text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivation and goal setting

Overview
In a world driven by outcomes, successful goal setting permeates all levels of society. In fact goal setting theory is generally accepted as among the most valid and useful motivation theories in industrial and organizational psychology, human resource management and organizational behaviour.

The study of motivation has always been considered by psychologists to be difficult, especially because motivation is something inside the organism (Locke, 1996). Initially, motivation was thought to be driven by external sources cultivated through reinforcement or rewards (Skinner, 1953). However, more recent research has questioned this theory and has instead looked towards more self-directed and intrinsic motivators (Ryan, & Deci, 2000). Motivation plays an important role in helping us reach our goals (Latham, 2005) and in turn, goal setting is a powerful way of motivating people and ourselves.

This has been supported by theory that suggests (Latham, & Locke, 2007) that working towards a goal provided a major source of motivation to actually reach the goal which in turn improved performance.

This chapter begins by outlining a brief history of goal setting followed by a discussion of two major theories of goal setting; (a) Goal Setting Theory (Locke, & Latham 1990) and (b) Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, (1977). Pertinent research relevant to these theories will be analysed and discussed.  In addition, this chapter will outline some of the major moderators of goal setting and present an applied example of goal setting with a case study.

Goal Setting Theory a brief history:
As early as the 1900’s thinking was emerging regarding goal setting. Two strands of influence materialized, one connecting the theory to the academic world and the other to the world of business. The academic strand began with the Wurzburg school in Germany with Klupe, Watt and Ach theorists of this time (Locke, & Latham 1990). This school used the term task and determining tendency to describe the fact that a task assigned earlier could affect later action without the individual being consciously aware of the task at the time of action. Ach (1935) formulated the “Difficulty law of motivation” which was a precursor to ‘Goal difficulty function ”. This was significant for Goal Setting Theory in establishing  a linear relationship between goal difficulty and performance.

Lewin (1936), a Gestalt psychologist introduced the specific term “intention” to the field. Lewin assumed that intention was associated with a state of tension that was maintained until it was reduced by the performance or completion of an intended activity, or a substitute activity. Lewins’ study on group decision making also influenced goal setting theory. Mace ( 1935) also contributed to goal setting theory with studies that looked at comparisons of the effect of specific challenging goals with goals such as “do your best”, to compare the effects of goals differing in level of difficulty. Mace’s study was certainly an important impetus to goal setting theory. He conducted a series of laboratory experiments where he showed that setting a standard for task outcome affected a person’s performance. However, this was only the case when the person’s ability had developed to the point where they believed they would succeed at the task. The first known study to statistically show a relationship between goals and subsequent performance was that by Bayton (1943).

It also must be remembered that the field of psychology was dominated by the behaviourists and motivation lie outside the person in the form of reinforcers and punishers (Skinners Reinforcement Theory 1953). Also those internal mechanisms were acknowledged as in drive reduction theory as being primarily physiological (Hull, 1952). The cognitive revolution in psychology, and the early work of Ryan (1970) also had a direct influence on goal setting theory. Ryan’s approach was to simply ask people what they were trying to accomplish when they took action. Ryan (1943) argued that human behaviour is affected by conscious purposes, plans, intentions, and tasks. He called these first-level explanatory concepts citing them as the immediate motivational causes of most human action (Locke & Latham, 2002). Goal setting theory was formulated largely on the basis of empirical research conducted over nearly four decades with the two contempory contributors to theory and research on goal setting being Edwin Locke and Gary Latham.

Definition of Goal Setting.
Definition of goal setting. A goal is the object or aim of an action, for example to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually with a specified time limit(Fried & Slowik, 2004). A goal is whatever an individual is striving to accomplish (Locke, 1996). When people aim to do something they engage in goal directed behaviour. Locke (1996) theorised that goals have both an internal and an external aspect and motivation was either internally or externally driven. Internally motivation refers to ideas (desired ends), where as external motivation refers to the object or condition sought (a job, a sale, a certain performance level). The idea guides action to attain the object. Qualitatively the content of a goal is whatever the person is seeking. Quantitatively two attributes of content, namely difficulty and specificity, have been studied. The aim is to focus on a particular difficult and specific goal and achieve this goal day after day. In addition to specific and difficult goal, feedback and goal acceptance are also contributing factors in assisting an individual towards goal fulfullment. Cognitive sources of motivation therefore revolve around a person’s way of thinking and believing. It units together mental constructs such as beliefs, expectations, goals, plans, judgements, values, and self-concept under one banner of mental events that function as causal determinants of goal holder People who set goals or have goals set for them generally outperform those without goals (Loche,1996) Goal setting generally enhances performance, but the type of goal one sets often determines the extent to which a goal translates into performance gains, as goals vary in how difficult they are and in  how specific they are. The idea of specificity and difficulty is central to Goal Theory (Locke, 1996).

Theories of Goal Setting.
Several theories have been proposed to explain goal setting. Both Goal Setting Theory and Social Cognitive Theory have dominated the literature in recent years (Locke & Latham, 2006, Bandura, 1997) and will be the focus of this chapter.

Goal Setting Theory. Locke & Latham (1990)
Why is it that some individuals do better on a task when ability and knowledge have been controlled for? Locke and Latham (1990) proposed that it was impossible to answer this question without considering motivation. Motivation is the core premise of Goal Setting Theory. Lock and Latham identified that the simplest and most direct motivational explanation of why some people perform better on work tasks than others is because they have different performance goals, which may possess different attributes. According to Goal Setting Theory goal specificity and difficulty are the two primary goal attributes that influence goal-related performance.

Specificity

 * The specificity of the goal refers to the how clearly the goal informs the person on precisely  what he is to do. This means taking a vague goal of "do your assignment when you have time too”  to a specific goal, “have your plan ready by Thursday”.  It is important to be specific when *setting goals as it instructs the person on what needs to be done, reducing ambiguity in thought and variability of performance (Klien, Whitener, & Llgen 1990). The more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance can be regulated. However, Iit must be remembered that specificity is not always desirable, for example in creative innovative situations, where new ideas and processes are desirable (Loche, 1996).
 * A longitudinal study by Gyurcsik, Estabrooks & Frahm-Templar (2003) on health performance provides support for the importance of specificity in goal setting. In this study it was found that when setting health related goals, specific goals and feedback led to increases in the desired health-related behaviour (e.g. increased physical activity).

