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Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Alcohol consumption and sexual motivation

Overview of Chapter
This chapter will enhance students' understanding of the concepts and theories underlying sexual motivation and alcohol consumption. This topic will be broken down into eight topics, where past and current research will be combined to enhance the individual's knowledge of this extensively broad topic. The topics vary in length because some aspects have a lot more research. Shorter topics are indicative of where further research needs to be focused, or possibly that the topic doesn't play as an important role as some of the other topics in understanding sexual motivation and alcohol.

The main question we all want to know is: what is the link between sexual motivation and alcohol? This is a question that this chapter will focus on, however, as you will read further into the chapter, this is something you will have to make up your own mind about. Hopefully, by breaking down the main components of sexual motivation in numerous activities (erotica, risky sex, sexual assault, perception, physiology and through measures like surveys and theories) and by providing a basic history of both sexual motivation and alcohol consumption, you will be able to come up with a new level of understanding about ways in which alcohol influences sexual motivation.

History of Alcohol Consumption
Determinants of how much, when, where, what and with whom one will drink include one’s taste, predilection and psychological needs and also one’s age, sex, society, education, socio-economic status and memberships in groups are important (Hanson, 1995). Alcohol has been an influential and growing commodity since early societies, and has been used for thousands of years, for many different reasons. This can be seen in the worldwide consumption of spirits, beer and wine increasing since the 1950’s, with the consumption of beer increasing more than spirits or wine (Hanson, 1995).

In early societies, alcohol had more than one use:
 * 1) It had important nutritional value
 * 2) It was often the best medicine available and helped relived illnesses that included pain Spirituosen-im-supermarkt.jpg
 * 3) It facilitated religious ecstasy and communion with the powers which were thought to control tribal and individual destiny
 * 4) It enabled periodic social festivity and the ‘happiness’ of consumers, thus serving as a means of recreation.

When contrasting the usage of alcohol from early societies to now more modern means, alcohol has changed in the following ways:
 * 1) In terms of nutritional value, alcohol retains little value beyond its calorie content
 * 2) As a form of medicine, it has only served a purpose for water-insoluble compounds and as a tonic
 * 3) In religion and common rituals, red wine is the only alcoholic beverage that has still retained its symbolic power, essentially becoming more powerful and more commonly used in the church for communions, in which it symbolizes the blood of God
 * 4) In festivals, alcohol is still predominately used as a form of recreation, with this being the most common modern day reason to consume alcohol.

Alcohol could still be used as a form of recreation in modern societies to reduce stranger anxiety, fear of punishment and for the individual to have something in common with other socialites (Hanson, 1995). This emphasises that the ancient uses of alcohol have not been forgotten in modern society; through the symbolisation of a drink being the announcer of friendship, peace and agreement between individuals. The common problem with alcohol usage in the modern society is that many people have discovered (like ancient times) that alcohol can relieve the symptoms of pain, being emotionally or physical. Furthermore, alcohol can also help them to suppress overwhelming inhibitions, shyness, anxieties and tensions which can see it as being used to alter moods, masking unease and pain, and enabling participation in groups which they might often have discomfort in doing so (such as festivals; Hanson, 1995).

History of Sexual Motivation
Motivation refers to an inferred need, desire or impulse which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Coon, 1997). Given this definition of motivation, it follows that sexual motivation is an inferred, internal state influenced by several factors which can determine the engagement in a sexual activity (Johnson, 1997). Firstly, it is important to reiterate that the motivation in humans to engage in sexual behaviour is due to a complex relationship between seven factors.

Sexual motivation could not proceed without physiological factors, in particular hormones (Hokanson, 1969; Leger, 1992). In lower species, hormones are almost completely correlated with sexual behaviour, however as we move up the species scale, other elements become involved. For instance, in males, a certain level of testosterone is necessary to maintain a normal sexual motivation balance (Leger, 1992). If males’ testosterone levels fall, sexual motivation becomes greatly reduced. Hokanson reiterates the importance of hormones readying the individual for action, but these other factors are the primary determinants of whether or not the individual engages in the sexual activity. A final physiological factor is that of odour (pheremones) and sense of smell. This has received the least attention on it, as its influence on sexual behaviour is difficult to conclude (Kohl & Francoeur, 1995). Sexual orientation refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual attraction (Wood & Wood, 1996). Our desire to engage in sexual behaviour is highly influenced by our sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is mainly directed by multiple factors such as: genetic makeup, hormones, genes and social experiences. Both nature and nurture play a role, but it has been concluded that culture is a high predictor of one’s sexual orientation, which influences sexual motivation (LeVay, 1995). Abramson and Pinkerton (1995) point out that the pleasure that is gained from sexual activities is both physiologically and psychologically based, and that sex organs don’t merely exist to facilitate reproductive behaviour. Simplistically, humans engage in sexual behaviour because it is enjoyable, not just to ensure procreation. How a stimulus is interpreted influences how individuals respond to that stimulus (Johnson, 1997). Since societies create very different gender roles for both men and women, the interpretation of a particular stimulus is bound to be different (Wade & Tavris, 1996). With this in mind, it is important to reiterate that culture influences sexual behaviour, not only through the appropriateness of those behaviours, but also by guiding the interpretation of stimuli. As previously stated, the interpretation of stimulus plays an important role in the involvement of individuals in sexual behaviour. Studies conducted by Kinsey and colleagues (1948, 1953) found that men have been considered to be more sexually responsive to arousing stimuli than their female counterparts. Contradictory to this was a study conducted by Laan, Everaerd, Van Bellen and Hanewald, (1994) who played male-intended erotic films to both males and females. They found that the physiological arousing responses of males and females were the same, yet when asked to report their feelings of the stimuli, men reported sexual arousal and a positive effect, yet women report a lack of arousal and disgust. This difference could be due to how women interpret the content of the films, as both males and females have the same physiological arousal, but different subjective arousal. Learning plays a highly influential role in sexual motivation. We copy the behaviours of those we respect and admire and repeat those behaviours that are rewarded and discontinue those that have negative outcomes. This idea has roots in the concept of ‘conditioning’ whereby certain stimuli may increase sexual arousal. A classic example of this is one becoming sexually aroused by the consumption of a particular wine, due to the learned association with a few sexual encounters having led to a positive (rewarding) sexual experience. In contrast to this, it has been stated that fear of rejection, something that is learnt over many situations, is usually the most common reason for single men not engaging in sexual activity (Leigh, 1989). Culture plays an important role in sexual motivation. It determines what behaviours may be gender-specific, what may or may not be appropriate to perform in public and what stimuli and behaviours are considered sexually arousing or pleasurable. It is essential, however, to stipulate that learning plays a key role in culture and vice versa; we do not gain the knowledge of cultural norms without learning about these first. This is why when we view behaviours carried out by individuals of another culture; we often do so through coloured lenses influenced by the society in which we came from (Johnson, 1997).
 * Physiological Correlations
 * Sexual Orientation
 * Pleasure
 * Cognitions Skye nicolas zuzanna1.jpg
 * Cognitions and Arousal
 * Learning
 * Culture

Alcohol & Self-Reported Sexual Behaviour
The literature regarding sex and alcohol consumption is extensive and alcohol is usually associated with heightened rather than diminished sexual responding (George & Stoner, 2000). In situational studies, quite a large number of respondents report having drunk prior to sexual activities, leading to lower sexual inhibitions (Wilsnack, Wilsnack & Klassen, 1984) and increased sexual enjoyment (Athanasiou, Shaver & Tavris, 1970). Self-report surveys generally show that people usually view alcohol as enhancing and disinhibiting sexual feelings and behaviours. It is important to note, however, that respondents may report these feelings on due to stereotypes, culture, peers and society. With a strong cultural belief that drinking may lead to pleasurable sexual experiences, it could be argued that public health warnings stating that 'drinking leads to sex' may actually strengthen alcohol-related expectancies (Patrick & Maggs, 2009).

Alcohol use may lead to sex directly through disinhibition (MacDonald, MacDonald, Zanna & Fong, 2000). Conversely, the desire to engage in sexual behaviour may lead to heavier drinking because of the belief that alcohol favorably influences sexuality (Patrick & Maggs, 2009). Based on the alcohol expectancy theory, one of the reasons that some college students use alcohol is their expectation that alcohol facilitates sexual drive and sexual affect and decreases sexual inhibitions (Kotchick, Shaffer, Forehand, & Miller, 2001).

Patrick and Maggs (2009) depict that alcohol use and sexual experiences are likely to be related by some sort of reciprocal or feedback association between expectancies about links between drinking and sex, sexual behaviours and perceived positive and negative consequences of those events. They concluded that having these positive alcohol expectancies, or anticipating rewarding effects as a result of drinking, is associated with higher rates of alcohol use.

BPD Studies
Alcohol expectancies are defined as the expected effects of consuming alcohol (George & Stoner, 2000). These expectancies are important determinants of drinking and the sexual outcomes that follow drinking. The Balanced Placebo Design (BPD) is a method utilised for controlling expectancies experimentally, in which two properties of drinking are manipulated systematically in the laboratory: perceived alcohol content (expectancy) and actual alcohol content (George & Stoner, 2000). Both groups are led to expect alcoholic or non-alcoholic drinks, where half the group receives alcohol and the other half do not. An important limitation of BPD studies is that it limits the alcohol dosage to minimal levels (.06 being ceiling; Collins & Searles, 1988). Despite this limitation, BPD studies have divulged much about alcohol’s enhancement effects on sexual behaviour.

