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Design for the Environment/Grocery Bags

Since 1977, the grocery bag has become an integral aspect of retail activity in North America. However, in recent times, a shift in societal values towards a greater regard for the environment has seen the conventional plastic bag come under scrutiny. This conventional bag is derived from the material polyethylene, a material that itself comes from petroleum and natural gas resources. One way of improving the environmental situation and to adhere to new guidelines on plastic bag use is to introduce new technologies for biodegradable bags. These bags, made of materials such as Mater-Bi and PHA, have the ability of quickly breaking down into its elemental components because of their plant-based raw material composition. This study analyzes the different functional characteristics, and societal and economic impacts of the polyethylene, Mater-Bi, and PHA grocery bags. More importantly, a detailed analysis of the environmental impacts is performed, using a qualitative Streamlined Life Cycle Assessment, and a quantitative Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment with recommendation on the future grocery bag needs that will adhere to the ever increasing government pressure to reduce environmental effects.

Baseline: Polyethylene Plastic Bags
Conventional plastic bags are manufactured from polyethylene, a polymer extracted from crude oil or natural gas, through Blown Film Extrusion. The common types of polyethylene used to make these bags are linear low density polyethylene, low density polyethylene, and high density polyethylene. In the Blown Film Extrusion process, polyethylene resin is melted and extruded through a vertical circular die to form a thin walled tube. The tube is inflated to form a balloon shape as air is introduced into the tube and cooled. A plastic bag is formed from the width of a sealed section of the tube. Retailer logos are also printed on the bag. This process results in bags that are stronger, lighter, and cheaper to produce than paper bags. They are also waterproof and weigh approximately six to seven grams, with an ability to carry a mass of twenty kilograms. This allows plastic grocery bags to be reused to carry other items or for disposal as garbage bags.

The premanufacture of plastic bags create significant impact as polyethylene must be extracted from crude oil or natural gas. Crude oil refinery releases toxic pollutants in forms of solid, liquid and gaseous. Solid pollution which can occur due to leaks or spills during the transport process include include spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from the treatment processes. Moreover, the refinery process can potentially contaminate ground water and surface water within its surrounding area. This wastewater may contain oil residuals or other hazardous wastes. Although the water treatment processes can limit the amount of sulfides, ammonia, suspended solids and other hazardous substances, all of which may be present in the wastewater, surface bodies of water may develop a high concentration of these substances over time. Gaseous pollutants are also released in this process including toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, nitrogen oxides(NOx),carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) all of which are hazardous to the health of the environment and human beings.

Recycling and disposal of plastic bags also create significant concerns on the environment. In the Greater Toronto Area, plastic bags represent less than one percentage of residential solid waste by weight. However, plastic bags require approximately 1000 years to decompose [26]. Plastic bag recycling programs are available in many provinces in Canada including Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia. On average only one to three percentage of the six billion plastic bags used in Canada is recycled every year. Furthermore plastic bags made from different types of polyethylene cannot be mixed in the recycling process and therefore must be sorted prior to the recycling process. The sorting process is labour intensive and thus the cost of recapturing and recycling plastic bags can be expensive in Canada. Therefore, nearly all plastic bags are sent to landfill or incineration as solid waste.

Alternative: Mater-Bi Plastic Bags
Novamont is a leading bioplastic manufacturer in Europe and offers starch-based Mater-Bi products extracted from agricultural raw materials. Its facility in Terni, Italy has a production capacity of 60,000 metric tons as of 2008 for 10 different film grades. Mater-Bi includes a wide range of starch-based bioplastic materials derived from cornstarch and vegetable oil additives. It also contains polycaprolactone (PCL), a biodegradable synthetic aliphatic polyester used to enhance barrier properties and reduce costs. It can be processed through similar steps as polyethylene and offers the primary benefit of compostability in a wide-range of conditions, from home composting to fermenting reactors.

For the premanufacture of Mater-Bi, corn, petroleum, and water are the primary resources extracted. Petroleum oil, a non-renewable resource used for the PCL polyester component, requires an energy-intense extraction process with high greenhouse gas emissions. Novamont is in the process of replacing PCL with a vegetable oil polyester in its Origo-Bi line. One film grade of Mater-Bi currently has 26% starch-74% PCL and produces one kilogram from 0.5 kilograms of cornstarch and 1.4 kilograms of PCL. High energy is required during the manufacturing of the thermoplastic starch component in Mater-Bi pellets. Processing of pellets is comparable to the technology used to produce polyethylene bags and also utilizes Blown Film Extrusion. Mater-Bi shopping bags, however, require thirty percent more resin than polyethylene. Greenhouse gases, acidication, and eutrophication are minimized in manufacturing as reported in Novamont’s Environmental Product Declaration.

The Mater-Bi biopolymer resin must be transported overseas from its factory in Italy to bag processors before wholesale and distribution to supermarkets in North America, leading to further petroleum use and greenhouse gas emissions. During end of life, the major environmental benefit of Mater-Bi is its reduced energy and management required for compost separation and biodegrades within six months to leave no solid residue, thereby reducing contamination. The higher quality greenhouse gas emissions are reduced compared to polyethylene bags as carbon dioxide absorbed during the growth of corn plants is released back from biomass. Overall emissions are highest in the end phase as waste bags are typically landfilled in North America, whereas they are incinerated in Europe to reduce solid residue and produce energy.

Alternative: PHA Plastic Bags
One biodegradable copolyester produced by bacterial fermentation, termed polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), is synthesized in the bodies of bacteria, such as Alcaligenes eutrophus, which are fed with glucose extracted from sugar rich plants in a fermentation plant. The advantages of PHA for grocery bags include its good tensile strength, heat sealability, low molecular weight, good oxygen permeability, good ultra-violent resistance, temperature stability, resistance to grease and oil, and its barrier to flavour and odour. It is also water soluble and, most importantly, it is able to fully degrade into carbon dioxide and water to leave no environmentally harming waste. However, there are also several disadvantages, including the poor resistance of PHAs to acids and bases, the solubility of PHAs in chloroform and other chlorinated hydrocarbons, and the high production cost in PHA manufacturing.