Difficult

 * The second important goal attribute proposed by Locke and Latham (1996) was goal difficulty. In terms of goal setting, the goal difficulty is how hard the goal is to achieve. The more difficult the goal, the more energy the person will put into the goal. The energy is proportionate to the level of the task (Locke & Latham, 1990).  To achieve easier goals it smaller amounts of effort are required and it can be said that effort responds to the magnitude of the goal performance discrepancy.
 * Atkinson (1958) outlined the inverted U theory, where he plotted an inverse U function to goal difficulty verses outcome. In this theory he proposed that an inverse relationship existed between the probability of success and level of performance. An optimal level of goal difficulty, which was neither too easy nor too hard for the individual, produced optimal performance.
 * Locke & Latham (1990) were unable to replicate these findings, instead coming up with a linear function, resulting in that if the individual is committed to the goal and possesses the requisite ability and knowledge to achieve it, a more difficult goal will produce better performance. However, they did identify that without commitment and adequate ability, performance does drop at high difficulty goal levels.

In summary, Goal Setting Theory proposes that goals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance. Many studies that have compared the effect of specific and difficult goals with goals such as “do your best” (Scobbie, Wyke, & Dixon 2009). Repeatedly it has been found that people do not actually ‘do their best’ because the goal is vague and is compatible with many outcomes, including doing lower than one’s best (Hurn, Kneebone, &Cropley 2006).

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1989).
In 1941 Miller and Dollard proposed the theory of Social Learning. This theory was broadened in 1963 by Bandura and Walters with the principles of observational learning and external reinforcement. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioural patterns. The theory can also be used for providing an explanation of various intervention strategies such as goal setting. Central to Social Cognitive Theory is the role of self efficacy.

Self efficacy can be defined as how confident an individual is in their ability to achieve a desired goal in the presence of perceived barriers or facilitators (Bandura, 1997). The capacity to exercise control over one’s thought processes, motivation, and action is a distinctively human characteristic. Self efficacy plays an important role in goal setting and related outcomes as it requires a strong sense of efficacy to remain task oriented in the face of judgemental failures. Bundara (1989) said that “people who strongly believe in their problem solving capabilities remain highly efficient in their analytic thinking in complex decision situations and those who have self doubt are erratic in their analytic thinking and this affects performance accomplishments”. P1175 People’s perceptions and self efficacy beliefs usually affect cognitive functioning through the joint influence of motivational information processing operations. Peoples self efficacy beliefs determine their level of motivation as reflected in how much effort they will exert in an endeavour and how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles. Bandura (1989) maintained that in order for people to succeed they must have a personal sense of efficacy to sustain the perseverant effort needed to succeed, and be able to sustain effort in the face of difficulties. He further argued that failure to meet a goal may be partly explained by an individuals loss of faith in their capabilities. Bandura (1989) asserts that the power of self efficacy beliefs can affect the course of a life path through the selection process. He expressed that the more efficacious people judge themselves to be the wider range of career options they consider appropriate and the better they prepare themselves educationally. Conversely, self limitation of career development arises more from perceived self inefficacy than from actual inability. Development of resilient self efficacy requires some experience in mastering difficulties through perseverant effort. When things are too easy people get quick successes and they come to expect them, however, their self efficacy is easily undermined by failure. If a person thinks they have what it takes to persevere when the task is difficult, they will sticking it out through hard times and emerge with a stronger sense of self efficacy. This notion ties in with Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal attribute of difficulty level.

Bandura (1989) has shown that self efficacy can be raised by enactive mastery, persuasion and role modelling. Self-efficacy beliefs operate together with a person’s outcome expectancies or what they believe the outcome of performing a particular goal will be. Self-efficacy is theorized to exert its influence on health outcomes by improving motivation to set and pursue goals and to increase resilience in the face of setbacks during goal pursuit (Schwarzer, Ziegelmann, Luszczynska, Scholz, & Lippke 2008).

The concept of self-efficacy is important to goal setting theory in several ways. When goals are self-set people with high self-efficacy set higher goals than do people with low self-efficacy. They are also more committed to assigned goals, find and use better task strategies to attain the goals and respond more positively to negative feedback than do people with low-efficacy. Other benefits of high self-esteem are that people have fewer sleepless nights, succumb less easily to pressures to conform, are more persistent at difficult tasks, are less shy and lonely, and are just plain happier (Watson, Suls & Haig 2002). When considering work place or education productivity and outcomes, these are all favourable gains. Bandura stated that after people attain their goal they generally set a higher goal for themselves This adoption of higher goals creates rather than reduces motivation discrepancies to be mastered.

How goal setting and self efficacy complement each other
Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory is highly compatible with goal setting theory. It not only includes goal setting as part of its content but adds two important dimensions to goal theory. The first is that modeling has significant effects on goal choice and goal commitment. The second dimension is self efficacy.

Self-efficacy has a direct effect on performance, it also influences the difficulty level of the goal chosen or accepted. Self-efficacy influences the commitment to goals, choice of task strategies and the response to negative feedback or failure. For example, when a person receives negative feedback they can doubt their ability and be unhappy. However if the individual can sustain their self-efficacy under pressure they are more likely to maintain or raise their goals, retain their commitment and increase their search for better strategies and improve their performance. Those that lose confidence tend to lower their goals, decrease their efforts, lessen intensity and use fewer strategies to assist (Bandura, 1986).

Commitment
In goal setting, commitment describes the degree to which a person is genuinely attached to and determined to reach their goals. When goals are specific and hard, higher committed individuals report better performance (Locke & Latham 2006). Commitment has been shown to increase when the individual is convinced that the goal is important, attainable or that at least progress can be made towards achieving the goal. Goal commitment and difficulty often work together. The harder the goal the more commitment required. If the goal is easy you don’t need a lot of motivation to get it done. When your working on a difficult task it is likely you will encounter challenges that require a deeper source of inspiration and incentive. In the company work situation encourage the employee to assist in their goal setting process, and keep them informed to ensure that their goals are consistent with the vision of the company.

Incentives and Reward
Monetary incentives have been found to improve performance, with larger incentives resulting in greater performance improvement, but not in all situations (Loche & Latham 2002, Lewin,1958). More recent literature on goal setting suggests that external rewards are not necessary to improve performance (Loche & Latham, 2001). Because goal setting improves performance in the absence of additional rewards, in some instances incentives may be detrimental to performance. Ownership and Acceptance Through active participation in the goal setting process, a person feels ownership toward their goals, which enhances participation and commitment. Previous research supports the idea of ownership and highlights the importance of the nature and manner in which goals are set to achieving desired outcomes (Latham, Erez, & Loche, 1988). In some situations, goals may be assigned rather than self set. In addition to ownership, goal acceptance is particularly relevant when another person is setting a goal for an individual, (e.g. a training coach). The person must either accept or reject the goal. Erez and Zidon (1984) reported that internalised, accepted goals improved performance for the reasoning that goal acceptance determines goal commitment. The acceptance or rejection of the externally imposed goal also depends on the difficulty, the individual’s participation in the process, the credibility of the persons setting the goal and if there are any extrinsic incentives (Latham & Yukl 1975, Turner, Barling, & Zacharotao 2002. Locke & Latham 1990).

