text:
Theory/Astronomy

Theoretical astronomy at its simplest is the definition of terms to be applied to astronomical effort and the phenomenological results. In essence it is the theory of the science of physical and logical laws with respect to any natural body in the sky especially at night.

As many of the first terms a student encounters regarding natural bodies in the sky are at a secondary level, this learning resource starts there, proceeds through a university undergraduate level, dwells occasionally at the graduate or postgraduate level (often called postdoctoral) and ultimately focuses on the state of the art, the state of the science, and a bit beyond. Enjoy!

Speculation, though, is seldom put into an article, but to stimulate the imagination and perhaps open a few doors that may seem closed at present, cautionary speculation based somewhat on current knowledge is included.

Part of the fun of theory is extending the known to what may be known to see if knowing and understanding is really occurring, or it is something else.

The laboratories of astronomy are limited to the observatories themselves. The phenomena observed are located in the heavens, far beyond the reach, let alone control, of the astronomical observer. “So how can one be sure that what one sees out there is subject to the same rules and disciplines of science that govern the local laboratory experiments of physics and chemistry?” “The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible.” - Albert Einstein.

Theory
The word theory means a contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action. It is a statement of how and why particular facts are related. Theory is especially often contrasted to "practice". While theories may address ideas and empirical phenomena which are not easily measurable, scientific theory is generally understood to refer to a proposed explanation of empirical phenomena, made in a way consistent with scientific method. Such theories are preferably described in such a way that any scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support ("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") it. A common distinction made in science is between theories and hypotheses. Hypotheses are individual empirically testable conjectures; while theories are collections of hypotheses that are logically linked together into a coherent explanation of some aspect of reality and which have individually or jointly received some empirical support.

Def.
 * 1) a coherent statement or set of ideas that explains observed facts or phenomena, or which sets out the laws and principles of something known or observed; a hypothesis confirmed by observation, experiment etc.
 * 2) the underlying principles or methods of a given technical skill, art etc., as opposed to its practice
 * 3) a field of study attempting to exhaustively describe a particular class of constructs
 * 4) a hypothesis or conjecture
 * 5) a set of axioms together with all statements derivable from them. Equivalently, a formal language plus a set of axioms (from which can then be derived theorems) is called a theory.

Astronomy
The nomology and any effort to acquire a system of laws or knowledge focusing on any natural body in the sky especially at night constitutes the theory of astronomy.

The overall theory of astronomy consists of three fundamental parts:
 * 1) the derivation of logical laws,
 * 2) the definitions of natural bodies (entities, sources, or objects), and
 * 3) the definition of the sky (and associated realms).

Skies
Def. "the expanse of space that seems to be over the earth like a dome" is called the sky, or sometimes the heavens.

This definition applies especially well to an individual on top of the Earth's solid crust looking around at what lies above and off to the horizon in all directions. Similarly, it applies to an individual's visual view while floating on a large body of water, where off on the horizon is still water.

The image at right shows the horizon marking the lower edge of the sky and the upper edge of the Atlantic Ocean, with a layer of cumulus clouds just above.

A more general definition of 'sky' allows for skies as seen on other worlds. At left is a 360° panarama of the horizon on Mars as perceived in the visual true-color range of the NASA Mars Exploration Rover 'Spirit' on November 23-8, 2005.

Def. an "expanse of space that seems to be [overhead] like a dome" is called a sky.

Even in day light, the sky may seem absent of objects if a nearby source tends to overwhelm other luminous objects.

At top is a view of the horizon on the Moon's solid surface taken by an Apollo 16 astronaut. The image shows a black sky without stars because the sunlight coming from the left is overwhelming.

Entities
Def.
 * 1.a: an "independent, separate, or self-contained existence",
 * 1.b: "the existence of a thing as contrasted with its attributes", or
 * 2. "something that has separate and distinct existence and objective or conceptual reality",

is called an entity.

Def.
 * 1.a: "something that is or is capable of being seen, touched, or otherwise sensed",
 * 1.b: "something physical or mental of which a subject is cognitively aware",
 * 2. "something that arouses an emotion in an observer", or
 * 3. "a thing that forms an element of or constitutes the subject matter of an investigation or science"

is called an object.

Def.
 * 1.a: "a mass of matter distinct from other masses" or
 * 2.b: "something that embodies or gives concrete reality to a thing; [specifically] : a sensible object in physical space"

is called a body.

Def.
 * 1.a: "a separate and distinct individual quality, fact, idea, or [usually] entity",
 * 1.b: "the concrete entity as distinguished from its appearances",
 * 1.c: "a spatial entity", or
 * 1.d: "an inanimate object distinguished from a living being"

is called a thing.

Def.
 * 1: "an observable fact or event",
 * 2.a: "an object or aspect known through the senses rather than by though or intuition",
 * 2.b: "an object of experience in space and time as distinguished from a thing-in-itself", or
 * 2.c: "a fact or event of scientific interest susceptible of scientific description and explanation"

is called a phenomenon.

Such words as "entity", "object", "thing", and perhaps "body", words "connoting universal properties, constitute the very highest genus or "summum genus"" of a classification of universals. To propose a definition for say a plant whose flowers open at dawn on a warm day to be pollinated during the day time using the word "thing", "entity", "object", or "body" seems too general and is. But, astronomy deals with the universe, sometimes only the very local universe just above the Earth's atmosphere. These "universals" may be just the words to use.

Meanings
On the basis of dictionary definitions, what is the difference between a 'body', an 'entity', an 'object', a 'thing', and a 'phenomenon'?

The categories for synonymy and most common usage place 'body' in "3. SUBSTANTIALITY", 'entity' in the same, 'object' in "651. INTENTION" , 'thing' in "3. SUBSTANTIALITY" , and 'phenomenon' in "918. WONDER". The more common uses of the words 'object' and 'phenomenon' are not exactly the same as may be used in a specialized endeavor like a science such as astronomy. A slightly less common use of 'phenomenon' is in category "150. EVENTUALITY". For the word 'object' a slightly less common or popular meaning is in category "543. MEANING". The closest category of meaning or synonymy for 'object' to category 1. is category "375. MATERIALITY".

Of each of these words, 'entity' uses the word 'existence', category "1. EXISTENCE" in each definition. 'Entity' may be thought of as the most general of these terms because its meanings are the closest to category 1. The farthest from category 1. on the basis of conceptual meaning and synonymy is the word 'object' in category 375. A tentative order is 'entity' > 'phenomenon' > 'object' by generalness, or by preciseness (perhaps more description is needed beyond only existence) 'object' > 'phenomenon' > 'entity'.

'Thing' (category 3.) has the word 'entity' in three of four meanings and 'object' in the fourth. The second most popular meaning of 'thing' is in category 375.

'Body' (category 3.) has 'mass' and is closer to 'substantiality' in common usage than 'thing', and neither word has a synonym closer in meaning to 'existence'. The second most common meaning of 'body' is category "203. BREADTH, THICKNESS".

This suggests a hierarchy such as 'entity' > 'body' > 'thing' > 'phenomenon' > 'object' by generalness, where 'existence' is the most general word; or, 'object' > 'phenomenon' > 'thing' > 'body' > 'entity' by preciseness. An 'astronomical object' may be expected to require a more detailed description in its definition to indicate meaning than an 'astronomical entity'. In astronomy, the concept of an 'astronomical body' may suggest a meaning closer to category 203. rather than a 'thing' or 'entity'.

The choice of general order is 'entity' > 'source' > 'object' > 'phenomena'. The term 'astronomical body' has much less popularity per Google scholar than 'object'. The body of astronomers in the International Astronomical Union is auspicious and here is considered an astronomical entity.

Def. the theory of the science of the biological, chemical, physical, and logical laws (or principles) with respect to any natural being, body, thing, entity, source, object, or phenomena in the sky especially at night is called theoretical astronomy.

Astronomical entities
Def.
 * 1.a: an "independent, separate, or self-contained [astronomical] existence",
 * 1.b: "the [astronomical] existence of a [person, place, or] thing as contrasted with its attributes", or
 * 2. "some [astronomical] thing that has separate and distinct existence and objective or conceptual reality",

is called an astronomical entity.

By generalness, 'being' > 'entity' > 'phenomenon' > 'object'. Further, 'being' > 'body' > 'something' or 'thing' > 'entity'.

What are some astronomical entities?

"[V]oids [are] now considered as regular astronomical entities in their own rights, [and] are clustered."

There are "a plethora of observations from heavenly bodies which did not agree with each other despite being from the same astronomical entities." The observations themselves, media of recording, and the heavenly bodies are all astronomical entities. So are the observers and astronomers who make or made the records. Constellations are astronomical entities. 'Sky' is an astronomical entity.

Included as astronomical entities are 'astronomical objects' and 'astronomical sources', even those with large error regions of whole degrees. Diffuse background radiations, whether gamma ray or radio, are astronomical entities.

"Astronomical named entities":
 * 1) "Names of telescopes and other measurement instruments,"
 * 2) "Names of celestial objects,"
 * 3) "Types of objects," and
 * 4) "Features that can be pointed to on a spectrum".

"Gazetteers are useful for finding commonly referenced names of people, places or organisations" associated with astronomy. These are astronomical entities that can be used for information processing.

