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KOIIA/De los Reyes, Molin & Mulinari, Eriksson-Zetterquist & Styhre, Peterson & Hjerm, Caldas-Coulthard & Iedema

Reading log, Catarina Schmidt de los Reyes, Paulina, Molina, Irene & Mulinari, Diana (2005) Eriksson-Zetterquist, Ulla & Styhre, Alexander (2007) Peterson, Abby & Hjerm, Mikael (2007) Caldas-Coulthard, Rosa Carmen & Iedema, Rick (2008)

'''MAKTENS (O)LIKA FÖRKLÄDNADER. KÖN, KLASS & ETNICITET I DET POSTKOLONIALA SVERIGE'''

Boken, ”Maktens olika förklädnader” är en festskrift till Wuokko Knocke. Boken igenom citeras just Knocke, som, enligt redaktörerna, ”är ett välkänt namn inom svensk arbetslivsforskning” och har givit ”viktiga insikter om det svenska arbetslivet i ett europeiskt sammanhang” (s. 11). Syftet med boken är att hedra Knocke genom texter som diskuterar kön, klass och etnicitet i Sverige. Redaktörerna (de los Reyes, Molina & Mulinari) menar att boken kan läsas som en ”postkolonial lägesrapport om Sverige i början på det nya millenniet” (s. 12). I maktens olika förklädnader ryms, enligt författarna, det faktum att även maktrelationer mellan kvinnor behöver problematiseras och de slår i första kapitlet fast att ”klass och etnicitet utgör starka differentieringsgrunder mellan kvinnorna i Sverige” (s. 11). Ett exempel är ensamstående mödrar där man kan se en sällan problematiserad heteronormativ differentiering. Ett annat exempel är hur genusforskningen använt begreppet ”invandrarkvinnor” och i och med det ”bidragit till att skapa och vidmakthålla bilden av ”den andra kvinnan”” (s. 13).

När det gäller den postkoloniala feminismen har den, enligt författarna, varit ett viktigt bidrag för att ”synliggöra hur kvinnor i regionen utanför Europa konstrueras som annorlunda” och i och med det befinner sig utanför det feministiska projektet. Detsamma gäller synen på tredje världen som outvecklad och omodern. Författarna menar att detta bidrar till ett undvikande av problematisering och ett icke ifrågasättande av sakernas tillstånd; att ”människor kan placeras i olika stadier i en ”naturlig” utvecklingsskala (s. 17). Den postkoloniala feminismen har, menar författarna, också bidragit till att ge teoretiska redskap för att överhuvudtaget kunna analysera rasismen i dagens samhälle. Kolonisering handlar inte bara om erövrande av land och naturtillgångar utan också om den ideologi som rättfärdigar detta genom att systematiskt konstruera de koloniserade som ”de andra”. Ett uttryck för denna ideologi är rashygienismen som utvecklades och blev akademiskt förankrat i Uppsala, och det är dessa tankar som, enligt författarna, ligger till grund för dagens kulturrasism. Författarna förklarar kulturrasism som att det definierar det typiskt svenska; ”sökandet efter en svensk identitet tyder på att indelningen av befolkningen idag inte bygger på rasmässiga skillnader i biologisk mening, utan nu är det kulturen som dominerar retoriken” (s. 19). Det är genom att koppla rasismen till det koloniala projektet och till dessa nutida differentieringsformer som författarna menar är en framtida väg för ett mer nyanserat samhälle. De understryker att rasismen är ”nyckelkategori” (s. 21) för att förstå och se denna differentiering. Precis som många andra diskuterar författarna hur motsatspar som kvinnor/män, arbete/kapital, invandrare/svenskar etc. bidrar till förgivettaganden. Motsatspar är inga essentiella kategorier, de behöver istället, menar författarna, problematiseras. Med detta tänkesätt ställs i stort sett allting på sin spets. Utgångspunkten för författarna blir att ”diskussionen om makt och maktens (o)lika förklädnader bör föras inom en teoretisk ram som blottlägger ojämlikhetens historiska och rumsliga dimensioner” (s. 26).

I kapitel fem beskriver Diana Mulinari, docent i sociologi vid Lunds universitet, hur en bakomliggande ideologi kan bidra till dölja och osynliggöra rasism. Mulinari hänvisar till Robert Miles (1982) som menar att ”rasismen är en ideologi som döljer kopplingen mellan rasifierad arbetskraft och den kapitalistiska ekonomin” (s. 107). Idéerna har dock ingen makt i sig själva – makten ligger istället, enigt Miles tankesätt som Mulinari refererar, hos den härskande klassen och staten. Mulinari redovisar även kritik av Miles sätt att begränsa ideologiska processer till dessa två aktörer, kritik som handlar om att definitionen bör expanderas så att den täcker in ”alla typer av diskurser och praktiker som syftar till att nedvärdera grupper utifrån antaganden om deras biologiska och/eller kulturella egenskaper” (s. 109). Denna sista definition identifierar då både världsbilder och kopplingar mellan dessa. I förekommer självklart rasism, men ordet ”ras” används inte. Mulinari pekar på att medan kategorin ”ras” saknas så är kategorierna ”svenskar” och ”invandrare” närvarande. Vad innebär det då om ”ras” utgör en ideologisk konstruktion? I det sista och avslutande kapitlet ifrågasätter Molia och de los Reyes slutligen lämpligheten i att använda begreppet etnicitet. De gör det på följande grunder:

Att hävda att ”ras” utgör en ideologisk konstruktion innebär att erkänna att denna kategori har sina rötter i själva produktionen av sociala meningar. En förutsättning för att motverka diskriminering är därför att problematisera de föreställningar som ger grund till diskriminerande attityder. Därför är det också nödvändigt att ifrågasätta lämpligheten i att använda begreppet etnicitet istället för ras för att benämna den tillskrivna och föreställda kategori som ställer de människor som placeras inom olika ”etniciteter”. (s. 315)

Författarna menar att ett okritiskt användande av begreppet etnicitet bidrar till att essentialisera olikheter mellan människor, något som gör att föreställningar om oföränderlighet skapas. Rasism behöver, menar de, finnas med i en diskussion där ”individernas fulla medborgerliga rättigheter och möjligheter till deltagande inte begränsas av hudfärg, ursprung, kön eller andra differentieringsmekanismer, som idén om alla människors lika värde inte kan realiseras.

ORGANISERING OCH INTERSEKTIONALITET

Ulla Eriksson-Zetterquist är fil.dr i företagsekonomi vid Göterborgs universitet och Alexander Styhre är biträdande professor vid Chalmers tekniska högskola. Bokens syfte är, enligt författarna, ”att ge läsarna en förståelse för de sociala kategorier som de själva ingår i och är med och konstruerar” (s. 207). Begreppet intersektionalitet är centralt liksom hur detta ter sig inom olika organisationer. Ett sätt att förklara intersektion, enligt författarna, är bilden av en linje som korsar en annan, ett annat är att man ser till flera kategorier samtidigt. Författarna hänvisar till Lycke (2003) och slår fast att intersektionalitet har sin bakgrund i postmodern teori, feministisk teori, postkolonial teori, afroamerikansk feministisk teori, teori om etnicitet, klassteori och queerteori och de betonar vikten av att ”se till både etnicitet, hudfärg, kön, klass, sexualitet, religion, ålder och liknande kategorier” (s. 10). Deras slutsats blir att dessa begrepp inte går att bryta ner isolerade från varandra, det handlar istället om att ”se hur olika analytiska kategorier griper in i varandra och samvarierar” (s. 13) eftersom de befinner sig i en ömsesidig relation med varandra. Författarna har med ett citat från Rosi Braidotti (2006, 94) som illustrerar detta:

It is absolutely the case that one is not a Muslim on Tuesday and a	European on Wednesday, a woman on Monday, black on Sunday and lesbian on Thursday afternoon. These variables coexist in time. They also intersect, coincide or clash; they are seldom synchronized. The point is that one’s consciousness of oneself does not always coincide with all the variables all the time. One may, for a period of time, coincide with some of the categories, but seldom with them all.

Författarna menar att begreppet intersektionalitet har fått genomslag i skandinavisk forskning, men ännu inte inom anglisaxisk. Däremot används ofta begreppet diversity och då ofta inom vad som på engelska kallas management (ett begrepp som dock inte går att likställa helt med intersektionalitet). Författarna hänvisar till Janssens och Zanoni (2005) och menar att en viktig slutsats från denna studie är ”den ofta förekommande ”essentialistiska” synen på mångfald inom diversity management, det vill säga att personer en gång för alla besitter specifika egenskaper och förmågor”, något som inte gäller för intersektionalitet. Begreppet intersektionalitet, anser författarna, har växt fram genom kritik mot feminister som studerat kön enbart från sitt eget perspektiv; vit kvinna i USA. Samma sak förekommer i Sverige, något som, enligt författarna, lett till att ”utrikesfödda kvinnor kom att tillhöra en av samhällets mest osynliga grupper” (s. 26). Afroamerikanska frihetsrörelser har, enligt författarna, lett till att kön, etnicitet och hudfärg kunnat knytas till varandra – det har dock varit svårare med begreppet ”klass”. Författarna tar också upp att queerteori i USA har lett till att maktordningar som följer den heterosexuella normen har ifrågasatts.

Budskapet i boken är att kategorier upplevs och existerar samtidigt. Det kan t.ex. handla om en klassdimension, en könsdimension och en invandrar- eller minoritetsdimension och det är, enligt författarna, just kategoriseringen som behöver studeras:

Även om postmoderna identitetsteorier beskriver människans identiteter som flytande och fragmenterad så kommer dessa på otydliga sätt att stabiliseras i olika sociala kategoriseringar. Genom att studera just kategoriseringen av människor kan exempelvis mekanismerna som bidrar till stabiliseringen av människors identitet tydliggöras. (s. 32)

Apartheidsystemet var en kategorisering som byggde på hudfärg och uppfattningen att män är bättre på matematik än kvinnor bygger på kön. Problemet är att de processer som skapar kategorier oftast inte är transparenta förrän i efterhand då historien eller forskningen synliggör. Författarna tar samtidigt upp det som skulle kunna vara en fördel, men jag har lite svårt att hålla med här, nämligen att kategorier skapar struktur för människors liv. De blir som ett kollektivt mantra som talar om för oss hur vi ska leva våra liv. Det är, menar författarna, handlingar som skapar dessa processer och hela tiden sätts de ihop med personer och olika kategorier.