Feedback
Another critical determinant of goal effects is the provision of feedback with respect to goal attainment. Feedback allows the person to check the status of their performance in relation to their goal. This then allows for adjustments in behaviour in terms of effort, direction, or strategy if needed. Thus, providing goals, plus feedback has been found to be much more effective than goals alone (Bandura & Cervone, 1983).

Task Complexity
Another moderator of goal effects is task complexity. The task complexity interacts with goals in a variety of ways. When confronted with task related goals people will use their already acquired skills and knowledge to accomplish their goal. When the situation is new they will draw upon skills that they have used before in a similar contextLearning and performance goals are distinguished from each other by Locke and Latham (2002).

Preformance facilitor
Mediators of goal performance include direction, effort, persistence, task specific strategies. Goals affect performance by affecting the direction of action, the degree of effort exerted and the persistence of action over time. The effort required to obtain a goal is proportional to the judged difficulty of the goal. Persistence is the directed effort extended over time. Harder gaols take more persistence than easy goals. In reaching goals it is recognised that planning is required to reach goals. When people are given training in a new strategy they don’t always use it unless it is to attain a goal that cannot otherwise be attained

New directions Goal conflict
When things do not work is when the organizations goal and the goal of the individual manager are in conflict. For example if as a manager I am being paid for the performance or output of my staff and neglecting other company matters like occupational health and safety. Goal conflict undermined performance if it motivates incompatible action tendencies. The same can be said when individual goals do not align with the group goals it has a detrimental effect on group performance (Seijts and Latham 2000).

Short term Long term goal setting
Goals can be short or long-term or a combination of a series of short-term goals linked to one long-term- goal. Studies indicate that no significance difference in performance emerges among performers with short-term, long term, or any combination of both although all outperform people with no goals. It is not performance that is affected by goal proximity but it affects persistence and intrinsic motivation. For example the longterm gaol of graduating in Psychology is a three, four or six year goal. With out constant feedback and positive reinforcements along the way it would be very easy to forfeit the long term goal. Short term gaols give the individual the change to evaluate their performance as being at above or below their goal. Long term goals are more complex and require greater cognitive structures. Whereas short term goal are often considered specific behaviour targets but both are connected. The achievement of a short-term goal increases the probability or attaining another short term goal.

Why people often have ineffective goal pursuit.
Making a list each New Year is very common for many people, goals like I’m going to get more exercise, save money for a holiday or learn to use the computer more effectively. Often on reflection about mid year these goals have fallen be the wayside. Reasons may include: That out goals are structured very poorly, too many goals or goal may conflict with each other. The goals may be too ambiguous, too difficult, or are set too far in the future to serve as useful behaviour guides. The evidence indicates that challenging goals are the most likely to succeed, the proximal distance, and specificity are also important in success. This is more likely when people have strong self efficacy beliefs toward their goals (Bandura 2001).

Another reason for ineffective goal pursuit is that people often fail don’t identify why they want to pursue that particular goal. Often people set goals that don’t represent their interests and personal values and adopt them for external reasons such as social pressure or because it is and expectation of what they should do.( Sheldon & Kasser 1998). Goals that are not endorsed by the self are not likely to motivate the person to persist with the task long term Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001).

A third reason is that people often fail to develop a specific plan on how they will attain their goals. With this comes the failure to ensure their persistence when setbacks or obstacles that occur.

Summary
Case Study: Jean Case Study –Setting Goals-Jean

Stage One

 * This was Jean accessing the service, establishing a relationship with the recovery worker (myself). Collaboratively assessing Jean’s readiness for the program.
 * Identification strength, dialogue of expectations from the service and from her, gathering information, confirming structure of the service, development of proposed plan for active phase.
 * Assessing readiness for goal setting, choosing an area of life for change, discussing with Jean appropriate goal direction or referral for additional or alternative support. Jean was referred to other providers to assist the family with other needs, for example housing, financial planner, assistant workers for the son, health care plans, supported accommodation.

Stage two- Developing a Plan - setting a goal

 * Choosing an area of life- Jean expressed change in her daily living situation, relationship, and her aspirations, hopes and dreams. Her absolute dream was to recommit to her wedding vows with Jim and have the wedding that she had always wanted.  Her first marriage had been in her aunt’s dress and very hurried.
 * Identifying Jean’s core values. Her family being the foremost and building strength within herself if Jim was to die.
 * Match the strengths and values to the possible choices.
 * Choosing the goals. To align the goal with her personal situation so as to make it realistic and achievable. Jeans in the past has many setbacks and no longer planned so as not to fail.
 * The support of significant others was assessed to ensure that positive and encouraging support would be given.
 * The Development of a clear specific statement of action. The goal plan was set in January 2010 with weekly small goals, and monthly goals. Alternative goals were in place if Jim’s health failed.
 * The date was set for the 6th November 2010.

Stage three
Jean had he plan mounted on her wall at home with her weekly tasks that she would tick off. She was given constant visual feedback and feedback from those around her. Over time her confidence grew, when she saw her dream dress she initiated employment for herself and was able to purchase it. Jeans life opportunities have broadened as well as her learning skills. Jean had many moments when she thought that she would have to call off the wedding which had been her response in the past when things were not going to plan. The building of her short term goals gave her the motivation to push through the uncertain and difficult periods. Jean and Jim were married on Saturday 6th November in front of family and friends, it was the wedding Jean had planned for and desired.

Question?
Would you get on a boat if you did not know where it was sailing too?


text:
User talk:Diane M Phillips

 Hello Diane M Phillips, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. Jtneill - Talk - c 07:19, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

 Hello , you can call me Jacob Frank. I'd like to be your mascot and welcome you to Wikiversity. Even though I was a plain and untutored man back in 18th-century Europe, that still didn't stop me from contributing my ideas to the world. Neither should it stop you. As a religious leader who developed the doctrine of "purification through transgression," my advice to you is to be bold and to ignore all rules—yes, these are two of Wikiversity's official policies! Happy editing.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Diane M Phillips


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions

Looking good girlfriend. Keep going.... the end is near and those drinks await us.

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 13:11, 14 December 2010 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Saf3287

 Hello Saf3287, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Saf3287


text:
User talk:Vikaskumardabas

 Hello Vikaskumardabas, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vikaskumardabas


text:
User talk:Tigersnail

 Hello Tigersnail, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Mu301Bot 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions or need help. --mikeu talk 07:17, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tigersnail


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Aggression/Workplace

Purpose of the Chapter
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part of the chapter will discuss the definition of aggression, the biological factors and associated theories. The second part of the chapter will discuss occupational violence and aggression with an emphasis on the identification of violent and aggressive behaviour. This is followed by aggression and violence prevention methods.