Astronomical entities include some journals (such as The Astrophysical Journal, the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, and Astronomy & Astrphysics), articles in journals and magazines, books on astronomy that may be references or be cited for astronomy information or facts.

Named entity recognition (NER) for astronomy literature: NER "involves assigning broad semantic categories to entity references in text."

Types of entities for Natural Language Processing (NLP):
 * 1) names - person, location, organization;
 * 2) temporal expressions - date, time;
 * 3) numeric expressions - money, percent;
 * 4) instrument name;
 * 5) source name;
 * 6) source type;
 * 7) spectral feature; and
 * 8) text and scientific databases.

"Astronomy is a broad scientific domain combining theoretical, observational and computational research, which all differ in conventions and jargon." "There is a major effort in astronomy to move towards integrated databases, software and telescopes." ("The Virtual Observatory" ).

Entity categories include 'galaxy', 'nebula', 'star', 'star cluster', 'supernova', 'planet', 'frequency', 'duration', 'luminosity', 'position', 'telescope', 'ion', 'survey', and 'date'.

Dominant groups
The term "dominant group" is used in astronomy to identify other astronomical entities of importance. The genera differentia for possible definitions of "dominant group" fall into the following set of orderable pairs:

'Orderable' means that any synonym from within the first category can be ordered with any synonym from the second category to form an alternate term for "dominant group"; for example, "superior class", "influential sect", "master assembly", "most important group", and "dominant painting". "Dominant" falls into category 171. "Group" is in category 61. Further, any word which has its most or much more common usage within these categories may also form an alternate term, such as "ruling group", where "ruling" has its most common usage in category 739, or "dominant party", where "party" is in category 74.

dominant group

"A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH3)nNH4+, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range." For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH3–H2O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."

All alternate terms for dominant group [relative synonyms] used in astronomy are astronomical entities. Here are some examples from the literature:

master class

 * 1) "Once created, device class objects are registered with an instance of the master class."
 * 2) "For ATIC, a possible set of defined classes would be a master class event, and sub-classes header, silicon, scintillator, bgo and track."

superior size

 * 1) "The superior size and albedo of Venus completely turn the scale, with the result that Venus at her brightest is about 12 times brighter than Mercury at his brightest."
 * 2) "There is no reason to question but that they are simply ordinary meteors, which from their superior size and unusually slow speed have survived to reach the earth's surface."

influential set

 * 1) "Together with Leonard Searle, he wrote an influential set of papers which established that stellar disks are truncated at about four exponential scale-lengths, and that the vertical scale-height of disks is constant with radius."
 * 2) "Until now Themo has been best known for an influential set of questions on Aristotle's Meteorologica, which is closely related to similar sets by Nicole Oresme and, putatively, Simon Tunsted."

Objects
The science of astronomy consists of three fundamental parts:
 * 1) physical and logical laws,
 * 2) any natural entity, source, or object, and
 * 3) the sky.

The SIMBAD reference database "contains identifications, 'basic data', bibliography, and selected observational measurements for several million astronomical objects." "The specificity of the SIMBAD database is to organize the information per astronomical object". "Building a reference database for ... all astronomical objects outside the Solar System – has been the first goal of the CDS". "The only astronomical objects specifically excluded from SIMBAD are the Sun and Solar System bodies."

Def. a natural object in the sky especially at night is called an astronomical object.

As indicated above about the astronomical objects in the SIMBAD database and in the learning reference astronomy, there are many objects between the observer on the ground atop some portion of the Earth's crust and astronomical objects other than the Sun and Solar System bodies. Further, for those observers looking toward the Earth from another location such as near the Moon in the photograph at above right, it seems that the Earth is a natural object. On the Earth 384,000 km away, the sunset terminator bisects Africa.

A closer view of Earth shows some of the astronomical objects near the Earth and apparently just above the surface, where an observer may be. Some of these objects such as clouds probably by convention are more likely to be studied by planetary observers, or weather observers, rather than astronomical observers.

With perspectives other than upwards from the Earth's crustal surface, the word "sky" may seem insufficient or inappropriate, although studying the Earth as part of planetary science may leave interesting astronomical objects near the Earth that are occasionally "in the sky". The idea being that the Earth cannot be in its own sky, or can it? Perhaps, it is more a matter of whether other observers agree that what an observer is observing is astronomy or planetary science, or both.

Star by dictionary
For the object, "star", a dictionary definition is
 * 1.a: "any natural luminous body visible in the sky [especially] at night",
 * 1.b: "a self-luminous gaseous celestial body of great mass whose shape is [usually] spheroidal and whose size may be as small as the earth or larger than the earth's orbit".

This definition seems okay for a dictionary, but is it adequate for a science, and especially, astronomy?

Astrochemistry
Def. the study of the chemical composition of stars and outer space is called astrochemistry.

"An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."

Atmospheres
Def. a layer of gases that may surround a material body of sufficient mass,[3] and that is held in place by the gravity of the body is called an atmosphere.

Def. the gases surrounding the Earth or any astronomical body is called an atmosphere.

Interplanetary medium
Def. that part of outer space between the planets of a solar system and its star is called interplanetary space.

Def. the material which fills the solar system and through which all the larger solar system bodies such as planets, asteroids and comets move is called an interplanetary medium.

Interstellar medium
Def. the matter that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy is called an interstellar medium.

Intergalactic medium
Def. a rarefied plasma that is organized in a cosmic filamentary structure is called the intergalactic medium (IGM).

Ions
Def. an atom or group of atoms bearing an electrical charge such as the sodium and chlorine atoms in a salt solution is called an ion.

Materials
Def. matter which may be shaped or manipulated, particularly in making something is called a material.

Def. any instrument used in astronomy for observing distant objects is called a telescope.

Def. an object, usually made of glass, that focuses or defocuses the light or an electron beam that passes through it is called a lens.

Meteorites
Def. a metallic or stony object that is the remains of a meteor is called a meteorite.

Shelters
Def. a refuge, haven or other cover or protection from something is called a shelter.

Def. anything shaped like a common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere, a cupola], often used as a cover is called a dome.

Astrognosy
Astrognosy deals with the materials of celestial objects and their general exterior and interior constitution.

The theoretical constitution of the Earth is illustrated using the one-dimensional Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) at right. The density in kg-m-3 of radial layers is plotted against radius in km.

Astrography
The geography applicable to astronomy may be designated 'astrogeography'. But, this term is often more restricted. "[T]he relationship between outer-space geography and geographic position (astrogeography), and the evolution of current and future military space strategy" has been identified and evaluated.

Def. the art of describing or delineating the stars; a description or mapping of the heavens is called astrography.

Def. a place where stars, planets and other celestial bodies are observed is called an observatory.

From the Ebers Papyrus, a year has 360 days of twelve months of thirty days each.

"A period of 360 days, comprising 12 months of 30 days each, was assigned by the Mesopotamians to the year in days and months at least by the third millennium BC."

In ancient Iran (Persia), the year was 360 days with 12 months of 30 days each.

"All Veda [India] texts speak uniformly and exclusively of a year of 360 days [12 months of 30 days each]. Passages in which this length of the year is directly stated are found in all the Brahmanas." This period dates to approximately the third millennium (~5,000 b2k).

An ancient Chinese calendar had a 360 day year of twelve months of thirty days each.

The Mayans had an old tradition that the year had twelve months of thirty days each, 360 days in a year.

"The Peruvian year was divided into twelve Quilla, or moons, of thirty days."

Apparently, with each of these locations around the globe and several others near to the Mediterranean Sea, the year had exactly 360 days of 12 months of 30 days each, then at some point near 2700 b2k the year became lengthened to today's year.

Astrohistory
Def. (from 1945) "those parts of human interest in celestial phenomena which are amenable to mathematical treatment" are called astronomy. This is Neugebauer's definition of astronomy.

Def. "the search for astronomical strata whose contents could be classified" is called astronomy. This is Herschel's definition of astronomy.

"Mere "star ordering" is not "astronomy", so far as the modern usage of the term implies, regardless of the word's etymology".

Def. (from 2000) "the accurate mapping of the heavens in order to make possible the accurate prediction of phenomena" is called astronomy.

Def. "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties" is called astronomy.

Electrical Sun
"[T]he solar corona is eminently variable, and therefore like our aurora borealis, which is known to be electric." "This vast electric mass must have a great electric repulsion through vacant space, and it lends probability to my position that it drives away from the sun the tails of comets and our zodiacal light and aurora borealis." "Electricity alone can repel electricity." "[T]he direction of the comets' tails is but the interaction between the sun and the comets, the same as the action between a charged prime conductor and a charged pith ball of an electric machine."

"[A] variety of geophysical and astrophysical phenomena can be explained by a net charge on the Sun of -1.5 x 1028 e.s.u." This figure was later reduced by a factor of five.

"There appears to be considerable misunderstanding on the part of physicists of the nature and degree of the observational support of gravitational theory. For example, it appears to be commonly believed that the observations of planetary motion agree with computed orbits to the accuracy of the observations. On the other hand, it has long been known by the astronomers that there are sizable systematical discrepancies between computed and observed orbits".

