text:
Indentities and communities of practice gme

Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of Practice – Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
In their book Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation, Lave and Wenger (1991) describe the concept of Communities of Practice (CoP) as the relations between newcomers and old-timers in a situated activity, defining learning as a process of legitimate peripheral participation. Individuals that want to become members of a community of practice, do so by following trajectories that hopefully will lead them from peripheral to full participation: “participation is always based on situated negotiation and renegotiation of meaning in the world” (1991: 51). Apprenticeship implies a kind of trajectory in the community, based on the relations between newcomers and old-timers in a CoP, thus learning is an evolving form of membership going through a first phase of way in (observation) and then practice (working). Acquiring full participation is also a matter of gaining legitimacy during the learning trajectory: “learning to become a legitimate participant in a community involves learning how to talk (and be silent) in the manner of the full participants […] For newcomers is not to learn from talk as a substitute for legitimate peripheral participation; it is to learn to talk as a key to legitimate peripheral participation”. (1991: 107-109) The aim of Wenger’s book is to offer an overview of the context where situated learning occurs: communities of practice. What is happening inside these communities? Who are the members and how are the different communities of practice, where all individuals belong, affecting the learning trajectory as well as the identities of the members? What is learning, setting the focus on participation? Wenger makes an interesting point when he declares that we are well aware that learning can occur anywhere, but the problem is that we lack “a systematic way to talk about learning as an integrate part of everyday life […] A key implication of our attempts to organize learning is that we must become reflective with regard to our own discourses of learning and to their effects on the ways we design for learning” (1998: 8-9). Taking the assumption that there is no activity that is not situated, Lave and Wenger describe the generality of any form of knowledge as the capability of the learner to re-interpret and re-negotiate the meaning of the past knowledge when creating the meaning of present circumstances (1991: 36). In order to make sense of the world, human beings need to choose what to focus on and what to leave in the background according to the context of the practice. Wenger’s perspective on learning as socially embedded with focus on social participation implies that the context in which people are engaging in different activities becomes also very important. Learning to become a full participant in a CoI means that no assumption on what is ‘good knowledge’ can be done. It is a complex process that individuals are engaging in and that needs to take into account both theories of social structures as well as situated experiences, both theories of practice and identity.

Negotiation of meaning and reification
Two important processes in the CoI framework are negotiation of meaning and reification. Meaning is not seen as just the relation between sign and reference but it is embedded in the practice as experience of everyday life. The negotiation of meaning is the location of the process of meaning through participation and reification (1998: 52). Wenger introduces here the concept of engagement: “human engagement is first and foremost a process of negotiation of meaning” (1998: 53), a process that is historical and dynamic, contextual and unique: “Meaning exists neither in us nor in the world, but in the dynamic relation of living in the world” (1998: 54). So even if negotiation of meaning can be seen as the process in which we re-use our experience, producing again a new situation according to the context, we may recognize the context, but yet it is not the same because we produce meanings that reinterpret their history in which they are a part (1998: 52-53). The term participation implies both a sense of taking part in the CoI, but also “the social experience of living in the world in terms of membership in social communities and active involvement in social enterprises. Participation in this sense is both personal and social” (1998: 55-56) and it shapes the experience of meaning, becoming a source of identity. Participation is a social experience not because several people are interacting at the same time, but because social participation gives meaning to our life. Even when we are sitting in our room, we always have to relate to others, to the communities we belong to. Reification means literally “making into a thing” (1998: 58) and defines the process of making a procedure, a tool, where a certain understanding is given form. We need tools and artifacts to perform our activities: to analyze the empirical material in our research we need abstractions that can be applied in the data, in order to understand and make sense of what is happening and this tools are created through the process of reification: “Any community of practice produces abstractions, tools, symbols, stories, terms and concepts that reifies something of that practice in a congealed form” (1998: 59) so that it can be re-utilized. The process and products of reification exist in the human condition of negotiation of meaning. It is in the strive to make sense of the world that human beings appropriate reification in their practice: a tool is such when we create and use it: “[…] the products of reification are not simply concrete, material objects. Rather, they are reflections of these practices, tokens of vast expanses of human meanings” (1998: 61). Bliss and Säljo refer to the symbiotic nature of interaction between individuals, tools and artifacts and social practices: “we shall be striving to develop a new theoretical framework which can account for, and thus attempt to explain, the nature of this interactions in order to better understand the role of context and situation in thinking, learning and reasoning” (1999: 10). Wenger argues that intrinsic and universal products of reification cannot exist since participation is a social process and therefore related to the context of the activity. This leads us forward to the concept of learning in the CoI and the processes of remembering and forgetting. By trajectories of learning, newcomers in a practice become full participant by sharing histories of learning and through reification: “we can forget events, but the marks they leave in the world can bring them back to us” (1998: 88). Remembering does not mean to indulge in the past, but rather to reinterpret the world, with the help of new experiences that bring new meanings, adapting the form of reification according to the practice and the context. I see a connection to the ecological theory of affordances, term coined by James Gibson, where the environment: “[…] is the material world as perceived and apprehended as something” (Linell, 2009: 25), rather that something that is. Human beings need to make sense of the world in order to exist in it (se also Wenger, 2003: 228, 289). Words are a typical form of reification and language as speech acts is an example of processes that imply both reification and participation. It is interesting that Wenger here refers to speech occurring in face to face interaction as “extremely evanescent” (1998: 62). In some kind of Computer Mediated Communication, such as text chat, the participation and reification in the negotiation of meaning occurs in manners that do not allow this evanescence: words that have been typed and sent in text chat stay in front of the participant, lingering for quite a while, allowing the processes of participation and negotiation of meaning to follow slightly different patterns. Haythornwaite and Kazmer illustrate the communication without a body in text-chat, where words are very important, as: “Communication in a chat-room has more heart and a lot less thoughts” (2004: 152). This means that there is a need for a higher awareness of what we are saying and competence about how that could influence the other participants in a positive or negative way. Wenger continues with his description of the CoI framework by defining what characterizes the Community (1998: 73): In other words, the members of the community need to engage in negotiation of meaning: they are not just members in a group or team. They are part of a practice as a source of coherence. Practice defines the level of mutual engagement and membership and does not depend on the geographical proximity of its members. In order to engage in meaningful activities, the members of the CoP need to share a repertoire i.e. to understand each other in both reificative and participative terms: the set of rules, norms, routines, actions, ways of doing things are all examples of repertoire (1998: 83). It is difficult to define where a CoP starts and where it ends: there are not clear boundaries, but the learning trajectory form peripheral to full participation implies forms of boundaries based on joint learning and negotiation of meaning and leading us back to the notions of: (1998: 101) mentioned at the beginning of the log.
 * 1) Mutual engagement (membership)
 * 2) A joint enterprise
 * 3) A shared repertoire
 * Peripheality
 * Legitimacy

Learning defines localities
It is possible to define a geography of practice where: “relations of proximity and distance may facilitate or hinder learning” (1998: 130). Practice has a location in time and space because it exists in specific communities with members that engage in mutual engagement. It is learning that configures the localities, not the other way around, thus shaping the geography of practice. This could be a way of addressing the issue about the definition of situated learning in context of online education where rapidly changing situations may affect the feeling of belonging to the community. “The complex interaction between the local and the global” where engagement does not mean participation and vice versa is a way of dealing with the problem. Wenger continues arguing that: “One kind of complexity replaces another, one kind of limitation is overcome at the cost of introducing another” (1998: 132). I consider the issue of locality for communities of practice a very interesting aspect as far as the level of analysis covered by the CoP is concerned: neither a specific interaction, nor a whole nation, culture nor city can be viewed as a CoP. The former would be given too importance overlooking broader communities in time and among people. The latter would miss “crucial discontinuities among the various localities where relevant learning takes place” (1998: 125). But how can a CoP be defined? Not by its members, according to Wenger, who offers instead a list of characteristics that indicate the existence of a CoP such as “shared ways of engaging in doing things together; mutually defining identities; local lore, shared stories, inside jokes, knowing laughter; a shared discourse reflecting a certain perspective on the world” etc. (1998: 125-126). The fact that CoP cannot be reified implies that it is difficult to seize their form, their real shape. And indeed CoP “are about content – about learning as a living experience of negotiating meaning – not about form” (1998: 229). The theoretical framework provided by the CoP can be a valuable tool to analyze the negotiation of meaning in a learner community and the dynamics occurring when moving from peripheral to full participation. Nevertheless I argue that using the CoP as a tool to design for learning in school settings can turn out to be a less successful matter. Considering a group of learner in school arenas as a CoI a priori, means to reify it, to create it artificially at the table, getting as alienating as some school syllabi has become for the teachers as well as the students, depicting a form that does not really exist.