Centrala begrepp är makt och förtryck och författarna menar att makt generellt definieras som ”relationer eller förhållanden mellan människor och institutioner” (s. 40). Exempel på sådana förhållanden där makt ingår som tas upp är könsmaktsordningar och queerteoretiska perspektiv på makt. Exempel på det förstnämnda är hur könsblindhet gör att enbart män studeras inom forskning, att män sätts upp som norm för hur arbete utförs och att män slutligen blir normen för människan i arbetslivet eller inom något annat område. Samtidigt har synen på vad kön är och hur det konstrueras också bidragit till att vidga och ifrågasätta all forskning som utgår från kön. Om kön inte längre är något som människor är utan något som människor gör kan det innebära att både kvinnor och män gör kön (på rätt sätt) ”för att framstå som kompetenta medlemmar i samhället” (s. 61).

Ett annat område blir då etnicitet och organisering där postkolonial teori inbegrips. Teorin innebär att den västerländska kolonialismen står i centrum ”som ett geopolitiskt, ideologiskt och kulturellt projekt” (s. 75). Samtidigt ryms, enligt författarna, i detta perspektiv ”en inbyggd kritik mot modernistiska föreställningar om vad en teori är eller kan vara” (s. 76).

Ytterligare ett område som författarna diskuterar är social klass och organisering och de slår från början fast att man bör skilja på grupper och klasser; sociala grupper baseras ”på yrkesutbildning, intressen eller politiska värderingar” medan sociala klasser baseras på ”de ekonomiska villkor som olika grupper av människor lever under” (s. 105). Författarna menar att sociala klasser är mindre homogena än tidigare men framhåller att det fortfarande går att finna tydliga strukturer i samhället utifrån denna kategorisering. Höginkomsttagare är exempelvis sannolikt högre utbildande än en låginkomsttagare även om det inte alltid är så. Liknande skillnader utifrån social klass kan gälla värderingar, konsumtionsmönster och förhoppningar. Slutsatsen blir även här att klass bör förstås intersektionellt och att begreppet är sammankopplat med andra kategorier.

Nästa område blir sexualitet och organisering. Författarna hänvisar till genusforskaren Judith Butler som menar att det är akademiska vita medelklasskvinnor som ”utformat mycket av den feministiska teorin med ideal som var tänkta att passa alla kvinnor världen över” (s. 141). Genom Butlers sätt att se på kön och genus framkommer att det är något som skapas genom upprepade handlingar. ”Den ständiga upprepningen gör att kön/genusidentiteten kommer att framstå som fast” (s. 147). Genom t.ex. Butlers bidrag menar författarna att det går att dra slutsatsen organisationer är en del i upprätthållandet av den normativa hetereosexualiteten. Andra betydelsefulla bidrag inom detta område kommer från olika forskare inom queerteorin.

Användande av begreppet intersektionalitet kräver, enligt författarna, en god analytisk förmåga samt en förmåga att byta perspektiv:

Intersektionalitet syftar till att dessa sociala processer och händelser kan förstås som ständigt föränderliga och skiftande och att de aldrig kan förstås utifrån endast ett perspektiv. (S. 181)

Sammanfattningsvis ger boken en mycket god grund för studier av intersektionalitet inom skilda sammanhang. Författarna ger dessutom en god genomgång av olika teoretiska utgångspunkter och dess förgrundsgestalter som går att använda sig av vid studier av olika kategorier.

'''ETNICITET. PERSPEKTIV PÅ SAMHÄLLET'''

Boken behandlar, som titeln anger, begreppet etnicitet utifrån olika infallsvinklar. Allteftersom jag läser boken tillkommer fler och fler dimensioner. För mig har boken bidragit till en mer fördjupad förståelse av komplexiteten i begreppet etnicitet. Bokens kapitel kan på olika sätt berika forskning som handlar om människors villkor inom utbildning, arbetsmarknad, politik, familjestrukturer och bostadsvillkor.

I kapitel ett redogör Abby Peterson, professor i sociologi vid Göteborgs universitet, och Aleksandra Ålund, professor i vid Tema Etnicitet, Linköpings universitet, för hur begreppet etnicitet utvecklats historiskt i USA. De tar också upp hur etnicitet har behandlats inom akademisk forskning och vilka konsekvenser man kan dra från den. I amerikansk forskning dominerar rasbegreppet fortfarande, men inom europeisk forskning används istället ordet etnicitet. Ordet etnicitet härrör från antiken och dess dåvarande betydelse är intakt också idag – det handlar om utanförskap gällande ”kulturellt främmande grupper med minoritetsstatus, lägre klass eller just migranter” (Peterson & Ålund, 2007, s. 15). Medan begreppet ras är ett mer distinkt begrepp bär, enligt författarna, begreppet etnicitet på en större vaghet. Författarna hänvisar till Max Weber som påtalat betydelsen av etnicitet när det gäller olika gruppers status i samhället. De hänvisar vidare till Georg Simmel som konstiturerat begreppet ”främlingen”; ”främlingen skapas genom olika sociala och kulturella praktiker som, liksom hos Weber, betyder att majoritetssamhällets norm sätts som mått för det som avviker” (s. 15). Resonemanget kring ”främlingen” går, enligt Peterson & Ålund, att direkt överföra till vår samtida diskurs om ”invandraren”. Det är här som etnicitet kommer in i sammanhanget. Ålund (1999) håller fram två kriterier som tillsammans konstituerar etnicitet:

•	Kulturell samhörighet •	Strukturella villkor (i skilda tid och rum) som ”genererar olika former av intressegemenskap och framväxt av social organisering och politisk handling” (s. 16). I artikeln hänvisas till att Ålund i flera sammanhang pekat på det problematiska i en alltför statisk definition av etnicitet. Kultur kan, enligt författarna, inte betraktas som något statiskt, det bär inte på någon fast essens och har ingen kärna av vissa egenskaper. Det är just när begreppet blir statiskt som dikotomin ”vi och dom” uppkommer, eller för att ta ett annat exempel, ”svenskar och invandrare”. Ett sätt att komma undan detta är att använda sig av begreppet intersektionalitet som kan användas för att beskriva olika sociala identiteter kopplat till t.ex. genus, ras och etnicitet. Peterson & Ålund vänder blicken mot arbetsmarknaden, som de menar, har tendenser till en ökande grad av kategorisering av människor efter ”etniska linjer” (s. 19). De menar att det i Sverige, liksom USA och Kanada, har utvecklats en strukturell pluralism eftersom ”invandrare inordnas förståelsemässigt i statiska etniskt-kulturella kategorier” (s. 19). Denna utsortering finns, enligt författarna, även i skolan genom ”etnisk diskriminering, diskursiv ”rasifiering” av invandrarungdomar och förekomsten av rasistiska attityder bland skolans personal” (hänvisning görs här till Tesfahuney, 1999; Ålund, 1997; Mulinari, 1997). Frågan som infinner sig är direkt hur man kan förhålla sig till detta och författarna ger följande svar:

Det är viktigt att synliggöra sociala utsorteringsprocesser och att kritiskt förhålla sig till förklaringar till social exkludering i termer av ”kulturella krockar”, som riskerar att bilda stereotypiserade dimridåer, bakom vilka sociala åtskillnader, ojämlikhet och segregerande utanförskap göms undan. (s. 20)

Vad är det författarna talar om här? Är det inte någon slags systematiserad underordning? Nästa steg i detta första kapitel är just en definition av rasism där författarna hänvisar till Robert Miles. Rasism handlar då om påstådda skillnader som förklaras som naturliga och tolkas som bevis på ”antingen betydelsefulla skillnader inom samhället eller underlägsenhet” (s. 21). Författarna använder uttrycket ”dold grammatik”, som de menar uttrycks genom text och språk på ett sätt som ”koloniserar vår tankevärld i vardagen” (s. 21). Begreppet etnicitet är komplext, ibland förtäckt och ofta otydligt. Dessutom används begreppet på en rad olika sätt och betecknar, enligt författarna, en rad olika fenomen som t.ex. tillhörighet, kulturell praktik, tradition, religion och identitet. Författarna framhåller begreppets flytande karaktär. Genom att begreppet etnicitet är ideologiskt och politiskt laddat kan det i vardagen bära med sig förtryckande synsätt, det är, som författarna skriver, ”inget oskyldigt begrepp” (s. 22).

I kapitel två redogör Paulina de los Reyes, docent i ekonomisk historia vid Uppsala universitet, för ett intersektionellt perspektiv på etnicitet. Begreppet intersektionalitet introducerades, enligt los Reyes, av antirasistiska feminister i USA och fokuserar maktförhållanden baserade på kön, klass och etnicitet. Enligt los Reyes finns det dock ingen klar konsensus om begreppets innebörd då en del enbart stannar vid hur kön förhåller sig till olika former av förtryck medan gör en mer allomfattande postkolonial maktanalys. Trots skillnaderna menar los Reyes att intresset för intersektionalitet kan tolkas som ett behov av att förnya den traditionella feminismens tänkande inte minst när det gäller invandrade kvinnors erfarenheter och problem. Om alla kvinnor jämförs med idealiserad svensk kvinnlighet skapas etniska gränser där svenskheten är normen. los Reyes menar att det handlar inte i första hand om hur vissa grupper får utrymme utan snarare om hur en dominerande svensk föreställning om kvinnlighet äger rum och också om hur kvinnor utövar makt mot varandra. Maktrelationer utifrån kön kan alltså inte förstås utan att man ”samtidigt förhåller sig till den ojämlikhet som skapas utifrån ras, sexualitet och klass” (s. 46). Slutsatsen los Reyes drar är att om enbart konflikter mellan könen fokuseras innebär det att man bortser från andra förtryck:

En viktig utgångspunkt i intersektionella analyser är att kön (i likhet med	klass, etnicitet, sexualitet) aldrig uppträder som en renodlad relation, utan den samspelar och förvandlas av andra maktrelationer. Eftersom kvinnor aldrig är ”bara” kvinnor är könsrelationer – lika lite som klass, ras/etnicitet eller sexualitet – inte tillräckliga för att förklara hur ojämlikhet uppstår och på vilket sätt makt utövas. (s. 46).