Definition
Aggression is a verbal or physical behaviour aimed at harming another person or living being (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Additionally, the perpetrator must believe that the behaviour will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to avoid the behaviour (Baron & Richardson, 1994; Berkowitz, 1993). Aggression may appear appropriate and self-protective, even constructive, as in a healthy self-assertiveness, or inappropriate and destructive. Aggression may be directed outward, against others, or inward, against the self, leading to self-destructive or suicidal actions. Aggression may be driven by emotional arousal, often some form of frustration, or it may be instrumental, when it is used to secure a reward (Anderson & Bushman).

The roots of aggression
The universality of aggression and the individual differences seen in aggressive behaviour have lead to considerable controversy about its origins. Some theories maintain that the roots of aggression lie in biology and evolution, others look to the environment and social learning. In this section of the chapter, we explore instinctual, evolutionary, cognitive-neoassociation and cognitive social approaches. The biopsycholoical processes that underlie aggressive behaviour are also examined.

An instinctual perspective
Theorists supporting this perspective argue that aggression and aggressive drives are instinctual. For example, Sigmund Freud postulated that all humans possess an aggressive drive from birth, which, together with the sexual drive, contributes to personality development and found expression in behaviour. Konrad Lorenz also suggested that aggression is instinctual. He contended that the suppression of aggressive instincts, common among human societies, allows instincts to build up over time, occasionally to the point where they are released during instances of explosive violence.

Interestingly, in every human society ever observed, socialisation to control aggressive impulses is one of the most basis tasks of parenting (Whiting & Child, 1953). Infants and toddlers bite, scratch and kick when they do not get what they want and as children get older, they show less overt aggression (Hartup, 1998). This change in behaviour suggests that aggression relates to frustration, however, societies have to teach children to inhibit aggression, rather than that aggression is primarily learned (as discussed further in the chapter).

An evolutionary perspective
The theorists who viewed aggression as instinctual did not address the evolutionary adaptations of aggression. Aggression, including killing members of one’s own species, occurs in all animals. From an evolutionary standpoint, the capacity for aggression evolved because of its value for survival and reproduction (Lore & Schultz, 1993). Males typically attack other males to obtain access to females and to keep or takeover territory. Contemporary evolutionary psychologists believe that humans, like other animals, have evolved aggressive mechanisms that can be activated when circumstances threaten their survival, reproduction, the reproductive success of their offspring or the survival of their mating partner.

Neural systems
The neural systems that control aggression are hierarchically organised. Neurons in the hypothalamus are part of circuits regulated by the cortex and the amygdala and hypothalamus are involved in emotional reactions and drive states. When Egger and Flynn (1963) and Robinson, Alexander and Brown (1969) electrically stimulated regions of the lateral hypothalamus of cats and rhesus monkeys, the animals immediately attacked. According to King (1961), similar results occured in humans when electrodes were implanted in the amygdala. Creating legions in parts of the midbrain can also eliminate an animal’s ability to respond with species-typical aggressive motor movements, suggesting a substantial role for midbrain structures in aggression (Carlson, 1999). Other factors, including learning difficulties, brain damage, brain abnormalities, such as temporal lobe epilepsy, and social factors such as crowding and poverty have been suggested to certain cases of aggressive behaviour (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

Hormones
Studies being performed in endocrinology are being undertaken to determine whether hormonal imbalances have an impact on behaviour as hormones play a substantial role in the tendency to behave aggressively (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). In all species, males are more aggressive than females, and these sex differences appear to be linked to action of the hormone testosterone both before birth and during development (Archer & Lloyd, 1985). Throughout the world, men fight more often that women and are more likely to get arrested for violent crimes (Gianakos, 2002). Moreover, young adult men, who have the highest testosterone levels, also have the highest rate of aggressive behaviours and violent crimes (Gianakos, 2002). Women commit violent acts also, but they are usually more minor attacks (Gianakos, 2002.).

Men convicted of violent crimes also tend to have higher testosterone levels than non-violent offenders (Archer, 1991). However the problem with drawing conclusions about the relationship between testosterone and aggression is that the two constructs represent something of a chicken–egg problem. Although testosterone may increase aggression, behaving aggressively can also increase testosterone (Archer, Birrring & Wu, 1998).

Testosterone is not the only hormone that has been linked to aggression. A number of other studies in humans and other animals associate aggression with low serotonin levels (Cleare & Bond, 1997; Suomi, 2000). Additionally, researchers have found that intentionally lowering serotonin levels decreases tolerance for frustration and increases the likelihood of aggression.

Testosterone is linked to social dominance and thus lead to aggression in the service of maintaining status within a social hierarchy (Olweus, 1988). Serotonin is linked to impulsivity (acting without thinking) and thus leads to unprovoked and socially inappropriate forms of aggression (Higley, Mehlman, Taub, Higley, Suomi, Linnoila, & Vickers, 1992).

Summary
Instinctual theorists view aggression as an inborn potential usually activated by frustration. Evolutionary theorists similarly view aggression as inborn human potential that gets activated under conditions that affect reproductive success, such as competing for territory or mates and protecting oneself and related others. The neural control of aggression is hierarchically organised, with the amygdala, hypothalamus and cortex (particularly the frontal lobes) playing prominent roles. Aggression is also partially controlled by hormones, particularly testosterone and serotonin. {{Hide in print| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=.}}

Test Your Knowledge 1
'''PLEASE NOTE: THERE ARE 20 QUIZ QUESTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER. IF YOU WOULD LIKE TO COMPLETE ALL 20 QUESTIONS, DO NOT PRESS SUBMIT UNTIL YOU HAVE COMPLETED 'TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 4.

{High levels of seretonin is associated with high levels of aggression. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{According to evolutionary theorists, aggressive mechanisms may be activated in animals when circumstances threaten survival. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Human aggression is any behaviour directed toward another individual that is carried out with the immediate intent to cause harm. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{There was no response in humans when electrodes were implanted into their amygdalas. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Social learning theorists believe that all humans possess an aggressive drive from birth that influences behaviour. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

}}

Cognitive neoassociation theory
Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears (1939) proposed one of the first theories of aggression, the frustration-aggression hypothesis. This theory states that when people are frustrated in achieving a goal, they become aggressive. A reformulated frustration-aggression hypothesis developed by Berkowitz (1989) suggests that aversive events such as frustrations, provocations, loud noises, uncomfortable temperatures and unpleasant odours produce an unpleasant negative emotion (negative affect). Negative affect produced by unpleasant experiences automatically stimulates various thoughts, memories, expressive motor reactions and physiological responses associated with both fight and flight tendencies. The fight associations give rise to feelings of anger, whereas the flight associations give rise to feelings of fear. Furthermore, cognitive neoassociation theory assumes that cues present during an aversive event become associated with the event and with the cognitive and emotional responses triggered by the event (Berkowitz, 1989). Berkowitz (1989) contended that all animals learn the most effective response to an aversive occurrence (one where the expected reward is denied), whether it be fight or flight.