Alcohol & Sexual Arousal
Gender differences are quite common in alcohol-sex research, with men and women exhibiting some similar and some different effects. Firstly, both believe (to some extent) that alcohol enhances sexuality, and secondly, that it decreases both women and men’s genital reactions. Findings from research conducted in the 1970’s (Briddell & Wilson, 1976) found that alcohol suppressed penile tumescence (except at very low dosages; Farkas & Rosen, 1976) and increased orgasm latency in males (Malatesa, Pollack, Wilbanks & Adams, 1979). Similarly, research also found that alcohol also suppressed vaginal blood volume (Wilson & Lawson, 1978) and like males, increased orgasm latency (Malatesa, Pollack, Crotty & Peacock, 1982). These effects increased with alcohol dosage and were interpreted as being related to alcohol’s pharmacological properties (George & Stoner, 2000). Subjective sexual arousal is also affected, not only by blood alcohol content (BAC) but also by a person's beliefs about the effects of alcohol. That is, the expectancies about the relationship between alcohol and sex generated by the culture can influence how a person believes he or she will respond to sexual stimuli (George & Marlatt, 1986).

Male
George and Marlatt (1986) utilised the BPD to manipulate alcohol (actual beverage) and expectancy set (apparent beverage) separately, and found that expectancy set increased men’s arousal, as well as exhibiting greater penile tumescence and increasing their subjective arousal. Consistent with this idea, George, Stoner, Norris, Lopez & Lehman (2000) found that high believers in the alcohol-stimulates-sex expectancy, reported more sexual arousal after consuming placebo drinks than did low believers. This can be explained by looking at the social learning framework which would stipulate that a man’s increased arousal after drinking (placebo or not) is mostly what he believes about alcohol (George & Stoner, 2000).

Female
George and Stoner (2000) contend that there are several difficulties in drawing conclusions about alcohol and women’s arousal. Firstly, the majority of studies between alcohol consumption and arousal have focused on men, thus the experimental data is relatively small. And secondly, the few reported samples that have been utilised for women have produced confusing data that has been quite difficult to interpret. A classic example of this was founded by Wilson and Lawson (1978) who concluded that expectancy set did not affect vaginal arousal yet subjective arousal positively correlated with increased levels of intoxication. Given the dearth of studies, little can definitely be concluded about alcohol and women’s sexual arousal (at least in a laboratory setting).

Alcohol & Erotica Interest
BPD designs have been created to investigate the effects of alcohol variables on erotica interest. In six out of seven experiments (differentiating physiological and psychological properties of drinking), the BPD showed that alcohol variable affected erotica interest (George & Stoner, 2000). In each of these studies, men viewed the erotic film longer when accompanied by a co participant who was drinking, instead of one who was not. In sum, all but one of these studies showed that either actual or placebo drinking increased participants’ interest in the exposure to erotic material. Lansky and Wilson (1981) assessed that these findings made three clear points:
 * 1) When looking at the difference between this data and survey data, we can almost conclude causation, as manipulated alcohol variables directly increased a sexually oriented behaviour.
 * 2) Nonpharmacological process which pertain to what drinkers merely think about their beverage can influence post-drinking sexuality, meaning that sexually orientated behaviour is not necessarily just based on physiology
 * 3) Social desirability, demand characteristics or cultural understandings cannot be attributed to results, as participants were blind to experimental conditions

Alcohol & Sexualised Social Perception
Minimal alcohol manipulations provide yet another strategy for studying alcohol consumption and sexual motivation. In this case, individuals are presented with a depiction of a person, which they are then asked to evaluate (George & Stoner, 2000). Garcia and Kushnier (1987) found that a female student was rated more ‘sexual’ if she was consuming alcohol, than if she wasn’t. This was further contended by three other studies (George et al., 1988, 1995, 1997) whereby a drinking woman was rated as more sexually ‘available’ and willing to engage in foreplay and sexual intercourse than their non-drinking counterparts. Similarly, Corcoran and Bell (1990) found that the drinking man has also been depicted this way. George and researchers (1997) also found that these perceptions (availability and willingness) increased the more an individual drank.

Alcohol & Risky Sex
In the past, the majority of research on alcohol and sexual motivation relied primarily on experimental methods, however more recently survey based studies have been conducted, leading to more awareness about the negative outcomes of sex and alcohol. Survey data has established an alcohol risky-sex link and have identified numerous demographic and personality correlates (George & Stoner, 2000). Engagement in a risky sex (such as unprotected sex) is preceded immediately by the experience of being sexually aroused. Evidence exists (Finnigan & Hammersley, 1992) which suggests that a BAC of .07% - .08% impairs the simultaneous processing of multiple sources of information, which has been hypothesised to underlie alcohol's influence on risky-sexual situations.

Condom Use
Young adults commonly consume alcohol before participating in a sexual act (Patrick & Meggs, 2009). A study by Hingson and collegues reported that at least 8% of U.S college students aged 18 to 24 have unprotected sexual intercourse resulting from alcohol use annually (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005). Patrick and Meggs conducted a study among college students which found a lower likelihood of condom use after consumption of alcohol. In two experiments, Gordon and colleagues (Gordon & Carey, 1996; Gordon, Carey & Carey, 1997) studied the effects of acute intoxication on risky sex antecedents derived from the information-motivation behaviour model. This model (as briefly summarised by George & Stoner, 2000) postulates that information (about HIV prevention/transmission) motivation (to change HIV risk behaviour) and behavioural skill (at performing preventive acts) all determine preventative behaviours (such as condom use). Gordon et al., (1996, 1997) found that in both studies, despite exhibiting risk knowledge, intoxicated men expressed more negative attitudes about condom use, more embarrassment about bringing up the use of condoms with a partner, reduced pleasure, and less appreciation for condom use advantages.

HIV prevention research has been devoted to identifying variables that influence the use of condoms, include the effects alcohol may have. The relationship between alcohol use and the occurrence of unprotected sex varies according to factors such as age, and sexual experience of participants (Maisto, Carey, Carey & Gordon, 2002).

Alcohol Myopia
Myopia theory is a very pertinent framework for understanding the alcohol, sexual arousal and risky sex interaction (MacDonald, MacDonald, Zanna, & Fong, 2000). Alcohol myopia models emphasise the importance of alcohol content over expectancy set, whereby it is characterised by a falsely simplified or myopic vision of reality (George & Stoner, 2000). Research conducted on alcohol myopia is based on Steele’s inhibitory conflict model (Steele & Josephs, 1990), which found that intoxicated participants exhibit greater intentions to have unprotected sexual intercourse. Based on this idea, Murphy, Monahan and Miller (1998) used the BPD to investigate women’s willingness to date ‘risky’ men. Women were shown a video which portrayed several attractive/non-attractive men and relayed their past sexual encounters. They found that intoxicated women rated the high conflict man (attractive and promiscuous) as having more potential for a sexual relationship than did their sober counterparts. In another survey (Fromme, D’Amico & Katz, 1999) it was founded that intoxicated young men and women indicated that negative consequences were less likely to occur in risky situations, and that knowing the past of a promiscuous counterpart would not influence their decision to engage in a sexual activity with them. In another study conducted by the same researchers, participants watched a video where a couple were contemplating sexual intercourse without a condom. After the video, participants were asked to list the potential consequences of continuing intercourse without a condom. Intoxicated participants listed fewer negative consequences than did placebo and non-alcohol consuming counterparts.

Alcohol & Sexual Assault
Sexual assault is a form of sexual aggression, which includes sexual harassment, sexual coercion, sexual assault (attempted rape and rape, exhibitionism) and child molestation (George & Stoner, 2000). A basic definition of sexual aggression is when the perpetrator engages in non-consensual sexual behaviour with a victim. Research has implicated alcohol use or abuse as a leading factor in sexual assault (e.g. Benson, Charlton & Goodhart, 1992; Seto & Barbaree, 1995). George and Stoner completed a review of studies attributed to sexual assault and alcohol consumption, and found that these studies involved a male perpetrator and a female victim, due to the majority of adult sexual assaults being in this constellation.

Non-experimental studies have been utilised to understand the involvement of alcohol and rape. One way of gathering data is through the use of interview or case studies from convicted rapists. Conclusions that George and Stoner found among much literature research indicated that between 40 and 63% of offenders had been drinking at the time of the incident.

Another alternative method for seeking data on past rape cases is to look at police records. Using this approach, it has been found that in 34 to 72% of cases, the victim, perpetrator or both had been drinking at the time of the assault. George and Stoner do not forget to mention the limitations of these statistics. They found a lot of biases inherent in the above methods because:
 * 1) reported rapes only represent a small amount of actual rapes
 * 2) those rapes where one is convicted is an even smaller percentage of actual rapes
 * 3) rapists could often be motivated to shift the blame and legal culpability from themselves, to that of alcohol
 * 4) victims may be motivated to implicate alcohol as a way of documenting their incapacitation
 * 5) there may be distortions in the records gathered through police files due to interrogation methods used during the interviewing procedure.