Även los Reyes är inne på att etnicitet handlar om tillhörighet, identitet, gemensam kultur och historia och gemensamma traditioner. Helt enkelt det som gör en grupp unik. los Reyes menar att etniska identiteter är kontrastiva d.v.s. att de skapas i mötet med andra och det är i detta möte som gränser skapas eftersom frågor om tillhörighet och identitet aktualiseras. Föreställningarna om olikheter kan då bidra till att legitimera en hierarkisk ordning. Dessa etniska skiljelinjer är heller inte fixerade eller permanenta utan kan ses som flytande; ”de måste hållas vid liv genom ständiga markeringar om vilka som tillhör den nationella (etniska) gemenskapen och vilka som ska hållas utanför” (s. 48). Frågan som los Reyes ställer sig är dock vem som definierar den etniska ordningen och på vilka grunder? Förutom att skapa en bild av kvinnligheten som vit och svensk menar los Reyes att den traditionella etniska forskningen har bidragit till en manlig norm. Ett exempel är arbetskraftdeltagandet bland invandrade kvinnor som fram till slutet av 70-talet vida överstigit de svenska kvinnornas. Här har istället en könsblindhet bidragit till att förstärka den manliga normen inom arbetslivet. En annan följd, enligt los Reyes, skulle kunna vara att människor ”reduceras till sin etniska bakgrund samtidigt som andra faktorer som klass, sexualitet, könstillhörighet eller ålder ignoreras eller osynliggörs” (s. 49).

Ur ett postkolonialt perspektiv kan också nutida former av segregation kopplas till kolonialismens maktövertagande. Under 1700-talet fanns ett biologiskt ideal och i takt med koloniseringen spreds uppfattningen om den vita rasens överlägsenhet. los Reyes menar dessutom att den etniska rangordning som finns inom arbetsmarknad och boende även den följer den koloniala världskartan. Rasism kan, enligt los Reyes som hänvisar till Blauts (1992) definieras utifrån religiösa, biologiska och kulturella skillnader och historiskt sett har rasismen förankrats i kristendomen såsom den överlägsna trosläran. los Reyes menar vidare att en ny slags rasism har tillkommit; ”den kulturella rasismen eller rasismen utan raser” (s. 50). Den ideologiska tanken blir då antingen att människor med olika bakgrund inte kan leva tillsammans eller att olikheterna berikar och bidrar till en positiv mångfald. Återigen går detta att problematisera och återigen finns processer att analysera och förstå ur ett intersektionalistiskt perspektiv.

Subjektets handlingsmöjligheter är det som los Reyes diskuterar härnäst och enskilda människors handlingar kan även de analyseras och sättas i samband med ”institutionella regelverk, sociala strukturer och ideologiska föreställningar” (s. 51) samtidigt som de också måste sättas in i en intersektionell analys.

I kapitel nio diskuterar Mirzet Tursunovic, fil.dr. i sociologi vid Göteborgs universitet, skolan och demokratifostran. Skolan har ett uppdrag att rusta barn och ungdomar med kunskaper som gör det möjligt för dem att kunna delta i demokratiska processer, skriver Tursunovic. Detta kräver att barn och ungdomar får erfara demokratiska lösningar genom öppna diskussioner. Viktigt är då att de deltagande eleverna ”känner sig och betraktas av andra diskussionsdeltagare som fria och jämlika” (s. 169). I ett mångkulturellt samhälle aktualiseras demokratifrågan än mer menar Tursunovic. För att skapa interkulturella möten måste skolans personal tillhandahålla arenor, där elever med olika bakgrund verkligen möts och lär av varandra för att på så	sätt bland annat motverka utveckling av diverse stereotypa uppfattningar om ”den andre”. (s. 171)

Tursunovic hänvisar till Ferm (1993) som menar att ett flitigare användande av forum för direktdemokrati kan vara ett sätt att skapa dessa arenor. Det är av stor vikt, enligt författaren, att reella demokratiska besluts- och arbetsformer finns eftersom elever annars kan söka sig till informella arenor för att, i värsta falla, utöva makt och förtryck över andra. Avslutningsvis refererar Tursunovic till Tomas Englund som redan på 80-talet hävdade att skolans praktik ”historiskt tenderat att i hög grad negligera den innehållsmässiga aspekten till förmån för formmässiga aspekter” (s. 184). Tursunovic menar att drygt 20 år senare kan samma slutsatser dras.

I kapitel elva visar Diana Mulinari, docent i sociologi vid Lunds universitet, hur definitionen av begreppet familjen inom familjesociologin gör att många faller utanför dess fokus och osynliggörs.

IDENTITY TROUBLE

I denna bok finns olika internationella forskare representerade. Gemensamt för dem alla är att de diskuterar nutida identitetsfrågor utifrån sina olika intresseområden. Bokens redaktörer är Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard, Birminghams universitet i Storbritannien, och Rick Iedema, Sydneys universitet i Australien. De olika författarnas bidrag i boken tangerar olika domäner av begreppet identitet. För det första ses identitet som något relationellt som sker genom interaktion här och nu, men även utanför (t.ex. genom chattande, min slutsats). Vidare är identitet allt vi säger, gestikulerar, har på oss, äger; det handlar om lingvistiska, diskursiva, multimodiala och semiotiska processer. Identitet står vidare för representationer av personliga erfarenheter och känslor som uttrycks genom organiserade handlingar. Talad interaktion kan ses som basen för identitetsskapande. Identitet är heller inte förbehållet en dimension av att vara, utan flyter genom många dimensioner och domäner. Syftet med boken är följande:

The main aim that unities this book is to enhance our understanding of the processes involved in the performing of selves, groups and communities by focusing on what threatens or destabilizes their identity. (s. 6)

I det första kapitlet presenterar Rick Iedema tre teoretiska principer för analyser av identitet. Den första principen handlar om att inom ”identity development, we learn how to perform diverse relational identities in interaction with diverse others across the significant social divisions within our community, particularly age and gender, but also class, ethnicity, race, religion, and so on” (s. 18). Den andra principen slår fast att begreppet identitet behöver vara mer “scale-differentiated” vilket handlar om gå från den mindre gruppens aktiviteter till stora institutionella sammanhang. Slutligen slår Iedema genom den tredje principen fast att identitet alltid skapas genom det man åtrår och räds. Slutsatser från dessa principer blir att identiteter utvecklas och ändras; ”they are at least multi-faceted if not in fact plural” (s. 19). De kategorier, genus, kön, ålder, etnicitet, ras, religion, som identitet kan undersökas utifrån är också de pluralistiska och förändrerliga; ”our ’gender’ identity is never so simple as being just ’masculine’ or ’feminine’” (s. 19). Det finns, enligt Iedema, alltid en motsats mellan vår subjektiva identitet och den identitet vi önskar uppnå. ”Normalizing forces” (s. 20) driver på och förutom att det kan uppstå ett glapp mellan vår subjektiva identitet och den vi försöker visa upp utåt så är vi också olika människor inför olika mottagare; ”we shift in our lives from dealing with those who are much younger or much older, much weaker or much stronger, and those whose ways of life are very different from our own” (s. 21). Iedema menar vidare att utifrån ett sociokulturellt perspektiv medieras identitet utifrån såväl mikro-sociala handlingar som makro-sociala strukturer. Vi konstruerar vår identitet utifrån de erbjudanden som ges oss ”by our general positionality and our particular trajectory of experiences, encounters, options for actions” (s. 21). Utifrån detta sätt att se på identitet menar Iedema att det sociokulturella perspektivet gynnas framför det individualpsykologiska. När vi möter institutioner möter vi inte bara dem själva, vi möter också, enligt författaren, deras människor, artefakter, diskurser, praktiker och kontexter. Samtidigt lever vi en globaliserad värld som gör att makroperspektivet vidgas alltmer.

Iedema för fram att identiteter legitimerar den dominerande ideologin av autonoma individer som moraliskt ansvariga för sina handlingar. Genom detta gynnas de som är medlemmar av dominerande kategorin, eller den situerade praktiken. Åtrå och rädsla hos en minoritetsgrupp skapar och utvecklar också en identitet genom att dess medlemmar t.e.x kräver sina rättigheter, kräver att få bli sedda. Sammanfattningsvis menar Iedema att ”notions of identity tend to emphasize invariance over change, unity over multiplicity, and neglect to examine whether notions of identity apply in the same sense at different timescales of activity or to units of analysis” (s. 23). Vi behöver språk för att kunna uttrycka våra sanna identiteter, menar Iedema, språk som kan ta oss förbi stereotyper definierade av institutioner. Iedema refererar till Paulo Freire som ”asks us to try to speak an authentic word, to try to name ourselves outside the realm of names given to us by social institutions and the interests of power” (s. 39).


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User:The Wiz

I am a 1984 graduate of the University of Iowa College of Business Administration (Management Information Systems). I currently live in Brooklyn, NY, USA where I am a SAS programmer and analyst for a major multinational energy company.

I have thirty years of SAS experience, focused on data access from a variety of sources and preparing it for analysis. I enjoy the productivity increases that SAS provides. It is unfortunate that more people, expecially in Information Technology, don't understand the benefits of SAS. Too often it is relegated to the analyst for statistics, a task for which it excels, however its use as a data access and productivity improvement tool is overlooked.

My nickname came from being a jack-of-all-trades (Master of none? I hope not!) when it came to using the univeristy mainframe, JCL, SAS programming and other languages like Fortran. Although, I still enjoy learning other languages, I feel that I think in terms of SAS.

I hope you enjoy watching the SAS Language resource as it develops.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:The Wiz


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User:Eas4200c.f09

EAS 4200C Aerospace Structures, Fall 2009 Prof. Loc Vu-Quoc, University of Florida

Interesting news:

Free digital texts begin to challenge costly college textbooks in California, By Gale Holland, Los Angeles Times Staff Writer August 18, 2008. Would-be reformers are trying to beat the high cost -- and, they say, the dumbing down -- of college materials by writing or promoting open-source, no-cost online texts.