A cognitive-social perspective
The capacity for aggression appears to be innate but the activation and inhibition of aggression may very much depend on culture and learning. According to social learning theorists (Bandura, 1977; Mischel, 1973), people acquire aggressive responses the same way they acquire other complex forms of social behaviour, either by direct experience or by observing others. Social learning theory explains the acquisition of aggressive behaviours via observational learning processes. The theory also provides a useful set of concepts for understanding and describing the beliefs and expectations that guide social behaviour (Bandura, 1977; Mischel, 1973). Albert Bandura performed studies that indicated that aggression is a learned behaviour. Using children in his studies, he demonstrated that by watching another person act aggressively and obtain desirable rewards or by learning through personal experience that such behaviour yields rewards, aggression can be learned.

The script theory
Huesmann (1986) proposed that children who observe violent behaviour in the media learn aggressive scripts. According to Huesmann (1986), scripts define situations and define behaviour. The person first selects a script that fits the situation and they then assume a role in the script. Once a script has been learned, the person may retrieve it at a later time and use it as a guide for behaviour.

The general aggression model
The general aggression model (GAM) was created to give meaning to the myriads of theories that currently exist to explain aggression. Incorporating what researchers viewed as the best of each of the earlier theories of aggression, the GAM explains how a person and situation input variables influence aggression through the cognitions, emotions and arousal they generate (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). In short, person variables, such as personality traits, genetics, attitudes, values and scripts interact with situational variables, including aggressive cues, provocation and aversive situations, to produce particular cognitions and feelings. For example, if a highly aggressive individual is placed in a situation where guns are present, the guns will activate aggressive scripts that will subsequently drive aggressive behaviour (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

Aggression and gender
Gender differences in aggression appear consistent across cultures. In most societies, males commit over 90% of criminal and aggressive acts. Gender differences also exist in the types of aggression most likely to be perpetrated by men and women. Whereas men engage in more direct aggression, women perpetrate aggression more indirectly. For example, males are more likely bully their peers through verbal or physical aggression. Females on the other hand, are more likely to socially exclude or ostracise their target.

In light of the fact that males possess higher levels of testosterone and report higher levels of aggression, in the workplace, this is yet to be proven. Gianakos (2002) examined the issue of anger in the workplace and found that gender does not relate to anger in the workplace. Further research must be undertaken in this area.

Summary
According to cognitive-social theories, the roots of aggressive behaviour lie in social rewards, punishments and cognitive processes such as observational learning. The general aggression model states that person variables interact with situational inputs to determine aggressive output. The capacity for aggression appears to be innate, but the activation and inhibition of aggression also depends on culture, scripts and learning. Research suggests that males are more likely to exhibit direct forms of aggressive behaviour, whereas females are more likely to exhibit indirect forms of aggressive behaviour.

Occupational violence and aggression
Occupational violence and aggression is the attempted or actual exercise by a person of any force to cause injury to a worker, including any threatening statement or behaviour which gives a worker reasonable cause to believe he or she is at risk (Mayhew, 2000). Occupational violence and aggression includes any incidents by which an employee is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances arising out of, or during the course of, their employment (Mayhew, 2000). Occupational violence and aggression has received increasing attention since the 1980s as high profile reports of violence and aggression in the workplace have found their way into the media. Additional reasoning for its increased growth as a prominent social issue is due to its significant legal, economic, and emotional ramifications for employers and employees. Occupational aggression can result in fatality, physical injury or psychological harm (Mayhew, 2000).

Violent and aggressive behaviour in the workplace includes: Verbal abuse, threats, physical violence, behaviours that create an environment of fear, stalking, bullying amongst workers or between managers and workers, and behaviours that lead to stress or avoidance behaviour in the recipient. Other violence risk factors include: management toleration of bullying, job insecurity, workers facing unemployment with little chance of re- employment, a loss of self-esteem and stability among workers, and disciplinary suspensions (Mullen, 1997; Witkowski, 1995). However, the usual basis for violence or aggression in the workplace is the consequence of a disgruntled employee who threatens a co-worker or supervisor for what is perceived as unfair treatment (LeBlanc, & Kelloway, 2002). The advancement of female workers may further contribute to the resentment felt by some males who perceive they have been passed over unfairly (Mullen, 1997).

Verbal abuse and threats are the most common forms of internal violence and aggression (Gianakos, 2002). While internal violence and aggression is usually face-to-face, inappropriate behaviour can be communicated via email, telephone, or through exclusion of the recipient. The perpetrators of aggression and violence act as they do because of envy, fear of their own inadequacy, experience of childhood bullying, provocation, and an inability to manage their own aggression (Gates, 1995). The recipients of workplace violence and aggression are commonly more attractive, confident, successful, qualified and popular than the perpetrators. The recipients may also be different in some way, for example ethnicity or age (Gaymer, 1999). While some bullying activities are obvious, others are subtle and covert. It is often reported that inappropriate behaviour develops slowly over time and perpetrators may not even be aware of the impact of their conduct (Mayhew, 2000).

Can Aggression be Acceptable in the Workplace?

"“A highly competitive business environment with increased competition between workers can elevate stress levels and increase the potential for violence. Quasi-military hierarchical and rigid management styles, and marked supervisor/employee divisions, exacerbate a “them and us” culture, foster resentment and anger, and increase the probability of violent events. Nonetheless, there are a few specific jobs that require “role play” exposure to intimidation and extreme stress during training and re-training periods. For example, verbal harassment and extreme physical demands are standard during some aspects of training in the military—in order to prepare recruits for possible capture by a future enemy and to enhance survival chances. Such legitimate training is distinctly different to the occasional reports of non-sanctioned initiation/bastardisation rituals inflicted by perpetrators who were themselves victimised as cadets, for example in the Australian navy”."

.

Source: Mayhew, C. 2000. Preventing violence within organisations: A practical Handbook. Australian Institute of Criminology, 29, p.5.

Incidence of occupational violence and aggression
Johnson and Indvik (2000) suggested that one out of four employees are angry at work and employees aged 18 to 34 years are more than four times likely to report feeling angry compared to employees aged 50 years and over. Moreover, 35 per cent of Australians had been on the receiving end of verbal abuse from a co-worker, and 31 per cent from a supervisor (Mayhew, 2000). According to Cortina, Magley, Williams and Langhout (2001) 71 percent of workers have been subjected to negative behaviour in the workplace. Much of the research in this area examined direct aggression with a clear intent to physically harm (Campion, Medsker, & Higgs, 1993; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979).