In its premanufacturing stage, corn, water, and bacteria are used to produce PHA. Solid wastes such as corn cobs, grits, and dead Alcalugenes Eutrophus are produced. These solid residues are degradable or reusable. However, various process machines and technologies use electrical energy, with energy used in the manufacturing process of PHA being about 31,218 kilojoules per kilogram of PHA produced, which is equivalent to 2.39 kilograms of fossil fuels.

Reusable paperboards are used for packaging to reduce solid wastes, which contribute to global warming. Moreover, small amounts of petroleum are used in the transportation of each bag, which also produces greenhouse gases.

In its use stage, aside from the carrying of goods, grocery bags can also be reused to carry sundry goods or as food wraps, garbage bags or other purposes. PHA grocery bags are fully degradable into water and carbon dioxide, leaving no harmful residues to the environment. However, transportation is needed in the disposal from household users to disposal fields which uses a relatively small amount of energy per bag. The degradation of PHA also results in emission of carbon dioxide during disposal.

Recommendations and Findings
Functionally, all three alternatives perform at or above the expectations of a user of the common grocery bag. Each of these bags can be used to transport and package merchandise, including groceries, as well as be used as an advertising mechanism for retailers, for disposal into public waste systems, and for storage. The main differences between the alternatives lie in their physical properties, which are due to the different raw materials and production processes each alternative uses. The use of petroleum and natural gas allows for polyethylene bags to be manufactured at a higher capacity than that of Mater-Bi and PHA, which primarily use resources from agricultural sources that have yet to be adapted to support large manufacturing systems and facilities. In addition, the production of PHA bags requires the use of special bacterium to synthesize the PHA material, which has yet to be optimized. The mechanical properties that are important to end users of the proposed alternatives are nearly identical, and as such, do not inflict noticeable change in their use of the various bags.

Environmental Effects

The largest difference between the two proposed alternatives, Mater-Bi and PHA, and the baseline conventional product, polyethylene, is in their relative qualitative environmental impacts. As seen from the streamlined assessments of each alternative, the use phase involves no environmental impact. This is because the use phase of a grocery bag is considered to be very short, and involves no inputs or outputs from the bag itself. The largest discrepancies between the SLCA scores of each alternative are found with the Premanufacture and the Recycling and Disposal stages, with the discrepancies found primarily between the proposed alternatives and the baseline alternative. In the premanufacturing stage, it is clear that the use of fossil fuels and their higher greenhouse gas emissions contributed to the low score for polyethylene, and the higher dependence on the agricultural sector and its renewable products contributed to the higher scores for both PHA and Mater-Bi. This is despite the additional impact brought about by the transportation of Mater-Bi supplies overseas from Europe. Similarly, the biodegradable nature of the proposed alternatives gave both Mater-Bi and PHA the higher scores in the Recycling and Disposal life stage, as the polyethylene bags are known to take numerous years to decompose into its elemental components, whereas the alternative bags take less than one year to biodegrade itself in a compost environment.

When this qualitative assessment is compared to the quantitative assessment of the EIOLCA, environmental impacts of the PHA bag are found to be much greater than those of both polyethylene and Mater-Bi. It is reasonable to assume that this is due to the magnitude of the impact the agricultural sector imparts on the environment. The contribution to the global warming potential of PHA comes primarily from nitrous oxides. The source of these nitrous oxides is indeed from the agricultural sector, where the heavy use of soil and crop fertilizers causes large quantities of equivalent carbon dioxide emitted. Between the polyethylene and Mater-Bi alternatives, very small differences occur, with Mater-Bi demonstrating slightly lower environmental impacts, which are a result of the dependence of polyethylene on the petroleum and natural gas industries.

Economic Considerations
To the average consumer, the choice between polyethylene, Mater-Bi, and PHA grocery bags will generally come down to a matter of cost – both a cost to the end user and a cost to the retailer supplying the bags. In this area, it is clear that the polyethylene bag is still the most inexpensive alternative amongst the three analyzed. This is related to the existing and well-established mass production techniques for this bag, which is partly due to its existence in the consumer marketplace for over twenty-five years, and its dependence on a resource that has a history of involvement within the manufacturing sector, particularly in the area of mass production. The Mater-Bi bag is starting to approach the cost of polyethylene bags, as demand for these biodegradable bags continues to increase from consumer sentiments about the environment, and government regulations being enacted in recent months. The PHA grocery bag, still, however, is not an economically viable option, as the production process is not well established and its dependence on the agricultural sector, where increased demand of its own conventional products is of most importance.

Societal Preference
The recent introduction of legislation regulating the use or distribution of polyethylene grocery bags in various jurisdictions around the world has resulted in a demand for newer technologies, such as Mater-Bi and PHA, for the production of grocery bags. Coupled with these regulations is an overall consumer trend away from traditional bags. This is particularly evident with the introduction of reusable cloth bags by many retailers, which serve all the functions of the polyethylene bag, but also allow the retailer to sell the bag as a product itself, while introducing advertising that depicts the environmental conscience of the retailer and the loyalty of the user to the brand. However, for the average user, whose main concern is with functionality and cost, he or she would prefer the polyethylene bag being offered free of charge over a cloth bag offered for five or ten dollars more. As such, for retailers to maintain their customer loyalty and adhere to governmental regulations, it is obvious that the Mater-Bi, PHA, or any other biodegradable grocery bag beyond the scope of this report, will become entrenched into society.