Hornberger, N. H. (ed.) 2003. Continua of Biliteracy. An ecological framework for educational policy, research and practice in multilingual settings. Clevedon: Multilingual matters
The aim of the book is to describe a framework for understanding biliteracy and provides the reader with a series of empirical studies dealing with bilingual education and bilingualism that uses the continua of biliteracy framework. But what does the term biliteracy mean? It is the result of the connection between literacy and bilingualism, to be literate in two languages. This means that notions of native-speakerness, second and foreign language acquisition as well as notions of power and empowerment are addressed in this book whose purpose is also to grant the children with a less powerful L1 and struggling with L2 learning a voice (see also reading log on Rickard Jonsson) and agency to actors and practices that “have traditionally been the less powerful and of the continua” (2003: 38). The fact that the actors in the empirical studies presented in the review are often children who are becoming bilingual is very tangible and makes it difficult to engage in the study of this work without becoming emotionally involved. This book has also a clear political agenda addressing language policies and educational reforms in USA and South America. The notion of continuum offered in the continua of biliteracy framework is to be considered in terms of: The continua develop in both directions along three axes as they were defining the sides of a cube. If we take the context of biliteracy as an example, we can see that the continua in it develop attending to the following aspects: The important aspect that characterized the concept of continuum for an understanding of biliteracy is that the different features, or dichotomies, represent the extremes of each continuum but it is possible to discern infinite points between the two and “it is equally elucidating to focus on the common features and on the distinguishing features along any continuum” (2003: 5). The main point made by the authors, as I see it, is to question the view of language learning and acquisition in bilingual settings as following a pre-defined path with a certain language of instruction (L1 or L2) or preferring to start with oral proficiency to move on to writing and so on as if these skills were lying in separate segment of our brain (it is rather striking that at the end of the 1990s there are still language teacher engaging in this methods, as much as it is terrible to read about a teacher saying to a pupil who has not spoken Spanish since the age of four “I don’t know why you forgot it” considering her a native speaker of Spanish in the Spanish class (2003: 153)). The concept of continuum opens up for an understanding of bilingualism and biliteracy in all their complexity. The nested systems of continua in context, development and media show that the possibility of intersection in the infinite points along the continuum are to be considered not as a point in itself, but in connection with the other continua. This means that it is no longer an option to consider language learning as a system that dictates its own rules. It is the learning situation, the context of language use the deciding factor (2003: 18). I found especially interesting the issues about language transfer and interference (also this is a vestige from cognitivism and language learning) addressed in the review (2003: 19). Interlanguage and transfer as well as errors in L2 are not enemies to be eliminated but rather they are evidence of learning, the clues to the process of language acquisition (see also the notion of bilingual lexical interillumination in St John (2010)).
 * Context of biliteracy
 * Development of individual biliteracy (about individuals communicative repertoire and language transfer, addressing issues of L1 and L2 acquisition)
 * Media of biliteracy (about how individuals become bilingual)
 * Micro –- ---macro
 * Oral literate
 * Monolingual -bilingual

Power relations in the continua model
It is also important to return to issues about power and agency, mentioned at the beginning of the log: “Agency and voice are […] central to empowerment”, since an agent stops accepting the status quo in society and start exercising some sort of power (2003: 40-41). The status quo in educational policy and practice is, according to the authors “an implicit privileging of one end of the continua over the other such that one end of each continuum is associated with more power than the other” (2003: 38). For example, the oral feature is considered traditionally less powerful that written, oral less powerful than literate and so on. In order to disturb this order of things and grant the pupils in bilingual settings an agency and a voice, some of the language teacher presented in the research chose to use their discourse in order to take the distance from the hegemonic formal education practice, gaining control of “oral, bilingual, micro-level interactional context to do so” (2003: 44).

Multiliteracy
To be literate does not end in the capability to read and write: individuals are also literate in the sense that they use and make sense of other communication channels and media such as audio, video, visual or other semiotic systems. The term “multiliteracies” (2003: 49) refers to this multiplicity of competence in human beings. Drawing form the research of the New London Group, the authors illustrates what a pedagogy of multiliteracies is about: “it is designing in the sense of making/taking meaning form available designs to create new transformed designs […]. Available designs includes grammar […] and orders of discourse, and we redesign these in the same way we make/take meaning from text/discourses to create new texts/discourses” (2003: 49). I interpret this as the effort of teachers and learners to facilitate discourse using the media that they have at hand. It can be a whiteboard, or a paper, gestures, or different communication channels in a virtual environment: if we are able to detect all of some of the possibilities to communicate afforded by the environment, does it mean that we can define ourselves as multiliterate?

Literature (besides Wenger and Hornberger)
Bliss, J., Säljö, R. 1999. The Human-Technological Dialectic. In Bliss, J., Säljö, R. (ed.) Learning Sites: Social and Technological Resources for Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Haythornthwaite, C. Kazmer, M.M. 2004. Learning, Culture and Community in Online Education: Research and Practice. New York: P. Lang Lave, J., & Wenger, E. 1991. Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Linell, P. 2009. ''Rethinking Language, Mind and World Dialogically. Interactional and contextual theories of human sense-making,'' Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing St John, O. 2010. Bilingual lexical interillumination in the foreign language classroom. Language, Culture and Curriculum. Vol. 23, No. 3, November 2010, 199–218

Giulia Messina Dahlberg 22:51, 15 March 2011 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Orienteering/Videos

18 October 2011 - scripts
Had a great talk with Clare Hawthorne, a pro script writer in LA, who happens to be an Australian, and an orienteer.

Right off the bat, Clare made a wonderful suggestion - if we can do it.. to find someone new to orienteering, but already sporty, to play the lead role in front of the camera and take our viewers into this new sport. For an example, Clare pointed to Lonely Planet's 6 Degrees TV program, where they have 2 young presenters taking their young audiences into the not-so-lonely worlds of a tourist: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lptv/

Clare will spend the following two weeks developing 1-2 page scripts for our 20 something short videos, with a first example to us by Thursday.

Ben, as a high(est) priority, we need to get as much nice/beautiful stock footage that we can use, up for Clare to see and incorporate into her scripting. Ben, I'd suggest the people we are asking for footage from, get theirs up on Youtube...

Our first shooting date is Wednesday 2 November, at a local bush orienteering event in the afternoon... we need to confirm our attendance with the organisers, and confirm our crew's ability to be there.. Ben, Rafael?

These notes are on the discussion page of this project's wiki, as will the scripts as they come in.

Regards Leighblackall 02:56, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

22 September 2011
John, Leigh, Ben

 * John to bring video - "Among The Best Orienteers" to next week's meeting
 * John to send updated list of skills, preferably groups into Common Starts finish and skills, Specific play skills.
 * Leigh and Ben to consolidate lists on wiki
 * John, Ben and Leigh to meet 27th Sept, to edit to the final list, with beginner basics as priority, but with an eye on intermediate skills too if possible

20 September 2011
Ben Rattray, Leigh Blackall

Discussed:
 * 1) contract Rafael
 * 2) file footage from OA
 * 3) Dates for upcoming ACT based events
 * 7th Oct - Sprint, Cooma
 * 8th Oct - Bush, Cooma
 * 14-17th Oct - MTB, BEECHWORTH, VIC
 * 26th Oct and Wed's on - Bush, Canberra region
 * 7th Nov and Fri's on - Street, Canberra region
 * 13th Nov - MTB, Kowen
 * need urban sprint

Skills
 * gear recommended
 * navigational tools
 * clothing
 * other

 * etiquette
 * environment
 * waste
 * fences/animals
 * other competitors on course

 * about map
 * contours
 * symbols (urban/MTB/bush)
 * north lines
 * map handling techniques
 * orientation
 * folding
 * MTB set-up
 * thumbing
 * punching
 * start tips
 * control flow
 * using control descriptions

 * physical preparation for taking the next step
 * mental strategies
 * distractions
 * focus

15 March 2011
Ben Rattray, Leigh Blackall, John Harding and Bill Jones (Orienteering Australia) met to discuss the project aims and devise steps forward.

Points covered in the meeting:

1. ASC and OA objectives 2. UoC objectives as a research project 3. Target audiences: 4. Scripts (will vary in content between disciplines) 5. OA reference group: OA liaison officer John Harding, Peta Whitford, Liz Bourne, Tony Simpkins 6. Schedule: defining objectives, target audiences, finalising scripts, production, review and finalisation
 * non-orienteers surfing the web and seeing what is involved in orienteering before trying it out
 * non-orienteers seeking what is involved before doing their first event
 * beginners who have started and want to learn more
 * adventure racers, rogainers, scouts who have some navigation experience
 * family member participants who want to try doing courses on their own
 * regular orienteers in one discipline (eg. street & park orienteering) looking for information on doing other disciplines (eg. sprint, bush or MTBO)
 * coaches teaching beginners
 * teachers in schools
 * outdoor ed teachers, personal trainers etc
 * corporate bodies looking for activities for work bonding sessions etc
 * this type of orienteering events is held in this kind of venue & participants navigate their way around the orienteering course using a map and compass on this type of map
 * orienteering a sport for all ages and fitness levels
 * can walk, don't have to run; can go in a group or as an individual
 * different types of courses: very easy to hard. It is recommended that beginners should start off with very easy or easy navigation courses.
 * what gear and equipment do you need for this type of orienteering
 * the orienteering map: contours, colours (white for forest, yellow for cleared land, green for thick vegetation, blue for water features, black for tracks, roads, boulders, cliffs etc)
 * what do very easy, easy and moderate navigation courses look like
 * what do you do at the start: SI stick, control card, fold and orientate the map
 * how do you navigate: thumbing the map, following line features, following a compass bearing, looking for big features along the way, slowing down approaching and exiting controls
 * on finishing orienteers love talking about which routes they took and learning from each other on how to improve
 * club, state association and the Orienteering Australia websites have more information
 * Leigh to draft a scope document for OA reference group to review before Easter. To include:
 * Scope, timeline and budget
 * Treatment and Research outline
 * Script development outline
 * Production outline
 * Publishing outline
 * Research completion outline

7. Contract-MOU: ASC and UoC requirements
 * Ben to look into this.

8. Intellectual property and copyright
 * All agreed that the Creative Commons Attribution copyright license would be used for all content.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Orienteering/Videos


text:
Game mechanics/Area Enclosure

Area Enclosure is a game mechanic where players surround as much area as they can by placing or moving pieces. Go is the oldest and most famous Area Enclosure game.