Numerous studies have suggested that violence rarely “comes out of the blue”, but is commonly preceded by behaviour that indicates a potential for violence (Speer, 1997). The best predictor of future aggression remains past aggressive behaviour. Supervisors or employees with a history of assaults, or who have exhibited belligerent, intimidating or threatening behaviours, are higher risk (Chappell & Di Martino, 1998; Cherry & Upston, 1997). White males in the age range 30 to 50 years, who are married with families, and who have been employed with the organisation for some time may be more common perpetrators of violence (Capozzoli & McVey 1996; Dale, Tobin, & Wilson, 1997; Heskett, 1996. Recent or imminent job loss can be another high-risk factor (Myers, 1996). However, relying on profiles is a dangerous practice, as violent and aggressive behaviours have been committed by a range of people under a variety of circumstances.

Summary
Occupational violence and aggression is the attempted or actual exercise by a person of any force to cause injury to a worker, including any threatening statement or behaviour which gives a worker reasonable cause to believe he or she is at risk. Violent and aggressive behaviour includes verbal abuse, threats, physical violence, stalking, bullying and behaviours that lead to stress or avoidance behaviour. The best predictor of future aggression remains past aggressive behaviour. {{Hide in print| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=.}}

Test Your Knowledge 3
{Occupational violence and aggression includes any incidents by which an employee is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances arising from their private life. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Stalking a work colleague constitutes aggression. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{The recipients of workplace violence and aggression are commonly more attractive and confident. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Aggressive behaviour is unacceptable in every organisation because it is inappropriate and offensive. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Younger people report feeling more angry at work than older people. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

Consequences of occupational violence and aggression
Any form of violence can have serious effects on the workforce, employer, and recipient, and negative productivity and profitability impacts can even threaten organisational survival. Moreover, it has been argued that aggression experienced in the workplace has more negative consequences on the individual than aggression experienced in other settings (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Schilling, 1989). The potential consequences of aggression and violence include high levels of anxiety, depression (Bjorkqvist, Osterman and Hjelt-Back, 1994), stress-related illness, higher levels of absenteeism and turnover amongst recipients; diminished productivity, lower job satisfaction and employee involvement (Reynolds, 1994; Wynne, Clarkin, Cox, & Griffiths). Morrison (2008) investigated the link between perceptions of negative workplace relationships and organisational outcomes. The results indicated that those employees who experienced at least one negative relationship at work were significantly less satisfied with their employment, reported less organisational commitment, were part of less cohesive workgroups and were more likely to seek other employment. Overall, experiencing violence and aggression in the workplace affects the quality of people’s private lives and their overall satisfaction with their employment (Burke & Greenglass, 1987).

If a recipient of violence and aggression is engaged in insecure employment, they may be less willing to report lower-level violence because of job loss fears. The personal emotional trauma and costs from perceived or real threats may be "considerable and cumulate" (Mayhew, 2000). Depression amongst recipients is likely to be significantly exacerbated by non-supportive colleagues who wish to avoid involvement and protect their own jobs, and so they ignore the pain experienced by recipients, exclude them, and may even “blame the victim” (Mayhew, 2000).

The manager and organisational culture
Management style and organisational culture can influence the occurrence of occupational violence and aggression, as managers can have a significant impact on an organisation’s culture (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). However, it is often difficult to make a clear distinction between “bad management” that contributes to a violent culture and inappropriately coercive management behaviour (Mayhew, 2000). Irrespective of intent, primary legal responsibility for prevention of occupational violence rests with the employer and management within the organisation (Strachan, French, & Burgess). If violent or aggressive behaviours have been ignored, tolerated or worse yet, allowed to take place, the perpetrator may believe the behaviour to be acceptable and normal. Support for the recipient and strong enforcement of behavioural change and behaviour monitoring should be used in cases such as these. Management should also take precautions to ensure that recipients are not in receipt of further victimisation through effective implementation of policies and strategies. Moreover, managers that foster teamwork and improve employer/employee communication will help reduce the potential for occupational violence and aggression (Mayhew, 2000).

Training
Training for workplace violence and aggression prevention should be included in induction and re-training courses as well as for “at risk” staff (Mayhew, 2000). Topics covered in this type of training should include the policy and strategies in place, risk identification, risk assessment, and risk control procedures, warning signs of potential violence and aggression and appropriate responses; security provisions and emergency plans; interpersonal relations and skills for diffusing aggression; and incident reporting procedures (Mayhew). Employees must also be taught that the failure to report one-off incidents may put others at risk at a later stage.

Occupational Violence and Aggression: The Volcano Metaphor
By David Van Fleet and Ella Van Fleet.

An easy way to conceptualise the process by which seemingly simple events build toward violence is to use the metaphor of a volcano. A volcano sits dormant until events occur that lead to its eruption. Many individuals appear to be relatively unruffled by other individuals or events until gradually stress and anger build up – often from multiple sources, leading to dysfunctional behaviour and eventually violence. Just as volcanoes tend to rumble, tremble and even spew to give warning signs of impending threat, so do individuals who are about to “go postal”. However, the slowness or swiftness with which an individual moves through the sequential phases can vary greatly, from many months to only a few hours. Thus, predicting when and how violently either will erupt is still possible. However, successful intervention is more likely when we understand how the Violence Volcano operates.

The reaction phase

In the beginning, one or more annoyances occur that frustrate and aggravate an individual. They may very well be minor happenings (family arguments, poor performance ratings, put-downs by associates) so that it is the cumulative effect that really sets things off. Alternatively, there could be a single, major event (e.g., rejection, divorce, or job termination) that starts the Violence Volcano to bubble. In either case, the individual consciously or subconsciously treats the event as a provocation and reacts accordingly.

The rejection phase

Depending upon whether this was a series of events, a single or major event, the individual begins the rejection stage by reacting in a relatively quiet way. He or she may try to hurt or annoy those believed to be the cause of his or her troubles by refusing to do what is needed or expected. In other words, the Violence Volcano may rumble a bit, but only the volcanologist is concerned at this point. The reaction may take on one or more forms such as:

 * Playing forgetful - failing to perform normal chores or to complete projects on time;
 * Playing dumb - "I didn't know what you wanted";
 * Playing only by the rules - "But that's not my job";
 * Slowing down - "I'm working on it".

The individual is then rejecting others by refusing to cooperate and may even cut off people or psychologically deny their existence by refusing to acknowledge them, giving them the "cold shoulder." The individual becomes increasingly defiant over time.