IMPORTANT: The perils of plagiarizing wikipedia; see Falling exam passes blamed on Wikipedia 'littered with inaccuracies', 21 June 2008, by Martyn Mclaughlin, News.Scotsman.com. "WIKIPEDIA and other online research sources were yesterday blamed for Scotland's falling exam pass rates."

Mourning the Death of Handwriting, By Claire Suddath. Time Magazine, Monday, Aug. 03, 2009.

Model HW report: Current version Archived version

MIT's OpenCourseWare course(s): Current version Archived version

Introduction: Current version Archived version

NACA Airfoil: Current version Archived version

Plate buckling: Current version Archived version

Lecture plan

HW report table: Archived version

Comments to classes:

Archived version

Lecture transparencies (pdf) in Fall 2008, see User:Eas4200c.f08

User:Eas4200c.f08

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User:Eas4200c.f09/Lecture plan

Boeing 777-300ER video showing large wing deformation

Missing French Plane Hit Thunderstorms, NPR All Things Considered, June 1, 2009: Hope is fading for 228 passengers aboard Air France Flight 447, which vanished on its way from Brazil to Paris. French President Nicolas Sarkozy said the prospects of finding survivors is "very small." Brazil Confirms Air France Flight Crashed In Ocean, NPR All Things Considered, June 2, 2009: Debris from missing Air France Flight 447 was found in the middle of the Atlantic Tuesday by Brazilian military pilots. The cause of the crash is still very much a mystery. John Hansman, director of MIT's International Center for Air Transportation, offers his insight.

Search Is On for Wreckage of Missing Air France Jet Jun 1, 2009, NY Times.

Wreckage of Air France Jet Is Found, Brazil Says, Jun 2, 2009, NY Times.

Speculations on structural failure:

Air France 447 Crash Theory Now Focused On Tail Snapping Off (Again) Henry Blodget, Jun. 19, 2009, 9:01 AM

[http://unsilentgeneration.com/2009/06/13/did-composite-parts-bring-down-air-france-447-new-clues-and-new-safety-issues-for-the-future/ Did Composite Parts Bring Down Air France 447? (And Will the New FAA Do Its Job?)] June 13, 2009. Read also the comments by aircraft pilots, instructors, and engineers.

Blog on American Airlines 587 (but it's all about Air France 447)

American Airlines Flight 587: Airbus A300; NTSB investigation report

NY Times articles on AA 587

NY Times topic on Air France Flight 447

NY Times topic on Airplane Accidents and Incidents

NY Times topic on Airlines and Airplanes

Moments of Terror (youTube video of aircraft accidents and structural failures): At 0:05, buckling of military cargo aircraft fuselage; at 1:21, propeller aircraft with two wings broken at fuselage connections; at 1:26, buckling of commercial airline fuselage.

Google for "airplane structural failure"

Catastrophic Structural Failure Focusing on maintenance programs By Peter Katz.

Failure Analysis: On December 19, 2005, just off Miami Beach, Florida, a Grumman G73T Turbo Mallard seaplane crashed as it was taking off. The aircraft was carrying 15 passengers, 3 infants and a crew of two. There was an explosion and fire and the right wing separated prior to the plane impacting the water. Examination of the wreckage revealed fatigue cracks in the right wing.

Aviation accidents and incidents (Wikipedia)

title: User:Eas4200c.f09/Lecture plan


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User:SUL

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User talk:CarrieBerg/The Uses of Healing Plants in My Jim

This is a good thorough explanation. I found myself really wanting a reference book while I was reading (Despite the fact that specifics like that didn’t mean to terribly much for the story I still wanted to know). I can’t wait until it’s finished up.

What I really liked

I firstly liked how you started out with a clear organized list of the plants with all their alternate names. This way when I’m reading through the notes I can just scroll up and see what all the explanation refers to. I also like how you included the alternate black snakeroot even though you didn’t think it was the correct one for the story.

I also like how you made specific references in the book so I could refer back to it. So not only can I refer to your analysis I can refer from the analysis to the book. The page numbers are also nice (though may become confusing to those who have different editions… but the teacher won’t so that’s okay).

I like how you referenced a book from 1878 rather than some contemporary one for your primary explanation, Then came in later to debunk what was originally thought.

The to-the-point notes at the very end came in handy to re-instill the knowledge in an easy-to-remember fashion.

What I’d suggest

A bibliography of your sources would be nice. I know you mentioned The Complete Herbalist but I was wondering if that was the only one. Like, for example, I’d like to refer to the book used to determine what herbs actually didn’t do what they thought it did back in the day. I’d like to read up on this subject further.

Perhaps a divide between sections of what is fact and what actually isn’t fact about herbs. You had this lovely organization started that I think can be pushed even further. It could go in order of the list that was in place.

Betsylee

Reply
Sigh...

Yes, it's a "work is progress" as of now. So things will be changed.

I don't know how to do a bibliography in wikiversity, so there won't be one until I figure that out. (Which is a rather low priority at the moment.) Whoops... I mean, I don't know how to do footnotes - which I think I figured out, but I don't have to use them, so I won't...

As for the other books used, I believe I mention (some of) the sources I use throughout the paper, even though they aren't in bibliographical form. I'm using many different sources. And if I had, say, a semester to write about this, I'd probably use even more books... but time is something I have even less of now.

What do you mean by "what is fact and what actually isn’t fact about herbs" ? Do you mean what the herbs really do and what they are said to do in the book? Or do you mean something else? Herbology isn't an exact science - many herbs have been used to treat things, even though science somethings can't prove that they are indeed helping. Not to mention it is dangerous to use herbs without proper knowledge. Nope - you were right, and I've fixed the few out of order herbs.

The notes at the end are purely for me when I write. I was going to delete them when finished, but I may leave them up if they are helpful.

CarrieBerg 04:23, 3 June 2009 (UTC) Updated CarrieBerg 04:51, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

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Anishinabe/Culture

Introduction to Anishinabe culture
The goal of this course is to give the informal learner at high-school level or above an introductory glimpse of Anishinabe culture. It is a very basic overview of traditional language, religion, foods, medicine, music, clothing, tools, travel and more, based on the Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History at our sister project, Wikibooks.

 * Prerequisites: none
 * Course affiliation: School of Ethnology, North American division, Anishinabe department
 * Course source: Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History
 * Primary course contact: Trinity507

Required/suggested materials
A notebook for discussion questions. No textbooks required, though it may be helpful to print out sections of the Wikibooks textbook.

Lesson 1
Lesson 1 is a very brief introduction to the history of the Anishinabe and their native lands, to put the culture into better perspective. For more in-depth coverage of the history of the Anishinabe, please see the courses page.

Lesson 2
Lesson 2 is an overview of the relationship between the Anishinabe and the land: a basic introduction to the natural resources used by the Anishinabe for food, transportation, tools, lodging, medicine and clothing.

title: Anishinabe/Culture


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Anishinabe/Culture/A brief history

Assignments

 * Read Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History, Chapter 1 and answer discussion questions in your notebook.
 * See the American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States map of the North American division map room and locate United States Anishinabe reservations. You may use appendix 1 of the textbook for the names of reservations and bands.

Extra credit

 * Write an essay expanding on your answer to one or several of your discussion questions. When you are finished, please email the essay to one of the course tutors for critique and correction and/or post it to this lesson's extra credit page.

title: Anishinabe/Culture/A brief history


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Anishinabe/Culture/The Anishinabe and the land part I

Assignments

 * Read Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History, Chapter 2 and answer discussion questions in your notebook.


text: User:Graeme E. Smith/GreySmith-LaBerge Triangular Circuit Attention Protocol 1


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Bioethics/Environmental

Welcome
Welcome to Environmental and Bioethics - the forum to take responsibility for making the world a better place.

Environmental ethics involves recognition that our actions, however small, will impact upon the natural environment. Environmental Bioethics is particularly concerned with our affect on biota, the living world. Environmentally ethical behaviour is achieved when we minimise any deleterious effects.

The science of Environmental and Bioethics is more important than ever, for since the industrial revolution, mankind has contributed to a significant degradation of our world, with concurrent loss of many species. We are still losing species – many of which are yet to be described. To be environmentally ethical is to accept a moral imperative that results in our behaviour being both informed and sustainable. It involves making decisions – often difficult ones.

Environmental and Bioethics explains the theories that underpin the decision-making process, and with case studies, leads you through some of the choices, with possible outcomes. Importantly, your ideas and cultural perspectives will be of value to both fellow students and to us. As such we encourage discussion on the issues presented. The present course is self-assesed; however we are in the process of developing a peer-assessed programme, where links made with fellow students worldwide.

The course and its contents are an initiative of the International Centre for Environmental and Bioethics.

For Educators
Ethical practice, pertaining to the environment and living organisms, has for some decades been the focus of symposia in the developed nations. This focus follows recognition that the actions of humanity have lead to significant environmental degradation. Some excellent work has been done in curriculum development, wherein environmental ethics has become mandatory (e.g. in most engineering degrees). However, the message is yet to have wider currency, especially in developing nations and this is the objective of this course.

We encourage educators to direct their students to these courses, or to use the case studies presented to initiate debate within classrooms.

For a basic introduction to the ethical theories presented herein, refer to Philosophy 1100.

Case Studies

 * 1) Animal Rights and Conservation
 * 2) Dimethylmercury or CO2
 * 3) Life, but not as we know it
 * 4) The Tragedy of the Commons

title: Bioethics/Environmental


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User:Mtbruin

Self-taught fellow here; being a High School Drop-out, but possessing a G.E.D>, I have spent the last 30 years educating myself in such subjects as religious anthropology, pyschology, mythology, alternate belief systems, quantum physics, philosophies, writing styles (voraciously rabid bibliophile here!),as well as lexicography, ontology and a thousand other things that are too long to list here. Would like to acquire as much knowledge about the world we inhabit, as well as learning practical matters, in order to find useful employment. I have spent approximately 25 years in the restaurant business, and 8 in manufacturing. I am 45 years old this year, and my impetus is driving me to find out more and more; "a large bump of curiosity" here, to quote from the fantasy novels of the late Don Callander. Not very computer savvy, (my 15 year old niece knows more about my computer and cell phone than I do!).