Consequently, Koss and Dinero (1988) found that alcohol use was one of four strong predictors of being sexually victimised and harassed. Interestingly, many female victims in college have reported that the administration of drugs or alcohol was the method used by an offender to force sexual intercourse (George & Stoner, 2000; for a full review see Finley & Corty, 1993). Similarly, college men report having used alcohol for this exact purpose, with more than 20% believing it is justified to initiate sex on intoxicated women (Davis, Peck & Storment, 1993). Offenders aren’t often the only one who believes this is acceptable. In a study conducted by Richardson and Campbell (1982), they found that subjects judged a drinking rapist to be less blameworthy than a sober counterpart, but perceived the drinking victim as more blameworthy than one who was not drinking. Therefore, third party observers in this study saw alcohol as influencing and in many cases excusing the behaviour performed by a rapist.

Obviously, alcohol effects on sexual assault cannot be investigated directly under laboratory settings, however, using many methods as mentioned above, it is safe to say that alcohol can be deemed as a variable which can have an influential impact on how sexual assaults are carried out or perceived.

Key Terms

 * Motivation
 * Sexual Motivation
 * Sexual Orientation
 * Disinhibition
 * Alcohol Expectancy Theory
 * Alcohol Expectancies
 * Balanced Placebo Design (BPD)
 * Tumescence
 * Intoxication
 * Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
 * Alcohol Myopia Model
 * Sexual Assault

Summary

 * Alcohol has been used for many centuries as a supplement of food (for nutritional value), medicine, and for religious activities and festivals
 * Sexual motivation is an inferred, internal state influenced by physiological correlations, sexual orientation, pleasure, cognitions, arousal, learning, and culture
 * Self report surveys usually find respondents agreeing that alcohol enhances and disinhibits sexual feelings and behaviours
 * Alcohol creates orgasm latency, and lack of penile and vaginal blood volume in both males and females
 * Alcohol enhances sexual erotica interest physiologically in both men and women, however, the sexes differ in how they perceive the content/material; with studies finding men enjoy it more then do their female counterparts
 * Stereotypes view women who consume alcohol, as more 'willing', 'available', and 'sexual' by their male respondents. This is an indicator of a sexualised social perception from those who both drink and those who watch others drink.
 * The consumption of alcohol is associated with a willingness to engage in risky sex (e.g., without condom usage).
 * Alcohol use is one of four predictors leading up to sexual assault. Not only does it play a high role in the act being committed itself, but also through the way individuals perceive the seriousness the behaviour and who is to blame for those who have been drinking (be victim or offender)

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Quiz
What isn't mentioned as one of the 7 factors in sexual motivation?: - Physiological correlations - Pleasure + Reading - Cognitions.
 * type=""}

{What model is the alcohol myopia theory based on? : - Inhibitory behavioural model + Inhibitory conflict model - BPD model - None of the above.
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{True or false, Two ways of gaining information about sexual assault and alcohol is through police reports and interviews/case studies of offenders? : - False + True.
 * type=""}

{What does the term 'alcohol expectancies' mean? : - Having sex after alcohol consumption - Being interested in erotic media - How much alcohol we expect to consume + The expected effects of consuming alcohol.
 * type=""}

{What does BPD stand for?: - Blood Predicting Drinking - Being Pretty Drunk + Balanced Placebo Design - None of the above.
 * type=""}

{Out of beer, spirits and wine; what has increased in consumption since the 1950's? : - Spirits - Wine + Beer - All of the above. }}
 * type=""}

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Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Promiscuity motivation

Introduction: What is promiscuity?
Promiscuity (also known as short-term mating) can be defined by two key aspects. First and foremost, the term refers to an individual's engagement in sexual activities with multiple individuals during the course of their life. However, many individuals now engage in such behaviour without being deemed 'promiscuous'. Thus, it appears that the definition goes beyond the number of people an individual has sexual contact with.

The term 'promiscuous' refers to a complicated combination of short-term mating with multiple partners, without engaging in an exclusive or monogamous relationship with these partners (Markey & Markey, 2007). Whether this type of behaviour is acceptable or not appears to be a matter of personal opinion. While one person may view it as sex with more than a certain number of partners within one's lifetime, others might define it as engaging in sexual practice with multiple partners within days, weeks, or months of each other.

Much of the literature on this topic incorporates sexual promiscuity into a category labelled 'risky sexual behaviour' (Hoyle, Fejfar & Miller, 2000; Schmitt & Shackelford, 2008). This is most likely due to the increased risks of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unwanted pregnancy that are often associated with casual sex (Hoyle et al.). It is possible that psychological issues and interpersonal issues may also result from promiscuous behaviour. Thus, researchers over the past several decades have attempted to uncover what motivates sexual promiscuity.

This chapter explores the motivation behind sexually promiscuous behaviour. In particular, the influence of personality and gender will be examined, and several theories behind motivation for this type of behaviour will be explored. You are encouraged to think critically about the application of each theory to promiscuity, as you may find some more applicable to others.

Physiology of Sexual Motivation

Before considering the factors involved in the motivation of promiscuous sexual behaviour, it is important to first address the issue of sexual motivation on a more general level. More specifically, we must ask ourselves the question- why is it that people are driven to engage in sexual behaviour in the first place? The answer lies, in part, in our physiological make-up.

Sex is thought to be one of our most basic physiological needs. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, these physiological needs must be fulfilled before other needs can be addressed (Deckers, 2010). In this respect, the fulfillment of sexual needs is important not only for continuation of the species, but for maintaining personal well-being. While an individual can still technically live without sex, there are theorists who claim we are naturally driven to engage in sexual behaviour.

Hull's Drive Reduction Theory
The drive reduction theory is based on the premise that physiological deprivation drives us to behave in particular ways (Deckers, 2010). For instance, a starving rat will press a lever to obtain a food pellet in order to return to a comfortable physiological state. Similarly, a person in need of sexual satisfaction will most likely participate in some sort of sexual behaviour to reduce that physiological need. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the drive for sex is better met by short term mating than by long term mating. In other words, an individual who has sex with a long term partner has just as much chance of meeting their needs as someone who engages in short term mating. Thus, while the drive reduction theory can be used to explain sexual motivation in general, other factors must influence people to become promiscuous.

Attachment Theory and Sexual Promiscuity
The theory of attachment was first proposed by Bolby in 1977, and focuses on the affects of the parent-child relationship (Giugliano, 2003). The theory is founded on the premise that the relationship one has with their parents during childhood impacts on the kind of relationship they will have with others in the future (McLeish, Paetzold & Rholes, 2010). Attachment style begins to form during early childhood, and are determined primarily by the child's proximity to the attachment figure.

According to this theory, a person who experienced an adequate relationship with their parental figure during childhood is more likely to experience secure attachment during adulthood. This kind of attachment is thought to lead to positive close relationships with other individuals (Giugliano, 2003). As secure attachment is linked to healthy relationships, trust, and reciprocity, people with this attachment style are generally inclined to seek out monogamous relationship. For this reason, sexually promiscuous behaviour is not strongly linked to individuals with secure attachment.

On the other end of the spectrum, individuals who experience poor parental attachment during childhood tend to have difficulty forming secure attachments in adulthood (McLeish et al., 2010). As a result, these individuals are likely to experience anxiety and insecurity, and may also lack self esteem. Such individuals may become inclined to partake in short-term relationships with multiple partners to temporarily fill the void that poor attachment has left in their lives.

It is believed that individuals with poor attachment will have difficulty entering/maintaining long term monogamous relationships. Research has also indicated that short term sexual encounters are more likely to be undertaken by people with poor attachment compared to secure attachment. For instance, results of a study conducted by Walsh (1995) demonstrated that promiscuous behaviour was more prominent in individuals who claimed to have experienced weak parental attachment during childhood (as cited in Giugliano, 2003).

Gender differences and Sexual Promiscuity
Research on promiscuity has demonstrated that there appears to be a gender difference in short term mating. According to Perlini and Boychuk (2006) males are more likely to pursue short-term sexual relationships than females. While some theorists attribute this difference to evolutionary or biological factors, others suggest that perhaps social norms and upbringing are responsible for this difference.

Sexual Strategies Theory
Human mating is considered to be strategic and innate; taking place in a way that is thought to resolve adaptive problems (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). The sexual strategies theory is an evolutionary theory that posits that men and women psychologically process sex differently. While men and women both possess the potential to engage in sexually promiscuous behaviour, men have adapted in such a way that they are considered to be more oriented towards such behaviour (Schmitt, Shackelford & Buss, 2001) The sexual strategies theory argues that this is due to three factors:
 * Males tend to desire short-term relationships more.
 * Males tend to consent to sex after a shorter period of time compared to females.
 * Males show a greater desire for multiple sex partners.

It is argued by sexual strategy theorists that while men and women will conduct themselves similarly when it comes to choosing partners for long term mating, they differ in short-term mating strategies in several key ways (Schmitt et al., 2001). However, the theory is often misinterpreted in such a way that people think it suggests that all men wish to engage in short term mating. According to Schmitt et al. this is not the case. Rather, the theory suggests that men will simply be more likely to engage in such relationships than women.

Investigating Desire, Number of Partners and Time Before Consent
Buss and Schmitt (1993) conducted empirical research to test the accuracy of the hypotheses of the sexual strategies theory. To investigate the desire for short-term mating, a seven point scale identifying the extent to which short term mating was being pursued was administered to 148 participants (75 men and 73 women). The results of this portion of the study demonstrated that men were seeking short term relationships more so than women.

Part two of Buss and Schmitt's (1993) experiment examined gender differences in preference for multiple partners. The same participants were asked to identify how many sexual partners they would like within a given period of time (e.g. next month, during the next 6 years, during a lifetime etc). It was found that men reported a greater number of desired sexual partners than women for every time frame suggested.