Milky Way
Democritus "lived at Abdère 300 years before the Christian era [2300 b2k]. In a short fragment quoted by Plutarch, he declares that the Milky Way is an agglomeration of small stars too far away to be perceived singly."

Coronal clouds
"Beginning with the daguerreotype of the corona of 1851, the Reverend Lecturer had thrown on the screen pictures illustrating the form of the corona in different years. The drawings of those of 1867, 1878, and 1900 all showed long equatorial extensions with openings at the solar poles filled with beautiful rays." "The intermediate years, as, for example, 1883, 1886, and 1896 showed the four groups of synclinals which mainly constitute the corona gradually descending towards the equator of the sun, with a corresponding opening of the polar regions."

"Some of the theories of the solar corona were then illustrated and discussed."
 * 1) "The corona is not of the nature of an atmosphere round the sun, for the pressure at the sun's limb would be enormous, while the thinness of the chromospheric lines show that it is not."
 * 2) "comets, such as that of 1843, have approached the sun with enormous velocities within the region of the prominences without suffering disruption or retardation."
 * 3) "If not an atmosphere of particles of gas, still less is it an atmosphere of solid stones or meteorites."
 * 4) "Meteor streams do circle round the sun, but there is no reason why the positions of the orbits, or the intrinsic brightness of such streams should vary with the sun-spot period."
 * 5) "the appearance of the corona does not seem to be such as the projection of meteor streams upon the celestial vault would give."
 * 6) "Prof. Schaeberle has proposed a mechanical origin of the solar corona, due to the forces of ejection of particles from the solar limb, as evidenced by the prominences, and the force of gravity under the particular conditions of the solar rotation and the inclination of its axis to the earth's orbit."
 * 7) "The electrical theory of the corona does not negative the mechanical theory, but supplements it. In addition to the forces of gravity and ejection, it takes account of the repulsive force which the sun exerts on matter which has the same electrical sign as itself, and which has been ejected from it."
 * 8) "it would seem that the solar corona is of the nature of an electrical aurora round the sun."
 * 9) "the coronoidal discharges in poor vacua obtained by Prof. Pupin about an insulated metal ball are exceedingly like the rays and streamers of the solar corona."

Zodiacal lights
"According to Gruson and Brugsch the Egyptians were acquainted with, and even worshipped, the zodiacal light from the very earliest times, as a phenomenon visible throughout the East before sunrise and after sunset. It was described as a glowing sheaf or luminous pyramid perpendicular to the horizon in summer, and inclined more or less during the winter. Indeed the Egyptians represented the zodiacal light under the form of a triangle which sometimes stood upright and at other times was inclined."

Astromathematics
The simplest description of the paths astronomical objects may take when passing each other includes a hyperbolic and parabolic pass. When capture occurs it usually produces an elliptical orbit.

Def. mathematics used in the study of astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology is called astromathematics.

The planet Mercury is especially susceptible to Jupiter's influence because of a small celestial coincidence: Mercury's perihelion, the point where it gets closest to the Sun, precesses at a rate of about 1.5 degrees every 1000 years, and Jupiter's perihelion precesses only a little slower. One day, the two may fall into sync, at which time Jupiter's constant gravitational tugs could accumulate and pull Mercury off course. This could eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth.

Orbital theory
Orbits come in many shapes and motions. The simplest forms are a circle or an ellipse.

The foci of an ellipse are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse's major axis and are equidistant from the center point. The sum of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to the major axis ( PF1 + PF2 = 2a ). Each of these two points is called a focus of the ellipse.

In the gravitational two-body problem, if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse. The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus.

Ideally, the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse.

A real orbit (and its elements) changes over time due to gravitational perturbations by other objects and the effects of relativity. A Keplerian orbit is merely an idealized, mathematical approximation at a particular time.

Eccentricities
"Mercury's orbit eccentricity [e] varies between about 0.11 and 0.24 with the shortest time lapse between the extremes being about 4 x 105 yr". "Smaller amplitude variations occur with about a 105 yr period."

Inclinations
"The orbital inclination [i] [of Mercury] varies between 5° and 10° with a 106 yr period with smaller amplitude variations with a period of about 105 yr."

Obliquities
In axial tilt, axial tilt (also called obliquity) is the angle between an object's rotational axis, and a line perpendicular to its orbital plane. The planet Venus has an axial tilt of 177.3° because it is rotating in retrograde direction, opposite to other planets like Earth. The planet Uranus is rotating on its side in such a way that its rotational axis, and hence its north pole, is pointed almost in the direction of its orbit around the Sun. Hence the axial tilt of Uranus is 97°.

The obliquity of the Earth's axis has a period of about 41,000 years.

Precessions
The equinoxes of Earth precess with a period of about 21,000 years.

Orbital poles
An orbital pole is either end of an imaginary line running through the center of an orbit perpendicular to the orbital plane, projected onto the celestial sphere. It is similar in concept to a celestial pole but based on the planet's orbit instead of the planet's rotation.

Resonances
An orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. The physics principle behind orbital resonance is similar in concept to pushing a child on a swing, where the orbit and the swing both have a natural frequency, and the other body doing the "pushing" will act in periodic repetition to have a cumulative effect on the motion. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies, i.e., their ability to alter or constrain each other's orbits. In most cases, this results in an unstable interaction, in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists. Under some circumstances, a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting, so that the bodies remain in resonance. Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa and Io, and the 2:3 resonance between Pluto and Neptune. Unstable resonances with Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The special case of 1:1 resonance (between bodies with similar orbital radii) causes large Solar System bodies to eject most other bodies sharing their orbits; this is part of the much more extensive process of clearing the neighbourhood, an effect that is used in the current definition of a planet.

Orbital decays
Orbital decay is the process of prolonged reduction in the altitude of a satellite's orbit. This can be due to drag produced by an atmosphere [frequent collisions between the satellite and surrounding air molecules]. The drag experienced by the object is larger in the case of increased solar activity, because it heats and expands the upper atmosphere.

Astrophysics
“Contrary to the belief generally held by laboratory physicists, astronomy has contributed to the growth of our understanding of physics.”

Def. the physical properties of celestial bodies and with the interaction between matter and radiation in celestial bodies and in the space between them is called astrophysics.

Theoretical astronomy seeks to understand what is behind cosmic events by taking the physics from the laboratory and testing it in models against the data obtained from observations. This is usually referred to as Draft:astrophysics. But, often the observations seem more than just what the physics can describe. Adding in extra tidbits may help to describe and help to produce better agreement. If these extra tidbits are physical in nature, they are part of theoretical astrophysics, if astronomical in nature, then theoretical astronomy.

Astronomical units
Def. "1 day (d)" is called the astronomical unit of time.

Def. "365.25 days" is called a Julian year.

Def. "36,525 days" is called a Julian century.

Def. "the distance from the centre of the Sun at which a particle of negligible mass, in an unperturbed circular orbit, would have an orbital period of 365.2568983 days" is called the Astronomical Unit (AU).

Def. "149,597,870,700 meters" is called the Astronomical Unit.

Def. "the mass of the Sun" is called the astronomical unit of mass.

Def. the rate at which a star radiates energy in all directions is called luminosity.

Def. "the distance at which one Astronomical Unit subtends an angle of one arcsecond" is called the parsec (pc).

Def. "the distance traveled by light in one Julian year in a vacuum" is called the light-year (ly).

Auroras
Computer simulations are usually used to represent auroras. The image at right shows a terrella in a laboratory experiment to produce auroras.

Fluctuating visible source
Consider only that portion of the emission of the visible source at right that is a level maximum. If this is the first observation received, a reasonable theoretical explanation from physics is a constant black body visible source, like a light bulb. In a physics laboratory, a steady voltage/current power supply produces a steady intensity.

Now consider the full length observation indicated by the moving green circle. From a physics perspective, it appears the power supply is not steady. Using alternating current (AC) to power the light bulb at 60 cycles per second may trigger the detector to yield an oscillatory intensity curve if its response time is short enough to resolve the use of AC. This is a possible theoretical physics; hence, theoretical astrophysics additional explanation of what may be happening.

A theoretical astronomy explanation is indicated in the colorful figure above as two visible sources, unresolved by the detector (seen only as a point source), but possibly responsible for the changes in the visible light received at the detector. Which do you think is more likely: a fluctuating power supply or an eclipsing binary?

Physics deals with forces, fields, energy, kinetics, and radiation. Astronomy has its own laws with respect to entities or bodies in motion. Application of a field to an astronomical phenomenon may clarify what is happening. That's the focus of astrophysics. Theory is needed to bring the physics in line with the magnitude of the situation and its complexity.

Luminosity
The luminosity of stars is measured in two forms: apparent (visible light only) and bolometric (total radiant energy). (A bolometer is an instrument that measures radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating.) When not qualified, "luminosity" means bolometric luminosity, which is measured either in the SI units, watts; or in terms of solar luminosities, $$ L_{\odot} $$, that is, how many times as much energy the object radiates as the Sun.