I guess this is enough for now; thank you for this function...now I can "feed the Elephant's Child".

title: User:Mtbruin


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User:ArmyJerk

{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="margin:0em 0em 1em 0em; width:100%" The "About Me" Page for ArmyJerk
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Military Instructor
ArmyJerk is a new user who registered on 03 June, 2009.
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title: User:ArmyJerk


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User:Eminn

w:az:%C4%B0stifad%C9%99%C3%A7i:Eminn

title: User:Eminn


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User:Walaa~enwikiversity

''The Wikiversity side bar has useful links and a search tool. The Help item in the side bar links to the Wikiversity help pages. The Wikiversity Colloquium is a place to ask questions. The search tool allows you to search for Wikiversity pages about a topic. The toolbox contains handy links to pages such as the file upload page. Another way to explore is to browse Wikiversity content''

www.wikipedia.com

title: User:Walaa~enwikiversity


text:
On representability and authenticity in research on ethnolinguistic minorities

Introduction
Questions of representability and authenticity were first lifted during Diana Mulinari’s visit (Jan 22, 2009) on the course this paper relates to. As far as I can remember, Mulinari presented the questions in a wider framework, that of intersectionality and intersectional research. Her point of departure was the question of how intersectionality should be used and interpreted, and further on: Who has the right to represent different groups in the society? The lecture and seminar led by Mulinari were both stimulating to me as the issues of identity, belonging and eventually that of representability have been something I have pondered upon ever since I came in contact with Sweden Finns, my “own” minority group in Sweden. Living in Finland as a part of a majority I was barely aware of the existence and the size of the Finnish minority in Sweden. Moving to Sweden meant not only questioning my own identity, but also learning plenty of new things about my countrymen and their offspring in this new homeland of ours.

As my knowledge has grown, some questions have found their answers and others have arisen. As any migrant I have wondered at times; where do I belong in this minority and what is the “criteria” for being a member of a minority? When does one cease to be a migrant (a term that, at least to me, somehow signifies temporality or transformation, not definitiveness) and becomes a person with a minority identity? And again, a very personal question: How should one relate to the general picture of Sweden Finnishness when there are so many parts in the description I do not recognize as “mine”? How can my place be described in the chain of migrants and then permanent citizens that started centuries ago and will continue even after I am gone? And moving on to the current task; How should I portray the minority as a researcher? Will I be accepted as a member as well as a scholar and a representative of the Sweden Finnish minority? How to aim towards research that has social and cultural bearing for both the minority and majority groups but that at the same time fulfils the qualification of objectivity? The questions are introspective, but I am far from being alone when posing them. The aim of this paper is, with the help of a small charting of current research and researchers on two minorities, Sweden Finns and Tornedalians, to discuss issues of representability and authenticity in research from minority point of view.

Background and purpose
Since the ratification of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2000 there are five recognized national minorities in Sweden. The minorities include Jews, Roma, Sami, Swedish Finns and Tornedalians and their minority languages Yiddish, Romany Chib (all varieties), Sami (all varieties), Finnish and Meänkieli (Tornedal Finnish). Common to all these minority groups is that they have been present in Sweden for centuries, and that the traditions of using their languages in Sweden are accordingly just as long. When defining these minority groups it has also been important to note that they have their own religious, linguistic and/or cultural connections and a will to preserve their specific identities. (Language Council of Sweden 2003)

The ratification of the framework and charter mentioned above led for the first time to the establishment of minority policy as a separate policy area in Sweden. The main objectives of the policy are to protect the minorities, to promote their participation in community affairs and public decision-making and to help keep long-established minority languages alive. Establishing minority policy has meant acknowledging that the languages and cultures of minorities are an important part of the Swedish cultural heritage. The recognition of national minorities can also be seen as an act of promoting human rights. (Regeringen 2009) Higher education and academic research on minorities can be seen as important parts in this development, assisting together with other functions the minorities’ active participation in the society, thus promoting their survival and development.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss issues of representation and authenticity as they are connected with themes such as minority research. The empirical part of the paper includes a small-scale charting of academic research on two ethnolinguistic minorities in Sweden, Sweden Finns and Tornedalians. The years 2000 to 2009 have been chosen as the time limit not only because the former of them marks the beginning of a new millennium, but also because the above mentioned Framework convention was ratified in Sweden on April 1, 2000. Almost ten years have passed, which also can be considered a relevant time span for a charting that focuses on recent activities. Accordingly, in this part, the following issue will be addressed:

 * Who is doing academic research on the minorities mentioned above and at which institutions and research environments is the research conducted?

With the charting as a point of departure I will then continue with a discussion that has not too often been present in the field, namely the following: Who has the right to do research and thus represent a group or a minority? Who has the right to do research on whom? These issues are then discussed from a general point of view, inspired both by the authors studied within the course Communication and identity issues in institutional arenas and others.

Sweden Finns and Tornedalians
As many neighboring countries, Sweden and Finland have had a significant migration between them. Reasons for migration from Finland to Sweden have varied from governmental planning, colonization and famine to war-fare, commerce and search for work (Tarkiainen 1990). The history of Finns in Sweden has thus gone through several different phases from the 16th -century Forest Finns to the modern migration of the 20th and 21th centuries, most of which has been colored by search for work and included emigration of large groups of Finns, especially in the 1960s and 1970s. Thus, standard Finnish has been spoken in Sweden for centuries and the language can today be heard in all parts of Sweden, even though the Finnish-speaking population has been concentrated on certain geographical areas – a development that is likely to continue. The status and support for the Finnish language has varied during the centuries, as well as the official Sweden’s relation to its multilingualism.

The Swedish state has traditionally been very restrictive when it comes to collecting information and creating statistics based on its citizens’ languages. This means that migrants coming to Sweden are registered only by country of origin, not by language or ethnicity (Lundström 2005). The idea of creating language statistics in Sweden has been promoted by different actors in the society, e.g. scholars and politicians, but these attempts have insofar not been successful, which has lead to both scholars and politicians having to rely on estimates, based on the summarizing of various sources and reports. According to statistics released by Statistics Sweden in April 2009, there are approximately 675 000 people with Finnish background in Sweden (three generations backwards), a number that exceeds the previous estimates by 200 000 (Sveriges Radio 2009). In the previous estimate from 2005, based on research by RUAB, the figures concerned mainly speakers of Finnish and Meänkieli and then the estimate was that 470 000 or ca 6 % of the Swedish population speaks and/or understands Finnish or Meänkieli (RUAB 2005). There is, however, reason to believe that the actual number of Finnish-speaking people is lower than the estimates, figures between 200 000 and 250 000 are often suggested.

Meänkieli, as well as Finnish, is a Finno-Ugric language and closest related to other Baltic-Finnic languages such as Estonian, Karelian and Kven. The varieties of Meänkieli are spoken in the northernmost parts of Sweden, around the Torne River dividing Finland and Sweden, therefore the often used name Tornedalsfinska (Torne Valley Finnish). Meänkieli speakers (Tornedalians) are the second largest minority group among the national minorities, with some 50 000-70 000 speakers (Language Council of Sweden 2003). The recognition of Meänkieli as a national minority language in 2000 was a big step forward, as it also meant an upswing for the status and the usage of the language. Different attempts to enhance the status of the language have been made since then; one of the best examples of recent years’ positive development is the establishment of a special section for Meänkieli within the governmentally supported Department of Dialectolocy, Onomastics and Folklore Research in Umeå. (Kuoppa 2008)

The recognition of Meänkieli and Finnish as territorial languages of five municipalities in Northern Sweden in 2000 was a decision that also gave speakers of the two languages the right to use them before the court and in all public institutions in the region, as well as right to request services in preschools and in elderly care. Furthermore, Tornedalians can also request mother-tongue instruction in Meänkieli or Finnish (Hyltenstam 2007). Currently there is an ongoing process for expanding the administrative area in the region of Stockholm/Mälardalen. Higher education and academic research about the minorities and their languages were not directly affected by the recognition.

A few words on method and material
If the field is small as such, as academic research on Tornedalians and Sweden Finns can be considered, information of it should be easily accessible. However, this has not been always the case in the current investigation. One of the main questions is the one of limitation. Where to draw a line between research that concerns a certain group and research that does not? It is as if it was in the nature of academic research to be constantly fluid and changeable, with new connecting points emerging between different fields and areas. My attempt to grasp the current situation of research concerning Sweden Finns and Tornedalians includes a relatively instrumental method; a charting of current research units, active researchers and doctoral dissertations since 2000. Other publications have not been reviewed for this paper other than superficially, meaning that their main focus and audience (academic/other) has been briefly examined.

The charting was conducted with the help of oral information from senior colleagues in the field, e-mail enquiries, reports and internet searches. The results from this part of the charting are roughly summarized in tables 1 and 2. A search in the DiVA-and Libris-databases was conducted to find out whether the information concerning research on Sweden Finns and Tornedalians, received mainly orally or by e-mail, was accurate and to see if it could be completed with the help of information on research publications. Keywords Finnish (170 hits in DiVA), Finnish in Sweden (118 hits), Meänkieli (15 hits), Language policy (21 hits), Minority language (23 hits), Sweden Finns (0 hits), Finns in Sweden (1 hit), Tornedal Finnish (1 hit), Tornedalen (7 hits) were chosen when the tool for advanced search among research publications since 2000 was used. The publication types registered in the database include all kinds of publications from journal articles and conference papers to books and doctorate/licentiate theses. The search could also be limited to refereed, other academic and “other” (popular science, etc.) publications. My choice was not to limit the original search, but rather examine the lists of hits to see what kind of publications could be found and from there to find the ones with the status of a dissertation and/or other academic publications. Student theses were not included in the search.

Current research on Sweden Finns, Tornedalians and their languages
Higher education and academic research are of key importance for creating sustainability for any group, minority or not, and its language. For the official Sweden the ratification of the minority framework convention and minority language charter can be seen as a first step towards a more supportive stance towards ethnolinguistic minorities, a fact that will hopefully strengthen their academic base in the long run. In the proposition that eventually led to the recognition of national minorities, it was concluded that “it is essential that higher education and research in minority languages and about the national minorities continues and can be developed” (Proposition 1998/99:143, my translation).