Finally, to determine whether men consent to sex more quickly than women, participants were asked over what period of time would have to pass before consenting to sex. Results showed that men would generally consent to sex as early as one week after meeting the potential mate (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Women, on the other hand, were much less inclined to jump into a sexual relationship less than a month after meeting a potential mate.

The results of this study supported the three main hypotheses of the sexual strategies theory. From this, it can be interpreted that gender influences the motivation to engage in short term mating. However, at this point it does not seem entirely clear why men are more inclined to behave promiscuously. Much of the research on gender thus far seems to address how men and women differ in short term mating without addressing why such variance exists. Thus, further research into the reasons behind such gender differences is necessary to truly understand gender's role in the motivation behind sexual promiscuity.

Gender Bias
It is possible that one of the reasons males tend to engage in promiscuous behaviour more frequently than females is that society finds it a more acceptable behaviour for men to undertake. Dankoski, Payer and Steinberg (1996) discussed the role that gender bias within society plays in promiscuity. Their focus was on sexual behaviour in adolescence; with a particular interest in male promiscuity.

Dankoski et al. (1996) claimed that adolescents were significantly influenced by gender stereotypes and the influence of peers when it came to sexual practice. They suggested that males tend to hold/adhere to traditional gender stereotypes more so than adolescent females. Adolescent boys therefore experience greater pressure to engage in sexual activity, and are virtually permitted by society to engage in sexually promiscuous behaviour; with the general attitude that 'boys will be boys' allowing them to get away with it.

Contrary to males, there appears to be a societal expectancy that female adolescents save sexual behaviour for 'serious' relationships (Dankoski et al., 1996). These societal norms or values could be what motivate men to remain generally more promiscuous than women. It is possible that these societal expectations carry on into adulthood, with women possibly experiencing internal guilt or external ridicule for acting promiscuously. Men, on the other hand, may continue into adulthood with the understanding that it is more socially acceptable for them to have casual sex with multiple partners.

Personality and Sexual Promiscuity
The notion that personality plays an important role in one’s sexual motivation is now well established. With regards to promiscuity, much of the literature on personality appears to focus on the influence of one’s temperament and specific personality traits. In particular, a large body of research has been conducted in the attempt to identify correlations between specific personality factors and sexual risk taking behaviour (including promiscuity).

Psychobiological Perspective- PEN Model
One of the more prominent theories of personality relevant to promiscuity is the Psychoticism-Extroversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. Originally proposed by Eysenck, this model states that there are three biologically based ‘super-factors’ or ‘super traits’ underlying each person’s personality (Egan, 2009; Hoyle et al., 2000). This model thus posits that three major personality traits underlie behaviour (psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism), and these traits stem from a person’s physiological make-up.

Each of the super traits is composed of a distinct set of sub-traits. Psychoticism, for instance, is based on lower level facets such as aggression, apathy, egocentricity and coldness (Egan, 2009). Biologically speaking, this particular super trait is thought to be influenced by testosterone levels as well as neurotransmitter abnormalities and low cortical arousal (Egan; Hoyle et al., 2000). Much of the biological influence on this trait is therefore related to the physiology and function of the brain.

Results of a study conducted by Eysenck in 1976 suggested that sexual promiscuity is more likely to occur in someone who has high (as opposed to low) levels of psychoticism (as cited in Hoyle et al., 2000). It could therefore be assumed, on the basis of this model, that perhaps a person who demonstrates low cortical arousal or neurotransmitter abnormalities would be more likely to become sexually promiscuous. Such conclusions cannot be made on the basis of this study, however, as only personality traits (as opposed to biological exploration) were studied. Extraversion (in the PEN model) essentially refers to one's level of sociability, assertiveness and general 'liveliness'. This particular super trait has been linked to one's level of cortical arousal. People that are thought to be highly extraverted are posited to naturally have a lower level of cortical arousal, and thus they seek out external forms of excitement to increase their internal arousal (Egan, 2009). This particular trait is generally linked to increased likelihood of promiscuous behaviour, and this will be discussed in further detail later within this chapter.

The third super trait within the PEN model is Neuroticism; a trait stemmed in emotional stability. Neuroticism is thought to be biologically influenced by the sympathetic nervous system (Hoyle et al., 2000). A highly neurotic individual will have less control over their emotions; with a tendency to have a more negative outlook than people with low levels of neuroticism (Egan, 2009).

Warm vs Cold
Over the years psychologists have conducted a great deal of research in the hope of identifying aspects of personality that may predispose individuals to certain behaviour (Markey & Markey, 2007). In regards to sexual motivation, it appears that personal temperament is one aspect of personality that is thought to influence sexually promiscuous behaviour. Research thus far has suggested that it is the people who score on the extremes of personality traits and temperament that tend to be more inclined to have sexual relations with multiple partners (Hutson, 2007).

One study with particularly interesting findings regarding temperament was conducted by Markey and Markey (2007). The study investigated the interpersonal factors that underly sexually promiscuous behaviour, in an attempt to uncover specific personality traits that might predict short-term mating behaviour. Interpersonal style and sexual promiscuity were examined within a sample of 210 adults through using the IAS-R (Interpersonal Adjective Scale) and the BHBI (Bentler's Heterosexual Behavioural Inventory). It was found that people who scored relatively high on interpersonal dominance were more likely to be sexually promiscuous than those with lower dominance scores. Markey and Markey (2007) suggested that one possible explanation for this finding is that perhaps dominant people are less inclined to be shy when it comes to initiating and engaging in sexual encounters. Thus, such individuals may be more inclined to seek out sexual partners, rather than waiting for someone else to initiate sex. As one aspect of extroversion is 'assertiveness', similar explanations could be made for the link between high extroversion and promiscuity.

Possibly the most interesting finding from the study by Markey and Markey (2007) was that individuals that were identified as having a temperament that was either particularly warm or cold were more promiscuous than those who did not score to an 'extreme' for this trait. The researchers offered a few suggestions as to why this might be the case. One possible explanation for cold individuals is that perhaps they avoid more intimate/monogamous sexual relationships due to a fear of rejection or mistreatment. This explanation makes sense in terms of motivation to engage in short-term mating encounters, as the individual can continue to fulfill their physiological need while maintaining interpersonal distance from the individuals they have relations with.

Another possible explanation for the finding that extremely warm/cold individuals are more promiscuous related directly to their interpersonal values. Markey and Markey (2007) suggest that cold individuals simply might just not care about the wellbeing of others, and thus have sexual encounters with whomever they want because they do not regard possible consequences to others as relevant. On the other end of the spectrum, warm individuals might consider sexual encounters as a positive act for other people, and thus have sexual relations with multiple individuals as an act of kindness or love (Markey & Markey, 2007).

Influence of the 'Big Five' on Sexual Promiscuity
One of the most intensely researched aspects of personality is the 'Five Factor Model' or 'The Big Five'. This particular model asserts that there are five universal facets of personality; these being extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness and neuroticism (Schmitt & Shackelford, 2008). Each of the five main traits are characterized by a series of distinct sub-facets. Much of the research conducted on the motivation of promiscuity has investigated correlations between specific facets of the big five and sexually promiscous behaviour. The literature focusing on this aspect of promiscuity has suggested that there does appear to be a link between three of the five factors (extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness) and promiscuity.

Extraversion
Extraversion (as previously mentioned within the PEN model)is a personality trait representing an individual's sociability, liveliness and the general need for external excitement (Egan, 2009). It has been argued that extraversion is a principle component in explaining why people partake in certain sexual behaviours. Research on Personality and promiscuity thus far has indicated that, of the 'big five', extraversion is the strongest predictor of sexually promiscuous behaviour.

Various cross cultural studies have identified extraversion as a motivational factor for promiscuity in Western countries. Specifically, findings from most of the research on this matter demonstrate that extraverted individuals tend to partake in promiscuous behaviour more than introverts (Markey & Markey, 2007; Schmitt, 2004). It is thought that one of the reasons for this is that extraverts require more external excitement and novelty than introverts (Schmitt, 2004).

A cross cultural study was conducted by Schmitt (2004) to investigate the impact of the big five personality traits on sexual promiscuity. Over 16 000 participants across 10 world regions responded to a survey that measured the big five traits and sexually risky behaviours (such as promiscuity and infidelity). Results of the study demonstrated a relationship between promiscuity and extraversion for western countries (such as the Americas, Europe and Oceania) (Schmitt). Given the extent of this particular piece of research, it does seem fairly safe to say that extraversion is a personality trait that may predispose people to become promiscuous.

Sensation seeking
Sensation seeking is a trait that essentially acts as one's drive to continually find external stimulation and novelty within the environment (Zuckerman, 1994). While it is a sub-trait of extraversion, sensation seeking has also been linked to low agreeableness and low conscientiousness. Given the combination of these three factors, it is no wonder that this particular trait has been strongly associated with sexually promiscuous behaviour (Hoyle et al., 2000; Markey & Markey, 2007; Schmitt & Shackelford, 2008).

The concept of sensation seeking essentially answers the question- why do people pursue multiple partners when they could get sexual gratification from monogomy? The answer, according to Zuckerman (1994), is Novelty. It is true that one's biological drive for sex could be satisfied through intercourse with a single partner. However, individuals that have a high level of sensation seeking do not get enough cortical arousal from monogamy. Thus, sensation seekers are motivated to have short term sexual encounters with multiple partners because each situation is new and exciting (Zuckerman, 1994).

Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
While agreeableness and conscientiousness have been identified as possible factors influencing promiscuity, they evidence for these traits is not as strong as it is for extroversion (Schmitt, 2004). Research has suggested that a person low in agreeableness or conscientiousness is more likely to act promiscuously than an individual that is high in these traits (Schmitt & Shackelford, 2008). However, as this finding does not appear to be consistent, further research is required for these particular traits.

Summary
Sexual promiscuity is characterized as sexual relations with multiple partners in the absence of exclusivity. What motivates someone to become promiscuous is likely to vary based on the situation, however several factors make a person more likely to engage in short-term mating. According to the drive reduction theory, in order for the individual to be driven to engage in sexual behaviour in the first place, they must feel some level of physiological deprivation. After this point, various factors can influence that person to be sexually promiscuous.

The attachment theory suggests that individuals who experienced poor relationships with their parental figures during childhood are more likely to engage in promiscuous behaviour in adulthood as a form of temporary relief from the anxiety associated with poor attachment. If an individual had a secure attachment to their parental figure, however, they will most likely be less motivated to engage in short-term mating. Alternatively, some theorists believe that one's gender is a primary factor in promiscuous behaviour.

Finally, it is evident that certain personality traits seem to play a key role in promiscuity motivation. Specifically, individuals who are high in extraversion and low in agreeableness/conscientiousness are far more likely to engage in short-term mating that individuals who are introverted or high in agreeableness/conscientiousness. It also seems that individuals who are particularly warm or cold in temperament are more likely to be promiscuous than those with an in-between temperament.

To conclude, it appears that the motivation behind promiscuity is rather complex. While the above mentioned factors have been strongly linked to such behaviour, this does not mean that these factors will guarantee a promiscuous outcome. Moreover, it is entirely possible that various other factors, such as individual differences and beliefs, play a role in the motivation of promiscuity.

Key Terms
Extraversion Hormones Motivation Neuroticism Psychoticism Promiscuity Sensation Seeking Short term mating

Quiz
What is Promiscuity + Sexual relations with multiple partners without explusivity - Sexual relations with more than one partner - Abstaining from sex - Sex with another person while already in a monogamous relationship
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{Which of the following is a common misinterpretation of the sexual strategies theory - Men desire short term relationships more than women - Men consent to sex sooner within relationships on average + All men will inevitably opt for short term relationships - Men show a greater desire for multiple sex partners than women
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{According to the attachment theory, which of the following is likely to lead to promiscuity - Secure attachment as a child + Poor attachment as a child - Average attachment as a child - There is no link between parental attachment and promiscuity
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{Which of the following is not considered one of Eysenck's 'Super Traits'? - Psychoticism. + Openness. - Neuroticism. - Extraversion
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{Which of the 'big five' traits is the most likely to predict promiscuity + Extraversion - Neuroticism - Openness - Conscientiousness - Agreeableness }}
 * type="[]"}

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Sex offender motivation

The motivation of sex offenders
There has been a lot of debate determining the sole motivation for the macabre act of serial sexual homicide. Whilst sexual gratification, power and control and anger have been the most favourable explanations, unconscious motivation and evolution can also play a role. An offender’s upbringing and family life can also have an influence on the development of this sexual offending. Factors such as alcoholism and substance abuse, as well as sexual abuse are considered as factors that can lead to sex offenders behaviour, but are described more in the creation of a sex offender rather than the motivation of their acts. The nature nurture controversy that appears in all psychological fields applies to serial sex offenders also. Evidence suggests that both biological and social factors make up the characteristics and behaviours of a sex offender.

The name ‘serial sexual offender’ is given to those offenders who have murdered 3 or more victims in a sequence using acts of sexual deviance and predatory violence (Meloy & Felthous, 2004).

It is important to notice the difference between a sex offender and a serial sex offender. Whilst not all sex offenders kill their victims, there is still a great deal of perpetrators who do. Those offenders who murder their victims are known as serial sex offenders, compared to those who commit acts of sexual assault. There are various types of sex offenders, which will be listed below. The term ‘sex offender’ is often used as a group term to describe individuals who commit sexually deviant acts, whether they are a once off, continuous or involve the killing of the victim. For the sake of this textbook chapter, the terms sex offender and serial sex offender will be used in its correct form.

This textbook chapter will look at primary sex offenders and the motives of their crimes, but will also look at the methods and fantasy components to the act of killing their victims. This will give a broader understanding to how the acts are carried out, and will complement the case example of a serial sex offender by the name of Jeffrey Dahmer.

Types of sex offenders
A sex offender is a person who has committed a sex crime which includes but is not limited to rape, statutory rape, sexual abuse, possessing child pornography, pedophilia and child molestation (Min-Chieh, Maxwell & Barclay, 2000). Some sex offenders may only commit one offence in their lives, whilst others may become a sexual predator and commit more than one offence, earning the title of a serial sexual offender.

Types of serial murderers
There are 4 types of serial killers. The motives of serial killers have been placed in these four categories (Holmes, DeBurger & Holmes, 1988). These overlap with the other motives that will be discussed in another section.

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Mission Oriented
This type of serial killers, aim to eradicate a type or group of people they believe should not belong in society, such as homosexuals, prostitutes or people with a disability. Surprisingly, many serial killers who killed homosexuals were homosexuals themselves (Holmes, DeBurger & Holmes, 1988). Jeffrey Dahmer was a homosexual and majority of his victims were also homosexuals.
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Visionary
This type of serial killers believe that they are being channelled to commit their crimes through 'voices' and external sources. The most common are God mandated and demon mandated (Bartol & Bartol, 2004, p145). Dahmer fits this category as he states he was being channelled by demons to kill his victims.
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Hedonistic
This type of serial killer, kills essentially for fun and thrill, even comfort. Hedonistic killers are primarily motivated by sex of which fantasy is essential for (Bartol & Bartol, 2004, p145). Dahmer seems to fit this category too, by searching for his perfect lover.

Power and Control
This type of serial killer likes to be in control and have power over their victims. Feelings of being powerless or not in control as a child, such as being sexually or physically abused, can lead to these feelings of being powerless. Thus, gaining power anyway possible to reduce theses feelings. Sexual abuse is most common for these types of offenders (Egger, 2000). Again, Dahmer liked to take control of his victims in anyway he could.
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Sex offenders and psychopathy
Although many definitions of psychopathy have been proffered most assert that psychopaths are individuals (mostly male) who are aggressive, self-centered, callous, guiltless, impulsive, sensation seeking, interpersonally exploitive, deceptive, low in fear and anxiety, unable to learn socially approved ways of satisfying immediate needs and to develop warm affectional bonds with other persons. Psychopaths are often highly versatile and prolific in their criminal offending and can include sex crimes.

Individual attitudes and personality have an influence on the way a person’s thoughts and behaviours are rationalised. Elements of psychopathy can be drawn from factors or personality traits and can be measured by the Psychopathy Check List-Revised, a statistical measurement designed to predict institutional adjustment and recidivism (Walters, 2003). These elements or underlying personality characteristics are what make people who they are and are often unchangeable.

Psychopathic traits are categorised into interpersonal, affective and behavioural traits (Book, 2010). Interpersonal traits include being grandiose, arrogant, superficial, deceptive and manipulative whilst affective traits are their inability to bond, short-temperedness and lack of guilt and empathy. Additionally, behavioural traits are impulsiveness, irresponsibleness and frequent violation of social norms and laws (Book, 2010). Psychopaths tend to have qualities that are not thought possible. They include intelligence, charisma and attractiveness, as well as middle class status and can also be high-income earners (Vaughn & Howard, 2005). Personality traits remain stable over time (Wallace & Newman, 2004).

The PCL-R measures factor 1 and factor 2 traits, on a 20 item clinical rating scale (Hare, Clark, Grann, & Thornton, 2000).

Factor 1 traits are personality traits and consist of:

Glibness/superficial charm  Grandiose sense of self-worth   Pathological lying   Cunning/manipulative   Lack of remorse or guilt   Shallow affect   Callous/lack of empathy   Failure to accept responsibility for own actions

Factor 2 traits are lifestyle factors and consist of:

Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom  Parasitic lifestyle   Poor behavioral control  Lack of realistic long-term goals   Impulsivity   Irresponsibility   Juvenile delinquency   Early behavior problems   Revocation of conditional release

The Process
Motivation can also stem from the 4-element victim selection process. This process is an important feature in a sexual (and violent) offence.

Fantasy – sexual in nature, varies across offenders, varies over time and there is an ideal type of fantasy. Sexual preoccupation is evident in reoccurring sexual and rape fantasies. The use of pornography, massage parlours and sex clubs as well as having uncontrollable sexual urges, are consistent with fantasy. Deviant sexual behaviours such as paraphilias, (voyeurism, exhibitionism and necrophilia) as incorporated into the fantasy. The sexual assaults are well thought of and planned, often scripted and rehearsed, down to the last detail (Myers, Husted, Safarik & Tool, 2006). Over time the concept of fantasy becomes so strong that it continues to be confused with real life feelings and emotions. It can compensate for feelings of happiness, sadness, anger and the distinction between what is right an wrong (Chan, Heide & Beauregard, 2010).