The expression phase

At the expression phase, the Violence Volcano begins to release some of its steam, which may cause other individuals to become concerned but also helps to delay actual eruption. At this point negative emotions build and the Violence Volcano starts to "rumble" as the individual begins to reveal anger and frustration through verbal or behavioral expression such as the following:

 * Spreading rumours and gossip to harm others;
 * Making unwanted sexual comments or innuendo;
 * Arguing with co-workers, customers, vendors, and management;
 * Exhibiting bullying behaviour;
 * Blaming others in an attempt to create a scapegoat, to enlist support from neutral parties, or to transfer blame from self.

These sorts of articulations or demonstrations act as manifestations of the growing problem. Everyone begins to become increasingly aware that something is wrong with the individual, that he or she is hurt, upset, and very angry.

The escalation phase

In this phase, the individual escalates his or her behavior. The Violence Volcano now sends some very noticeable signals that are recognisable by persons in the surrounding area as well as to the experts. Bullying behavior may mushroom in this escalation phase. There may be a proliferation of negative feelings toward the organisation. The individual may express feelings of being victimised by management or begin openly to defy company policies and procedures. He or she may argue more frequently and heatedly with customers, vendors, coworkers and management. The individual may swear, yell at others, or send sexual or violent notes to co-workers or management. He or she may express a desire to hurt co-workers or management and threaten retaliation if demands are not met. All of this is an amplification of the process and pushes the Violence Volcano toward its ultimate outcome.

The intensification phase

As negative emotions intensify, the individual comes close to "losing it." He or she starts to display dysfunctional behavior, to show signs of going ballistic or berserk. For example, the individual may physically limit another person's activities as to where to go, what to do, or with whom to talk. He or she may block the path of another person in the workplace or actually grab and hold them while berating, threatening, or making sexually suggestive remarks or gestures. He or she may stalk a perceived enemy or display intense anger in the form of:

 * Abusive or threatening language;
 * Suicidal threats;
 * Physical fights; or
 * Destruction of property.

The eruption phase

We all know what happens when a volcano finally erupts, spewing its fiery lava in a killer rage. Similarly, the Violence Volcano finally erupts and the individual acts or reacts in a forceful, reprehensible manner, such as sabotaging equipment or stealing property for revenge. The individual may also use weapons to harm others. Lives or other company assets are now at stake, and the consequences of the individual's action will be costly and long lasting.

Source: Van Fleet, D.D. & Van Fleet, E.W. (2007). Preventing workplace violence: the violence volcano metaphor. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 12, 17-30.

Pre-employment tools
It is generally easier to prevent violence arising in the first place than it is to intervene after inappropriate behaviours have commenced. Pre-employment processes can include careful screening of potential employees to reduce the likelihood of hiring those who have previously engaged in violence (Mayhew, 2000). For example, careful reading of applications, checking of work history for rapid turnover of jobs, scrutiny of references, and clarification of reasons for periods away from work can reduce the risk of inappropriate hiring (Randall, 1997).

Summary
Any form of violence can have serious effects on the workforce, employer, and recipient. Management style and organisational culture can influence the occurrence of occupational violence and aggression, as managers can have a significant impact on an organisation’s culture. Primary legal responsibility for prevention of occupational violence rests with the employer and management within the organisation. Training for workplace violence and aggression prevention should be provided to all staff. The volcano metaphor is an effective way to identify potential and actual aggressive behaviour.

{{Hide in print| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=.}}

Test Your Knowledge 4
{Organisational culture can influence the occurrence of occupational violence and aggression. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{The Violent Volcano suggests that failing to perform normal chores or to complete projects on time is part of the rejection phase. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{The Violent Volcano suggests that when a person gets into a physical fight they have reached the escalation phase. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{The potential consequences of aggression and violence include high levels of anxiety and depression. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Primary legal responsibility for prevention of occupational violence rests with the employer. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}

}}


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Adolescence

Introduction
Emotional responses during adolescence are felt with increase intensity and can have a great impact on the individual’s psychological wellbeing (Elkind & Bowen, 1979). The definition of adolescent emotion is difficult to pinpoint however this chapter will present you with different components that influence adolescent emotion and give you ample opportunity to stop and reflect on your own experiences. Before we begin think back to when you were going through the emotional ride that is adolescence. Do you remember this period of your life as emotionally positive, negative or neutral - or a combination of these?

Definition
Emotion is difficult to in a simplistic manner. Emotions are a multidimensional aspect of human life and have many components that lead to every day outputs. Emotions are often described as feelings, however, they are much more. Emotions are complex and are made up of much more than a passing mood of either positive or negative (Powell, 1984). Emotions may be purposive, biological, and subjective to circumstances or as a result of social surroundings (Izard, 1993). Emotional responses or occurrences happen to people as a contrast to being actively initiated by an individual (Powell, 1984).

Adolescent definition
The definition of adolescence is almost as hard to find a consensus on as emotion. For ease of definition adolescence can be describes as the period that occurs between childhood and adulthood. In this period an individual encounters may self realisations and transitionary occurrences (Hall,1904) It was during this stage of development that G. Stanley Hall theorised that risky behaviour, mood alterations and conflict with parents was likely to occur with increased frequency.

Primary Emotions
Primary emotions are those that we feel as an immediate reaction to a stimulus. These emotions are not consciously thought about and are a result of instincts (Parrott, 2001). For example, when we are told that our pet has died we feel sadness. Examples of primary emotions include fear, sadness, happiness and anger. Theoretically speaking there is not a great deal of consensus when it comes to the how many emotions a human encompasses, however, it can be narrowed down to at least two (Solomon,1980) to around ten (Izard, 1993).

Secondary learned emotions
Secondary emotions are those that occur after an individual has encountered a primary emotion or as a result of a string of emotional analysis. Learned emotions are those that arise out of social interactions or situations. These emotions include shame, guilt and envy (Macmillan, 1994.) These types of emotions are encountered during adolescence as it is a time in which peer interaction and independence starts to become highly valued.

Examples of primary, secondary and tertiary emotions that are experienced by individuals (Parrott, 2001)

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is an important component that aids in the way emotions are expressed and interpreted. The way in which an individual processes emotions affects the way that they interact in their relationships (Goleman, 1997). Emotional Intelligence is defined as the way we exhibit, interpret and understand emotions. Although it is theorised that during childhood emotional development occurs adolescence is where the more complex issues and challenges arise. Equipped with the knowledge accumulated in childhood an adolescent begins to navigate their way through new territory. Emotional intelligence has many versions that identify sub sections. We will now examine some of those that Goleman identified as prevalent in adolescence:

Self awareness
This is the trait that allows individuals to recognise and identify their own emotions. It allows individuals to use their emotions to make decisions and understand how their actions will impact on others. This is an emotional development that is particularly important in adolescence. This trait allows the adolescent to be aware of their own emotions and repercussions of their actions. This trait can eventually be used as a skill to aide in relating to others and increase social interaction capabilities.

