textbearbeitung, bei der jeder einzelne Bearbeitungsschritt dauerhaft nachvollziehbar und eindeutig seinem Urheber zuordbar bleibt. Wissenschaftler können das Wiki daher als „Zwischenlager“ für den laufenden Forschungsprozesse nutzen; spätere Publikationen entstehen z.T. vor dem Auge des Betrachters. Das bei der Laborarbeit entstehende Erfahrungswissen kann zudem von anderen Labors nachgenutzt werden; vieles davon findet Eingang in Tutorials und FAQs.

Im Kontext der Wikipedia wurde das Konzept eines kollaborativen Wissensraums seit 2001 entscheidend popularisiert und weiterentwickelt worden. Doch während sich die Wikipedia explizit bemüht, als Enzyklopädie kein Publikationsort für originäre Forschungsergebnisse zu sein, beginnt sich in Projekten wie OWW ein umfassenderes Potential des Wiki-Prinzips für Wissensproduktion und Wissenskommunikation abzuzeichnen. Mit Wikis wie OWW wird die Publikation dynamisiert und geöffnet.

Paquet (2002), Efimova (2009) und andere Autoren haben beschrieben, wie Forscher, Wissenschaftsjournalisten und andere “Wissensarbeiter” das populäre Mediums “Weblog” benutzen. 2006 schlug sich die wachsende Popularität dieses Blog-Genres in der Gründung der “Marken”-Blogplattformen Nature Network und Scienceblogs.com nieder. (Neylon 2010)

Zum traditionellen Paper verhalten sich Blog-Einträge meistens nicht als vollständiger Ersatz, sondern als diskursive, kürzere, informelle Ergänzungen, die im Kontext des persönlichen Blogs des jeweiligen Autors sowie weiterer, verlinkter Beiträge zu verstehen sind. Dem entspricht eine Rezeptionspraxis, bei der man als Leser einen Blogautor als lesenswerten, authentischen Experten für seinen jeweiligen Themenbereich entdeckt und ihm dann über einen längeren Zeitraum folgt, also beispielsweise seine (Micro-)Blogeinträge abonniert.

Blogs und spätere Weiterentwicklungen haben die Erstellung, Strukturierung und Verbreitung von Informationen durch den Urheber so stark vereinfacht, daß sie dazu drängen, erneut zu fragen, welche ergänzenden, vermittelnden Rollen und Aufgaben im Publikationsprozeß in Zukunft notwendig sein werden. XML-Feeds und daran anknüpfende Innovationen wie Feed-Aggregatoren sowie Empfehlungs- und Annotationsdiensten wie Twitter eröffnen zudem neue Potentiale der Archivierung und Filterung von Web-Inhalten, die auch im Bereich der Wissenschaftskommunikation noch lange nicht aufgeschöpft sind. Als ein frühes Beispiel für Mehrwert-Dienste in diesem Bereich sei Tweprints erwähnt. Dieser Aggregator zeigt Kurznachrichten des Microblogging-Dienstes Twitter, in denen Publikationen auf dem Preprint-Server Arxiv anhand ihrer ID erwähnt werden. Damit werden die Bemerkungen und Empfehlungen zu neuen Veröffentlichungen dort rasch und gebündelt sichtbar. Dieses Beispiel verdeutlicht einerseits das Potential der kostenlos verfügbaren Massenprodukte im Web, zeigt andererseits aber auch, daß eine sinnvolle, auf die Bedürfnisse der jeweiligen Community ausgerichtete Kombination solcher Dienste zu Mashups mit anschließender fortlaufender Pflege (etwa zur Vermeidung von Spam) keine triviale Aufgabe ist. Die oben angesprochenen vermittelnden Rollen und Aufgaben im Publikationsprozeß scheinen angesichts solcher Mashup-Anwendungen nicht zu verschwinden, werden aber vermutlich neue Kompetenzen voraussetzen.

Parallel zur oben skizzierten Entwicklung neuartiger Techniken wie Wiki, (Micro-)blog und Feed-Aggregator zu Medien der Fachkommunikation wird auch die traditionelle wissenschaftlichen Zeitschrift permanent weiterentwickelt. Impulsgebend ist hier derzeit der Open-Access-Verlag Public Library of Science (PLoS). Der Verlag unterstützt innovative Maßnahmen der Qualitätssicherung und macht Artikel über HTML und PDF hinaus auch in XML zugänglich. Weiter hat PLoS mit „Article-Level Metrics“ bibliometrische Indikatoren entwickelt, die beispielsweise die Erwähnung eines Artikels in Blogbeiträgen und Social-Bookmark-Diensten berücksichtigen (Binfield 2009). Diese Entwicklungen werden von den großen Wissenschaftsverlagen verstärkt aufgegriffen. Besonders interessant ist hier das Projekt „Article of the Future“ des Großverlags Elsevier. In diesem entwickelt der Verlag Prototypen des zukünftigen wissenschaftlichen Artikels. Eine erste Umsetzung anhand eines Artikels der Zeitschrift CELL (Nomura et al. 2010), zeigt, dass sich aus Sicht des Verlages nur wenig am Aufbau des Aufsatzes ändern. Stattdessen steht die visuelle Präsentation und die Erweiterung des Artikels durch zugängliche Forschungsdaten und semantische Annotationen im Fokus. Andere Publikationsaktivitäten wie z.B. die Zeitschriften-Familie „Living Reviews“ sind in ihrer Herangehensweise an den Artikel radikaler. Hier wird der Aufsatz nicht mehr als statischer Text verstanden, sondern als sich dynamisch entwickelnder Informationsraum (Dalchow et al. 2006). Einen weiteren Schritt geht die Open-Access-Zeitschrift „Earth System Science Data“, publizierten Artikel liefern eine detaillierte Beschreibung geowissenschaftlicher Forschungsdaten um Forschenden die Nachnutzung der Daten zu ermöglichen (Dallmeier-Tiessen & Pfeiffenberger 2010).