Government officials around the world are taking initiatives to reduce the use of plastic bags by creating policies involving levies and bans, thereby reducing their environmental impact. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland placed a 15 cent tax per plastic grocery bag. Within five months, the use of plastic grocery bags was reduced by more than ninety percent. In 2005, the government of San Francisco, California applied a 17 cent tax of every plastic bag. In 2007, San Francisco also approved legislation to ban plastic bags at large supermarkets and chain pharmacies by 2008. Recently, Leaf Rapids, a small town in Manitoba, Canada also placed a ban on plastic bags. In the cases of San Francisco and Leaf Rapids, retailers are prevented from selling or distributing these single-use plastic bags. Similar taxes and bans on plastic bags have begun to take place in countries such as Germany, China, Kenya, Uganda, and Sweden. . Countries worldwide are expressing their concern over the environmental impact from plastic grocery bag use by looking to biodegradable bags and other alternatives.

Based upon 4800 consumer surveys conducted by NatureWorks, 41% of North American consumers ranked biodegradable bags as very desirable, with 74% of these respondents willing to pay 5 cents more and 60% willing to pay 10 cents more per bag. A case study conducted by Novamont at six GS Carrefour supermarkets in Italy showed that Mater-Bi bags were chosen over polyethylene bags because the product was biodegradable and could be recycled for organic waste with price as the least appreciated factor. Overall inclination to purchase was 70% of the 500 surveyed due to the perceived environmental benefits.

Recommendations
Based on this study and the work of others in this area of environmental analysis, it is clear that the Mater-Bi grocery bag is the best choice for the Canadian market and North American production. Its minimal impact to the environment and its positive impact on societal behaviour outweigh its slightly higher production costs, and therefore, can be considered superior to the lower-cost, environmentally unfriendly polyethylene, and the higher-cost, underdeveloped PHA.

Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Analysis
The total value of economic activities in the plastic packaging material, film and plastic resin manufacturing represented more than half of the total economic activity. In addition, the total value of economic activities as a result of manufacturing the polyethylene bag is 250% of its retail value. Toxic releases are evenly distributed throughout the life cycle of the bag. There is a total of 158,000 kilograms of toxics released throughout the life cycle of 6 billion bags. Over half of these toxic substances are released into land and underground. Twenty-five percent of all toxic releases are produced during the manufacturing process of plastic resin and films. The majority of all sulfur dioxide (SO2) released is from power generation, as coal is assumed to be the primary source for power generation. Moreover, a total of 1320 metric tons of carbon monoxide (CO) and 307 metric tons of nitrogen oxides (NOx) is released from various sectors throughout the life cycle of plastic bag. Aside from the plastic resin manufacturing process, energy consumption is evenly distributed amongst the other sectors. However, the manufacturing process of plastic resin is energy intensive, and thus, this sector consumes relatively more energy than the other sectors combined. The amount of energy required to produce 6 billions plastic bags is 1910 terajoules. Finally, the global warming potential for annual Canadian plastic bag consumption is estimated at 146,000 metric tons of equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2).

Cost Analysis
Polyethylene plastic bags are made mainly from crude oil or natural gas. For the purpose of this study, crude oil is assumed to be the only resource used to manufacture the bags. The average price of crude oil is estimated at $74.00 USD per barrel in 2007. As such, the cost of raw material per polyethylene bag is approximately $0.0103 USD. Within the plastic bag manufacturing stage, the estimated total materials and supplies, and fuel cost for 6 billion plastic bags in 2007 is $376 million USD in Canada, thus the direct cost per bag is approximately 0.0627 USD.

There are crude oil and natural gas refineries in the Canada and more than twenty-five plastic bag manufacturers within the Greater Toronto Area for which truck is the primary transportation method used for plastic bag and found to have negligible affect on the cost per bag. Although many retailers give plastic bags to their customers free of charge, the cost to retailers is an estimated $0.03 per bag USD.

Disposal of plastic bags has a direct cost based on the recycling and composting program cost of $135 USD per metric ton in Toronto, of $5.7 million USD for the Canadian annual demand of 6 billion plastic bags. . The indirect cost of plastic bag as a result of litter or other inappropriate garbage disposal methods include the cost to natural habitats of wild animals. For example, Marine animal rescue shelter in Texas, US discover a large proportion of sea turtles that die are as a result of ingesting plastic bags. Based on a cost-benefit analysis from the Roosevelt Report, the social cost for every plastic bag sold is more than thirty cents per bag.

Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Analysis
Each bag produces $0.11 US (1997) of economic activity, 33% of which is in the resin manufacturing, film packaging and wet corn milling sectors. This was found for an economic input of $213 million USD (1997) for the current Canadian demand of 6 billion bags per year. The energy intensive sectors - power generation and supply (21% GWP, 22% Energy) and agriculture (grain farming 15% GWP and wet corn milling 9% GWP, 16% Energy) - are the largest sources of greenhouse gas CO2 emissions due to the raw resources extraction required in both processes.

Transportation of Mater-Bi pellets overseas from Italy to Canada also has significant environmental impact (6% GWP, 8% Energy) due to the amount of fuel required for freight air transportation. The premanufacturing of the Mater-Bi pellet in the custom plastic material and resin manufacturing sector is the second most energy intensive process requiring 901 terajoules, or 16% of the overall total, and has the highest amount of toxic air, water and land releases at 66,200 kilograms.

Sensitivity analysis of the results showed that a 25% increase in cornstarch content in Mater-Bi would lead to 8.1% increase in global warming potential and 5.2% increase in energy from agriculture activities. The true production cost was not released by Novamont and variation in estimated values is in direct relation to the environmental impact found using the EIOLCA.

Cost Analysis
Mater-Bi pellets are marketed at between $2.50 to $8 USD per kilogram to processors including BioBag, the largest bioplastic bag manufacturer in the world. The retail prices of Mater-Bi bags are estimated between five and fourteen cents per bag. A five cent bag cost was assessed for a Canadian demand of 6 billion bags per year if Mater-Bi biodegradable bags were to completely displace polyethylene bags in the market. This is for analysis purposes only as the maximum capacity at Novamont is 60,000 metric tons worldwide. A kilogram of Mater-Bi pellets can produce up to 109 bags (9.15 grams per bag), in comparison to 142 polyethylene bags (7 grams per bag) using film extrusion. The total pellet cost at $3.77 USD per kilogram would be $207 million USD or 60% of the total bag cost of $345 million USD. Delivery cost overseas via air or water transportation contributes to $30 million USD, accounting for 10% of direct costs.