According to the Swedish government’s approval document, the universities of Stockholm and Umeå have national obligations for higher education in Finnish and Meänkieli, respectively. In practice, the courses in Meänkieli have been outsourced to the municipality of Pajala, which has the highest density of Meänkieli-speakers, or been taught as distance courses. Luleå University of Technology has previously arranged teacher education in Meänkieli and Finnish, but in a limited scale. Both Umeå and Luleå universities have from time to time also offered further education in Meänkieli for teachers working in the lower levels of education (Kuoppa 2008). Apart from these universities, located in the northern Sweden and close to the area where Meänkieli has its origins and most of its users, Stockholm University also offers higher education in Meänkieli. During the upcoming academic year, 2009-2010 however, courses in Meänkieli will not be arranged.

Generally speaking, research on minorities and minority languages is poorly supported and financed in Sweden – especially when related to the size of the minority population. There are currently five universities in Sweden where Finnish is taught and where research that relates to Finns/Sweden Finns and their languages is conducted, and two universities where Meänkieli and Tornedalians are present in education and research. The universities and the units are the following (in alphabetical order):

Table 1. Universities and units with research and/or education in Finnish and Meänkieli.

Apart from the above mentioned, NAMIS (Forum for National Minorities in Sweden) within the Centre for Multiethnic research and at Uppsala University and the Centre for Research on Bilingualism at Stockholm University have also focused on research on national minorities and their linguistic conditions in Sweden. In accordance to its name, NAMIS focuses on research on national minorities in Sweden. Their research is directed towards linguistic-sociological and literature-sociological areas and cover also cultural and educational studies. The number of researchers with clear focus on Sweden Finns/Tornedalians is two, both renowned researchers with associate professor status – and Finnish backgrounds. The Centre for Research on Bilingualism conducts research on Swedish language politics (Language Council of Sweden, 2009). A third unit where national minorities have been a part of the scope of the research is the Language Research Institute in Stockholm (formerly known as Språkforskningsinstitutet i Rinkeby). In addition to the above mentioned units, there have been a number of individual researchers within different kinds of academic units at Swedish universities with research interests that have touched upon Sweden Finns and Tornedalians. Since 2000, a minimum of 15 doctoral dissertations with at least some connection to Sweden Finns, Tornedalians and their languages have been published in Sweden within several different fields of research. These include, in order of appearance:

Table 2. Doctoral dissertations with connection to Sweden Finns and Tornedalians published in Sweden since 2000.

Of the above mentioned, all scholars except for de Smit, Milani, Wedin and Ågren are first or second generation Sweden Finns or Tornedalians. Apart from these dissertations, there are currently four PhD students (including myself) within the Stockholm and Mälardalen/Örebro universities working on doctoral dissertations that have some kind of connection to Sweden Finns and Finnish. As for Meänkieli, one researcher with background in Tornedalen, is currently working at Umeå University on a doctoral dissertation that will be published in the near future. The senior researchers referred to in table 1 have all either Sweden Finnish or Tornedalian backgrounds. Their recently published works have not, on the other hand, been thoroughly examined in the charting. In addition to these researchers, there are a number of researchers, mainly with focus on other minorities, who often draw parallels between “their” and the Sweden Finnish and/or Tornedalian minority. Specific facts of their number and research focus has however not been charted for this paper.

A review of doctoral dissertations concerning Tornedalians and Sweden Finns and since 2000 shows that there are several themes present in the research. The topics of dissertations range from detailed linguistic and semantic descriptions to revisions of the Swedish educational system and to identity discussions from the minority point of view. The dissertations have been written within numerous different research fields, linguistics, ethnology and social sciences being the most apparent of them. In addition to doctoral dissertations, there are at least a few hundred other scientific and popular scientific publications concerning the minorities and their languages. The minority scholars’ task seems to be much of that of informing and educating, and it appears that many of the publications have the majority population, its decision-makers and/or scholars as their main target group. There is, however, an undertone in some of the publications that underlines the sense that even the minority itself needs to be educated and informed about issues concerning it.

Minority research – a right and an obligation
The above mentioned charting established what I had assumed: Researchers active in minority research concerning Sweden Finns and Tornedalians are to a high extent minority people themselves – at least in the light of recently published doctoral dissertations. The situation is not by any terms unique for Sweden Finns and Tornedalians, as similar descriptions can be made of many minority groups, be they linguistic, ethnic, or other. Why is it then that different groups are in this way represented by their “own” researchers? Is it a necessity for a researcher to belong to a minority group in order to gain acceptance and fulfill the demands of representability and authenticity in his/her work on the group in question? What needs to be considered is that the idea of a minority being represented and researched by a researcher with minority background has not always been the norm. In fact, I would like to claim that it is rather quite new and associated with postmodernism. Within several research fields, including sociology and anthropology, it has been a long-lived tradition that Western researchers conducted their fieldwork at and interpreted the reality of indigenous peoples. Thus, the interpretations were often characterized by an outsider’s perspective to the examined phenomena. The outsider’s, as well as insider’s (or emic and etic, if you like) perspectives are something I will return to.

Another intriguing question is also whether a researcher’s position should always be seen as that of power. Connections between knowledge and power have been highlighted, perhaps curiously, by scholars themselves since the 17th century. The 17th century scientist Francis Bacon has been cited saying “knowledge is power”, which, according to Nilsson (2008) can also be interpreted as knowledge giving power. Perhaps the most well-known scholar within the framework of knowledge and power is Michel Foucault. For Foucault power and knowledge are inseparable; it is not possible to exercise power without knowledge because it is impossible for knowledge not to evoke power and it is discourse that joins power and knowledge together (ibid). The academic society, being traditionally thought of as fortress of knowledge, can thus be seen as exercising power. And with power come rights and responsibilities, which both can be used and misused.

The concept of academic power has been discussed by other scholars, among them the late French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. Apart from the concepts of class, culture, habitus and symbolic power, which he is generally known for, education, intellectuals and intellectual fields occupy a central place in his work. In his book of 1997, Culture and Power – The sociology of Pierre Bourdieu David Swartz sets an outline of Bourdieu’s most important works. In one of his works, Homo Academicus, the concepts of academic power, scientific power and intellectual renown are discussed. Of these, I find especially scientific power, (degree of control over research resources and prestige within the scientific community) and intellectual renown (recognition by the broader educated public for published work) interesting from the minority researchers’ point of view.

In Hyltenstam and Stroud (1991) the internal organization of a minority is being discussed. According to them, minority literature often speaks about leaders and spokesmen for the group. These people are often those who have an academic education and who also have “succeeded” in the majority society, largely because of their ability to think and act according to norms and codes relevant for both cultures. A strong internal organization within the minority also enables the development of own institutions, whether they are cultural, educational or other. Internal organization within a minority and academic representation lead me to yet another question: Do researchers with minority background then have a special position, considering the aspects of knowledge and power? My answer is yes and no.

Returning to Bourdieu’s scientific power and intellectual renown, it is interesting to reflect upon the concepts in relation to minority researchers. When it comes to research resources, the support for research on minorities and minority languages is inadequately financed in Sweden, as concluded earlier. Within the universities and units where minority research and higher education are present, researchers are forced to compete over resources and as it seems, often have to depend on their own ability to find external financing. As for prestige and recognition within the scientific community, it is difficult to draw any conclusions based on the material examined for this paper, but it is likely that minority researchers are somewhat marginalized within the scientific community. If the concept of marginalization is seen as its postmodern usage of individuals being excluded from power, status and discourse, being marginalized in one context does not, however, mean that one automatically is marginalized in others. Minority researchers’ voice may not always be heard in the academia or in the society at large, but it can at the same time play a significant role in the discourse within the minority.

As noted earlier, questions of whose right it is to do research on a group or a minority can also be seen as connected with the emic (insider) and etic (outsider) approaches. The two approaches were originally developed within cultural anthropology during the 1950s by the anthropological linguist Kenneth Pike. These approaches, though not mentioned by name specifically, are discussed in a symposium volume with the title “Att forska om språkliga minoriteter”. Erling Wande, a Tornedalian and former professor in Finnish at Stockholm University problematizes the insider’s right to do research on his/her minority group. With personal reflections on being a member of a minority as a point of departure, Wande discusses problems of subjectivity vs. objectivity and perspectives of out-group and in-group membership (Wande 1990). Striving for neutrality has long been perceived as the ideal way of doing research and any suspected in-group membership partiality seemed for long to function as a both a concrete and a mental barrier – not the least for researchers with minority background. “Singling out” oneself as an unprofessional, biased researcher has seldom seemed like the most attractive option for a thriving young scholar, as Wande himself was in the 1960s.

Even though the absolute demand for entirely objective research has been abandoned during the latter half of the 21st century – at least within social sciences, I would like to argue for the fact that there still is – and to some extent should be – a certain pressure and need of doing “objective” science among researchers. The questions of objectivity/subjectivity are still present e.g. in debates on theory of science and sociology of knowledge. However, the paradigm of outgroup researchers being regarded as the “objective” ones has shifted and evolved since the 1960s.

Questions of representation and authenticity have not always been directly in focus during the course this paper relates to. They can, however, be discussed in relation to some of the literature studied and the researchers behind them. In Who Does This Language Belong To? Avital Feuer (2008) discusses what she calls personal narratives of language claim and identity. The book begins with Feuer establishing her status as someone with “a feeling of displacement and difference” within her own ethnic speech community and continues with analyses of language claim and ownership in identity formation, as well as in-group community rifts, hierarchies and Othering as a result. Through opening her unusually and explicitly personal point of view, Feuer presents herself as a person with a dual identity, that of both Hebrew and English. By doing so she not only adds an extra dimension to the reader’s experience, but also establishes her own role as representative for the ethnolinguistic minority her research is concerns. As for authenticity, through the analyses of her informants’ identities, social groupings, Othering and other phenomena, Feuer succeeds in connecting her own split identity to her research. Feuer’s question is “who does this language belong to? but she might just as well ask: “who does this group belong to?”, or “whose right is it to represent these people?”.

Another author and scholar who can be regarded as not only seeing the tasks of research and education, but also representation as hers, is Beverly Daniel Tatum (1997), who from the first page on in Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? establishes her status as a representative of the Black community, but even more as a bridge builder between the Black and White communities. Through personal examples from her teaching, Tatum for instance explains the development of racial identity. She defines racism “as a system of advantage based on race”, rather than a personal ideology based on racial prejudice. Associations to both Foucault and Bourdieu can be found in Tatum’s conclusions of racism’s connection to social power (1997).