Area Enclosure games differ from those using than Area Control / Area Influence because players develop areas on a gridded board as they play, whereas in Area Control / Area Influence the areas are pre-defined with players competing to see who can control the most.

Links to Boardgame geek

 * Area Enclosure

Games using Area Enclosure

 * San Gimignano

title: Game mechanics/Area Enclosure


text:
Game mechanics/Modular Board

Modular Board games use discrete elements, often tiles or cards which can be assembled - often during the course of play - to create differing layouts for each time the game is played.

Links to Boardgame geek

 * Modular Board

Games using Area Enclosure

 * The Settlers of Catan

title: Game mechanics/Modular Board


text:
Game mechanics/Voting

Voting is game mechanic where votes are caste to determine the results of certain situations. Often it is the players who vote, but other techniques can be used, as in Liberté, where players bid for Area influence to determine the vote at the end of the turn.

Links to Boardgame geek

 * Boardgamegeek: Voting

Games using Area Movement

 * Liberté

title: Game mechanics/Voting


text:
User:Sorenhogberg/Wenger

'''Reflections on the text Wenger Etienne (1998), Communities of Practice, Learning, Meaning, and Identity, Cambridge University Press'''

How does it all intersect? Wenger gives us a theoretical perspective upon learning in a very convincing way. To me it all sums up with the help of a few concepts, yet the social theory of learning is very comprehensive.

The short answer could be expressed as: Participation in practices of social communities, a process depending on power and meaning, creates learning, which can be described as a construction of identities and objects. This, i.e. changed identities and the reification of processes into objects, will create new conditions for participation. So there it is! An ever ongoing story! What else is to be said?

Well, what Wenger does is to discuss and elaborate each central concept in many ways but always in relation to the the others, always connecting them in different ways. Reading his work is like entering a building. When coming into a room we start thinking about it and how this room and others are linked to each other. After a while we walk out again just to enter through another door. Each time we start from another angel. Our first thought might be that we are somewhere else but soon after finding the connections between the other rooms we understand that our first notion of seeing something different is not the case. We realize that we are in the same building as before. The process of walking in and out of the building through different doors gives us a deep understanding of the building, i.e. a social theory of learning. If I would choose a room to start this visit in the building I would chose the room of reification. I believe that this is a perspective that often is neglected when trying to understand the complexity of learning. Wenger explains that the use of the concept, the processes of reification include making, designing, representing, naming, encoding, describing, perceiving, interpreting, using, reusing, decoding and recasting. To me that is another way of saying that everything we do, including the words we say ends up in reification. The concepts of participation and reification are so strongly linked together that we tend to forget the part of participation he names reification. In every situation when we participate in a community of practice it all ends up in one or more different ways of reification. It’s like a memory that shapes our experience of the situation. In a very concrete sense the experience can produce some kind of object or artifact that reminds us about the participating process. This could be a decision, a protocol, a new policy or whatever. In a less concrete sense the situation can end up in a memorable story, symbol or another kind of abstraction. The thing is that every reification that a community is able to remember will be part of all new ways of participating.

A parallel to reification is the process of constructing identity. In the room next door, if you are kind to forgive me for my metaphor, where identity is discussed we realize that the construction of an identity is just as, and even more, complex. Since all that goes on within a community leads to some kind of learning when people participate then the construction of identity can be understood as learning. (Only once I disagree with Wenger when he says on page 266 “Much learning takes place without teaching, and indeed much teaching takes place without learning.” I think the last two words should be “intended learning”. To his defense his discussion afterwards gives me the impression that “intended learning” is what he is trying to say.) The creation of an identity is as a result of the theory an ever ongoing process. There is no such thing as a person’s identity that last in time and space. Instead it is more fruitful to look upon identity as negotiated experience. The negotiation is a matter of bringing all the expectations of participating on the table but also the ways of imagining new sets of how to participate. The expected ways of participating is a reflection of the competences needed in a community of practice and the imagined a reflection of experiences from outside the community, which could be described as the result of a local-global interplay. The negotiation that takes place within an individual becomes a process of identifying him or her in relation to what is possible in two different senses; what is allowed and what is seen as wanted or not wanted, the last due to participation or non-participation. In other words it’s a mix of reification of boundary objects captured in different communities of practice. When Wenger talks about identification in terms of belonging to a community of practice this belonging can be everything in between from full participation to non-participation, which also carries a dimension of agency that is a person’s participation can be peripheral or marginalized due to what is wanted.

As previously said identity is a result of a learning process and according to the discussion above learning too must be understood as a matter of negotiation. Wenger claims that processes of identity formation are related to different modes of belonging as engagement, imagination and alignment. Engagement is described as active involvement in mutual processes of negotiating meaning. Imagination is about creating images of the world and seeing connections through time and space by extrapolating from our own experience, which creates possibilities for negotiation. Alignment concerns coordination our energy and activities in order to fit within broader structures and contribute to broader enterprises. This coordination can be understood as a question of negotiation to what extent we choose to fit in.

Negotiation, just as learning is an act about meaning. To belong and how to belong to a community of practice has to do with questions about how to relate to the world. Imagining answers, negotiating them in relation to answers from elsewhere, reifications from the past, in a mutual engaging process can be understood as an endeavor of searching for meaning and being part of a community. Every individual that participate in such a process has to take into account reifications, whether he or she wants it or not. Reifications are in itself more than objects that has to be dealt with, reifications are actually restrictions of what is possible to negotiate. Living in a community of practice is the same as being in a certain context where the world is understood in a unique way. Acting in this context will be valued in relation to relevant competences in the community of practice, all set by earlier participation which has led the community to its reifications. Within the context of the community the reifications might become invisible because it’s the reifications that set the context. This is why I think a clever door to open when visiting the building of “A social theory of learning” is the door to the room of reification.

At last, is there a possibility that the reifications from the work of Wenger, when studying organizations, only are appropriate to such organizations? Maybe Wenger makes a mistake when trying to export his reifications, what he has learnt, the theory of learning, to such an unique institution as education? Learning at schools takes place simultaneously in different levels. The process of participating and reification is something that continuously goes on and at the same time the joint enterprise of the community. This unique community might need a slightly different theory grown with the help of reifications from within, why not negotiated in relation to global influences such as Wenger’s social theory of learning.

title: User:Sorenhogberg/Wenger


text:
User:Sorenhogberg/Hornberger

Reflections on Hornberger, Nancy (2003) Bilingual Education

The nine different continua on biliteracy presented by Nancy H. Hornberger give us a rich understanding of the complexity involved when trying to figure out good ways to stimulate individuals to learn a first, second, third etc. language. But from the work presented we get to know that there aren’t hardly any definite answers to capture. Children, adolescences and adults learn languages successfully in such different circumstances that trying to find the best of ways becomes an inappropriate aim. Nevertheless by trying to understand the complexity with the help of the nine different continua, complemented by an additional three, Hornberger and Ellen Skilton-Sylvester in a convincing way presents a way of using them as analytical instruments to scrutinize educational research, policies as well as teaching activities from a critical perspective. The point of departure can be described as critical pedagogy, critical realism, critical literacy, critical discourse analysis, and related fields. By understanding each end of every continuum as being either traditionally less powerful or traditionally more powerful, the notion of power makes it possible to interpret when and to whom agency and voice are given in a bilingual context. Four aspects of biliteracy; context, development, content and media are described with the help of three continua for each one of them. Through the construction of four different three-dimensional figures we are able to evaluate four aspects of biliteracy, each in a complex indiscrete way. This way of approaching reality reminds us of intersectionality or at least a multi-perspective way of biliteracy.

The critical perspective gives analysis on biliteracy a mission to strengthen:

1. micro, oral and bilingual contexts when macro, literate and monolingual are dominating,

2. the development of reception, oral and first language when production, written and second language are dominating,

3. minority, vernacular and contextualized content when majority, literary and decontextualized content are dominating and

4. media of simultaneous exposure, dissimilar structures and divergent scripts when successive exposure, similar structures and convergent scripts are dominating in media.

The comprehensive work of creating an instrument for analyzing bilingual consequences in society is of great importance if we with a critical perspective as a point of departure want to strengthen the voices for those that due to their spoken language/s become marginalized. It’s a question of giving people possibility to participate in communities of practice, to strengthen agency. Agency and voice are central to empowerment!