The indirect cost of Mater-Bi bags is based upon its benefit compared to polyethylene bags during its end of life. The health, air pollution and environmental cost of each non-biodegradable bag represented by the external costs of SO2, NOx, PO4, global warming potential and other releases is accounted for in levies. The environmental cost is estimated to be 10 cents per bag based on levies ranging from 15 cents in Ireland to 5 cents for purchases at furniture retailer IKEA. The indirect cost benefit from the levy saved is $372 million USD which is greater than the direct cost of $291 million USD for the annual consumption in Canada.

Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Analysis
For an economic input of $449 million USD for 6 billion bags in 1997, 31% of the production cost of PHA ($377 million) is attributed to the grain farming sector, 5% of the cost is attributed to the agriculture and forestry support activities sector, 43% of the cost is attributed to the wet corn milling sector, and 20% is attributed to the “All other industrial machinery manufacturing” sector.

From the EIOLCA result plots, it can be seen that the power generation and supply sector contributes to most of the toxic releases. This is caused by the large amount of energy and power used during the fermentation process in the production of PHA polymers from glucose. It can also be seen that the power generation and supply sector uses 40% of the total energy. Also, a comparative amount of this energy and power is used in the transportation of materials, distribution of products, and the disposal of products. The other area that contributes to the pollution is the pesticide and other agricultural chemical manufacturing sector, since a reasonable amount of pesticides is used during the farming of corn which is a comparatively high amount of pollution.

From the total global warming potential chart, it can be seen that grain farming produces the most greenhouse gases. This can be explained by the high energy use in the machinery used in farming which comes from the burning of fossil fuels and produces greenhouse gases.

From the total energy consumption chart, it can be observed that wet corn milling also contributes to 20% of the overall energy usage. Similarly, its main sources of energy come from coal and natural gases. The burning and mining of these two energy sources both produces greenhouse gases and toxic residues which causes air pollutions and global warming.

Cost Analysis
For the cost analysis, the profit margin for the pellet supplier is approximately 30%, the inflation rate is 1.292 , and all costs are converted into the value of year 1997 for comparison. The average material cost per bag is calculated to be $0.0441. The retail price of the PHA grocery bag is approximated to be $0.09676 USD per bag. Therefore, the manufacturing cost per bag in 1997 would be $0.0308. The total delivery cost per bag is $ 0.00016, and the total disposal cost is about $0.00011.

The indirect cost is calculated as the reduction in oil imports for petrochemical plastics base on the fact that 50 billion pounds of PHA production would reduce oil imports by 215 million barrels per year and assuming the oil price is at $35 per barrel. Therefore, the indirect cost reduction per bag in the value of 1997 would be $0.00127.

Books

 * C. Bastioli (2005). Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology. ISBN 9781859573891
 * M. Biron (2007). Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites: Technical Information for Plastic Users, Elsevier Science. ISBN 9781856174787.
 * T. E. Graedel (1998). Streamlined Life Cycle Assessment, Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780136074250
 * C. T. Hendrickson, L.B. Lave, and H. S. Matthews (2006). Environmental Life Cycle Assessments of Goods and Services An Input-Output Approach, RFF Press. ISBN 9781933115245
 * M. L. McKinney and R. M. Schoch (2003). Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions, Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 9780763709181
 * E. S. Stevens (2002). Green Plastics: An Introduction to the New Science of Biodegradable Plastics, Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691049670
 * M. Finklestein and B. H. Davison (1998). Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. Humana Press. ISBN 0896036510
 * S. Kim and B. Dale (2004). Life Cycle Assessment Study of Biopolymers (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) Derived from No-Tilled Corn. Michigan State University. ISBN 0849334667

title: Design for the Environment/Grocery Bags


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Talk:African Philosophy/Annotated Bibliography/Paulin Hountondji African philosophy myth and reality

Maybe this page should but put in the main namespace? --Remi 14:39, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Benja/Stay Firm or Give In

 Stay Firm or Give In  is a two-player, non-zero-sum, game-theoretic game I made up and am interested in studying. Two players take turns either 'staying firm' or 'giving in'. If one player gives in, the other player gets one more turn; if the other player stays firm, the payoff is +5 for the player who stood firm and -5 for the player who gave in, but if both players give in, the payoff is +10 for both players. If neither player gives in, the game ends after two turns with a payoff of (0,0).

As currently written, this page assumes familiarity with the basic concepts of game theory (but nothing beyond what's behind the Wikipedia links).

Update (2008-04-06): Yay! The point I'm getting at with this is known in the literature under the name of self-confirming equilibrium (Fudenberg and Levine (1993)); I've found it by way of w:Wikipedia: WikiProject Game theory. To do: Read the Econometria article, update this page, start the article at Wikipedia.

 * The article briefly discusses a game, shown on the right, that is subtly different from a one-round Stay Firm. The difference is that in their game, Public Rationalization, the best outcome for player 2 is if player 1 plays left ("stays firm"). I'm not sure yet whether this makes any substantive difference to analysis of the game.
 * Strangely, the authors state that there are two Nash equilibria, (L) and (R,U), which sounds as if they're saying both (L,D) and (L,U) are Nash; but in (L,U), player 1 receives a better payoff by switching to R. (L,U) is the missed opportunity outcome that makes me interested in Stay Firm, and it's "clearly" a self-confirming equilibrium that is not Nash, in either Public Rationalization or Stay Firm. The authors don't mention that; rather, their interest is in the mixed strategy profile ((1/2L,1/2R),U), which is a self-confirming equilibrium "whose outcome is a convex combination of the Nash outcomes." It looks like I'll have to find out what "convex" means in this context :-)
 * Co-author David K. Levine's book, The Theory of Learning in Games, gives the game in a figure with the caption, "Public randomization in a Selten game." (fig. 6.4, p.189)

Strategy profiles
I find it useful to divide the strategy profiles of this game into the following categories:

 * Happy ending profiles are those in which both players give in (payoff: +10/+10).
 * Tragic ending profiles are those in which one player gives in, but the other stays firm (payoff: -5/+5).
 * Missed opportunity profiles are those in which neither player actually does give in, but at least one player would have given in if the other had given in first (payoff: 0/0).
 * The butt-head profile is the profile in which neither player gives in or would have given in under any circumstances (payoff: 0/0).