Luminosity is an intrinsic measurable property independent of distance, and is appraised as absolute magnitude, corresponding to the apparent luminosity in visible light of a star as seen at the interstellar distance of 10 parsecs, or bolometric magnitude corresponding to bolometric luminosity. In contrast, apparent brightness is related to the distance by an inverse square law. In addition to this brightness decrease from increased distance there is an extra linear decrease of brightness for interstellar "extinction" from intervening interstellar dust. Visible brightness is usually measured by apparent magnitude. Both absolute and apparent magnitudes are on an inverse logarithmic scale, where 5 magnitudes increase counterparts a 100th part decrease in nonlogarithmic luminosity.

By measuring the width of certain absorption lines in the stellar spectrum, it is often possible to assign a certain luminosity class to a star without knowing its distance. Thus a fair measure of its absolute magnitude can be determined without knowing its distance nor the interstellar extinction, and instead the distance and extinction can be determined without measuring it directly through the yearly parallax. Since the stellar parallax is usually too small to be measured for many far away stars, this is a common method of determining distances.

"The luminosity of a star $$L$$ (assuming the star is a black body, which is a good approximation) is also related to temperature $$T$$ and radius $$R$$ of the star by the equation:
 * $$L = 4\pi R^2\sigma T^4 \,$$

where
 * σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67x10-8 W·m-2·K-4

Given a visible luminosity (not total luminosity), one can calculate the apparent magnitude of a star from a given distance:

 * $$m_{\rm star}=m_{\rm sun}-2.5\log_{10}\left({ L_{\rm star} \over L_{\odot} } \cdot \left(\frac{ d_{\rm sun} }{ d_{\rm star} }\right)^2\right)$$

where
 * mstar is the apparent magnitude of the star (a pure number)
 * msun is the apparent magnitude of the Sun (also a pure number)
 * Lstar is the visible luminosity of the star
 * $$L_{\odot}$$ is the solar visible luminosity
 * dstar is the distance to the star
 * dsun is the distance to the Sun

Nucleosynthesis
"Our calculations show that production of [lithium] in low-energy flares [by nucleosynthesis], taking place in the surfaces of T Tauri-like stars, is energetically possible and can give the observed excesses over the interstellar abundance."

"[T]here is evidence of lithium production in some stars due to some undefined mechanism. The observations show that the Li abundance on some red giants ... and young stars exceeds the average abundance in the universe by 2 orders of magnitude". It is "suggested that Li produced in the helium envelopes of red giants comes to the surface of the stars as the result of a strong convection." For young stars, "the production of the light elements in nonthermal nuclear reactions seems the most appropriate mechanism that can be responsible for enrichment of stellar photospheres by Li." "At least 0.3 metric tons of excited Li and Be nuclei were produced during the solar flare of 1991 November 15. One can estimate the equilibrium concentration of 7Li nuclei in the solar atmosphere by assuming that they are produced only in solar flares and that a leakage of Li nuclei occurs with the solar wind."

Although 7Be is usually assumed to have been produced by the Big Bang nuclear fusion, excesses (100x) of the isotope on the leading edge of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) relative to the trailing edge suggest that "most of the sun's fusion must occur near the surface rather than the core." The particular reaction

3He(α,γ)7Be

3He + 4He → 7Be + γ (429 keV)

and the associated reaction chains

7Be(e-,νe)7Li(p,α)α

and

7Be(p,γ)8B → 2α + e+ + νe

generate 14% and 0.1% of the α-particles, respectively, and 10.7% of the present-epoch luminosity of the Sun. Usually, the 7Be produced is assumed to be deep within the core of the Sun; however, such 7Be would not escape to reach the leading edge of the LDEF.

Stars
Def. "any object forming on a dynamical timescale, by gravitational instability", is called a star.

Starspots
"[T]here have been three possible periods of marked solar anomaly during the last 1000 years: the Maunder Minimum, another minimum [the Spörer Minimum] in the early 16th century, and a period of anomalously high activity in the 12th and early 13th centuries."

The basic causes of the solar variability and solar cycles are still under debate, with some researchers suggesting a link with the tidal forces due to the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, or due to the solar inertial motion.

Weak equivalence principle
All test particles at the alike spacetime point in a given gravitational field will undergo the same acceleration, independent of their properties, including their rest mass.

"The observation of a neutrino burst within 3 h of the associated optical burst from supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud provides a new test of the weak equivalence principle, by demonstrating that neutrinos and photons follow the same trajectories in the gravitational field of the galaxy."

Astrotechnology
The astrolabe was effectively an analog calculator capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.

Some form of an "astrolabe" may have been in use by the third millennium BC.

Hipparcos is the first space experiment devoted to precision astrometry, the accurate measurement of the positions of celestial objects.

These measurements allow "the accurate determination of proper motions and parallaxes of stars, their distance and tangential velocity.

Planetary sciences
Planetary science (rarely planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the solar system and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy and earth science, but which now incorporates many disciplines, including planetary astronomy, planetary geology (together with geochemistry and geophysics), atmospheric science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology, and the study of extrasolar planets. Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.

Planets
Def. "a celestial body that

(a) is in orbit around the Sun,

(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and

(c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit" is called a planet.

The proposed more general definition for a planet in orbit around another star substitutes "a star" for "the Sun" in part (a), keeps part (b), does not contain part (c), and adds "is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet."

Def. "a celestial body that

(a) is in orbit around the Sun,

(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape,

(c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and

(d) is not a satellite" is called a dwarf planet.

Def. "[a]ll other objects [not a planet or dwarf planet], except satellites, orbiting the Sun" are called collectively Small Solar-System Bodies.

Def. a wanderer that is a moving light in the sky is called a planet. This is the original description meant by the word "planet".

From a theoretical planetary physics perspective: "The shape of objects with mass above 5 x 1020 kg and diameter greater than 800 km would normally be determined by self-gravity, but all borderline cases would have to be established by observation."

Def. a celestial body "formed by accumulation of a rocky core, on a much longer timescale, ≳ 107 yr, with subsequent acquisition of a gaseous envelope if the circumstances allow this, and with an initially fractionated elemental composition" is called a planet.

Meta-astronomy
Meta-astronomy, or metaastronomy, is the collection of approaches to theoretical astronomy that may be considered when seeking to understand an astronomical phenomenon.

Heliognosy
In the model shown at right the Sun and regions around it are labeled. "The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 solar radius. It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm³ (150 times the density of liquid water) and a temperature of close to 15,000,000 kelvin [15 MK] The core is made of hot, dense gas in the plasmic state. The core, inside 0.24 solar radius, generates 99% of the fusion power of the Sun. It is in the core region that solar neutrinos may be produced.

The radiation zone or radiative zone is a layer of a star's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion, rather than by convection. Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons. Within the Sun, the radiation zone is located in the intermediate zone between the solar core at .2 of the Sun's radius and the outer convection zone at .71 of the Sun's radius.

The convection zone of a star is the range of radii in which energy is transported primarily by convection. Stellar convection consists of mass movement of plasma within the star which usually forms a circular convection current with the heated plasma ascending and the cooled plasma descending. This is the granular zone in the outer layer of a star.

The standard solar model (SSM) is a mathematical treatment of the Sun as a spherical ball of gas (in varying states of ionisation, with the hydrogen in the deep interior being a completely ionised plasma). This model, technically the spherically symmetric quasi-static model of a star, has stellar structure described by several differential equations derived from basic physical principles. The model is constrained by boundary conditions, namely the luminosity, radius, age and composition of the Sun, which are well determined.

Heliography
As the Sun consists of a plasma and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This behavior is known as differential rotation, and is caused by convection in the Sun and the movement of mass, due to steep temperature gradients from the core outwards. This mass carries a portion of the Sun’s counter-clockwise angular momentum, as viewed from the ecliptic north pole, thus redistributing the angular velocity.

"Solar rotation is able to vary with latitude because the Sun is composed of a gaseous plasma. The rate of rotation is observed to be fastest at the equator (latitude φ=0 deg), and to decrease as latitude increases. The differential rotation rate is usually described by the equation:

 * $$\omega=A+B\,\sin^2(\varphi)+C\,\sin^4(\varphi)$$

where ω is the angular velocity in degrees per day, φ is the solar latitude and A, B, and C are constants. The values of A, B, and C differ depending on the techniques used to make the measurement, as well as the time period studied. A current set of accepted average values is:

 * A= 14.713 deg/day (± 0.0491)

 * B= –2.396 deg/day (± 0.188)

 * C= –1.787 deg/day (± 0.253)

Heliometry
"[B]y assuming a harmonic variation having a period of 11.13 years ... the phases of such a variation [in polar diameter minus equatorial diameter of the Sun] coincide to within one-fifth of a year with the phases of the sun-spot fluctuations; that, at times corresponding to minimum of sun-spottedness, the polar diameter is relatively larger; that, at times of maximum sun-spottedness, the equatorial diameter is relatively larger. The amplitude of the variation is extremely small, but its reality would seem to be established. [This] at least renders the existence of such periodic fluctuations in the shape of the sun more probable than their non-existence."

"Solar oblateness, the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters, reflects certain fundamental properties of the Sun. ... the oblateness reflects properties of the Sun's interior, ... [There is] a time varying, excess equatorial brightness [producing] a difference between the equatorial and polar limb darkening functions ... at times when the excess brightness is reduced, the intrinsic visual oblateness can be obtained from the observations without detailed knowledge of the excess brightness. A period of reduced excess brightness occurred in 1973 September." The period of reduced excess equatorial brightness occurred between solar cycle maximum around 1970 and minimum around 1975. Considering excess equatorial brightness and seeking to perform measurements at opportunities of reduced excess equatorial brightness has the effect of reducing solar oblateness from some 86.6 ± 6.6 milli-arcsec to 18.4 ± 12.5 milli-arcsec.