As well as Wande, another minority researcher, a Finland Swede named Marika Tandefelt reveals her thoughts on doing research as a part of the minority in “Att forska om språkliga minoriteter”. In her article, with the title “To be a scholar in a small world”, she discusses the double roles of a minority researcher – those of a neutral scholar and a spokesman for the minority. She also discusses more specifically the minority researcher’s role as an illustrator of the minority’s reality – not only directly for the majority but even more so for the minority leaders, people representing the minority in majority contexts, a task that often includes educating people about minority issues and – in her case –bilingualism (Tandefelt 1990). In her article, Tandefelt raises the legacy of the sociologist Norbert Elias as another approach to the “meaningless” discussion of the im/possibility of objective research. Instead of speaking of objectivity, Elias presents the perspective of distancing oneself from the focus of the research (ibid). It is also a duty for the scholar to continue producing data and publishing research results despite the fact that other members of the minority might find them inconvenient. Minority scholars often live with pressure both from within their “own” minority groups and from the majority groups, who can be either negligent or even hostile. (Ibid)

Conclusions
The introduction of this paper included plenty of questions, both personal and general, about a researcher’s identity and roles in the representation of a minority as a scholar, as a member of the academic community and the society in a wider perspective. A minor charting of doctoral dissertations written on Sweden Finns/Tornedalians showed that it is commonplace that the researchers who have defended their theses in the recent years are minority people themselves.

One of the questions I posed during this journey was if it was necessary for a researcher to belong to a minority group in order to gain acceptance/authenticity and to be able to act as an representative, if that is what one wants. The answer seems to be that it hardly is a necessity, but that the advantages of being a minority member might outwin the disadvantages when doing research on them, even though at times this might mean ending up in a marginalized position within the academia. The winds have changed since the 1960s when it comes to representability, authenticity and objectivity in research (which for instance Wande refers to), but they still are relevant and interesting questions to discuss. In order to extend the scope of this study, interviews with scholars, both seniors and those who have recently joined the field, concerning their motivation for doing research within the minority and as well as a deeper study of the texts could be done.

Literature
Feuer, Avital, 2008. Who does this language belong to? Personal narratives of language claim and identity. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.

Hyltenstam, Kenneth & Christopher Stroud, 1991. Språkbyte och språkbevarande –om samiskan och andra minoritetsspråk. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

Hyltenstam, Kenneth 2007. Begreppen språk och dialekt och meänkielis status som eget språk. I: Mer än ett språk – en antologi om flerspråkigheten i norra Sverige. Westergren, Eva & Hans Åhl (red.) Stockholm: Nordstedts akademiska förlag.

Kuoppa, Harriet 2008. Situationen för minoritetsspråket meänkieli i Sverige. Rapport från Institutet för språk och folkminnen, Dialekt- ortnamns- och folkminnesarkivet i Umeå. Umeå.

Language Council of Sweden/Svenska språknämnden, 2003. Sveriges officiella minoritetsspråk: finska, meänkieli, samiska, romani, jiddisch och teckenspråk: en kort presentation. Stockholm: Svenska språknämnden.

Mulinari, Diana. Intersektionalitet. En föreläsning och ett seminarium. 2009-01-22.

Nilsson, Roddy, 2008. Foucault – en introduktion. Lund: Égalité.

Regeringen 1998/1999. Nationella minoriteter i Sverige. Regeringens proposition 1998/99:143. http://www.regeringen.se/content/1/c4/22/18/f5c9eed7.pdf

Regeringen, 2009. Nationella minoriteter. http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1483/a/12607.

RUAB, 2005. Hur svenska folket talar och förstår finska och meänkieli samt en kartläggning av radiovanor. Rapport från RUAB Radioundersökningar AB. Stockholm.

Swartz, David 1997. Culture and power – the Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.

Språkpolitik och forskning 2009. Språkrådet. http://www.sprakradet.se/minoritetsspråkspolitik

Sveriges radio 2009. Tilastojen kertomaa: Ruotsinsuomalaiset 2009. http://www.sr.se/cgi-bin/sisuradio/nyheter/artikel.asp?artikel=2797781

Tandefelt, Marika, 1990. Att forska i den lilla världen. I: Att forska om språkliga minoriteter. Wande, Erling (red.) Stockholm: Stockholms universitet.

Tarkiainen, Kari, 1990. Finnarnas historia i Sverige 1, Inflyttarna från Finland under det gemensamma rikets tid. Stockholm: Nordiska museet.

Tatum, Beverly Daniel, 1999. Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? New York: Basic Books.

Lundström, Dan 2005. Finnish in Sweden. The Swedish Bureau of Lesser Used Languages (SWEBLUL) 2005. http://www.sweblul.se/sweblul/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39&lang=en

Wande, Erling, 1990. Majoritets- och minoritetsperspektiv – några inledande synpunkter. I: Att forska om språkliga minoriteter. Wande, Erling (red.) Stockholm: Stockholms universitet.


text: User:Palatial Regalia

title: User:Palatial Regalia


text:
User:Mattaebersold

Group Name
Group 1

"What did I learn in this class, and what do I have left to learn?"
This class let me write about what I love to do. I'm here at the Art Institute because I have a passion for art and technology, which I realize in my web design degree. What better subject to spend a whole class writing about other than that? I got to research what the industry leaders are saying about the trends in technology and web design, and how that is affecting the artistic touch and approach in the design of sites. I also got to take a more global look at the technology movements as a whole, and to see how they are affecting other industries as well.

One thing that I saw this quarter that was especially interesting to me was the Story Of Stuff. I believe that relates closely with our writing topic, and I found it very interesting to see the connections between technology, manufacturing, business, and resource consumption. I believe I gained much insight from that, as it related to the whole class.

Honestly, in regards to what I have left to learn, I would have enjoyed writing my own paper, and exploring my topic as it relates to web design in depth. I would have enjoyed reading more books specifically related to my topic, and really getting into the deep content about trends and movements in technology and web design & development.

"What did I do well in this class, and what could I have done better?"
I felt as though I did quite well in terms of the organization of my portion of the group work, and well as my energy and knowledge in my sub-topic within our overall paper. I thought it was fun to write about, and research.

The issues surrounding group projects were all here, and the main thing was disorganization for the group as a whole, and some of the energy and drive of other group members. I'm not saying that I did all of the work at all, it just seems as though some members were more committed than others to contribute an equal share.

Taking these things into consideration, I believe we pulled through, and produced a quality paper.

"How do I feel prepared, or unprepared, to continue my studies at this point?"
Since my topic, as well as my specific sub-topic were so closely related to my major, I feel more focused and empowered than I did coming into this class. I have a renewed sense of focus and mindset. When I came into this quarter, I was starting to burn out on school a bit. This class was two things: Easy going, and refreshing at the same time. I got to relax a bit and decompress, as well as explore my major in my writing. I thought the combination of these two things were very helpful to me in bringing back that excitement and passion regarding my college studies.

"How did I contribute to the experiences of other students in this class?"
During some of the discussions related to films, topics, and things like that, I felt compelled to add my perspective. For example, the conversations can be slanted one way or the other (not a bad thing) so I felt it important, not to force my beliefs on others, but to add my personal convictions and thought to the overall discussions. I thought this was helpful, not only to me in learning how to express my beliefs in a professional manner, but to others who might not be aware that other perspectives exist. I thought that the discussions in class were lively, important, and were related to interesting topics.

Thanks for the class! I really appreciate it. Honestly.

title: User:Mattaebersold


text: User:Graeme E. Smith/GreySmith Cerebellar Involvement in Recruitment Protocol 1


text: User:Graeme E. Smith/GreySmith Cerebellar Involvement in Recruitment Protocol 1a


text:
BCP/Tragopogon pratensis

Tragopogon pratensis

title: BCP/Tragopogon pratensis


text:
BCP/Tragopogon pratensis/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Jomegat 01:50, 4 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Jomegat 03:53, 2 August 2009 (UTC)

title: BCP/Tragopogon pratensis/Logs


text:
User:CarrieBerg/Paranoia

Paranoia (par"ə-noi'ə) n. insanity marked by delusions of grandeur or persecution.

By looking at me you might not have guessed that I was deeply paranoid as a child. But then, most people didn't realize it even when I was a child. I would spend hours every day mapping escape routes in my head - and unlike most other children - I would actually practice them in reality.

I spent hours climbing out of windows, climbing down drainpipes from second story balconies, climbing up and down trees. I would even practice jumping from second story balconies, the tops of swing sets, or out of trees, in order to prepare for a hasty escape.

I was smart enough to know that adults would frown on these activities - so not only did I not tell them what I was doing, I would wait until my parents and/or the neighbor's parents were elsewhere before practicing my jumping. The few times I wasn't clever enough to schedule my activities for when they were gone, they were most worried. More worried that I'd hurt myself, then why I was doing it. The funny thing is, they never really asked me why.

The neighborhood boys, who were my friends, all thought it was great fun. It was fun for me too, but it was also more than a game. I seriously believed that I might need a hasty escape some day. That someone would be hunting me down and I'd need to leave fast. If I was lucky, I would have the time to climb. If not, I would have to jump. I knew jumping was the riskier choice, because I could twist an ankle or somehow damage my legs, which I needed for running. But I also knew that jumping was preferable to being captured.

I was worried I would be snatched and sent off a a lab for testing - something I really didn't want to happen. Or I'd be hunted down for what I was. What I am.

What am I? I'm psychic. My whole family is. And I had read too many books where the government kidnaps psychics and takes them off to secret labs for testing.

It is a legitimate fear. At least, it is for me. I still occasionally have nightmares about being hunted down for what I am. I used to have those nightmares all the time. They've lessened as I've aged. But they are still there. In the back of my mind. Waiting.

I certainly don't hide the fact that I'm psychic. During icebreakers, I always bring it up. I'd rather have people know. There are fewer misunderstanding that way. They can confront what they feel about psychics, and I can tell them what it is like.

Do want to know what it is like? To be set apart by an extra sense? Among other things, I'm an empath. I feel your emotions. Do you have any idea how awkward that can be? For years what I felt was not my feelings, but the feelings of people around me. It nearly drove me insane - until I figured out what was happening.