Note that each strategy profile of Stay Firm or Give In fits in exactly one of these categories.

I'm particularly interested in the profile where both players would have been willing to give in at every turn, but neither actually does. Call this the canonical missed opportunity profile. I'm interested in this profile because it seems to me that there are many situations in real life that can be modelled in terms of this game in which both players at least claim to act as described by it.

Note that in the canonical missed opportunity profile, both players play the unique Minimax strategy available to them.

Equilibria and rationalizability
It's obvious that the happy ending profiles are Nash equilibria. It's also easy to see that the butt-head profile is a Nash equilibrium as well. The other categories are not Nash equilibria: in both a tragic ending and a missed opportunity profile, only one player would need to change their strategy in order to achieve a payoff of (+10,+10).

The butt-head profile is not subgame perfect: by definition, it implies that if one player gave in, the other player would stay firm and receive a payoff of +5 instead of giving in and receiving a payoff of +10. Therefore, the subgame perfect strategy profiles are all happy endings. (It's easy to construct a happy ending profile that isn't subgame perfect, but it's also easy to construct one that is.)

Neither tragic ending nor missed opportunity profiles are even rationalizable. In a tragic ending, one player plays a strictly dominated strategy. In a missed opportunity, for both players' strategies to be rational, each has to assume that the other one would play a strictly dominated strategy. Thus, the rationalizable strategy profiles are exactly the Nash equilibria.

In summary:

Beyond rationalizability
The interesting point is now that the canonical missed opportunity profile, which seems like it may be played regularly in real life, does not even belong to the class of rationalizable profiles, which seems to be the widest solution concept (class of strategy profiles) ordinarily studied in game theory.

Rationalizability can be informally described as the assumption that all players are rational, and that this rationality is common knowledge (player A knows that player B is rational, player B knows that player A knows that player B is rational, and so on). As mentioned above, though, in the canonical missed opportunity profile, both players play the unique Minimax strategy available to them, that is, player A's strategy is the best response under the assumption that player B will (irrationally) be trying to maximize player A's loss, rather than maximize player B's win (and vice versa).

More precisely, each player's strategy is a best response in every subgame, not only in the game as a whole. This distinguishes the strategy from the "never give in" strategy, which is a best response in the overall game, but it is strictly dominated in the subgames where the other player has given in first. We can therefore characterize the canonical missed opportunity profile, along with some happy ending profiles, by the property that no player plays a strictly dominated strategy in any subgame.

To do
We could describe the real-world situations alluded to in terms of a Bayesian game in which each player can be of a type for which hurting the other player would have a highest possible payoff. Analyze this description in terms of game theory; think informally about whether it seems to describe the real-world situation better or not.

To maybe do
Informally, it seems like playing the Minimax strategy might be the best thing to do if you have no information at all about what strategy the other player might follow. Can this be formalized? Is the formalized version true?

title: User:Benja/Stay Firm or Give In


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User talk:Tum twish

Hello Tum twish, seems you were interrupted when editing ? See you around soon. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:02, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Tum twish, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:02, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tum twish


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User talk:Jacky lau

Hello Jacky, welcome around here. I hope you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:04, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Jacky lau, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:04, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jacky lau


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User talk:HortMan

Hello, welcome to Wikiversity and the Bloom Clock Project. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:16, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello HortMan, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:16, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

BCP/Ulmus parvifolia?
Hi HortMan! I'm pretty sure what you saw on U. parvifolia were the fruits, not the flowers. The flowers appear before the leaves emerge in springtime (it's autumn there, I assume). :).

There has been some talk lately about making a fruit/seed clock as a companion project... should be easy enough to start up: we hadn't really got talking about it until this (Northern) winter, and there's not a lot in the way of fruit yet north of the equator. --SB_Johnny | talk 13:04, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome to the Bloom Clock!
Hello,, and thanks for signing up as a contributor to the Bloom Clock!

To get started, all that you need to do is keep your eyes open for flowers on plants growing outdoors. Then, depending on how well you know plants, you can either try to find the plant using the global keys, or just check the master list where plants are listed by their scientific names.

Assuming you find a log page for the plant you saw, all that you need to do is click [edit] above the list of signatures, and add *~ on a new line below the last signature and above the line that begins with, which will make your signature appear on the profile page.

If you don't find a log page, just add an entry for the plant to the Master List using. Someone can then show you how to create a profile and log page for the plant.

If you don't know the name of the plant you saw, try asking on Bloom Clock/Unknown Plants using the template there. Photographs are very helpful, but if you don't have a digital camera, just give the best description you can and hopefully someone can identify it for you.

After you've logged 10 or more plants as flowering for your location, another bloom clock contributor will help you set up the categories and templates used to construct a key for your region, and try to match up your region to the global keys.

If you have any questions, ideas, or need something explained, please feel free to leave a message on my talk page, and I'll get back to you as soon as I can!--SB_Johnny | talk 13:04, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

More bloom clock stuff :)
Hi HortMan. I did a few corrections on the new pages you made... not at all your fault, but I just finished a basic instruction manual at Bloom Clock/Editing BCP Pages. I switched anwers to those used by the templates on all of them, and moved "Fuchsia sp." to "Fuchsia" (it's probably better with the "sp." or "spp.", but all the other generic profiles just use a genus name, and there would be some issues with italics as well).