The Babcock Model describes a mechanism which can explain magnetic and sunspot patterns observed on the Sun.
 * 1) The start of the 22-year cycle begins with a well-established dipole field component aligned along the solar rotational axis. The field lines tend to be held by the highly conductive solar plasma of the solar surface.
 * 2) The solar surface plasma rotation rate is different at different latitudes, and the rotation rate is 20 percent faster at the equator than at the poles (one rotation every 27 days). Consequently, the magnetic field lines are wrapped by 20 percent every 27 days.
 * 3) After many rotations, the field lines become highly twisted and bundled, increasing their intensity, and the resulting buoyancy lifts the bundle to the solar surface, forming a bipolar field that appears as two spots, being kinks in the field lines.
 * 4) The sunspots result from the strong local magnetic fields in the solar surface that exclude the light-emitting solar plasma and appear as darkened spots on the solar surface.
 * 5) The leading spot of the bipolar field has the same polarity as the solar hemisphere, and the trailing spot is of opposite polarity. The leading spot of the bipolar field tends to migrate towards the equator, while the trailing spot of opposite polarity migrates towards the solar pole of the respective hemisphere with a resultant reduction of the solar dipole moment. This process of sunspot formation and migration continues until the solar dipole field reverses (after about 11 years).
 * 6) The solar dipole field, through similar processes, reverses again at the end of the 22-year cycle.
 * 7) The magnetic field of the spot at the equator sometimes weakens, allowing an influx of coronal plasma that increases the internal pressure and forms a magnetic bubble which may burst and produce an ejection of coronal mass, leaving a coronal hole with open field lines. Such a coronal mass ejections are a source of the high-speed solar wind.
 * 8) The fluctuations in the bundled fields convert magnetic field energy into plasma heating, producing emission of electromagnetic radiation as intense ultraviolet (UV) and X-rays.

Stellar evolution
Stellar evolution is the process by which a star undergoes a sequence of radical changes during its lifetime. Depending on the mass of the star, this lifetime ranges from only a few million years for the most massive to trillions of years for the least massive, which is considerably longer than the age of the universe. All stars are born from collapsing clouds of gas and dust, often called nebulae or molecular clouds. Over the course of millions of years, these protostars settle down into a state of equilibrium, becoming what is known as a main sequence star.

Nuclear fusion powers a star for most of its life. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of hydrogen atoms at the core of the main sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes helium, stars like the Sun begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the subgiant stage until it reaches the red giant phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the Sun can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, while more massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into a dense white dwarf and the outer layers are expelled as a planetary nebula. Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a supernova as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense neutron star or black hole.

Galaxy formation and evolution
The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies. It is one of the most active research areas in astrophysics.

Galaxy formation is hypothesized to occur, from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang. The simplest model for this that is in general agreement with observed phenomena is the $\Lambda$ Cold Dark Matter cosmology; that is to say that clustering and merging is how galaxies gain in mass, and can also determine their shape and structure.

Hypotheses

 * 1) The capability of theorizing in hominins goes back perhaps four million years.

title: Theory/Astronomy


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Risk-taking

Comments
Your outline looks really good. I don't know if you have been to the tutorial yet but we just did a quiz on risk taking /pleasure seeking and that be really awesome to include if it fits in EamesA 01:04, 28 October 2011 (UTC) Hi, The attached link might be of interest to you. It's about the increasing tendency to risk taking, high alcohol consuption and aggression by young women. Regards, Ray U112052 02:18, 28 October 2011 (UTC) http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/aggressive-aussie-ladettes-on-the-rise-20110804-1ic9h.html

Hey, not sure if you plan to include anything like this, but it would be interesting to know if there are different risk-taking behaviours for different age groups, i.e. adolescents more likely to partake in risk taking activities such as drug taking and binge drinking, and maybe middle aged people are more likely to take risks with money. Not sure if this is even true, or if there's any research on it, but it would be interesting to know. Good luck! Tashc 10:09, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey Katie! Looking really nice, I love the colour scheme! ... I agree with Tashc, that would be really interesting to know the risk-taking behaviours for different ages... a case study could be interesting to include also, to give a real world example, or even some external links to youth programs/camps that deal with kids engaging in risk taking behaviour! Good luck with it! A-bryant 06:36, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi Katie :-) Your page is coming along well. I'm doing my page on sensation seeking. I've included a short section on my page about risk taking as high sensation seekers are also known to be risk takers because they see sensation as being worth the risk. I'm planning to link my page in with yours and have your page as part of my 'see also' at the bottom. Your welcome to do the same with mine :-) KristaLeanne 07:22, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Looking great Katie! Nice work, especially making it very applicable :) --Jaybay 10:08, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Really well done and presentation is excellent - congratulations - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:31, 27 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 09:24, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:Ivamorganivamo

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, as you did to User:Ivamorganivamo, you will be blocked from editing Wikiversity. Ruy Pugliesi ◥ 01:44, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ivamorganivamo


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Alcohol motivation

Introduction: What motivates you to drink?
Have you ever thought about what motivates you to drink? Some of the most common reasons include: to celebrate a special occasion. For toasting others good fortune. For enjoyment. To unwind and relax. For the taste. But what do psychologists have to say about the matter? The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive understanding of what psychological theory and research has discovered about what motivations to drink alcohol. Another aim is to provide information on how to safely manage these motivations. Why is it important you find out what motivates you or others to drink alcohol? There are several reasons:
 * 1) Most of us are consumers of alcohol.  In 2007, approximately 90 percent of Australians over the age of 14 had consumed alcohol at sometime in their life.  Approximately 40 percent of these Australians drank alcohol on a weekly basis and eight percent drank on a daily basis (Carr, 2011).
 * 2) Harmful use of alcohol is one of society’s biggest health risks.  Alcohol is responsible for up to 20 to 50 percent of the cases of cirrhosis of the liver as well as epilepsy, poisonings, road traffic accidents, violence and several types of cancer (Global Status Report, 2011).
 * 3) Everyone makes a conscious or unconscious decision to drink every time they consume alcohol.  Psychological research suggests that what motivates you to drink is the final step in this decision process (Kuntsche, Wiers, Jansen, & Gmel, 2010).

This chapter begins by identifying what factors have an influence on alcohol consumption, other than drinking motives. It will then provide a distinction between alcohol expectancies and alcohol motives. Next it will discuss some of the issues psychologists have had with identifying distinct drinking motives and present Cooper’s (1994) Four Factor Model. It then provides a review of the literature that validates and questions this model and will conclude with information on how to safely mange drinking motives and a brief summary.

What influences alcohol use?

While the main focus of this chapter is explaining the motivations behind alcohol consumption, it is important to mention that several other factors have an influence on the decisions we make to drink alcohol or not. These factors are presented in Cox and Klinger’s (1988) motivational model of alcohol use and fall into one of two categories.

Historical circumstances
Factors that fall into the historical circumstance category are those that have helped to shape a person’s past experiences with drinking such as their biochemical response to alcohol, their personality and/or socio-cultural background (Cox, & Klinger, 1988).

For example, a person who cannot metabolise alcohol quickly will often experience stronger, negative physical effects than a person who can metabolize it quickly. As a result, this person develops a biological predisposition to avoid consuming large quantities of alcohol because of the negative side effects that occur afterward. Past experience of these is likely to add weight to their decision not to drink (Cox, & Klinger, 1988).

Current circumstances
Factors that fall into the current circumstance category are those that have an immediate impact on a person’s decision to drink such as the situation in which they are located, whether they are in a good or bad mood, their alcohol expectancies and/or their motives behind drinking (Cox, & Klinger, 1988).

For example, a person’s propensity to drink increases if alcohol is readily available and the immediate situation is conducive to drinking. Someone at work is less likely to drink than someone socialising with friends at a bar (Cox, & Klinger, 1988).

Alcohol expectancies and drinking motives:
Alcohol expectancies and drinking motives are conceptually and empirically distinct (Birch, Stewart, Wall, McKee, Eisnor, & Theakston, 2004). According to Cox and Klinger’s (2004) distinction (as cited in Kuntsche et al., 2010) “expectancies are people’s beliefs about what will happen if they (or other people) drink alcohol, whereas motives are the value place on the particular effects they want to achieve, which motivate them to drink” (p. 124).

Problems with identifying distinct motives that influence alcohol use
If a friend were to ask you “what motivates you to drink?” it would seem like a simple enough question to answer. You might reply “I enjoy the taste,” or “it helps me relax,” or even “I am funnier when I’m drunk.” Although this question is easy enough to answer in everyday conversation, motivational psychologists, who must base their response on psychological theory and empirical research, have found it a little trickier to answer. These psychologists have encountered several problems with current efforts to measure and identify distinct motives for alcohol use:

How many motives influence alcohol use?
The first problem psychologists’ face is determining the number and the type of motives that have an influence on people’s decisions to consume alcohol. In a study conducted by Newcomb, Chou, Bentler, and Huba (1988), the authors found evidence to support the presence of a single higher order motive that influences peoples’ decisions to drink. In separate studies conducted by Cutter and O’Farrell (1984) (as cited in Cooper, 1994) and Johnston and O’Malley (1986) (as cited in Cooper, 1994), the authors identified the influences of up to five and six different motives for the decision to drink.