And please don't touch me. Don't take it personally if I flinch away, it's because touching me just makes what I'm feeling from you stronger.

So, is it paranoia if I am different from other people? If some of them do persecute me for what I am?

The funny thing is, the paranoia hasn't really gone away. It's still there, locked under my seemingly normal facade.

I still plan escape routes in my head.

And I can climb in and out of my current apartment.

Just in case.

.:.:.:.:.:.

It's true. I'm psychic. And I'm paranoid about being hunted down. But on to why I wanted to write this. Well, I had to run to catch the bus today. How does that relate? Well, I was running in a skirt. Which, when I was younger, I practiced. I can climb trees, run, and bike in long skirts - all because of my paranoia.

You never know when you might be taken - it could be after some fancy dinner. So I thought it best to be prepared for all situations. Which is also why I can run on ice, have a controlled fall/skid on ice, run on slick cobblestones, run in all types of footwear - my paranoid knows no bounds, but at least it is all semi-practical knowledge.

Oh, wait, I was supposed to write how a book personally affects me... Well, I admit, a lot of the main characters in books I read are also paranoid - usually with very good reason.

Currently, I'm reading the wonderful series by Brandon Sanderson about the Mistborn. I'm on the second book of the trilogy, The Well of Ascension. The main female character, Vin, is extremely paranoid - and reminds me very much of me. When she wears dresses, she makes sure that she can easily run, jump, and fight in them. Because you never know when someone will attack you.

The discussion in class today (June 3rd) certainly helped bring out my paranoid side (Who is watching over our actions? How many of us are being tracked for reasons we don't know?)

Which naturally led me to write this.

title: User:CarrieBerg/Paranoia


text: File:Carlosdesign.jpg

title: File:Carlosdesign.jpg


text: User:Graeme E. Smith/GreySmith Cerebellar Involvement in Action Protocol 1


text: User:Graeme E. Smith/GreySmith Cerebellar Involvement in Action Protocol 1a


text:
Conservation Entrepreneurship/Financial Management

Useful references:

Press, Eric. 1999. Analyzing Financial Statements: 25 keys to understanding the numbers. The New York Times Pocket MBA series. 657.3 PRE 1999

Friedlob, George and Ralph Welton. 2008. Keys to Reading an Annual Report, 4th edition. Barron's Business Keys. 657.3 FRI 2008


text:
Conservation Entrepreneurship/Investing

Information on personal investing is outside the scope of this course, but it may be worth providing references to relevant literature and other resources.

Graham, Benjamin. 1973. The Intelligent Investor. Harper Collins a pioneering classic; the definitive book on value investing; the road map followed by Warren Buffet.

Bernstein, William. 2000. The Intelligent Asset Allocator: how to build your portfolio to maximize returns and minimize risk. McGraw Hill. The most important investment decision is how you allocate assets among different investment classes (stocks, bonds, etc.).

John Bogle (founder of Vanguard)

A random walk down Wall Street.

Rubino, John. 2009. Clean Money: picking winners in the Green-Tech Boom. John Wiley & Sons. A commercial and investing perspective on emerging technologies. Very good critical analysis of what technologies are likely to break through versus those that are inherently flawed from a commercial standpoint.

title: Conservation Entrepreneurship/Investing


text:
User:ZStoler

Hello, please see my account at wikipedia.

title: User:ZStoler


text: User:Aaron of Mpls

title: User:Aaron of Mpls


text:
User:Kirisun

hi

title: User:Kirisun


text:
Talk:History of taxation

how did the governments reformed the taxasion after the great depression

title: Talk:History of taxation


text:
User:Email4mobile

An Arab contributor to Wikiversity and other Wikimedia foundation projects.

title: User:Email4mobile


text:
User:Juandev/Design Tigey

 Take a look here for how I set up my page.W:User:Tigey

Use wikEd to easily change the color scheme.

title: User:Juandev/Design Tigey


text:
User:Juandev/Badges

  Programming  Technical  Fun!

title: User:Juandev/Badges


text: Template:Infobox User

title: Template:Infobox User


text:
Template:Infobox User/doc

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title: Template:Infobox/row


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 * name : The template page name that the "view/discuss/edit" links should point to. You can use . If this parameter is omitted the view/discuss/edit links will not be displayed.

Title
There are two different ways to put a title on an infobox. One contains the title inside the infobox's border, the other puts it on top as a caption. You can use both of them together if you like, or just one or the other, or even neither (though this is not recommended).
 * title : Text to put in the caption over top of the table.
 * above : Text to put within the uppermost cell of the table.

Optional content

 * subheader1, subheader2: additional title fields which fit between and.
 * image1, image2: images to display at the top of the template. Use full image syntax, for example [[Image:example.png|200px]] . Image is centered by default.
 * caption1, caption2 : Text to put underneath the images.
 * header(n) : Text to use as a header in row n.
 * label(n): Text to use as a label in row n.
 * data(n): Text to display as data in row n.
 * below: Text to put in the bottom cell. The bottom cell is intended for footnotes, see-also, and other such information.

Optional CSS styling

 * bodystyle : Applies to the infobox table as a whole
 * titlestyle : Applies only to the title caption. Adding a background color is usually inadvisable since the text is rendered "outside" the infobox.
 * abovestyle : Applies only to the "above" cell at the top. The default style has font-size:large; since this cell is usually used for a title, if you want to use the above cell for regular-sized text include "font-size:medium;" in the abovestyle.
 * imagestyle : Applies to the cell the image is in. This includes the text of the image caption, but you should set text properties with captionstyle instead of imagestyle in case the caption is moved out of this cell in the future.
 * captionstyle : Applies to the text of the image caption.
 * headerstyle : Applies to all header cells
 * labelstyle : Applies to all label cells
 * datastyle : Applies to all data cells
 * belowstyle : Applies only to the below cell

Microformats

 * bodyclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox as a whole
 * imageclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the image; it is in particular used in conjunction with Image class names.
 * class(n): This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the data cell of the specified row. If there's no data cell it has no effect.
 * titleclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's title caption.
 * aboveclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's above cell.

This template supports the addition of microformat information. This is done by adding "class" attributes to various data cells, indicating what kind of information is contained within. To flag an infobox as containing hCard information, for example, add the following parameter:

 * bodyclass = vcard

And for each row containing a data cell that's part of the vcard, add a corresponding class parameter:

 * class1 = fn
 * class2 = org
 * class3 = tel

...and so forth. "above" and "title" can also be given classes, since these are usually used to display the name of the subject of the infobox.

See WikiProject Microformats for more information on adding microformat information to Wikipedia, and microformats.org for more information on microformats in general.

Making fields optional
A row with a label but no data is not displayed. This allows for the easy creation of optional infobox content rows. To make a row optional use a parameter that defaults to an empty string, like so:

 * label5 = Population
 * data5 =

This way if an article doesn't define the population parameter in its infobox the row won't be displayed.

For more complex fields with pre-formated contents that would still be present even if the parameter wasn't set, you can wrap it all in an "#if" statement to make the whole thing vanish when the parameter is not used. For instance, the "#if" statement in the following example reads "#if:the parameter mass has been supplied |then display it, followed by 'kg'":

 * label6 = Mass
 * data6 =

For more on #if, see here.

You can also make headers optional in a similar way. If you want a header to appear only if one or more of the data fields that fall under it are filled, one could use the following pattern as an example of how to do it:

header1 will be shown if any of item_one, item_two, or item_three is defined. If none of the three parameters are defined the header won't be shown.

The trick to this is that the "if" returns false only if there is nothing whatsoever in the conditional section, so only if all three of item_one, item_two and item_three are undefined will the if statement fail.

Full blank syntax
(Note: the template currently handles up to 80 rows; only 20 are included here since infoboxes larger than that will be relatively rare. Just extend the numbering as needed. The microformat "class" parameters are also omitted as they are not commonly used.)

Porting to other MediaWikis
The infobox template requires the tidy extension to be installed, and may not work with other MediaWikis the WP:TRAN has a version of Infobox that has been modified to work on other MediaWikis.

title: Template:Infobox/doc


text: User:Juandev/Infobox

title: User:Juandev/Infobox


text: User:Juandev/Contacts

title: User:Juandev/Contacts


text: Template:Hl

title: Template:Hl


text: User:Juandev/Working Pages

title: User:Juandev/Working Pages


text:
Talk:Visual Basic .NET/Reusable Code

Example code for the exercise
The code below is only one way to have completed the exercise.

title: Talk:Visual Basic .NET/Reusable Code


text: Category:VB.NET

title: Category:VB.NET


text:
User:CarrieBerg/Alphabetically Evil

Glorious Synonyms of Evil, listed Alphabetically, of course!

Abhorrent

Abominable

Amoral (having no morals, either good or bad, not to be confused with immoral)

Atrocious

Baneful

Base

Beastly

Contemptible

Corrupt

Deplorable

Depraved

Despicable

Destructive

Dissolute

Distasteful

Execrable (utterly detestable)

Fiendish

Flagitious (grossly wicked)

Foul

Heinous

Hellish

Immoral (violating morals, having the opposite of morals)

Infamous

Infernal

Iniquitous

Licentious

Loathsome

Malefic (harmful, doing mischief)

Maleficent

Malevolent

Malicious

Monstrous

Nauseating

Nefarious

Odious

Pernicious

Rancorous

Repugnant

Repulsive

Revolting

Rotten

Sleazy

Slimy

Terrible

Unrighteous

Vile

Villainous

Wicked

Wretched

Other Words of Interest:

Adversity

Blighted

Brutalize

Decay

Degenerate

Deleterious (causing harm or damage)

Despair

Devastate

Disaster

Dishonorable

Envenom

Excoriate (to strip or remove skin)

Fetid

Gruesome

Horrific

Inflict

Irascible (easily provoked to anger)

Lurid

Malodorous

Mephitic (fetid, noxious)

Miscreant

Misery

Misfortune

Nocent (harmful)

Nocuous (harmful)

Noxious

Penalty

Pestilential

Plague

Putrid

Rancid

Ravage

Ruination

Scathe

Shameless

Suffering

Tainted

Termination

Torment

Torture

Twisted

Vitiated (to spoil, corrupt, debase)

Withering

Woe

title: User:CarrieBerg/Alphabetically Evil