You're also well above the "qualifying 10" plants, so I want to set up regional keys and categories for you. I'll create the basics later, using "New Region 2" for now (the bot will change that later). This does mean you should be adding one or more templates to the BCP page in the middle template: bcp/victa/gp for cultivated plants, bcp/victa/np for native plants, and bcp/victa/ip for invasive plants (use 2 or more of those when appropriate, these should be at the beginning of the line before the monthly templates). The monthly template for April will be bcpm/victa/4 (may will be bcpm/victa/5, etc.). I'll set them up later today (no instructions for making them yet, I'm afraid).

Thanks for all the contributions! I look forward to comparing the data and matching a season :). --SB_Johnny | talk 14:51, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Heh, yeah, I'm not exactly a hacker either... I know just enough to be able to make the stuff work, but I'm not so good at explaining it :). For an example of what I mean about using the templates: see this edit. What it does is add both categories and links for your region, and eventually (hopefully) we can figure out how your region corresponds to other regions (e.g., we now know that Sedum spectabile blooms in April where you are, and in September/October where I am :).

 * As for cleaning up the identification archives: I did a bit of that a few months ago, but got too busy with other things. I do plan on somehow moving plants that are still unidentified after a month or two to subpages, but probably won't have time until June or July (busy with spring planting here). Maintenance help is definitely needed on the global keys though... I'll try to come up with instructions on how to do that. --SB_Johnny | talk 09:34, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Oh by the way: please don't use those templates on plants seen indoors! That would make it pretty much impossible to compare data from region to region, since the closk is for seasonal things, not glasshouse-related things. There's nothing wrong with making profiles for those plants, but you might want to sign using an alternate account, so no-one gets confused down the line. --SB_Johnny | talk 09:37, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

BCP/Rhododendron subsp. vireya
Hi Hortman,

Was this in a greenhouse? (Bloom clock plants should only be logged when they're outside) :). --SB_Johnny | talk 08:38, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Keys in progress
Hiya HortMan,

I set the templates and did the basic structure for the Victoria keys. I think I got all the ones you logged for April (some pages were created but no actual logs), the ones I did get are here. If I missed any, you can just add bcpm/victa/4 to the "Victoria, Australia =" field on the middle template.

As you log plants this month (May), add bcpm/victa/5 to the same part of the template. This will both add the categories and make a link to the keys (listed here... I haven't set the DPL for them yet but will try to get to it later today). --SB_Johnny | talk 11:55, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

New Template Version
You might have noticed that new profiles created using bcp3 now have a number of changes in the bottom template (changed on Monday, then I haven't had much time since then to get a note out). The main changes involve the fields which previously required the use of additional templates (such as bcp/white for white flowering plants). These "embedded" templates have caused a great deal of confusion among some of the new contributors.

On the new template, each of the colors has it's own field. To mark a plant as possible blooming in that color, simply put a "y" or "yes" after the equal sign (similarly for marking plants as herbaceous, etc.). Similarly for all the new fields

For the moment, "forb" should be used for any plant that has no woody parts above ground and is not a vine (e.g., BCP/Hemerocallis has a "y" for both "herbaceous =" and "forb =", while BCP/Ipomoea hederacea has a "y" for both "herbaceous = " and "vine = "). Note that annuals, grasses, sedges, etc. should also be classified as forbs or the time being.

Mike's bot will come through and update the older pages hopefully sometime in the next few days. The old fields will still work for now... several categories will allow us to keep track of which profiles use the older versions (I couldn't figure out an easy way to get the bot to redo the data, so we'll have to do that manually).

Note that the log pages are a bit different now as well, using an (updatable) template instead of text, and using headers differently to allow grouping by year. These can easily be updated by adding to the top of the page, then deleting the old text and moving the logs.--SB_Johnny | talk 09:40, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:HortMan


text:
User talk:Navyamy

Hello Amy, welcome around here. I hope you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:17, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Navyamy, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 16:17, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Navyamy


text:
User:Attish

My name is Attila Nagy. I am a medical student and a computer enthusiast. I am planning to work in the area of using knowledge-based systems to store and retrieve medical knowledge.

At Wikiversity, I want to participate in whatever medical learning projects come my way, and also in some computer science projects. Recently, I've studied the userspace internals of Linux distributions; if I get the time, I can share what I've learnt (just tell me if you are interested). I am also interested in knowledge representation technologies like OWL ontologies.

I am on the look for people who are interested in similar things, after all, this a place to learn together.

title: User:Attish


text:
User talk:Attish

ping
Hello, welcome around here. I hope you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 17:24, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Attish, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 17:24, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Attish


text:
User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations/2008 April

You are invited to add your comments (e.g. but my perception of this issue is different) - please sign anything you add (howto Signature).

todo

 * read blog + assignment
 * visit each other blogs and comment the posts in there:
 * done also at least at begin of class
 * User:Erkan_Yilmaz/observations
 * User:Erkan_Yilmaz/observations
 * User:Erkan_Yilmaz/observations
 * todo: visit some more

 * general feedback about the course itself: Composing free and open online educational resources/Critique and feedback
 * todo: read again my posts from the past weeks to find some more input for above

2008 April 28 - How important is a page ? (previously titled: what is a page ?)
At the moment I am thinking mostly that it is... ... just a page, it is mostly static, not live. If you have the opportunity: go for the live thing. Same goes here: after writing/reviewing, this forms already other ideas which are not even included in it. So, and now try to stop the new ideas from being developed :-)
 * "...let's say carelessly this is WV (though it consists of many individuals - note: I don't say pages)..." Talk:Vandal Fighting, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 21:36, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

todo

 * read assignment + blog

thoughts - in progress

 * I have finally created an intro tutorial for German Wikiversity:
 * [[Image:Short intro video for German Wikiversity.ogv|thumb|left|320px|video: short intro about German Wikiversity (4:52 mins, resolution: 1136x752, size: 16.6 MB)]]

 * Before I encountered following probs:
 * I have created a 475 MB avi which goes about 5 mins. Since commons allows only a specific video format (see commons:Help:Converting video) I had to find a converter. And here the problem begins: either the tools:
 * brought during conversion an error or created color problems:
 * [[Image:German Wikiversity - short intro video.ogg|thumb|left|320px|video with color problems]]

 * So, I uploaded the latter one and will try to solve this color problem. If this doesn't help I will convert it a reduced avi and upload it on a non-Wikimedia-project as listed in the assignment (which I don't prefer actually).