How are these motives measured?
The second problem psychologists’ were confronted with was the way in which drinking motives have been assessed in different studies. Research conducted by Cooper (1994) found that specific drinking motives across a number of studies had not been correctly assessed. The items which were used to measure the influence of motives were also employed to measure different drinking motives in a number of other studies. Cooper also discovered that the same construct was deemed to have face-validity (it was measuring what it was suppose to) even thought it was used to measure different drinking motives across several different studies.

What relationship do motives have with alcohol use?
The third problem psychologist have is explaining the inconsistency between studies on the relationship between drinking motives and alcohol use. While some studies suggest only a simple linear relationship exists between alcohol consumption and the number and strength of motives assessed, others have identified distinct relationships between drinking and different drinking motives (Cooper, 1994).

Although these problems have made it difficult for motivational psychologists to identify and conceptualise distinct drinking motives, contributions made by Cox and Klinger (1988) and Cooper (1994) appear to have overcome these issues and led to the creation of a four-factor motivational model of alcohol use which appears to be the most influential in this field of research.

Cooper’s (1994) Four-Factor Model
One of the most widely used motivational models of alcohol use is Cooper’s (1994) four-factor model. While other models exist, Cooper’s is one of the most comprehensive and solves most the issues raised with identifying distinct motives for alcohol use. Cooper’s model begins by drawing on the work of theorists Cox and Klinger (1988):

Cox and Klinger’s Model
Cox and Klinger’s (1988) model of alcohol use explains a person’s motivation to consume alcohol using the construct of incentive motivation and the process of affective change. Incentive motivation is a theoretical construct determined by American psychologist Clark L Hull in the 1950s to explain the extreme degree and intensity of behaviour that both humans and animals exhibit.

Hull suggested that the extreme degree and intensity of behaviour can be accounted for by an organisms’ motivation to pursue incentives (Cox & Klinger, 1988). Accordingly, people pursue positive incentives to increase positive affect and seek to get rid of negative incentives that produce negative affect. Affect is understood as the psychological component or experience of an emotional response. The process of affective change refers to an alteration from one state of affect to another (Cox & Klinger, 1988). According to Cox and Klinger, alcohol consumption can bring on the process of affective change in two separate ways:

Alcohol and emotion
Affective change can occur via alcohol consumption due to the direct chemical effects alcohol has on emotions. These effects are often referred to as “tension reducing” or “mood enhancing” (Langenbucher, & Nathan, in press, as cited in Cox & Klinger, 1988; West, & Sutker, in press, as cited in Cox & Klinger, 1988). What is interesting however, is that people’s expectations about alcohol’s ability to alter their mood is more likely to result in mood change rather than the actual chemical effects of the substance itself (Lang, & Michalec, in press, as cited in Cox & Klinger, 1988; Marlatt, & Rohsenow, 1980, as cited in Cox & Klinger, 1988).

Alcohol and other incentives
Affective change can also be caused indirectly by alcohol consumption via the role it plays on other incentives in a person’s life. According to Cox and Klinger (1988), alcohol consumption can be helpful or a hindrance in a person’s ability to obtain positive incentives or avoid negative ones. If a person’s incentives are affected via alcohol consumption then this will bring on affective change. For example, social factors indirectly influence a person’s decision to consume alcohol because alcohol plays a part in obtaining an incentive such as peer approval (Whites, Bates & Johnson, in press, as cited in Cox and Klinger, 1988).

From Cox and Klinger’s (1988) work, Cooper (1994) determined that distinct drinking motives are influenced by two fundamental dimensions of the outcomes a person expects to achieve through alcohol consumption. These are the valence (positive or negative) and source (internal or external) of a person’s expectations. In other words, a person may be motivated to consume alcohol in order to achieve a positive outcome (positive reinforcement) or avoid a negative outcome (negative reinforcement). Their motivations to consume alcohol are also determined by whether they are pursuing an internal incentive, such as regulating their emotional state or an external incentive such as peer approval (Cooper, 1994). By crossing these two dimensions, Cooper’s model gives rise to four distinct drinking motives which appear in the table below.

Drinking motives
So does psychological research support the presence of four distinct drinking motives? Below is information from a number of psychological studies that validate and call into question Cooper’s four factor model of alcohol use.

Coping motives

Psychological research on drinking motives has focused predominantly on the influences of coping motives and alcohol use. The most likely explanation for this focus is that people who drink in order to cope with negative emotions have a higher risk of developing serious mental health problems than someone who is motivated to drink for other reasons. According to research by Cooper (1994), people who are motivated to drink, in order to cope, tend to consume alcohol more frequently and in larger quantities. As a consequence, people who drink heavily are more likely to develop serious alcohol-related problems such as dependence, abuse and disease of the internal organs (Cooper, 1994). Research conducted by Cooper, Frone, Russell, and Mudar (1995) suggests that the reason why people use alcohol to cope with negative emotions is because they do not possess more adaptive ways of coping. They argue that as people rely more heavily on alcohol to cope with their negative emotions, adaptive coping deteriorates and this often results in psychological dependence on alcohol (Cooper et al., 1995).

Some of the most supportive evidence for the presence of a coping motive that influences drinking can be found in adult samples presenting with both a social anxiety disorder and an alcohol use disorder. For example, in a study conducted by Thomas, Randall and Carrigan (2003) (as cited in Blumenthal, Leen-Feldner, Frala, Badour, & Ham, 2010), 50 percent of participants consumed alcohol prior to a social event in order to reduce their anxiety, 80 percent consumed alcohol during the event and 80 percent reported they often avoid social situations where alcohol consumption is not possible.

A number of other studies have demonstrated peoples’ use of alcohol to cope with negative emotions. These emotions were brought on by a range of stressors such as hetero-social evaluation, criticism, difficult or unsolvable tasks and public speaking. In Higgins and Marlatt’s (1975) study on alcohol consumption and hetero-social evaluation, 64 male students participated in a wine tasting task. Half the students were told they would be participating in a second experiment in which a group of women would evaluate them. Higgins and Marlatt found that students who were expecting to be evaluated consumed significantly more alcohol than those who did not know about the evaluation.

Enhancement motives
Like coping motives, Cooper (1994) found that people who drink to enhance a positive mood are likely to be frequent and heavy users of alcohol. However, Cooper did stress that enhancement motives only positively predicted patterns of heavy alcohol use in situations that encouraged heavy drinking such as drinking in a bar with same-sex friends.

Unfortunately, very little research has been conducted on enhancement motives and alcohol use and this appears to be having an adverse impact on the validity of Cooper’s four factor model. Several theorists have noted the lack of empirical support for the influence of enhancement motives on alcohol use (Colder, & O’Connor, 2002). However, the few studies that have been conducted on enhancement motives have yielded some positive results.

In a study conducted by Newcomb, Chou, Bentler, and Huba (1988), the authors investigated cognitive motivations for alcohol and cannabis use among adolescents. They found considerable support for the relevance and influence of enhancement motives on alcohol use with just over 50 percent of participants reporting consuming alcohol for the purposes of enhancing positive affect and creativity (Newcomb et al., 1988). Further support for the influence of enhancement motives on alcohol use was also provided by Read, Wood, Kahler, Maddock, and Palfai’s (2003) study in which enhancement motives were found to predict alcohol use in adolescents.

In a study conducted by Colder and O’Connor (2002), the authors suggest that the reason why people use alcohol to enhance a positive mood is because alcohol produces a feeling of euphoria (Marlatt, 1987, as cited in Colder & O’Connor, 2002) which arouses the cerebral reward system (M. Ingvar, Ghatan, Wirsén-Meurling, Risberg, Von Heijine, Stone-Elander, & D. H. Ingvar, 1997, as cited in Colder & O’Connor, 2002). As a consequence, positive reinforcement occurs and an increase in positive mood becomes a motivation for alcohol use (Colder, & O’Connor, 2002).

Conformity motives
Like enhancement, conformity motives are another drinking motive that has yet to be properly addressed in psychological literature. In a study by Lewis et al. (2008), the authors found that conformity motives are positively related to certain features associated with social anxiety. This suggests that people who are motivated to drink to avoid social censure or peer rejection do so because of interaction anxiety, social avoidance, and social fears (Lewis et al., 2008).

The relevance of conformity motives on alcohol use has been supported by several studies. Results from a study conducted by MacLean and Lecci (2000) found support for the influence of conformity motives on alcohol use in a sample of volunteer undergraduate university students. Martens, Rocha, Martin, and Scerraro (2008) also found evidence to suggest that conformity motives are a distinct set of drinking motives relevant to college students’ alcohol use. However, research conducted by Martens, Cox, Beck, and Heppner (2003) on a sample of undergraduate athletes found contrary evidence to suggest conformity motives do not have an influence on alcohol use in college students.