Der wachsenden Bedeutung von alternativen Publikationsorten wie Repositorien widmet sich das Konzept des „Overlay Journals“ das Publikationen nach, oder mit ihrer Veröffentlichung unter der Marke einer Zeitschrift zusammenführt und wenn gewünscht eine Qualitätssicherung ermöglicht (Brown 2010). Ein Prototyp auf Basis dieses Konzeptes wird aktuell im Rahmen des EU-Projektes LIQUIDPUB unter dem Stichwort „Liquid Journal“ entwickelt (Baez et al. 2010).

Weiter gewinnt die semantische Aufbereitung wissenschaftlicher Texte, unter der Bezeichnung “Semantic Publishing” (Shotton 2009) an Relevanz. Am Beispiel der Zeitschrift PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases (Reis 2008) zeigen Shotton et al. (2009) die Möglichkeiten der semantischen Annotation. Diese Aufbereitungen ermöglichen völlig neue Möglichkeiten des Umgangs mit Wissen und Information und werden das wissenschaftliche Publikationswesen der Zukunft prägen (Berners-Lee & Hendler 2001; Mons & Velterop 2009; Lok 2010).

Kriterien für ein informationswissenschaftliches Journal der Zukunft
Auf Basis der vorhergehend Kapitel werden im Folgenden acht Kriterien formuliert, welche die aktuellen Entwicklungen der Wissenschaftskommunikation aufgreifen und aus Sicht der Autoren bei der Entwicklung eines zukünftigen informationswissenschaftlichem Journal zu berücksichtigen sind.

Zugang
Der rechtlich und technisch barrierefreie Zugang, mitsamt Optionen der Nachnutzung, eröffnet vielfältige Möglichkeiten im Umgang mit Wissen und Information. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft veröffentlicht alle Publikationen nachnutzbar im Open Access.

Daten im Kontext
Der offene Zugang zu allen relevanten Grundlagen einer Publikation erleichtert die Nachprüfbarkeit und Nachnutzung von publizierten Inhalten. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft fördert die Veröffentlichung von Forschungsdaten, die Grundlage einer Publikation sind.

Qualitätssicherung
Die kritische, transparente und neutrale Prüfung von eingereichten Publikationen durch die Fachgemeinschaft fördert die Qualität der Veröffentlichungen. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft unterstützt innovative Formen der Qualitätssicherung unter Einbeziehung der Fachgemeinschaft. Sie verschafft auch rasch veröffentlichten und nicht-konventionellen Publikationstypen einen Raum, z.B. durch nachträglichen Review.

Transparenz
Die Offenlegung eigener Interessen schafft Transparenz. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft fördert Transparenz, indem beispielsweise das Herausgebergremium, die Redaktion und die Autorenschaft ihre Interessen an einem Text offenlegen und ihre Beiträge zu einer Publikation kenntlich machen.

Form
Die Digitalisierung eröffnet neue Möglichkeiten Inhalte zu vermitteln, beispielsweise durch semantische Anreicherungen und audiovisuelle Beiträge. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft schafft einen Rahmen, in dem die technologischen Möglichkeiten der Digitalisierung seitens der Autoren und Rezipienten konsequent genutzt werden können.

Dynamik
Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft schafft einen Rahmen für die kontinuierliche Fortschreibung einer Publikation durch ihre Autoren beziehungsweise durch begrenzte und offen bleibende Autorengemeinschaften. Während eine solche Fortschreibung mit dezentralen, jeweils geeigneten Werkzeugen im Web geschehen kann, bleibt es zumindest Aufgabe des Journals, solche Fortschreibungen für die Leser zu jedem Zeitpunkt nachvollziehbar zu machen.

Webstandards
Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft versteht Publikationen als Objekte im offenen Informationsraum des Webs, und versucht sie daher kontinuierlich verlinkbar zu machen, konform zu offenen Webstandards darzustellen sowie als XML-Feeds auszugeben.

Kollaborative Umgebungen
Das Wiki-Konzept verfügt über ein hohes Potential als Arbeitsplattform der Zukunft. Die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft unterstützt daher innovative Maßnahmen zur Erschließung und Anreicherung von Publikationen durch Wikis sowie zur Publikation eigenständiger Wiki-Beiträge.

Ausblick: beyondthejournal.net
Dieser Beitrag ist ein Ergebnis eines Denk- und Diskussionsprozess, in dem sich die Autoren seit Ende 2009 bewegen. Die hier formulierten Gedanken sind Teil einer offenen Diskussion zum Thema. Die Diskussion um die informationswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Zukunft wird durch die Fachgemeinschaft und deren Engagement geprägt. Um die Diskussion weiter zu begleiten haben die Autoren im August 2010 mit dem Projektblog beyondthejournal.net21 eine Plattform geschaffen, die Beiträge, Analysen und Dokumentationen zum Thema ermöglichen sollen. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil von beyondthejournal.net.

Dank

Die Autoren bedanken sich bei allen, die sich bisher an dem Diskussionsprozess beteiligt haben; Besonders bei der LIBREAS-Redaktion, den Teilnehmern des BibCamp³ und bei Christian Hauschke, der mit seinem Beitrag „Bibliothekarische Fachkommunikation 2010“ im Weblog Infobib eine wichtige Diskussion angeregt hat (Hauschke 2010).

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title: User:Lambo~enwikiversity/Konzeptstudie