 * In September 2007 I created videos for the Wikiversity screen saver - see commons:Category:Wikiversity videos
 * In Nov. 2006 I created a "video"-tutorial (with not so good sound quality) for a Wikiversity course with the tool Wink (tutorial software). Since it is interactive swf it is bad to convert in a format which commons accepts easily (again the prob that only a certain video format is accepted by commons), so I just quote in next chapter.
 * I wonder why I didn't use/create since then more videos (though they are a good medium to transmit info) ?
 * time resources: perhaps too much effort to create them ?
 * the restrictions by commons ?
 * less interested persons in it ?

 * more videos in Wikiversity you can find here: Category:Video media and in commons:Category:Video

video tutorial
about: graphic display of algorithms in source code video tutorial: in German, still under review (requires: Shockwave-Player).

SNIP

 * In the following tutorial you will see, how the appropriate graph to a source code looks like.
 * In detail: With the tool jGRASP there is created for the Java source code MergeSort.java from the Wikiversity course algorithms and data structures (Algorithmen und Datenstrukturen) the CSD (Control Structure Diagram).

 * Reason of this tutorial: To show you, how fast such a graph can be created. It should show you that there is nothing complicated behind this - with a tool this is done automatically and easy.
 * Here you can see the Shockwave-Tutorial <- German version (I will create an English version soon) and still under review (condition: Shockwave-Player).

SNIP

todo

 * read assignment + blog

thoughts - in progress

 * Adding the picture on the right: while listening to music now (which changes my mood): I think before sharing audio one needs to have the ability to do so - there are many people who can not speak.
 * Instead of uploading one podcast, I have done following: I have converted one of my pages to wiki syntax, see User:Erkan Yilmaz/translations with sound files and the available 123 sound files will be uploaded to commons so more wikis can use them
 * first sound files uploaded under licence: Cc-by-nc-sa-2.0-dual, e.g.
 * Ich weiß, dass ich nichts weiß (German) - I know that I do not know (anything)
 * Lernen ist herausfinden, was du bereits weißt (German) - Learning is finding out what you already know.
 * Unter den Blinden ist der Einäugige König (German) - In the land of the blind people, who has an eye is the king
 * Tanıştığımıza sevindim (Turkish) - Nice to meet you
 * Enchantée (French) - Nice to meet you
 * Well, what was a little hindering is: I have to convert the mp3s first to ogg to upload on commons :-( After finding 2 nice freeware tools, also this was solved quick. Now I just have to upload the files to commons and edit the page here with the file names.

 * Tell others also about Wikiversity's Wiki Campus Radio

todo

 * read assignment + blog

thoughts - in progress

 * While reading the assignment I checked how much pictures I have uploaded so far on commons - it is 107 (either self created or from other wikimedia projects brought to commons). Click here to see how often a bot told me to fix something. Here you can also see some pictures still being at Wikiversity. I must use one time the Move-to-commons assistant to move them to commons.

 * Well I don't have a digital cam, so let's see how this will be.
 * >Maybe you can improve the photo
 * Well I remember having done an improvement in the past for this photo: commons:Image:Alliances in the Pelopennesian War, 431 B.C. 1.JPG. More info here.
 * Besides this I have lately started to use some more pictures in the posts here to relax more the text
 * Recently here at Wikiversity was a group of more than 100 students taking part in the Design for the Environment. Since new users can only upload pictures here at Wikiversity after 4 days of account registration there was done this edit to help them upload faster pictures to commons.
 * Well I know Flickr too - but somehow I prefer all my pictures to be on one place - which is commons. In case you don't know, commons has also imported pictures from Flickr, see commons:Category:Flickr
 * I dare you to read an old post of mine here regarding commons. :-)
 * on 9th April I was possessed by the "devil" and tagged some pictures regarding licence and informed the uploaders - how dare I ?

feedback
Hi Erkan - may I ask you a bold question? Why isn't there an obligation to tag images with a whatsoever copyright flag when you upload it? Is that on purpose or because it just doesn't work this way in wikis? --- Barbara Braun
 * Of course and btw: that is an interesting question.
 * Well, there are some wikis which oblige for a tag - otherwise you can not upload. One problem with that is, that if the user doesn't know or doesn't read the licence background info, the user would just select one (which might be not appropriate). But that problem of selecting a wrong licence consists also here at Wikiversity - but at least with the possibility to select no licence we can ask the user again to reselect and provide more help.
 * I am not sure exactly why it is like it is - but most wikis I am in are like this - I guess it is a standard option by the Wikimedia foundation ? I can ask someone later in the evening.
 * There was some recent discussion also if users should upload only at commons, see Wikiversity talk:Licensing policy (because since it is software we could disable the upload (partly) here ) Erkan Yilmaz uses the Wikiversity:Chat (try) 06:33, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

2008 April 4 - German Wikibooks + Wikiversity: creating together a flyer
That is a signal to all others: German Wikibooks and Wikiversity love each other and are creating together a flyer. Wanna look ? de.Wikibooks

todo

 * read: + assignment

still in progress

 * try to find (perhaps) answers to these questions:
 * What do you think about the Wikimedia projects?
 * [[Image:Black-Sea-sunrise.jpg|thumb|left|sunrise]]
 * Great idea. I am part of it - you can also be - why don't you try it ?
 * You need most of the times just a sparkling idea.
 * Antoine de Saint-Exupéry:
 * If you want to build a ship, don't drum up the men to gather wood, divide the work and give orders.
 * Instead, teach them to yearn for the vast and endless sea.