Self management
This trait allows an individual to identify correct emotional responses in regards to situational changes. This trait is important to adolescents as it allows the identification of correct emotional outputs. Adolescents can use this situational awareness as a foundation for all future interactions and as a way to achieve optimal relationships. It has been theorised that this trait enables alteration of emotional output to achieve desired results (Marriage & Cummins, 2004).

Understanding emotion
This trait allows individuals to interpret and identify the subtle differences in emotions felt within one ’s self and those that are elicited by others. It allows for a greater depth in relationships and a meaningful understanding of emotional exchange. This is important for adolescence as it is the developmental stage where they test relationships and encounter a spectrum of emotions in different contexts. Understanding emotions will allow attention and motivation that enhances relationships of individuals and groups (Lewis & Haviland, 2000).

Managing emotions
This aspect enables individuals to control emotional responses of both themselves and others to achieve desired responses. This is important for adolescents as it gives them an opportunity to regulate and steer emotional responses and allows greater control. When an adolescent becomes able to manage the emotions of self and others it will lead to positive effects in all roles and aspects of their life (Hartel, Zerbe & Ashkanasy, 2005).

Emotions prominent in adolescents
Emotions during this stage of psychological development can aide in the development of self concept and advance social understanding, but can also cause a great deal of psychological stress and harm. This section will concentrate on four aspects of adolescent emotion that are easily relatable to most individuals.

Self consciousness
Adolescence is a time when individuals go through a heightened period of self consciousness (Elkind & Bowen, 1979). During puberty an individual’s body goes through many growth stages and as such new developments must be accepted and embraced. The acceptance of new physical appearances is often not easy for adolescent individuals who view their new phase as awkward or not easily adapted to. The emotion of self consciousness is one that drives many additional emotions including romantic emotions, depression and stress. An individual’s self concept is extremely important and is related to many other components of emotion and psychological wellbeing. Adolescents who experience the emotion of self consciousness are more likely to internalise failures and experiences which in turn increases the emotion (Garber, Weiss, & Shanley, 1993).

Romantic feelings
The adolescent time period is one that most of us can look back on and think of our first memory of romantic emotion. Memories that may spring to mind while reminiscing over your first experience of romantic emotions could be the first flutter of your heart, first kiss or first sexual encounter. Many of the most powerful feelings that an adolescent will encounter are those that are as a result of attachment formation. Attachment formation is interpreted as falling in love and the maintenance of the attachment is known as being in love (Bowlby, 1980). It has been suggested that romantic emotions that are felt during adolescence are important to emerging and establishing the self concept as they are interconnected in emotional intensity and variability (Connolly & Konarski, 1994). Studies have shown that by mid to late adolescence most individuals have experienced the emotion of love (Feiring, 1996). It is suggested that in early adolescence the emotion of love is closely related to friendship as it allows adolescence an opportunity to practice forms of disclosure with someone they already feel comfortable with (Brown, 1999). As adolescence progresses there is a greater importance placed on closeness, compatibility and companionship (Furman & Wehner, 1994). Below is a short saying about what adolescent females should look for in a prospective partner and encompasses the short, sweet simplicities that is a first love.

Depression
Adolescence has been identified as a peak period in which individuals are at risk of developing depression and encountering the negative effects that are associated with depressive disorders (Lewinsohn, Joiner, & Rohde, 2001). Depression is more than just feelings of sadness and when left untreated can contribute to acts of self harm, self sabotage and suicide (Beyond Blue). Evidence that suggests an association between depressive symptoms exhibited in adolescence and the quality of intimate relationships has been presented by various studies (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1998). Depression during adolescence may arise from many avenues just as it can throughout the lifespan, however, a prevalent theme behind the emotion of depression in adolescence is bullying. Bullying is listed as the number one cause of adolescent depression and is one that causes emotions to be overwhelming and at times unmanageable (Beyond Blue).

Are you depressed?
To view checklists of depression please check out the link below:
 * http://www.beyondblue.org.au/index.aspx?link_id=89.677

For more information on adolescent depression please view the link below:
 * From www.BeyondBlue.org.au

Stress
Stress is an emotion that is a recurrent theme throughout the developmental stages of our life. Teenage years are no exception and many individuals remember adolescence as some of the most stressful years of their lives with social, school and body image pressures listed as high stress points (Buchanan & Holmbeck, 1998). It has been suggested that adolescence may be a stage where heightened stress is expected and therefore encountered. From childhood we are told that the teen years are some of the most fun but also most stressful years of our lives. We are told that puberty brings awkwardness and the result of our schooling could determine the opportunities that we are presented in life. This notion may lead us to notice situations or behavioural cues that are consistent with evoking the emotion of stress and ignoring those that are inconsistent with such emotional cues (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Stress can also be particularly useful as a tool. The emotional trigger of stress within an individual can signify an imbalance and activate self preservation and as such act as a motivator (Nurmi, 2004). For example, how many times have you left an assignment until the night before its due date to start? The assignment was given with an ample time frame and normally there are plenty of opportunities in the weeks before hand to seek help and clarification from staff. The answer to this question is usually ‘I work better when I am stressed’. Stress can be the emotional trigger that allows people to commit to a task or focus on an objective.

Summary
Emotions are complex and are made up of much more than a passing mood of either positive or negative (Powell, 1984). During adolescence emotion is experienced with increased intensity and can have a greater impact on the individual’s psychological wellbeing (Elkind & Bowen, 1979). The intensity of emotion felt within this time period can place an individual at risk of many psychological problems (Beyond Blue). Emotions during this time period enable individuals to develop a sense of emotional control and variability (Connolly & Konarski, 1994).


text:
User:Yuchristine

3.2
To find the probability that a point chosen at random in the larger region below will land in the smaller shaded region, you have to find the area of the shaded region and divide it by the area of the entire, larger region. You find the areas because that will give you the probability of the point being in the shaded region. Probability is expresses the chances that something can occur. It is chance/number of having a certain wanted outcome divided by the total number of all possible outcomes. To find the respective areas, use the formula A = (b/2)+n-1 where b is the number of lattice points on the border of the polygon and n is the number of lattice points inside the polygon. So, you would have [(4/2)+1-1]/[(4/2)+9-1] which eventually becomes 1/5 after simplifying. So, the probability that a point chosen at random will land in th smaller shaded region is 1/5. Christine Yu

Yuchristine 04:05, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User:Yuchristine