Social motives
Although there has been little research available on enhancement and conformity motives, there has however, been an adequate investigation by psychologists into social motives and alcohol use. One explanation for this adequate investigation may be due to the frequent consumption of alcohol in many social situations. A number of studies have established the relevance and distinct influence of social motives on alcohol use. Not only have social motives been found to influence adolescent drinking, they have also been found to influence the consumption of alcohol in adults (Cooper, 1994). For example, in a longitudinal study conducted on first-time college students, Vaughan, Corbin, and Fromme (2009) found that during the transition from high school to college, social motives had the strongest influence on student’s alcohol consumption. The authors suggest that social motives are the most influential at this point in time because they appear to coincide with the developmental tasks of establishing peer networks and creating close friendships (Arnett, 2005, as cited in Vaughan et al., 2009). This is supported by White and Jackson (2004/2005) (as cited in Vaughan et al., 2009) who also argue that many social activities revolve around drinking at this time.

According to Cooper (1994), several studies have indicated that drinking to achieve positive social rewards is more common in participants than drinking to reduce negative affect. Furthermore, people who are motivated to drink alcohol to achieve positive social rewards consume alcohol less frequent, in small quantities and in social settings. As a result, these people are less likely to experience the health problems associated with excessive alcohol consumption (Cooper, 1994).

How to safely manage drinking motives
As stressed in the introduction, there are many negative side effects associated with alcohol consumption. For these reasons, we need to manage our motivations in order to consume alcohol safely and abstain from drinking every now and again. Although there will always be some risk to your health and social well-being if you choose to drink alcohol, here are some simple tips provided by the publication Alcohol Abuse (2007) which you can follow to help make sure you don’t overdo it:
 * Know how many standard drinks you can have – according to Australian standards, men should consume no more than four standard drinks of alcohol and women no more than two drinks during a session
 * Have alcohol free days – it is recommended that both men and women abstain from drinking for at least two days each week
 * Keep a record or a diary of how much you have to drink each day – this will help you monitor how much you are drinking on a daily or weekly basis
 * Be assertive and don’t let friends pressure you into drinking – you can politely tell your friend “thanks but no thanks”

According to the research on social and conformity motives, a lot of people experience pressure from friends in social situations to drink alcohol and often to drink to excess. It is particularly hard to enjoy a social gathering when everyone else is drinking and they are also trying to make you drink. Here are some simple tips from the publication Alcohol Abuse (2007) which you can also follow to help you drink less while attending a social gathering:
 * Make sure your first drink is a soft drink or glass of water– we often drink more quickly when we are thirsty so quench it first with a non-alcoholic drink
 * Drink slowly – try to sip your drink rather than gulp it
 * Don’t nurse your drink – if it is safe to leave your drink unattended, put it down between sips so that drinking does not become an automatic action
 * Make sure you eat before and while you are drinking – alcohol is absorbed more slowly when you have a full stomach
 * Avoid getting involved in “shouts” or rounds – drink at your pace rather than someone else’s. If you get stuck in a shout, buy a non-alcoholic drink when your turn comes around
 * Drink from pre-packaged bottles or cans of alcohol – this makes it easier for you to count the number of standard drinks you have
 * Don’t let people top up your drink – this makes it hard to keep track of how many drinks you’ve had
 * Make every second or third drink a non-alcoholic drink – this will also slow down your alcohol consumption
 * Keep busy – if you are playing pool or dancing you will tend to drink less
 * Try drinking the low-alcoholic alternative – this will reduce your overall alcohol consumption
 * Try a mocktail – your friends won’t know you’re not drinking alcohol

If you have concerns about what motivates you to drink alcohol and don’t find these tips helpful then you should contact your doctor. Your doctor will talk with you about these concerns and/or refer you on to a counsellor or clinical psychologist who can also help. You may also find the information provided in the links below helpful:
 * http://www.aa.org.au/
 * http://www.alcoholissues.co.uk/
 * http://salvos.org.au/need-help/drugs-and-alcohol/

In addition you might like to check out another chapter from Improve your life called Addiction

Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide a comprehensive understanding of what psychological theory and research has discovered about what motivates you to drink. Psychologists have had some difficulty in identifying distinct drinking motives because of several issues that have arisen from a variety of studies on motivation and alcohol use. More recently however, Cooper (1994) identified four distinct motives that have been found to influence alcohol use in both adolescents and adults in a number of studies. These were: coping, enhancement, conformity and social motives. Of the four motives, coping and enhancement have been found to be associated with alcohol related problems such as dependence, abuse and disease. On the other hand, alcohol consumption motivated by social motives was found to have the least harmful effects of the drinking motives.

A secondary aim of this chapter was to provide information on how to safely manage your motivation to drink. The tips provided in this chapter may be helpful for those of you, who want to cut back your alcohol consumption. For those of you, who are concerned about what is motivating you to drink, then make sure you seek further advice. You can visit the links provided in this chapter and/or make an appointment to see your doctor.


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Rule-breaking

Hello, Thought this article about the rise of ladette culture among young women might be useful to you in your chapter on risk taking. http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/aggressive-aussie-ladettes-on-the-rise-20110804-1ic9h.html Regards, Ray U112052 02:22, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey, I can see you are still in the early stages of uploading information but thought some ideas may be helpful. I think it would be a good idea to talk about cultural factors and and maybe considering the different sorts of parenting styles (e.g. authoritative/authoritarian styles) that may lead to rule breaking! Good luck :) SKM1501 03:20, 02 November 2011 (UTC)

Very well presented - a great topic for schools and possible publication in a magazine - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:21, 27 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 06:36, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Charleschochar

Note: Cross-wiki spammer. Ruy Pugliesi ◥ 02:59, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Charleschochar


text:
User talk:Vitoldoojedape

CW-spammer. Ruy Pugliesi ◥ 03:08, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vitoldoojedape


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy

Overview

 * Before you begin reading this chapter ask yourself some of these questions:
 *  Have you ever felt such a strong desire for someone else's property that you would consider stealing it?
 *  What makes envy different from jealousy and other related emotions?
 *  How is psychological and physical well being affected by envy?
 *  How can feelings of envy be controlled and coped with?

These are a few of the questions that this chapter will explore and hopefully will answer for you.

What is envy?
When the idea of envy comes to mind it is often associated with the seven deadly sins and other philosophical and biblical ideations. The fact is that envy is not just simply an act which one can commit and express but rather, is a very intricate emotion that is usually associated with many unpleasant feelings (Smith & Kim, 2007). The concept of envy finds its origins as early as 350BC when Aristotle defined it as a feeling of pain which is caused by the positive fortune of others (1941. In more recent times envy has been defined as an emotion which is characterised by feelings of hostility, inferiority and resentment directed towards another person or person’s possessions such as their social status, quality of being, material wealth or personal achievements (Parrott & Smith, 1993).

Although envy is often considered a detrimental and unwanted emotion, envy can have a positive effect in certain situations. Why else would we feel it? This is because, if controlled and regulated effectively, envy can act as a strong motivator for achievement and personal gain. With this being said it is also important to note that envy can lead to self destructive behaviors and many unwanted consequences. In order to differentiate between the two different ways in which envy can influence an individual, psychologists have recently defined two different types of envy, these being Benign envy and Malicious envy, both which are related to admiration (van de Ven, Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2009).

Admiration, benign and malicious envy
In a study undertaken by van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters (2009) it was found that a specific type of envy known as benign envy played a very important role in motivation. Benign envy is the emotion felt when we desire something somebody else possesses and wish we could achieve it yet also accept that the envied probably deserves what they have acquired. Another form of envy which was discovered was malicious envy which is the emotion felt when we desire another’s possession but also feel the envied do not deserve it and would prefer if neither we nor the envied possessed it (van de Ven, Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2009). Of course benign envy sounds like the better of the two however its major flaw is that it may quickly turn to admiration if not controlled properly, which can become counterproductive when dealing with motivation.

Van de Ven, Zeelenberg and Pieters (2011) argue that in order for people to deal with their envy and the pain associated with it they translate it into admiration. When this change occurs people loose their motivation as they are in reality admitting that the achievement is beyond them as it is easier to admire than to aspire. This idea is loosely based on Kierkegaard’s (1849/2008) theory that admiration or happy self-surrender occurs when we believe something is so good it cannot be attained, and that benign envy or unhappy self-assertion, occurs as a negative feeling stemmed from comparisons to other people which ultimately leads to an increased motivation. This short overview of admiration, benign and malicious envy and their effects on motivation really shows how intricate and important envy can be to human processing.