The critical perspective gets its meaning from the knowledge created out of analysis of bilingualism. When for instance teachers in schools plan their daily activities it’s essential to understand that the notion of intelligence always is related to the possibilities of understanding the discourse, the possibilities of accepting the conditions of the discourse and the possibilities to change these conditions.

title: User:Sorenhogberg/Hornberger


text:
File:Solar I-U&power.pdf

Licensing
for school project

title: File:Solar I-U&power.pdf


text:
User:Inhol24/Hornberger (2003)

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Hornberger, Nancy ed. (2003): Continua of Biliteracy. An Ecological Framework for Educational Policy, Research, and Practice in Multilingual Settings, Multilingual Matters LTD
I denna läslogg ingår kapitlen 1, 3, 5 och 6, vilka är skrivna av olika författare.

Part 1: Continua of Biliteracy
Till att börja med vill jag diskutera lite kring termen “Continua of Biliteracy”. Det är inte lätt att översätta denna term till något förståeligt på svenska, då inget av begreppen har någon direkt motsvarighet i svenska språket. Om man slår upp ”continua” i olika ordböcker får man inte många träffar, men i Norstedts ordbok kan man läsa att det är en pluralform av ”continuum”. Detta begrepp skulle enklast kunna översättas till ”kontinuum” på svenska, vilket enligt Nationalencyklopedin betyder sammanhängande mängd av ett oändligt antal element, i en eller flera dimensioner. Sedan får vi tänka oss detta i plural, att det finns t.ex. två parallella sådana kontinuum med var för sig sammanhängande enheter.

Om man känner till termen ”literacy” som har blivit ett begrepp som är allt mer vanligt förekommande även i svenska språket, så kan man ganska enkelt förstå termen ”biliteracy”, som handlar om att man har ”literacy i två språk” eller med enklare ord, ”läs- och skrivkunnighet i två språk” (man översätter ofta ”literacy” med ”läs- och skrivkunnighet”, men det är viktigt att komma ihåg att literacy innefattar mer än så).

Sedan kan vi återgå till termen “Continua of Biliteracy”, vilket då skulle betyda ”parallellt sammanhängande mängder enheter av ett oändligt antal element för läs- och skrivkunnighet i två språk”. Denna beskrivning förefaller dock alltför komplicerad för att använda sig av i den skrivna texten nedan och eftersom man inte heller kan böja ”kontinuum” i svenska så skulle användningen av denna svenskspråkiga variant inte stämma helt överens med vad ursprungstexten vill uttrycka. För att överhuvudtaget kunna skriva detta på svenska – vilket jag vill göra för att jag i och med detta skriver en läslogg som hjälper mig att bättre förstå innehållet, kommer jag att använda mig av de engelska begreppen i texten nedan. Biliteracy använder jag som om det vore ett svenskt ord, och ibland används även termen bilitterata, medan jag översätter continuum med kontinuum, Continua med ”Continua” (med stor eller liten bokstav) och Continua of Biliteracy med “Continua of Biliteracy”. Notera citationstecknen kring de senare termerna.

Chapter 1: Continua of Biliteracy by Nancy H. Hornberger
Biliteracy är ett komplext fenomen, skriver Hornberger. Hennes syfte med detta kapitel är att bidra till teori, forskning och praktik med avseende på biliteracy genom att försöka belysa denna komplexitet. Hon presenterar ett ramverk för att förstå biliteracy och använder begreppet ”Continua” som grund för detta. Hon varnar dock för att det kan uppfattas lite ironiskt att ramverket för att förstå biliteracy (samt literacy och tvåspråkighet) verkar ligga i just komplexiteten hos biliteracy. I detta kapitel beskriver Hornberger också bland annat tre flickor som alla hör till den bilitterata befolkningen i USA. Hon berättar att de möter mycket skilda pedagogiska program avseende vilken uppmärksamhet som ges kring literacy i deras förstaspråk. Där kan man finna allt från en total avsaknad av uppmärksamhet för literacy till en välvillighet inför en aktiv utveckling av detta.

Literacy- och tvåspråkighetsfältet innefattar båda stora mängder litteratur skriver Hornberger. Det finns också en relativt liten, men ökande andel av tydlig uppmärksamhet mot a) tvåspråkighet inom litteratur kring literacy och literacy inom litteratur kring tvåspråkighet, och b) andra- eller främmandespråk inom litteratur kring undervisning av läsande och skrivande och läsande och skrivande inom litteratur kring andra- eller främmandespråksundervisning. Sociolingvister har redan från början erkänt att det finns skillnader mellan mikro- och makronivåer då det handlar om analyser, menar Hornberger. Hon fortsätter med att man i själva verket kan beskriva områden i en sociolingvistisk undersökning med hjälp av en kvadratisk modell som skiljer mellan mikro- och makro nivåer i analysen av social interaktion och mikro- och makronivåer för lingvistisk analys (s 9).

Eftersom jag inte får in tabellen här på enkelt sätt gör jag istället en beskrivning här:

Vågrätt: Nivå på social interaktion: Mikro	Makro

Lodrätt: Nivå på lingvistisk analys: Mikro       Makro

Mikro-mikro: Etnometodologi, Diskursanalys, Interaktionistisk sociolingvistik

Mikro-makro: Variationistisk sociolingvistik

Makro-mikro: Kommunikationsetnografi

Makro-makro: Språksociologi

Hornberger poängterar att mikro- och makronivåer i kontexten kanske varken ska beteckna en dikotomi eller en skiktad relation, utan ses som ett kontinuum, som sammanhängande enheter. Ett särskilt fall av biliteracy definieras då vid en punkt längs med ett kontinuum oavsett individens språkliga förmågor i L1 och L2.

Hornberger menar att det finns provokativa frågor som behöver besvaras, vilka handlar om i vilken grad literacy-kunskaper och –färdigheter i ett språk stöder eller hindrar literacy kunskaper och färdigheter i det andra språket (s. 4). Forskare har enligt henne mött frågan om transfer vs. interferens på två vanliga sätt, vilka båda fokuserar på sökandet efter bevis för positiv transfer. De har ställt frågan om vad för slags positiva effekter läsanvisningar i ett språk kan ha för läsprestationen i det andra språket och vad för slags negativa effekter frånvaron av läsanvisningar på ett språk kan ha på läsprestation i det andra. Hornberger betonar dock att transfer inte handlar om ord-för-ord-nivå, utan om processer och strategier som används. Hon menar också att man har antagit att oral språkutveckling (lyssnande och talande) föregår skriftspråksutvecklingen (läsande och skrivande) och att receptiva färdigheter (lyssnande och läsande) föregår produktiva (talande och skrivande) (s. 15), men många literacyhändelser förekommer också inbäddade i oral språkanvändning. Hornberger vill dessutom betona att de upptäckter som gjorts att ett starkare förstaspråk leder till ett starkare andraspråk inte nödvändigtvis innebär att det första språket måste vara fullt utvecklat innan det andra språket introduceras. Snarare är det så att det första språket inte måste överges innan det är fullt utvecklat, vare sig det andra språket introduceras simultant eller successivt, tidigt eller sent, i denna process (s. 23).

I enspråkiga samhällen kan man koppla olika språkliga varianter till höga och låga funktioner och i tvåspråkiga samhällen kan man på liknande sätt se att olika språk får olika specialiserade funktioner förklarar Hornberger med hjälp av Fishman (1967). På mikronivå handlar det då inte så mycket om att skillnaden mellan enspråkiga och tvåspråkiga individer är att tvåspråkiga besitter två kompletta uppsättningar funktioner och användningar för varje språk. Snarare växlar tvåspråkiga språk efter olika situationer och användningar medan enspråkiga skiftar stil inom samma kontext (s 13f). Argumentet som Hornberger för fram är att enspråkighet och tvåspråkighet är mer lika varandra än olika varandra. De funktioner och den användning av olika typer och stilar som en enspråkig individ eller grupp har är samma som olika språk har hos en tvåspråkig individ eller grupp.

Chapter 3: Biliteracy and Transliteracy in Wales: Language Planning and the Welsh National Curriculum – by Colin Baker
I detta kapitel vill Baker visa att ”Continua of Biliteracy”-modellen möjliggör en ny förståelse av de walesiska literacytraditionerna och ett framväxande synsätt i Wales kring biliteracy. Han menar att ”Continua of Biliteracy” säkerställer ett djupt analytiskt förhållningssätt till biliteracy och han använder sig av situtationen i Wales för att visa att ”Continua” är värdefull i analyser som ligger bortom pedagogiska, historiska, samtida och kommande perspektiv på det walesiska språket.

I början av kapitlet ger Baker några historiska perspektiv på walesisk literacy och han försöker ge exempel på hur ”Continua” möjliggör en bredare historisk analys som kan generera nya perspektiv. Bakers argument är att användningen av ”Continua”-ramverket för en historisk analys av biliteracy möjliggör att man kan ställa viktiga frågor om literacypraktikers historiska utveckling och därmed kan man också förstå ödet för minoritetsspråks literacy och biliteracy.