Symbolism – this includes fetishes and partialisms (fetish body parts). Some serial sex offenders have particular objects or parts of the body that need to be integrated into their modus operandi for their satisfaction. This may include feet fetishes (podophilia) and the need for their victim to have a certain foot shape, or even body size or eye colour. In Dahmer's case he would possess the genitalia and skulls of the males as trophies, and biceps and other muscles for consumption. Dahmer later explained he would do this because he felt the person, who he had consumed, came alive in him and made him feel complete.

Ritualism – ritualistic behaviour of both the victim and the killer known is the modus operandi. The ritual needs to go to plan, and needs to be perfect. A serial killer has obsessive compulsive behaviours that are exercised in their ritual. Looking at Jeffrey Dahmer, his ritual consisted of loitering around gay bars and clubs, posing as a photographer and luring his victims back to his apartment where he would drug them, pour acid into holes he would drill in their heads and would have sex with them before dismembering the body.

Compulsion – the compulsion is thwarted and the need becomes stronger. There is often a cool off period after the first offense where the offender is remorseful. This slowly wears off and proceeds with another offence. Jeffrey killed his first victim and then waited 9 years before killing his next 16 victims.

Case Study
The following case study is of an American serial sex offender by the name of Jeffrey Dahmer. The following case study will look at the nature of his crimes as well as his upbringing and motives (Bardsley, 2010).

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Jeffrey Dahmer
''Jeffrey Dahmer was born on May 21, 1960 in Wisconsin, USA. He sexually abused and killed 17 men from 1978 to 1991. As a teenager he had fantasies of killing and mutilating men. At the age of 17 he was abandoned at home with no money and food while his parents went through a nasty divorce. Dahmer was sexually molested as a child and was never counseled or supported by his parents.'' With already low self esteem and a shy personality, the neglect he received in his home life did not assist him and his transformation into adulthood.

''Dahmer's unfortunate upbringing does not give excuse or reasoning for his existence as a serial killer who ended up destroying the lives of many young men. His homosexual victims were considered powerless and of a minority that were ‘easy to dominate’. He also hung around common ‘hunting grounds’ such as gay bars and clubs and preyed on mostly black/Asian men. His acts of symbolism were represented by his desire to keep parts of his victims’ bodies in which he would place around his home with lit candles. He would offer young homosexual and bisexual males money to pose for photos or to watch videos and drink beer at his place. He drugged victims into a deep sleep with spiked drinks before strangling or stabbing them to death, having anal sex with the cadaver, and then dismember them with a hacksaw.''

''Jeffrey felt that the men could then never leave him and he will no longer be alone. In particular, Dahmer would possess the genitalia and skulls of the males as trophies, and biceps and other muscles for consumption. Dahmer later explained he would do this because he felt the person, who he had consumed, came alive in him and made him feel complete.''

''After his first murder, Dahmer had a nine year ‘cooling off’ period where he felt guilty and remorseful of his behavior. However; this soon wore off and the emptiness feeling came back, which lead him to his impulsive second murder of a hitchhiker. From then the compulsion escalated. There was not a great deal of planning with each of Dahmer’s subsequent murders. Most of them occurred based on availability and when he felt ‘needy’ or when the ‘emptiness' returned. He lived alone and fed on the company of others, especially men.''

''The compulsion was too strong for Jeffrey. It started at a young age when he doused animal carcasses with acid and kept their bones, and would put their heads on steaks in his back yard. Dahmer would also conduct lobotomies some victims. Most died instantly as he poured acid into a hole drilled in his victim's skull, causing the victim to stay alive and function in a zombie state for several days. He would then have them perform sexual favors towards him, before eventually killing them, and/or eating them. Dahmer said human flesh "tasted like beef".''

''On one occasion the police were very close to catching Dahmer. They were called to a house where two girls witnessed a young Asian boy was running around Dahmer's front yard naked and bleeding. He could not speak English fluently and was obvious he was frightened. Once the police arrived at the scene Dahmer, who was eager to get the boy back into his apartment, told the police they were having a 'lover's quarrel' and that all was well. Police returned to boy the Dahmer's apartment, despite what the witnesses saw, leaving him to die. Dahmer strangled the boy, sexually abused him, mutilated the body keeping the skull as a trophy and other parts which he later ate.''

''Dahmer enjoyed the sick sadistic things he did. He knew his behavior was not encouraged but somehow he kept going back for more alike his heavy consumption of alcohol.'' ''In 1994, Dahmer died in the Columbia Correctional Institution where he was incarcerated. He was struck to the head with a bar from a weight machine by a fellow inmate. Dahmer's has been kept for research.''
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Jeffery Dahmer's motives
Dahmer was very much motivated by the power and control he had over his victims. He loved the sense of control he had over his victims, and when drugged or in a ‘zombie’ state (due to acid which he poured into holes drilled into their heads) his victims would succumb to his desires (Bardsley, 2010).

Dahmer was subjected to the power/control type of serial predator. However, he has also been categorised partially as a possessing hedonistic and missionary characteristics. This is justified in the way that the sex was not consented and it would occur even if the victims were dead. Because Jeffrey was a homosexual it is unlikely that he would have wanted to eradicate homosexuals, due to the fact he is one himself. Nonetheless, he did have a strong connection to the power/control type, which distinguished him from other predators (Bardsley, 2010).

Dahmer had an internal locus of motives, as he intrinsically believed he was fulfilling a mission (Bardsley, 2010). His mission was to honour evil and with his self created shrine of skulls and trophies, he believed he was able to acquire ‘special powers’.

It is known, from literature and past studies on serial predators that victims contribute to their own victimisation. Dahmer’s victims were inveigled by his charm and charismatic personality that they voluntarily followed him back to his apartment. Dahmer would go to these bars and pick up the men that looked vulnerable and compliant, often of a tall, thin physique. He liked to be the one in control as we know.

Sexual Gratification
Sexual gratification is the most favourable explanation for the primary motivator for sex offenders. Sadistic pleasure, in particular is the prime pursuit. Sadism is the desired acts of cruelty and humiliation towards another in order to create sexual pleasure and orgasm to one self (Myers et al., 2006). Majority of sex offenders are predominately males, and their victims are predominately females. This is valid due to the normal heterosexual attraction between a male and a female. Additionally, homosexual sex offenders also target other homosexuals (as evident in Jeffrey Dahmer's case). This shows that there has to be some degree of physical attraction to the gender of the victim that is consistent with their sexual orientation (Myers, et al., 2006). Research shows that all serial sex offenders have at least some degree of sexual sadism (Myers, et al., 2006). Sexual Motivation represented the driving psychological force in the crimes (Fedoroff, 2008). Other reasons suggest that inability to love and form close, intimate relationships with others can be the explanation for these sex offences (Holmes & De Burger, 1988). That is, the killer simply never develops any lasting relationships According to Freud, he states that individuals have high levels of sexual energy that needs to be released, otherwise there is build up of sexual energy that can cause anxiety (Heffner, 2004). This anxiety on top of other factors (psychopathy, upbringing and mental state) can cause anti social deviant behaviour such as sex offending. Ted Bundy an American serial killer who's feelings of insecurity, anger, and tendency to run from problems lead him to be a serial sex offender (Myers et al., 2006).

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Anger
Aggression and anger are different. Aggression has been described as a behaviour intended to inflict harm or behave destructively towards another organism (Hazelwood & Burgess, 2008). Anger on the other hand describes a strong feeling of displeasure and antagonism (Myers et al., 2006). Studies have shown that there a pin pointed areas in the human brain that are responsible for the regulation of anger. They include the hypothalamus, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex. The studies also show that it is impossible for a human to feel two incompatible emotions at the same time, namely sexual arousal and anger. Thus, the suggestion that whilst sex offenders might be angry at themselves whilst committing their acts, they have to suppress this feeling before feeling sexual arousal (Beauregard & Proulx, 2002).

Sexual offenders who have been subject to neglect and poor family development can develop high levels of anger and frustration. This can be due to the fact that they have not been given an equal chance at life like many of their peers (Myers et al., 2006). Beauregard and Proulx's study conducted with 36 sexual murderers concluded that 55% of the offenders reportedly committed their acts in a 'fit of rage' (2002).

Power and Control
Power and control over an offenders victims has been seen as the secondary motive for committing sex crimes (Myers et al., 2006). Whilst being a crucial part of the modus operandi and victim selection process the amount of control an offender has in their crime can be dependent on the victim and the environment (Groth, Burgess & Holmstrom, 1977). Domination and control can also act as a way of increasing sexual pleasure and as a way to manage the victim so the offence can occur (Myers et al., 2006). Some researchers also believe that if there is a poor child development in the areas of autonomy and independence, the perceived power and control that the offender has can be low (Egger, 2000). The self esteem of sex offenders is often quite low and can be a cause for the increased need to find a way to feel psychological stable and comfortable (Hazelwood and Burgess, 2008). Jeffrey Dahmer states in an interview (see YouTube video) that power and control was his main motivator.

Enjoyment
Enjoyment can be a motivator for some serial sex offenders. In particular a Scottish sex offender named Dennis Nilsen responded in an interview that his motivation was pure enjoyment (Newton, 2000). For an individual to actually find enjoyment in committing these sex crimes they must have psychological issues. These sex offenders can be so confused and caught up in their fantasy so much that there perception of enjoyment is disturbed (Newton, 2000). There enjoyment has been learnt, just as normal human learnt to enjoy them selves and feel a sense of calmness and homeostasis once a need is reduced. Alike these serial killers, the feel a sense of reduced anxiety which has been associated with enjoyment (Myers et al., 2006).