 * What do you think will be the future of the Wikimedia projects?
 * They will certainly extend and produce many new projects, as long as people don't forget that it is about the P (P stands for people and not - pages or process - see examples below)
 * How do you see the future of OERs when you think about the Wikimedia projects?
 * Let's hope they will grow the same way. Though they certainly will introduce some tools to check for quality, see e.g. Wikipedia:Flagged revisions. I hope we can influence people's minds to reserve some of their time to this idea.

thoughts

 * While reading Anica's post I remembered the comparison between German Wikipedia and another German online encyclopedia. See for result and other info here: Reliability_of_Wikipedia#Assessment
 * while reading How and Why Wikipedia Works: An Interview with Angela Beesley, Elisabeth Bauer, and Kizu Naoko

 * 1. So, the article is from about 2 years ago. People should keep in mind that some things might have been changed/old

 * 2. a story about addiction and the word "their":
 * I brainwashed finally a friend of mine who uses de.Wikipedia just for consuming. So that he also contributes to it. He made an edit at de.WP about topic xyz (he studied that) - as IP. And another seasoned editor removed it. So what happened next ?
 * A few days later the friend told me: "Hey, my edit got reverted. But I don't understand why. It was correct." Thank God there is a version history in Wikimedia projects and I could find his edit. The summary comment was not satisfying for my friend. I told him then that he can write on the talk page and to the editor in what aspect the information which was reverted was correct.

 * Guess what ? My friend still did not do it. Think about why this is.
 * Some editors forget that you need for the goal to succeed the P (and P stands for people and not pages).

 * 3. About deletion of pages:
 * people forget or don't know that every edit can be restored again form the database. And if you want this edit/page can be brought to Wikiversity, see Wikimedia Garbage Detail

 * 4. admins / custodians / sysops / janitors / gardeners / ...
 * Is being admin a "big deal" or "not a big deal" ?
 * What does the admin and the non-admin think about that (over time) ?
 * btw: WV uses the term custodian and is more relaxed than some other projects, see Custodianship about WV's approach. Here also counts: it is about the P (and P stands for people and not process).

 * 5. My answer to "What's the best way for a researcher to get started?"
 * Just do it, EXPLORE ! You will learn easily the wiki syntax and be bold !

 * 6. 'anyone can edit' model:
 * Great thing, keep it simple please. A bad edit can be reverted later on, but to get someone to share her knowledge is not so easy as it seems


text:
Klingon/Vocabulary

This section lists the Klingon words used in the lessons. It is not meant to be a complete dictionary, these are available elsewhere.

b
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

D
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

gh
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

H
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

j
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

l
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

m
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

p
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

q
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

Q
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

t
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

tlh
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

y
Section: b ch D gh H j l m n ng p q Q r S t tlh v w y '

title: Klingon/Vocabulary


text:
Klingon/lesson2/vocabulary

 Return to Lesson 2

Translate these words into English The answers are case insensitive. { ba' { sit (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ be'Hom { girl (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ Hol { language (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ loD { man (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ Qam { stand (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ tlhIngan { Klingon (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ mara { Mara (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ mogh { Mogh (i) }
 * type="{}"}

{ torgh { Torg (i) }
 * type="{}"}

Translate these words into Klingon The answers must be in the correct case for Klingon (lowercase a, uppercase D, etc). { woman { be' }
 * type="{}"}

{ federation { DIvI' }
 * type="{}"}

{ say { jatlh }
 * type="{}"}

{ boy { loDHom }
 * type="{}"}

{ success { Qapla' }
 * type="{}"}

{ walk { yIt }
 * type="{}"}

 Return to Lesson 2

title: Klingon/lesson2/vocabulary


text:
Bible/King James/Documentary Hypothesis

[[File:Modern document hypothesis.svg|thumb|240px|Diagram of one version of the Documentary Hypothesis.

The documentary hypothesis hypothesizes four primary sources (traditionally known as J, E, P, and D) for the Torah. These translations are based on the King James version of the Bible. This learning resource employs the latest iteration of the Documentary Hypothesis, known as the New Documentary Hypothesis. The New Documentary Hypothesis considers the four main sources to have been independent at the moment of redaction into the Torah, with a number of insertions into the redacted document by later scribes.

The resource provides two ways to view the sources. The first method highlights the various sources as one reads through the Torah. The second method extracts each source's content from the Torah, and compiles it into a single, flowing document.

The text with sources highlighted

 * Genesis
 * Exodus
 * Leviticus
 * Numbers
 * Deuteronomy

The Sources

 * Jahwist source ("J")
 * The Song of Lamech
 * The Blessing of Jacob
 * The Song of the Sea
 * Elohist source ("E")
 * The Covenant Code

 * Priestly source ("P")
 * The narrative elements of P
 * The legal elements in "P"
 * The Levitical laws
 * The Holiness code ("H")
 * The list of sexual prohibitions
 * The list of clean and unclean animals
 * Ritual elements in "P"
 * The guides to ritual
 * The description of the tabernacle, incense, and vestments
 * The list of duties of the Levite families
 * Tallies in "P"
 * The list of altar dedication offerings
 * The list of spoils from the midianites
 * Genealogies in "P"
 * The Genealogy of the children of Abraham
 * The genealogy of nations
 * Specifications of the components of Israel in "P"
 * The Israelite census
 * The description of the limits of Canaan
 * Deuteronomist source ("D")
 * First Deuteronomists Version ("Dtr1")
 * The Narrative elements in "Dtr1"
 * The Deuteronomic Laws
 * Words for rituals in "Dtr1"
 * The Prayer of the Tithe
 * The Prayer of Firstfruits
 * The List of Mount Ebal curses
 * The Pairs of Curses and Blessings
 * The List of clean and unclean food
 * Additions for the Second Deuteronomist Version ("Dtr2")
 * The Song of Moses
 * The Blessing of Moses
 * Threats and Promises
 * Redaction Sources ("R")
 * Book of generations
 * The stations list
 * Additional Rituals
 * Explanatory Additions
 * Resolution of conflicts between sources
 * Sources by Chapter and Verse

title: Bible/King James/Documentary Hypothesis