Literacy kan enligt Baker användas som resultatindikator vid språkplanering: I analyser av folkräkningsdata kring det walesiska språket kan man se att det finns en ökad sannolikhet för språkligt förfall där tvåspråkighet existerar utan att det finns biliteracy. På sådana platser kan man behöva göra literacyplanering. Men då man gör en biliteracy-analys är det viktigt att man tar hänsyn till maktrelationer, något som Hornberger och Skilton-Sylvester (2000) betonat, enligt Baker. ”The new Continua” påminner oss därför om att maktrelationer är avgörande för att förklara och förstå infödda literacy-praktikers status och hälsa.

I Wales finns en ny nationell läroplan och Baker tittar på den syn på literacy som finns i denna. Han menar att ”Continua” erbjuder ett analytiskt ramverk för en kritik av läroplanens förhållningssätt till literacy med avseende på engelska och walesiska språken. Han hävdar att läroplanens literacypraktiker är situerade i mycket begränsade sammanhang och att det i Wales politiska klimat handlar om att höja standarden, följa upp, göra kvalitetsförbättringar, öka effektiviteten, ge bättre värden osv. Ett resultat av detta har blivit en ”back-to-basic” betoning i literacy i skolan och en tyngdvikt på funktionell literacy.

Baker menar att det är vanligt att literacy utvecklas i engelska, men inte i walesiska. För att tillåta studenter att göra framsteg i båda språken och för att maximera deras akademiska prestationer försöker Williams (1994), enligt Baker, övertyga om att tvåspråkiga klassrum behöver engagera sig i språkplanering i form av vad Baker kallar ”translanguaging” och ”transliteracy”. Translanguaging kan sägas vara en pedagogisk praktik där man skiftar språk i tvåspråkiga klassrum, så att t.ex. man läser på ett språk och skriver på det andra.

Translanguaging och transliteracy har enligt Baker fyra möjliga fördelar:
 * 1) De främjar en djupare och mer fullständig förståelse av innehållet. Att läsa och diskutera ett ämne i ett språk och sedan skriva om det på ett annat språk innebär att innehållet måste bearbetas, återbehandlas, och smältas mentalt. Då full begreppsmässig återbehandling inte behövs så kan lingvistisk återbehandling hjälpa för djupare föreställning och assimilation (s. 83).
 * 2) De kan hjälpa studenter att utveckla kompetens i sitt svagare språk.
 * 3) Den gemensamma användningen av språk kan underlätta hem- och skola-samarbetet.
 * 4) Integreringen av flytande engelskspråkiga talare och engelskinlärare som uppnått varierande språknivåer är hjälpta av translanguaging.

Baker menar att translanguaging är ett försök att ge walesisk literacy samma status som engelskspråkig literacy.

Chapter 5: Searching for at Comprehensive Rationale for Two-way Immersion (fördjupning) by Mihyon Jeon
I detta kapitel försöker Jeon ge en mer omfattande motivering för TWI-program (tvåväga fördjupningsprogram, tvåsägs-tvåspråkiga eller duala språkprogram) genom att han försöker placera dem i en kontext av språkpolicy-teori samt genom att analysera dem genom ”Continua”-ramverket. Han diskuterar två huvudsakliga ideologier kring språkpolicy: den som handlar om lingvistisk assimilation och den som handlar om lingvistisk pluralism. Den förstnämnda föreställer sig osäkra majoritetsspråks- och minoritetsspråkstalare och leder till ett slags ”endast ett språk”-policy, medan den senare ideologin leder till språkbevarande och policyer som berikar och där majoritetsspråkstalare är säkra och ser maktrelationer som samverkande.

Jeon hävdar att en vanligt använd logisk bas för TWI-program är: 1) att innehållslig kunskap som lärs in genom förstaspråket hjälper inlärare att tillägna sig höga nivåer av akademiska prestationer på andraspråket. 2) att minoritetsstudenter med starkt oralt språk och literacyfärdigheter i sitt förstaspråk tenderar att tillägna sig högre nivå i andraspråksutvecklingen. 3) att ett språk lärs in bäst när det används som medium för att ge instruktioner och 4) att ett språk lärs in bäst genom social interaktion (s. 122).

I sitt kapitel här fokuserar Jeon på koreanska-engelska TWI-program och använder dem som exempel på policy för olika TWI-program generellt. I sin diskussion fokuserar Jeon på frågorna ”vem planerar vad för vem, för vilka ändamål, under vilka villkor, hur och varför”(s. 126). Diskussionen kring ”vem planerar, under vilka villkor och hur” baseras på Jeons personliga kommunikation med Mr Craig C. Merrill som har varit med i initieringen och implementeringen av koreansk-engelska TWI-program sedan deras uppkomst.

Koreanska-engelska TWI-program bygger huvudsaklingen på en policy kring språktillägnande, och målen för policyn är att utveckla koreansk och engelsk biliteracy, att uppnå hög akademisk prestation och få en multikulturell förståelse för alla studenter.

Jeon tar sedan upp språkpolicy-ideologier och beskriver t.ex. att det i olika samhällen kan finnas olika typer av flerspråkighet. I vissa samhällen kan en samexistens av språken fungera, medan det i andra samhällen är så att det finns dominerande språk medan andra språk har vissa viktiga, men begränsade funktioner i förhållande till det dominerande språket, t.ex. vid religiösa ritualer. Majoritetsspråkstalare som är psykologiskt säkra kan vara toleranta mot minoritetsspråk och minoritetsspråkstalare kan ibland hävda sin egen särprägel menar han vidare.

Ruiz beskriver tre olika inriktningar på språkplanering, skriver Jeon: språk-som-problem, språk-som-rättighet och språk-som resurs. I inriktningen språk-som-problem antar man att minoritetstalare har ett handikapp att övervinna, och att de behöver assimileras in i majoritetsspråket för att övervinna problemet. Inriktningen språk-som-rättighet kan kopplas till en svag form av språkpluralismideologin medan inriktningen språk-som-resurs kan kopplas till en stark sådan form.

I slutet av kapitlet införlivas ”Continua of Biliteracy”-modellen i diskussionen som handlar om språkideologier och språkpolicyer. ”Continua of Biliteracy”-modellen erbjuder ett omfattande ramverk i vilket man kan situera inte bara forskning och undervisning, utan även språkplanering i lingvistiskt skilda miljöer (Hornberger 2002, i Jeon 2003, s. 135). Jeon menar att vi utifrån den diskussion han fört och utifrån forskning som stöder anspråken på ”Continua of Biliteracy” kan dra slutsatsen att”Continua of Biliteracy”- modellen, införlivad med begreppet språkpolicy-ideologi, erbjuder deskriptiv makt att beskriva detaljer i policyerna, förmåga att förutse resultat av språtillägnande-policy och förklarande makt att belysa varför speciella resultat förutses (s. 138).

Chapter 6: Language Education Planning and Policy in Middle America: Student´s Voices by Felicia Lincoln
Detta kapitel beaktar följande frågor:
 * Vilka är den allmänna skolans erfarenheter av barn ur språkliga minoriteter i icke-urbana samhällen där det inte finns tidigare erfarenheter av språkliga minoriteter?
 * Vilka är konsekvenserna av ovanstående fråga för språkunderhåll?
 * Hur kan dessa upptäckter och konsekvenser påverka språkpedagogisk planering och policy?

Lincoln börjar med att beskriva de svårigheter som finns i staden Mill Creek i Arkansas i USA då det handlar om ett skoldistrikt som ställs inför en ny population av språklig minoritet. Dessa svårigheter kan finnas hos alla skoldistrikt som ställs inför samma företeelse, men i Mill Creek förvärrades problemet av att man där också hade regional isolering och brist på resurser.

Lincoln har valt att redovisa de resultat som kommit genom en etnografisk forskning i Mill Creeks skoldistrikt i form av fyra fallstudier, där hon valt två majoritetsspråkstalande studenter och två minoritetstalande studenter som får sammanfatta de resultat som uppnåtts. De fyra studenterna är med några korta ord följande: Sue (majoritetsspråkstudent), Juan (mexikan och mexikan-amerikan, som kommer från Texas. Han talar engelska flytande med visst betoningsmönster som identifierar honom som Latino), Rose (från Salvador, adopterad av en anglo-arkansk familj, vilken sällan talar spanska men har A i den spanska klassen) och Roger (en angloamerikan som gått i ESL (engelska som andraspråk) klass ett år, placerad där eg. av misstag för att han skulle få de betyg som han saknade i engelska).

Studenterna gjorde värdering av ESL-klassrummen och den personal som arbetade med ESL fick bekräftelse från studenterna att de gjorde stora framgångar med dem. Lärarna i spanska lyckades också väl i att välja läsmaterial då det gällde innehåll och ”Continua of Media”. Men allt var inte bara bra i klassrummen, t.ex. så vägrade Juans spansklärare att acceptera hans ordval, vilket är ett klassiskt exempel på nervärdering av vardagsspråkligt innehåll och icke-standardiserade språkvarieteter i undervisningen. Lincoln tycker också att det skulle vara intressant att veta hur användningen av minoritetsspråksinnehåll i klassrummet ytterligare skulle kunna fortsätta frigörelseprocessen för Rose och andra minoritetsspråkstudenter. Roses kommentar att det är ”svårt” att ses som annorlunda och Juans ”vi är också amerikaner” verkar båda vara exempel på känslan av att vara exkluderad från den allmänna majoritetens innehåll, vilket Lincoln menar att både oroar och förvirrar dessa minoritetsspråkstudenter för att inte tala om positionering av dem som utomstående i deras egen lärmiljö (s. 157).