Evolution
Evolution can be a motivator for sex offenders, but it is not a primary motivator. Myers et al. found that it was a contributing factor especially for male offenders due to a pre-historic hunting theory (2006). This theory was that rape was a way of cheating the mating process by allowing males to spread their genes in a timely way without having to stay around and raise the children (Thornhill, & Palmer, 2000). This is less the case now as victims have the option of undergoing an abortion, and taking over-the-counter birth control pills which can reduce the likelihood of the genes being passed on.

Unconscious motives
Sigmund Freud is the father or unconscious motivation While most of his theories have been idolized by psychologists all over the world, they have also been widely criticized. The ability to test his theories are very difficult, due to the nature of what they are testing - the unconscious. Jeffrey Dahmer states in his interview that he 'didn't know what he was doing' at some points of his murders. This can show that his disassociation was enough to cause this to happen (Myers et al., 2006). Disassociation describes the 'complete disruption of the normal integration of a person's conscious or psychological functioning' (Holmes & De Burger, 1988). Alike disassociation, other defense mechanisms are used to inhibit the cognitive processing of the sexual act, causing the sex offender not to consciously be aware they are committing the offense (Heffner, 2004). As well as the increasing thwarted fantasy component of their crime, these defenses become all that is left of the individual.

Interesting Video on 'Why Serial Killers Kill'

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud believes, and formed as part of his Psychodynamic theory, that theses please seeking drives are battling unconsciously in ones mind, causing anxiety and stress if they are not satisfied. Because this all happens unconsciously, Freud's representation of this is represented by his Topography model, marked by the ID, EGO and SUPER EGO (Heffner, 2004).

ID: psychological experience of the collective needs for pleasure (include explicit and implicit needs). The ID is often symbolised by a devil. EGO: Is the control centre for these needs and adapts to environment to which these needs present themselves, also known as the 'Reality Principle'. SUPER EGO: is the moral part, by which expresses feelings of guilt and conscious thought to counteract the unacceptable drives the ID presents. The SUPER EGO is often referred to as the conscious because it considers the belief of right and wrong, and symbolised as an angel. Freud states that the ego is the strongest component of the non-conscious (made up of preconscious and unconscious) as it needs to satisfy the needs of the id. If the id gets too strong, impulses and self gratification take over the person's life (which could be a factor in the development of a serial sex offender). If the superego becomes to strong, the persons morals and judgments would be affected causing their thoughts, decisions and behaviours to weaken (Heffner, 2004).

For example in the case of Jeffrey Dahmer his ID was making him seek out his need for power and control. It was his EGO that should have stepped in as the 'reality principle' and redirected his need for power and control to something more appropriate such as sport. His SUPER EGO should have also worked with the EGO. Instead, the ID was too powerful and the SUPER EGO was not able to control the EGO as it adopts several defence mechanisms. The most commonly used defence mechanism is Denial. In Jeffrey's case, his denial stemmed from his disclosed sexual orientation as a homosexual. He preyed on, sexually assaulted and killed homosexual men, purely because it was his way of escaping from his own sexual orientation. Repression is also used by suppressing uncomfortable thoughts into the unconscious. Other defence mechanisms such as displacement, projection, rationalisation, reaction formation, regression, sublimation and suppression are also used (Levenson, 2010). Sexual offenders overly rely on the defenses of displacement, and projection (Myers et al., 2006).

Learning Theory
Learning theory suggests that the offender has learnt behaviours which have caused them to behave in a sexually deviant way (Chan, Heide & Beauregard, 2010). It has been estimated that 50% of sex offenders have been sexually abused themselves and that 70% of their families had a history of alcoholism (Myers et al., 2006). Abuse and neglect were also present in the upbringing of the serial killer. The sexual abuse and the intense physiological arousal are quickly associated with each other, leaving the offender learning only what is a macabre and sadistic thing to do. Over time sexual arousal is associated with the abuse and violence that comes with it, in turn making a negative relationship between the two.

Nature Vs. Nurture
Are serial sex offenders born or are they socially created? what evidence is there to support both sides?

Treating the untreatable
There is much debate as to whether or not serial sex offenders can and want to be treated. Whilst there have been methods created aimed at treated sex offenders, recidivism rates are still high even after treatment. This supports the biological explanation for the creation of sex offenders, but also shows that learnt behaviours can be impossible to change. Also, if recidivism rates are so high, then why waste time, effort and money on treating theses psychopathic individuals?

There has been a significant amount of attention given in the area of psychopathy with great interest in the area of treatment and recidivism. Researchers have invested time and funds into developing treatments interventions which aim at rehabilitating psychopaths (Hare, Clark, Grann, & Thornton, 2000; Walters, 2003; Wallace, & Newman, 2004). Individual attitudes and personality have an influence on the way a person’s thoughts and behaviours are rationalised. Elements of psychopathy can be drawn from factors or personality traits and can be measured by the PCL-R, a statistical measurement designed to predict institutional adjustment and recidivism (Walters, 2003). These elements or underlying personality characteristics are what make people who they are and are often unchangeable.

Personality traits remain stable over time (Wallace & Newman, 2004). Psychopathic traits are categorised into interpersonal, affective and behavioural traits (Book, 2010). Interpersonal traits include being grandiose, arrogant, superficial, deceptive and manipulative whilst affective traits are their inability to bond, short-temperedness and lack of guilt and empathy. Additionally, behavioural traits are impulsiveness, irresponsibleness and frequent violation of social norms and laws (2010). These traits are seen as stable features of a person’s character, however, Wallace and Newman have come up with three proposed treatment interventions designed to reduce psychopathic behaviours. They consist of a psycho-social, cognitive and behavioural intervention (2004). These have been created to change the attitudes, behaviours and the cognitive processes of psychopaths, which can be reflective of their personality. The psycho-social interventions works by the patient identifying their problem (which can often be difficult as they don’t realise they have a problem), pausing for a moment and then evaluate their response options and select the appropriate alternative (Wallace & Newman, 2004). Cognitive interventions include reprogramming current schemas so that they fit socially accepted behaviour. Behavioural interventions include sensing anger and frustration cues and knowing how to act on them appropriately (Wallace & Newman, 2004).

Although these treatments sound valid, there was only evidence to show that a cognitive intervention would be slightly effective by increasing the movement away from their set schemas and pausing to seek alternate options. However, there was not ample evidence to show that these treatment interventions remain consistent when the psychopaths were discharged from their institutions, exemplifying the concept of behaving in a socially desirable manner to receive rewards.

The common psychopath is notorious for their unmotivated attitudes towards changing their attitudes and behaviour (Wallace & Newman, 2004). Psychopathy is not considered a clinical illness in the DSM-IV and instead is diagnosed as an antisocial personality disorder, implying that this disorder is due to personality. In addition, psychopaths have a strong tendency to blame others, especially for difficulties that they have experienced throughout their lives (2004).

To think that these personality traits can be changed for a greater good is overestimated. The ability to stop possessing a personality trait is very difficult and cannot be done successfully. On a lighter note, looking at somebody who is very generous often finds it hard to be selfish, alike somebody who possesses antisocial, violent and manipulative traits would find it difficult to change. This attitude is expressed by psychopaths as they are often not interested in changing their behaviour and are therefore not likely to participate in treatment programs (Wallace & Newman, 2004). They are unable to use other schemas in situations of which they only use the one most assessable to them (2004). This often results in recidivism.

In conclusion, psychopaths are not able to change their personality in attempt to reduce recidivism. They act in socially desirable ways to earn rewards such as parole and will often adopt new skills from associating with other psychopaths in the same treatment facilities. Whilst conditioning had proven to be effective in other areas of psychology, it is not effective in this area, as psychopaths are unable to be conditioned to change their personality due to innate nature of them. Moreover, when psychopaths are put in a real life situation, their personality traits and existing schemas will prevail.

Conclusion
Psychological theory and research helps to understand serial sex offenders as a heterogeneous group. Through sexual gratification, need for power and control and anger, a serial sex offender is motivated. Unconscious drives and early learning theories also explain the macabre nature of their behaviour. There is still no answer to the nature vs nurture debate among psychology giants, and again, it can not be defined as to whether serial sex offenders are born or made. It can be observed though that a lot of their fantasy and thwarted compulsions do come from their environment but pre dispositions to mental illness and anger problems have been identified. Psychopathy is a valid measure of a sex offender and has taught researchers and the public about how and why they do what they do.

Treatment has been an option for serial sex offenders but its effectiveness has not been found. Recidivism rates are high for sex offenders and its shown that part of their illness or problem is that they cannot physically change their personality traits that make them who they are. The Jeffrey Dahmer case study provides a details look at a sexual serial offender, as well as shows interviews of him talking about his offense.

In summary, human behaviour is complex and that the more it is studied the more that is learnt, and the more it calls for explanation.

YouTube Videos
ChannelBelongs2Scott. (2009, July 20). Stone Phillips/Jeffrey Dahmer Interview: Segment 1 (Part 1 of 6), [video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6vTehQ7KlU

ChannelBelongs2Scott. (2009, July 20). Stone Phillips/Jeffrey Dahmer Interview: Segment 1 (Part 2 of 6), [video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wc4rlaSl2DY

ChannelBelongs2Scott. (2009, July 20). Stone Phillips/Jeffrey Dahmer Interview: Segment 1 (Part 3 of 6), [video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkvyRlaHuKE&feature=related

Ololtehnice. (2009, December 30). Serial Killers: Richard Ramirez and Jeffrey Dahmer 1/4, [video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8YI_WzRrz8 }}


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User:EGM6321.f10.team6.yoshioka/HW3

Problem 5
The equation 5.2 can be re-arranged in the following form:

It is clear that this equation complies with the first condition of exactness.