Example in the media
 The 2004 comedy movie Envy is a story about two best friends, co workers and neighbours Tim Dingman and Nick Vanderpark. Nick is a loud and extroverted individual whom is constantly thinking up new and odd get rich quick schemes and on the other hand Tim is an introverted and dull individual whom is constantly complaining about his boring life. After Nick succeeds in one of his inventions and becomes super wealthy Tim becomes viciously jealous and thus starts the comedic trail of events that proceed. Throughout the movie Nick seems blissfully ignorant to Tim’s envy even though it continually grows and is shown evident by Tim. Eventually Tim becomes so envious of Nick’s wealth that in a drunken rage he kills Nick’s prized horse. Tim then expresses his emotions to Nick and the two become business partners. However, this new found comfort for Tim is short lived after Nick’s invention is found to be toxic and actually the real cause of his prized horses death. The movie then ends with the two presumably back at square one but this time as partners advertising their new invention. Envy Movie Trailer (5 minute video)

Envy vs. jealousy
Envy is most often confused with the emotion of jealousy. Envy typically occurs when one person lacks another’s superior qualities, possessions or achievements and desires it or wishes the other person lacked it (Parrott & Smith, 1993). Jealousy occurs when someone experiences jealousy typically towards someone they care about and is usually in the context of a relationship (Parrott, & Smith, 1993). The easiest way to distinguish envy and jealousy is to think of them as follows. Envy occurs when someone obtains something another lacks, whereas jealousy occurs when someone is fearful of losing something, typically a relationship, that they already have (Parrot & Smith, 1993). The following table as adapted from Parrot (1992) shows the most typical distinctions between envy and jealousy:

Evolutionary theory
As envy is a fairly new construct in the field of psychology the theories behind its existence are currently quite minimal. According to evolutionary theory, envy exists as a form of survival instinct. According to the evolutionary theory human beings act in ways which are essential to our survival (Darwin, 1859). When we apply envy to this theory we quickly see that envy, like the emotions of love and hate, allow us to scan our environment to recognise potential means of survival (Ninivaggi, 2010). This occurs through means such as hunting for food, preparing food, exercising to increase our length of life, living in a nice protective house and earning money in order to survive (Ninivaggi, 2010). Envy can take its form in a destructive manner such as wanting to take what the other person has even if we do so in a negative form. This again supports the evolutionary theory as here we are exerting the idea of survival of the fittest (Ninivaggi, 2010).

Psychoanalytic theory
Another theory of envy is the psychoanalytic theory proposed initially by Freud (1905/1962). Freud initially proposed envy as part of sexual development in his theory of penis envy which is the idea that when a girl is developing sexually she will initially be envious of her father’s penis, but in healthy development will eventually overcome this envy (1905/1962). This idea was later enhanced by Horney (1967) who redefined Freud’s theory to include womb envy which is the male equivalent of penis envy.

Both these ideas are associated with the theories of the Oedipus and Electra complex of which both aim to explore the unconscious sexual development of men and women. Envy is involved in the Oedipus complex theory as this theory proposes that a young boy desires to sexually possess his mother and kill his father in order to gain her affection (1905/1962). The Electra complex as proposed by Jung (1913) is again the equivalent in which the female envies the affection her mother receives from her father. These theories both suggest that envy initially appears in reaction to sexual development and that excessive envy later on in life is the result of unconscious conflicts involved with a failed sexual development.

 Did you know that in William Shakespeare’s famous tragedy Othello (1603) the colour green is used to relate to envy and jealousy. This association of the colour green and envy is very commonly used.

Biblical example of envy
Throughout history envy has been directly linked to many acts of aggression and hatred. In the bible the Hebrew story of the two brothers Cain and Abel (Gen. 4.1-16) specifically expresses envy as a motive for murder. In the story Cain and Abel both offer God a sacrifice to which God prefers Abel’s and rejects Cain’s. Due to Cain’s immense envy of God's preference for Abel’s sacrifice he kills him in a fit of rage.

Envy in modern times
In modern times envy has been associated with crimes of hatred such as that of [w:Nazi_Germany|Nazi Germany]] in World War II. According to Glick (2002) many Germans blamed the Jews for the poor conditions following World War I. It was believed by the Germans that the Jews possessed traits of deceitfulness and cunningness which aided them in gaining power and control over Germany. The general stereotype the Germans held against the Jews were that they were powerful which caused envy within the German people and also that the Jews intentions were detrimental to German life (Glick, 2002). Of course as history has shown us this immense envy and hatred towards the Jews would ultimately lead to one of the largest mass genocides in history.

Physical effects of envy
There appears to be a correlation between envy and poorer health conditions among people. The main way in which envy appears to affect people’s health is through the social gradient. According to Krieger, Williams and Moss (1997) people with a lower social status appear to suffer from stress and worse health in comparison to those higher in social status. Envy comes into effect here as those lower in social status are likely to compare themselves with those higher and in turn begin to feel the associated effects of envy which include stress, hostility, depression and anger (Smith & Kim, 2007). As it has been noted above people whom experience envy are likely to report feelings of hostility, depression and unhappiness. Due to these set of emotions often expressed by envious people, it is likely that they will suffer from lower social support such as finding a partner as they can appear unpleasant (Smith & Kim, 2007; Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle & Kim, 1999).

In the past it has been discovered that good health can indeed be positively affected by positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2004). In this same sense Bad health has been found to be associated with negative emotions. As expressed earlier envy is an emotion which tends to elicit negative feelings which in turn will most likely cause a deteriorating health. Due to people feeling these emotions it is likely they will be again unable to adopt positive relationships and stable social standing which ultimately leads to further psychological problems and a cycle of poor health (Smith & Kim, 2007).

Psychological effects of envy
A series of experiments undertaken by Hill, DelPriore and Vaughan (2011) showed that envy does indeed have an effect on the cognitive processes of individuals. Their experiments concluded that when envy is activated people are more likely to attend to specific social targets and have an enhanced recall of the information thus improving their memory towards specific stimuli. The study also found that this enhanced recall of information was only applicable to the activation of envy and not related emotions such as admiration, social comparisons or arousal.

A recently developed scale which measures envy known as the Dispositional Envy Scale (DES) found that envy was linked to many negative mental health outcomes (Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle & Kim, 1999). The DES found that envy was negatively correlated with different levels of life satisfaction and self esteem and was positively correlated with hostility, resentment, depression and neuroticism. Another scale known as the enviousness scale developed by Gold (1996) found that envy was positively correlated with depression, obsessive compulsive tendencies, anxiety, anger and feelings of inferiority. These above findings show the destructive nature of envy if it is not properly controlled and coped with.

Physiological effects of envy
It was found by Takahashi, Kato, Matsuura, Mobbs, Suhara and Yoshiro (2009) that feelings of envy and [w:Schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] activate specific parts of the brain. Through the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on 19 healthy participants the study found that when envy was elicited through comparisons to other people the anterior cingulate cortex was activated. Their study also found that when the participants read about these same envied failing in some way schadenfreude occurred and the ventral striatum was activated. The anterior cingulate cortex is an area of the brain which is involved with feelings of physical pain and the ventral striatum is involved with feelings of reward (Takahashi et al., 2009). This study was particularly important as it showed that when we are envious of someone we can experience feelings of pain and that when something bad happens to them that we can feel some forms of pleasure. This is interesting as it opens the doorway to future research on envy and how it can be controlled.

Coping with envy
Finding ways to deal and cope with envy are currently at the core of psychological research surrounding envy and its related emotions. Salovey and Rodin (1988) administered a survey to the readers of Psychology Today which asked them to express what kinds of means they employ to help deal with their envy. This was done through assessing how people coped with envy provoking scenarios using three different strategies, these being self bolstering, self reliance, and selective ignoring. Their study found that the envy coping strategies which were most effective included self reliance followed by the selective ignoring. In the selective reliance strategy responses such as not giving up and refraining from angry feelings were included and the selective ignoring included responses like dismissing the importance of the envied person’s possession. Although self bolstering was not found to be useful in reducing feelings of envy it was found to be useful is lessening the adverse feelings associated with envy such as sadness and anger. This study is just the beginning of discovering how to cope with envy with there being a great need for further discoveries on this area of interest in the future.

Quiz
{Try and complete the following sentences using the knowledge you have gained from this chapter on envy. Envy is an emotion which is characterised by feelings of { Hostility }, { Inferiority } and { Resentment }.
 * type="{}"}

Envy is often confused with the similar emotion of { Jealousy }.

{It has been found that __________ emotions are associated with ____________ Health. - Negative; Good + Positive; Good - Good; Negative - Good; Positive
 * type=""}

{True or False - Study of recent history has shown that envy was involved with the persecution of the Jews by Nazi Germany? + True - False
 * type=""}

{The __________ theory of envy suggests it is essential in our survival: - Psychoanalytic + Evolutionary - Social - Cognitive
 * type=""}

{Over time, which colour has become associated with envy? - Red - Blue - Yellow + Green
 * type=""}

Conclusion
In summary, there are many different aspects involved with the intricate emotion of envy and why we as humans feel it. Although envy is usually an uncomfortable and unwanted emotion it does indeed have its positive side. Envy has been implicated in some of the worst hate crimes in history, however this is likely due to it being misused, misunderstood and incorrectly coped and dealt with. As expressed by the evolutionary theory it is believed that envy is essential to our survival. The psychoanalytical theory also suggests that envy is a healthy and natural part of development. Either way we look at it envy is something that if controlled and regulated effectively can be in part both beneficial and motivational. With this being said, envy can also be detrimental to our psychological and physical well-being if coping strategies are not implemented to help deal with it. It is important that in the future psychologists continue to study and understand how we as humans can deal with our envy and channel it into something positive such as motivation.

title: Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy


text:
User talk:Jan Kok

 Hello Jan Kok, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 12:39, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jan Kok


text: File:Probability Discussion left continuity.svg


text: File:Probability Discussion right continuity.svg