Minoritetsspråkstudenter uttrycker föga överraskande känslor av isolering från de ”vanliga” studenterna men trots känslan av exkludering så är det också sant att många av de minoritetsspråksstudenter som observerats i studien inte vill bli ”mainstreamed” (alltså ”bli vanliga studenter”). De känner sig mer bekväma där de finns i sina särskilda klasser. I detta ligger en ironi: ju mer framgångsrika ESL-personalen var i att skapa trygga platser för risktagande och språkinlärning, desto mer verkade de bidra till att minoritetsspråkstudenterna fortsatte sin isolering från övriga (s. 160). Lincoln menar dock att inkluderande och stödjande pedagogiska kontexter kan skapa möjligheter för majoritetsspråkstudenter och minoritetsspråkstudenter att blandas på lika villkor (s. 161).

title: User:Inhol24/Hornberger (2003)


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User talk:Akshdeepsi

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title: User talk:Akshdeepsi


text:
User:EML5526.S11.Team3.risher/homework5

5.1
From 26-2:

(3) from 9-2:

$$ \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \left[ (2+3x) \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} \right] + 5x = 0 $$, $$ \forall x \in \left[ 0,1 \right] $$, $$ u(1)=4 $$, $$ -\frac{\partial u(x=0)}{\partial x}=6 $$

$$ \Gamma_g = [0] $$, $$ \Gamma_h = [1] $$

Solve the above problem using Weight Function with apppropriate

$$ F_I, I=p, F, e $$,

until convergence of

$$u^h(0.5)$$ to $$O(10^{-6})$$.

See HW4.4 on 21-1

Plot $$ u, u^h $$, convergence (error vs. n)

5.2
From 26-2:

Same as HW 5.1 but using

$$ \Gamma_g = [1] $$, $$ \Gamma_h = [0] $$

5.3
From 29-6:

Similar to HW 5.1, but using LIBF with uniform discretization (equidistant nodes). m = 4, 6, 8

1.) Explain how LIBF are used as CBS

2.) Plot all LIBF used

3.) Use matlab quad, WA, ... to int

4.) Plot $$ u_m^h $$ vs u and $$ u_m^h(0.5) - u(0.5) $$ vs. m

5.4
From 29-6

Similar to HW 5.1, but using LIBF with uniform discretization (equidistant nodes). m = 4, 6, 8

1.) Explain how LIBF are used as CBS

2.) Plot all LIBF used

3.) Use matlab quad, WA, ... to int

4.) Plot $$ u_m^h $$ vs u and $$ u_m^h(0.5) - u(0.5) $$ vs. m

5.5
From 29-7

Continuation of HW 4.7 on Calculix

1.) For the disk problem, extract:

node info: node numbers are coordinates

element info: element numbers and element nodes

2.) Generate 3 meshes of same disk with triangular elements (increase no. of elements)

3.) Install ccx, run examples, write report for "dummies" (explain commands, screenshots...)

5.6
From 30-6:

Quad Lagrangian element basis function

Plot 3 figures similar to those on 30-5 and 30-6

5.7
From 30-6:

Similar to HW 5.1 and HW 5.3, but using Linear Lagrangian element basis function with uniform discretization (equidistant element nodes, nel = 4, 6, 8 ...)

1.) Explain how Linear Lagrangian element basis function are used as CBS

2.) Plot all Lagrangian element basis function used

3.) Use matlab quad, WA, ... to int

4.) Plot $$ u_{nel}^h $$ versus $$ u $$ and $$ u_{nel}^h(0.5)-u(0.5) $$ versus nel

5.8
From 30-7:

Similar to HW 5.2 and HW 5.4, but using Linear Lagrangian element basis function with uniform discretization (equidistant element nodes, nel = 4, 6, 8, ...)

1.) Explain how Linear Lagrangian element basis function are used as CBS

2.) Plot all Lagrangian element basis function used

3.) Use matlab quad, WA, ... to int

4.) Plot $$ u_{nel}^h $$ versus $$ u $$ and $$ u_{nel}^h(0.5)-u(0.5) $$ versus nel

title: User:EML5526.S11.Team3.risher/homework5


text:
User talk:Fr33kman

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --mikeu talk 19:05, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fr33kman


text: File:FMRI Keller.jpg

title: File:FMRI Keller.jpg


title: File:Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.1.png


text:
User:Egm6341.s11.team1.arm/HW5

Problem 1: Integrate using Composite Trapezoidal Rule and Composite Simpson's
 Referenced the open-source code gaussleg on the MathWorks File Exchange

Find: Plots and error associated with the different discretizations
A.) For Eq. 1.1, plot $$ f_n^T(x) \ $$ (piecewise linear) and $$ f_n^S(x) \ $$ (piecewise quadratic) on $$ f(x) \ $$ B.) For Eq. 1.2, apply Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rule using uniform discretization C.) For Eq. 1.2, apply Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rule using non-uniform discretization D.) For Eq. 1.2, apply Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rule using Gauss-Legendre quadrature E.) For Eq. 1.3, apply Trapezoidal and Simpson's Rule using uniform discretization

Plot Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson's Rule
The following MATLAB (v2009b) code was developed to display area differences of integrand between Composite Trapezoidal rule and Composite Simpson's rule. Note that Langrange polynomials with n=2 were used to fit parabolas to $$f(x) \ $$.

Uniform discretization
The exact value of the integral in Eq. 1.2 is:

The following MATLAB code then developed to numerically integrate Eq 1.2 using uniform discretization and produce the following table.

Non-uniform discretization
In order to make h small close to zero, the following method of choosing x values was used:

The following MATLAB code then developed to numerically integrate Eq 1.2 using non-uniform discretization and produce the following table.

Gauss-Legendre Quadrature
The following MATLAB code was developed to evaluate the integral in Eq. 1.2.

NOTE: The user defined function legendrepoly was adapted from the work done in the open-source function gaussleg, available on the MathWorks File Exchange.

Periodic functions
Wolfram Alpha was used to calculate the exact value of the integral in Eq. 1.3.

The following MATLAB code was developed to numerically integrate Eq. 1.3.

Problem 2: Linear Space Model
 Solved without assistance

Run linear space model and plot $$ f \underline{x} _j $$, for $$ j=1,2,... \ $$ in space $$ (x^1,x^2)=(x,y) \ $$
Given the following:

Solution

The following MATLAB code was developed to evaluate the state space model until an equilibrium point was reached. The results are shown in Figure 5.2.1.

 * Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.1.png

====Find equilibrium point as $$ \lim_{k \to \infty} \underline{x} _{k+1} = \lim_{k \to \infty} \underline{F} ^{k+1} \underline{x} _0 =: \underline{\hat{a} } $$ ==== Plot $$ \underline{\hat{a}} $$ as big red dot and $$ x_0 \ $$ as big blue dot in the same plot for $$ \left \lbrace \underline{x} _j \right \rbrace \ $$, where $$ j=1,2,... \ $$

Solution

In order to determine the equilibrium point, the Euclidean distance between the next $$x_{n+1} \ $$ and $$ x_{n} \ $$ was calculated for each step in the model. In this case, the Euclidean distance is defined as:

When this distance became less than $$ 10^{-6} \ $$, the equilibrium point was taken as "found".

The MATLAB code presented above displays the equilibrium point, which is also plotted in Figure 5.2.1 above.

Gaussian Random Noise
Let $$ \underline{G} = \begin{Bmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{Bmatrix} \alpha\ $$, thus $$ \underline{w} -{kH} = \begin{Bmatrix} w_{kH} \end{Bmatrix} $$. Use MATLAB randn to gererate $$ \begin{Bmatrix} w_j \end{Bmatrix} $$, for $$ j=0,1,2,... \ $$ and plot $$ \begin{Bmatrix} \underline{x} _j \end{Bmatrix} $$, for $$ j=0,1,2,... \ $$. Use a big blue dot for $$ j=0 \ $$, use small dots for the other points. All for $$ \alpha\ = 0.5 $$, $$ \alpha\ = 1 $$ and  $$ \alpha\ = 2 $$

Solution

The following MATLAB code was developed to evaluate the state space model for 1000 iterations, since an equilibrium point was not reached. The results are shown in Figure 5.2.2.

 * Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.2.png

Cauchy Random Noise
Same as 2.3 except with Cauchy. HINT: Find a MATLAB command to generate $$ \begin{Bmatrix} \theta\ _j \end{Bmatrix} $$, for $$ j=0,1,2,... \ $$ in a single slit diffraction.

Solution

A set of MATLAB functions freely available on the MathWorks File Exchange called cauchy was used to generate random values from the Cauchy distribution.

The following MATLAB code was developed to evaluate the state space model for 1000 iterations, since an equilibrium point was not reached. The results are shown in Figure 5.2.2.

 * Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.3.png

Problem 5: Modify your MATLAB code to make it more efficient
 Solved without assistance

Refer to Homework 2.4 for original code. Improved code is shown below, along with the resulting table similar to the one generated from the original code. The original code took 0.016680 seconds to run; the modified code below took 0.004149 seconds to run, meaning the new code runs in approximately 1/4th of the time.