So to make this equation exact we will apply the Euler Integrating Factor Method.

It has been previously shown that in order to meet the second condition of exactness we can multiply equation 5.3 by a function h to obtain the following:

Now the second condition of exactness may be applied, where x is the dependent variable and t is the independent variable.

Now for the special case where $${{h}_{x}}$$ equals zero we obtain the following:

Which may be rearranged to obtain:

We can now solve for h as a function of t.

Rewriting equation 5.3 we obtain:

We should recognize equation 5.10 as the derivative of (hx):

Therefore, to find the solution we integrate both sides in the interval $${{t}_{o}}\le \tau \le t$$.

Equation 5.12 yields:

Rearranging terms in equation 5.13 we obtain:

Dividing equation 5.14 by $${{e}^{-At}}$$, we obtain:

After some very simple manipulation we obtain:

Which, after applying the properties of exponents, can be rewritten as:

Given
and the following properties of the of the transition matrix $$\phi $$

Where $$I$$ is the identity matrix

Find
Equation 6.4 using equations 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3

Solution
Substituting $$x\left( t \right)$$ in the equation 6.1 by $$\underline{\phi }\left( t,{{t}_{0}} \right)$$ to obtain the differential equation of the state transition matrix, we get:

Re-arranging equation 6.5 in the following form:

It is clear that this equation complies with the first condition of exactness.

So to make this equation exact we will apply the Euler Integrating Factor Method.

It has been previously shown that in order to meet the second condition of exactness we can multiply equation 6.6 by a function h to obtain the following:

Now the second condition of exactness may be applied, where x is the dependent variable and t is the independent variable.

Now for the special case where $${{h}_{x}}$$ equals zero we obtain the following:

Which may be rearranged to obtain:

We can now solve for h as a function of t.

Substituting 6.12 in the equation 6.6 we get

We should recognize equation 6.13 as the derivative of $$\left( h\phi \right)$$, by using the relation given in equation 6.2:

Therefore, to find the solution we integrate both sides in the interval $${{t}_{o}}\le \tau \le t$$.

Equation 6.15 yields:

Re-arranging terms in equation 6.16 we obtain:

Substituting $$\underline{\phi }\left( t,{{t}_{0}} \right)$$ in the equation 6.17 by $$x\left( t \right)$$ we obtain the differential equation in the form of equation 6.4:

title: User:EGM6321.f10.team6.yoshioka/HW3


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Talk:History of Quebec and Canada/Study Guide/Topic 1: Concepts of Colonization

I personally belive that some of the reasons the french colonized with the Natives were to 1. Get rich off fur trade and other creation sthe natives made. 2. To control the land instead of fighting over it. 3. To teach the natives catholic and christian religions


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User:Egm6321.f10.team6.Kim.MK/hw3

= Problem 6 Roll control of rocket =

Given
System of coupled Linear 1st order ODE constant coefficient

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$$\begin{align} \underline{\dot{\textbf{x}}}=\underline{\textbf{A}}\cdot \underline{\textbf{x}}(t) + \underline{\textbf{B}}\cdot \underline{\textbf{u}}(t) \end{align}$$

(6.1)
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Consider a Rocket Prevent rolling by activating ailerons

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$$\begin{align} &{\delta} = {\textrm{aileron{~} angle(deflection)}} \\ &{\phi} = {\textrm{roll{~} angle}} \\ &{\omega} ={\textrm{roll{~} angular {~} velocity}} \\ &Q = {\textrm{aileron{~}effectiveness}} \\ &{\tau} = {\textrm{roll-time{~} constant}} \\ \end{align} $$

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$$\begin{align} &\dot{\phi} = {\omega}\\ \end{align}$$

(6.2)
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$$\begin{align} &\dot{\omega} = - {\frac{1}{\tau}}{\omega} + {\frac{Q}{\tau}}{\delta}\\ \end{align}$$

(6.3)
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$$\begin{align} &\dot{\delta} = u \left({\textrm{commmand{~} signal{~} to {~} aileon{~} actuators{~} ={~} control}}\right)\\ \end{align}$$

(6.4)
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Required
Put (6.2) - (6.4) in form of (6.1)

Solution
From(6.1), $$\begin{align} \dot{\phi},\dot{\omega},\dot{\delta}\end{align}$$ as regard as $$\begin{align} \dot{\textrm{x}}\end{align}$$, $$\begin{align} {\phi},{\omega},{\delta}\end{align}$$ as regard as $$\begin{align} \textrm{x(t)}\end{align}$$, put those three equations can be expressed as matrix form(6.5)

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$$\begin{align} \begin{bmatrix} \dot{\phi}\\ \dot{\omega}\\ \dot{\delta} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & -{\frac{1}{\tau}} & {\frac{Q}{\tau}}\\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} \phi\\ \omega\\ \delta \end{bmatrix} + \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 0\\  1 \end{bmatrix} u \end{align}$$

(6.5)
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Given

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$$\begin{align} (6xy^2) y' + 2y^3 = h_{x} y' + h_{x} \end{align}$$

(9.1)
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Required
Find $$\begin{align} h(x,y) \end{align}$$ and $$\begin{align} {\phi}(x,y,y') \end{align}$$

Solution
2 choices: 1)1st choice, assume that $$\begin{align} h_{x} = 2 y^3 \end{align}$$, $$\begin{align} h_{y} = 6xy^2 \end{align}$$ then, $$\begin{align} h(x,y) = 2y^{3} x + k_{1} \end{align}$$, with integration constant $$\begin{align} k_{1} \end{align}$$. Hence,

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$$\begin{align} & \overline{\phi}=h(x,y)+\int{f(x,y,p)dp}=2x{{y}^{3}}+{{k}_{1}}+3{{p}^{5}}\cos ({{x}^{2}})={{k}_{2}} \\ & \phi =2x{{y}^{3}}+3{{p}^{5}}\cos ({{x}^{2}})=k \\ \end{align}$$

(9.2)
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, with integration constants $$\begin{align} k_{1}, k_{2}, k. \end{align}$$, $$\begin{align} \int{f(x,y,p)dp} \end{align}$$ from lecture note eq. (1) 17_3.

2) 2nd choice, assume that $$\begin{align} h_{y} y' = 2 y^3 \end{align}$$, $$\begin{align} h_{x} = (6xy^{2})y' \end{align}$$ At first, using $$\begin{align} h_{x} y' = 2 y^3 \end{align}$$

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$$\begin{align} &h_{y} = \frac{ 2 y^{3}}{y'}\\ &h = \int{\frac{2 y^{3}}{y'}dy}= \int{\frac{2 y^{3}}{\frac{\cancel{dy}}{dx}}\cancel{dy}}= \int{2y^{3}dx}\\ \end{align}$$

(9.3) then, $$\begin{align} h(x,y) = 2xy^3 + k_3 \end{align}$$, with integration constant $$\begin{align} k_{3} \end{align}$$ Thus, this will bring same result as (9.2).
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$$\begin{align} & \overline{\phi}=h(x,y)+\int{f(x,y,p)dp}=2x{{y}^{3}}+{{k}_{3}}+3{{p}^{5}}\cos ({{x}^{2}})={{k}_{4}} \\ & \phi =2x{{y}^{3}}+3{{p}^{5}}\cos ({{x}^{2}})=k \\ \end{align}$$

(9.4)
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, with integration constants $$\begin{align} k_{3}, k_{4}, k. \end{align}$$

Using $$\begin{align} h_{x} = (6xy^{2})y' \end{align}$$ also can reach same result as well.

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$$\begin{align} &h_{x} = (6xy^{2})y'\\ &h = \int{6xy^{2} {\frac{dy}{\cancel{dx}}}\cancel{dx}}= \int{6xy^{2}dy} = 6x \frac{y^{3}}{3} +k_{5} = 2 x y^{3} +k_{5}\\ \end{align}$$

(9.5) Since, this also $$\begin{align} h(x,y) = 2xy^3 + k_5 \end{align}$$, with integration constant $$\begin{align} k_{5} \end{align}$$
 *
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We can say that 1st choice and 2nd choice are both can derive a same result of $$\begin{align} {\phi} \end{align}$$.

title: User:Egm6321.f10.team6.Kim.MK/hw3


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MediaWiki:Talk

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MediaWiki:Nstab-mediawiki

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Collaborative play writing/Aglaura

Aglaura

Dramatic characters (14)

The duke

Aglaura, mistress to the duke

Orbella, wife to the duke

Arnaud, older brother to the duke

Paul, younger brother to the duke

Thomas, son to the duke

Ziriff, brother to Aglaura

Jacques, courtier

Jacqueline, sister to Jacques

Sementhe, lover of Jacques

Lenu, servant to Ziriff

Leveller, rebel knight

Disgruntled, rebel knight

Chafing, rebel knight

The duke's guardsmen

Time: 17th century

Place: France

/Act_1/

/Act_2/

/Act_3/

/Act_4/

/Act_5/

title: Collaborative play writing/Aglaura