Do Romberg Table; Compare to previous results in HW2.4
Using equation 3 on [[media:Nm1.s11.mtg29.djvu|Lecture page 7-5]] for $$T_k \ $$ and the MATLAB code written below, the following Romberg Integration Table was generated.

Note that $$T_4(4) \ $$ results in an error of 1.3323e-015. Compared to $$T_0(64) \ $$, which has an error of 3.742e-006, $$T_4(4) \ $$ is approximately $$10^9$$ times better than the uncorrected trapezoidal rule at n=64.

Problem 6: Compute Integral until error order of magnitude reaches 10^-6
 Solved without assistance

Reference [[media:Nm1.s11.mtg7.djvu|HW2.4 from Lecture 7-3]] and [[media:Nm1.s11.mtg30.djvu|HW5.4 from Lecture 29-6]] Compute $$ I_n \ $$ using $$ CT_k(n) \ $$, for $$ k=1,2,3 \ $$ for $$ n=2,4,8,16... \ $$ until error $$ I-I_n= O(10^{-6}) \ $$

Solution

From [[media:Nm1.s11.mtg30.djvu|Lecture 30-1]], the corrected trapezoidal rule states that

where

The following MATLAB code was developed to evaluate the corrected trapezoidal rule using $$ k=1,2,3 \ $$ until the error $$ I - I_n^T \leq O(10^{-6}) \ $$

title: User:Egm6341.s11.team1.arm/HW5


text:
User talk:Ed144

 Hello Ed144, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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title: User talk:Ed144


title: File:Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.2.png


text:
User talk:Yildizadasi

 Hello Yildizadasi, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Leutha 19:52, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yildizadasi


title: File:Nm1.s11.team1.HW4.fig5.2.3.png


text:
Engineering Experience 4: Design a Small Solar Vehicle/Team Borasol (team PM2)

Team Borasol

 Het logo

 teamleden

Schets

 Status project

16/02/11

De groep werd samengesteld door de coaches van het EE4-project. Na de eerste vergadering moet elk teamlid nadenken over een goede naam voor het team. Matthias Raeyen is als leider gekozen om het project tot een goed einde te brengen.

19/02/11

Het logo en de naam voor het team is gekozen. Het is 'Borasol' geworden. Jack heeft het logo ontworpen en staat bovenaan deze wiki.

22/02/11

Vergadering 3: Het team is het zonnepaneel en de DC motor gaan halen en er is volop gebrainstormd over hoe onze wagen er uit zal zien, hoe we het project gaan aanpakken en wie welke taken op zich zal nemen.

14/03/11

De bouw van de zonnewagen is vandaag in zijn laatste fase gegaan voor het testen kan beginnen. De juiste tandwielen zijn eindelijk gevonden, nu nog op de assen zetten en we kunnen testen!

15/03/11

De zonnewagen is af! De wielen draaien, het wagentje rijdt. Nu kunnen we ons volledig focussen op de berekeningen, waar we (blijkbaar) nogal wat achter staan t.o.v. de andere groepen.

Links
 * 1) Borasol site []


text:
User:Eml5526.s11.team2.brenner/hwk5

=Problem 5.3: Torsion of a Bar = Modified version of HW 4.4 defined on page 2 of Lecture 21 from Fish & Belytschko Page 73 Problem 3.7

Given
Making use of the data model G1DM1.0/D1b defined on page 2 of Lecture 26 which is a modified version of data model G1DM1.0/D1 defined on page 2 of Lecture 9 where the following conditions are provided.

Where the Weak Form for a bar in torsion can be defined as

Make use of the Lagrange Interpolation Basis Function (LIBF) with uniform discretization (equidistant nodes) using $$ \displaystyle m = 4,6,8   $$ where the LIBF can defined as follows

Find
a) Explain how Langrange Interpolation Basis Functions (LIBF) are used as Constraint Breaking Solutions

b) Plot all LIBF used

c) Use matlab quad function or WolframAlpha.com to integrate

d) Plot approximate vs exact solution and convergence error versus equidistant nodes (m)

(a)
Langrange Interpolation Basis Functions satisfy the condition of the constraint breaking solution by assuming a value of zero at every node except for the node where the LIBF is defined there it assumes a value of 1. It acts like the Kronecker Delta

(b)
The following is the LIBF for the $$ \displaystyle m = 4 $$

The following is the LIBF for the $$ \displaystyle m = 6 $$

The following is the LIBF for the $$ \displaystyle m = 8 $$

Matlab Code
=Problem 4.4: Torsion of a Bar Fish & Belytschko Page 73 Problem 3.7 =

Given
Given the strong form for the circular bar in torsion (Fig. 1):

Where the natural boundary condition is

Where the essential boundary condition is

Where the essential boundary condition $$ \displaystyle m(x) $$ is a distributed moment per unit length, M is the torsion moment, $$ \displaystyle \phi $$ is the angle of rotation, $$ \displaystyle G $$ is the shear modulus and $$ \displaystyle J $$ is the polar moment of intertia given by $$ \displaystyle J = \frac{\pi C^4}{2} $$, where $$ \displaystyle C $$ is the radius of the circular shaft.

Find
a. Construct the weak form for the circular bar in torsion.

b. Assume that $$ \displaystyle m(x) = 0 $$ and integrate the differential equation given above. Find the integration constants using the boundary conditions.

(a)
Multiplying (4.4.1) by an arbitrary weighting function $$ \displaystyle w(x) $$ and integrating with respect to x across the domain leads to the following form

Making use of Integration by Parts on the first term of (4.4.4) leads to the following equation.

Using the requirement of the essential boundary condition on the weighting function satisfying the essential boundary location implies that $$ \displaystyle w(0) = 0 $$ and also using the natural boundary condition (4.4.2) $$ JG \frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}_{x=l} = M $$ leads to the following

Therefore the weak form can be represented finding a $$ \displaystyle \phi(x) $$ such that for all smooth $$ \displaystyle \phi(x) $$ with $$ \displaystyle \phi(0) = 0 $$ (4.4.7) is satisfied.

(b)
Applying equation (4.4.1) and with $$ \displaystyle m(x) = 0 $$ leads to the following form.

Integrating (4.4.8) with respect to x generates a constant of integration and provides the following form.

Applying the natural boundary condition from (4.4.2) leads to the following

Solving (4.4.9) for $$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x} $$ and substituting in $$ \displaystyle C_1 = -M $$ leads to the following

Integrating (4.4.11) with respect to x generates a constant of integration and provides the following form, which is the well known equation for angle of twist of a bar.

Applying the essential boundary condition from (4.4.3) to (4.4.12) leads to the following

Therefore the constants and the angle of twist are as follows.

title: User:Eml5526.s11.team2.brenner/hwk5


text:
Social Media/Set up a blog

 * Blogs in Plain English
 * Blogger Help
 * Sue Water's Tips for Better Blogging

title: Social Media/Set up a blog


text:
User:Luckimg

This user will not divulge information to the public due to this user's fear of The System. This user asks for assistance in evading The System. This user also wishes you well.

title: User:Luckimg


text: File:B.pdf

title: File:B.pdf


text:
Missing data

What is missing data?
Survey responses may have missing data because:
 * A respondent did not answer the question (intentionally or unintentionally)
 * For hard copy surveys:
 * The answer provided did not follow the requested format
 * More than two answers are provided
 * A response is illegible

In addition, missing data can be introduced, usually unintentionally, if the:
 * Data entry person does not enter the data
 * Data analyst deletes data (intentionally or unintentionally)

In SPSS:
 * For numeric variables, the default for missing data is a decimal point or full-stop in the cell, which will appear automatically. Alternatively a specific value, such as -1 or 99, can be used and specified in the Variable View to indicate missing values.
 * For string variables, missing data is indicated by a blank cell

In jamovi:
 * Missing is indicated by a blank cell
 * Coded missing values can be specified through Variables

Missing data in a cell will mean that a variable and a case each have some missing data.

Dealing with missing data
The presence of missing data should be identified through data screening.

Strategies for dealing with missing data should be decided prior to data analysis.

Listwise
One strategy for dealing with missing data is listwise. This means that all cases with even a single piece of missing data (for the variables of interest) will not be used e.g.,: DESCRIPTIVES VARIABLES=VAR00001 /STATISTICS=MEAN STDDEV MIN MAX /MISSING=LISTWISE.

In other words, to be used in an analysis, each case must be complete (have no missing data) for the variables of interest.

This approach has the advantage of only working with complete data, but it risks removing a lot of potentially useful data.

Pairwise
Alternatively, missing data can be dealt with pairwise. This means that all available data is used, even from cases with some missing data.

This approach includes more data, but it can mean that there are different Ns for different analyses which can get confusing.

Imputation
An alternative approach is imputation. Imputation involves predicting or "filling in" the missing data.

The simplest form of imputation is mean replacement (i.e., replace the missing data with the mean score for other cases for the same variable). However, this will exaggerate the central tendency.

When composite scores are computed using responses to two or more variables, tolerance for some missing data can be allowed. In this way, a composite score can be created even when a respondent has some missing data.

More sophisticated imputation uses regression-based prediction (i.e., by using scores on other related variables to predict the missing value). Two common methods are estimation maximalisation or multiple imputation.

title: Missing data


title: File:Fe1.s11.team1.hw5.fig5.7.1.jpg


text:
User:Sorenhogberg/PM

Kommunikativ kompetens diskuteras av Alan Davis ur ett sociolingvistiskt perspektiv.

Genom att ta utgångspunkt i diskussionen om vad som utmärker ”the native speaker” problematiseras innebörden av kommunikativ kompetens. Med referens till Hymes lyfter Davis (2003:104) fram fyra kriterier som han menar ringar in vad kommunikativ kompetens kretsar kring. För det första rör det sig om en förmåga att känna av språkets historiska dimension i så motto att kunna avgöra när ett uttryck upplevs som ålderdomligt, dvs. inte längre i samklang med tiden och därför olämpligt att använda. Men i kompetensen ligger samtidigt förmågan att förstå innebörden när sådana uttryck används tack vare en kännedom om språkets användning i andra tidevarv. För det andra innebär kommunikativ kompetens en fallenhet att avgöra vad som är ett praktiskt rätt sätt att uttrycka sig. Det handlar om en kompetens att sätta samman orden i en följd som går utanför det som betraktas som grammatiskt korrekt, dvs. en väl vald kombination i relation till det pågående samtal som pågår. Vidare är kriteriet användbarhet ett uttryck för kompetensen. Den förmåga det svarar emot bottnar i insikten om att ord kan ha olika betydelser i olika sammanhang, dvs. en förmåga att i situationen kunna avgöra när ett ord blir obrukbart på grund av termen ges en annan innebörd än vad som är avsikten. Till sist utgör det fjärde kriteriet en kontextuell kompetens, vilket rimligtvis borde kunna förstås som en aspekt vilken redan finns närvarande i de tre första kriterierna. Davis (2003:106) för också själv fram denna synpunkt men tar detta som ett argument för sin sociolingvistiska utgångspunkt. Kommunikativ kompetens menar han är i grunden alltid sammanlänkad med den kontext vari kommunikationen sker. Vad som utmärker ”the native speaker ” är förmågan att urskilja meningen med en utsaga eller ett enskilt ord, att använda ord på ett annat sätt i ett förändrat sammanhang och att förstå ordens djupare innebörd i relation till den kulturella kontext de är framsprungna ur. Olika grad av djup som Davis (2003:112) benämner som weak respektive strong approach kan inte utgöra en åtskillnad för att definiera ”the native speaker” men är begrepp som påvisar skillnader i kompetens. Den slutsats Davis drar är att kommunikativ kompetens är artikulationen av en lingvistisk kompetens i situationen.

Den fråga jag ställer mig i relation till ovanstående slutsats är i vilken grad nätseminariet utgörs av en plats. Vad innebär en virtuell plats? Det förefaller som att vi kan uppfatta platsen på vitt skilda sätt, den finns inte men ändå finns den. När studenter ”träder in” till nätseminariet ter det sig rimligt att studenten föreställer sig en plats för utbildning där nya lärdomar ska växa fram, men samtidigt äger alla deltagare kännedom om att var och en hör hemma på olika fysiska platser i världen. Det förefaller lika rimligt att vetskapen om respektive persons geografiska hemvist också utgör platser som får påverkan på hur situationen kan uppfattas. Liksom det väcker frågor om hur platsen uppfattas om studenter inte känner till var deltagare hör hemma. Att befinna sig på plats för ett nätseminarium bör därför kunna förstås som en plats vilken spänner från uppfattningen om att vara på en gemensam virtuell plats till att vara på en geografisk plats i möte med många samtidigt existerande platser.

Att möta och kommunicera med andra studenter vid nätseminarier innebär att varje deltagare ställer sig frågor om var de andra befinner sig, något som självklart också sker när studier bedrivs på campus. Det rör sig om frågor var de andra bor, om de bor själva eller i familj, vilka platser de vuxit upp på, var de trivs, var de tidigare arbetat, vilken skola de genomför sin verksamhetsförlagda utbildning på mm. mm. I samma ögonblick som samtalet startar lyssnar var och en in hur andra uttrycker sig och genast påbörjas placeringen av de andras hemvist. Det sker genom att lyssna efter utsagor som avslöjar platser men också via språkets dialekter och brytningar. Får vi svårt att placera någon på en plats uppstår lätt en önskan om att få ställa frågan: Var kommer du ifrån? Davis (2003:99) menar att vårt muntliga språk sänder signaler som tas emot i termer av medlemskap. När vi hör någon prata drar vi genast slutsatser om personen hör hemma på vår plats eller rättare sagt någon av mina olika gemensamma platser eller inte. Att ”träda in” på ett nätseminarium utgör en otydligare plats än ett fysiskt rum på campus. Vi kan genast dra slutsatsen att det inte alls är självklart att vi bor relativt nära varandra. Lärosätets geografiska plats utgör inte någon samlingspunkt varifrån vi kan försöka placera varandra. Vad det innebär är svårt att veta. Vi kan tänka oss att samtalet om varandras platser ökar i angelägenhetsgrad, men vi kan också tänka oss att platsen förblir mindre viktig och om det i så fall leder till ett mer dekontextualiserat samtal?

title: User:Sorenhogberg/PM


text:
Introduction to Ill-Structured Problems

 * Collaborative Environment Design
 * Collaborative Scenario
 * Sample Collaborative Environment Plan
 * Introduction to Ill-Structured Problems
 * Designing a Problem Space for a Collaborative Work Environment
 * Preparing an Online Collaborative Environment Plan

Collaboration and Ill-Structured Problems
When people collaborate, they are primarily engaged in designing a new approach in order to solve a genuinely unique problem. This problem that they are attempting to solve is generally ill-defined or ill-structured in nature. Collaborative workplace problems are typically ill-structured based on the fact that workers are attempting to solve a problem that is new to the organization. These problems have no clear procedural or predetermined path to solve it, and may have many different solutions. In order to understand what an ill-structured problem is and to design a collaborative environment to facilitate solving one, it is important to distinguish ill-structured from well-structured problems.

Well-Structured Problems
Well-structured problems are those in which the initial state, goal state, and constraints are clearly defined. Solving WSPs requires procedural knowledge that follows a completely defined and step-by-step, or rote procedure. A WSP always has the same goal, is always done the same way (with the same tools and information), and does not vary with context. In other words, solving a well-structured problem is accomplished by recalling procedures and performing them exactly as taught. Examples of well-structured problems that people perform at work include using a coffee machine, turning on and logging into their computer, and accessing email. While accomplishing these rote tasks are an important part of resolving more complex ill-structured problems, they require a direct step-by-step approach to problem solving. This lesson focuses primarily on designing a collaborative environment for solving more complex ill-structured problems.

Ill-Structured Problems
The most meaningful and useful learning occurs at the ill-structured level, and most learning for most adults has components of this type. In contrast to well-structured problems, ill-structured problems have no initial clear or spelled out goals, set of operations, end states, or constraints. In fact ISPs often times have unstated goals and constraints that must be determined by those solving the problem. ISPs present uncertainty about which concepts, rules, and principles are necessary for the solution and how these should be organized. They require learners to make judgments about the problem and to defend their judgments by expressing personal opinions or beliefs. ISPs possess multiple solutions and solution paths, or may possess no solutions at all. They offer no general rules or principles for describing or predicting the outcome of most cases and require multiple criteria for evaluating solutions. Examples of ISPs include redesigning a work process, designing a new product, or creating a new marketing strategy. As in any continuum with opposites, most problems fall somewhere between well-structured and ill-structured problems. Moderately-structured problems share aspects of both well and ill defined. Every ill-structured problem is different and some may have more defined components than others. However this lesson focuses on the collaborative process of solving complex problems in the ill-structured realm.

Solving Ill-Structured problems
In organizations at every level, solving ISPs holds the most value compared to solving more well-defined problems that can be automated or taught more easily. Solving ISPs requires the acquisition and use of expertise of context specific knowledge. Content and context expertise includes knowledge of “how things work” and an understanding of the working model of the system in which the problem exists. This facilities the development of problem-solving strategies that are based on general rules about solving problems of a particular type. Expertise of knowing when certain strategies do and don’t work and the ability to predict or explain how a system will behave if a change is made are all important aspects of expertise.

Heuristics are an important aspect of solving ISPs through expertise. These are often referred to as "tricks of the trade" and include effective techniques and approaches for accomplishing tasks. Heuristics are acquired through the use of solving multiple problems similar in context and scope. The development of heuristics helps in figuring out what the goal really is, and the best solution path is to get there. Designing a problem space that facilitates group collaboration involves creating an environment in which participants can work together to define the problem and apply heuristics in their areas of expertise. On the next page we will cover more on designing the problem space. But first, take this short quiz on ill-structured problems.

Quiz
{Which of the following are examples of ill-structured problems? -Converting temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit +Increasing water supply for a growing community -Calculating speed given distance and time +Designing a new underground subway system that spans multiple countries +Maximizing the efficiency of a manufacturing process
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{Which of the following aspects are not well defined in an ill-structured problem? +Goals -Beginning state +Actions +End state +Constraints
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title: Introduction to Ill-Structured Problems