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3-bit Walsh permutation

There are (3) = 4 * 6 * 7 = 168 binary 3×3 matrices.

They form the general linear group GL(3,2). (As all non-zero determinants are 1 in the, it is also the .)

It is isomorphic to the , the symmetry group of the.

Each of these maps corresponds to a permutation of seven elements, which can be seen as a of the.

Representations
These images show the connection between the 3×3 matrices and the permutations: Each row of the 3×3 matrix can be interpreted as a number in $$\{1..7\}$$. The corresponding (row of a Walsh matrix) is shown to its right. The columns of the resulting 3×8 matrix can be interpreted as a permutation of $$(0..7)$$. (The small gray cube shows the result of applying the permutation. Reading it as a sequence corresponds to reading the permutation matrix by rows.)

These images show why the author chose the term Walsh permutation. A permutation is Walsh iff applying it to the columns of a creates a matrix that can also be described as a Walsh matrix with permuted rows.

Here the binary 3×3 matrices are used as transformation matrices. A list of these files can be found here.

These are transforms with inverses of binary matrices, which contain some negative 1s. A list of these files can be found here.

These images show the connection between transforms and permutations: The vertices of the periodic gray cubes have values from 0 to 7, and the transformation moves each vertex of the colored cube to some vertex in some gray cube. This file shows essentially the same as this one (shown below), but the colored small vertices make it clearer how it corresponds to this. (This is the result of applying the permutation. It corresponds to the gray cube in the overview files above.)

The colors are in the same vertices of the gray cube as in the transform images above. This is the result of applying the permutation. The number values of the colors are like those in the gray cubes in the overview files (in the first box above). Complementary vertices are connected by brown edges. The patterns are numbered 1..7.

Conjugacy classes
The group has (3) = 6. They almost correspond to the , but there are two different conjugacy classes with 7-cycles. (For the distinction between them, see here.)

The permutations in 2+2 are self-inverse, and their fixed points correspond to Walsh functions. They can be found here.

The 3×3 matrices in the same conjugacy class are.

Cycle shapes
In a symmetric representation like the Fano plane, there are 33 different cycle shapes (or 24 if the direction is ignored). A complete list can be found here. They are denoted by city names, followed by a qualifier of the direction, where needed.

Inverse 3×3 matrices differ in their determinant. Those in the inner triangle have 1, and those in the outer have −1.

Inverse 3×3 matrices differ in their number of ones. Those in the inner hexagon have 5, and those in the outer have 6.

$$A$$ and $$B$$ have the same cycle shape, if there is a $$P$$ from the symmetric subgroup, so that $$B = P^{-1} A P$$. (The 3×3 matrix of $$P$$ is a permutation matrix.)

This is a refinement of, where $$P$$ is allowed to be any element of the group. (Cycle shapes are a refinement of es.)

Powers and cycle graph
The of this group has 28 triangles, 21 squares and 8 heptagons.

Each of the following rows is an example of a cycle. (Each one is closed by the neutral element, which is not shown.) It shows consecutive of the first element from left to right. (Also of the last element from right to left.) Elements in symmetric positions are inverse to each other.

Triangles
Each of the 28 triangles contains two inverse permutations of cycle type 3+3.

Squares
This shows why there are two permutations of cycle type 2+4 for each one with 2+2.

title: 3-bit Walsh permutation


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Sound powered phones/Howard Community College/Fall 2011

 * /550_EPC/
 * /550_EPC Project 2/

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:U3036219

Not Yet Completed - From Meeting Friday 1:00pm /BPS2011 Essay/

Assignments
/Poker Machine Reform – The Effects on the Landscape of Australian Sport/

title: User:U3036219


text:
Sound powered phones/Howard Community College/Fall 2011/550 EPC

Problem Statement
Build a sound powered phone system for the classroom

Team Members
Put each team members name here with links to their personal page here. Real names do not have to be used.
 * Epcole

Summary
This project was to build a sound powered phone system that could be used in the classroom. At first we were looking for vendors to buy some parts but after very little success, we started to work on how to build a system.

Poster
To the right is the basic idea behind the sound powered phone's microphone. Its very similar to the design of a speaker right now but I think its a good starting point.

Story
We actually stumbled upon this project while trying to fix a broken speaker. We were looking at how the speaker works and noted that it could work in reverse and the sound powered phone came up. The speaker's coil magnetizes and is attracted to the base of the speaker when current flows through it. The coil can also send out a voltage when it cuts through the magnetic field and when that voltage is sent to another speaker, it causes that speaker to move. We wanted to build a system for the classroom from old scrap parts. The first part was just to see the speaker's output when used as a microphone. The small speaker produced about a 2mV peak which is pretty low. Not sure if its enough to generate sound on the other end but that hasn't been tested yet. Finding parts to sound powered phones proved to be very difficult so we decided to start working towards building one from scratch. At this point, getting a coil with enough inductance to produce a decent voltage with minimal movement while not being too bulky is the first step.

Decision List

 * Find Sound Powered Phone Parts
 * Find detailed drawings and information on how a sound powered phone is constructed
 * Search for parts that can be used in building a sound powered phone system
 * Design a test microphone as a starting point

Material List
The materials list was pretty short since most of the parts needed were taken from used speakers.
 * 36AWG magnet wire
 * Headphones

Software List
No software was needed for this project

Time
The initial search for parts consumed most of the first few weeks with a few weekly hours spent on messing with speakers. Over the last week of the project I came up with a design for the microphone.

Tutorials
http://crystalradio.net/soundpowered/insideelements/index.shtml has a drawing and photos of an old sound powered phone. The system proposed would be based on the information on this page.

Next Steps
A good starting point would be to check out the link to the crystalradio page and see how the sound powered phone is constructed. Right now the first thing to do is to build a coil with a good inductance value without being too bulky. A wire that is very thin would allow for much more turns in the coil. Another step is to find a material that can be used as a diaphragm. Latex has been suggested but I'm skeptical because of its strength.

Subjective Critera
While reading these sections, practicing engineers are building up the following impressions about the document. So the following categories are more subjective:

Repeatablitly
Is there enough detail to repeat the work?

Integrity
Proving something doesn't exist or doesn't work usually requires exhaustion. Simply saying "it can not be done" is like challenging a pro basketball player (engineer) to one-on-one basketball (find a solution). It does not inspire respect. All the different ways respect is created can be found throughout the wikibook General Engineering Introduction.


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User:Alexavent/BPS 2011 Corporate Sponsorship of Major Sporting Events; an Alternative Marketing Method Presentation

=Presentation Description=

Corporate sport sponsorship is one of many promotional tools used by marketers to sell goods and services. The presentation entitled Corporate Sponsorship of Major Sporting Events; and Alternative Marketing Method Presentation outlines why it is that organsations should use corporate sport sponsorship, with particular focus on the benefits of using such sponsorship as an alternative marketing method in promoting the organisation. Provided within the presentation are both national and international The Romantics case study examples of events and organisations, supported by academic research.

Key case study examples of Coca-Cola, Qantas and ActewAGL have been identified to support the arrangement of the first section of the presentation. Using sponsorship as a ‘non-traditional’ promotional tool and creating a positive event-sponsor ‘fit’ and image provide the second and third sections to the corporate sponsorship presentation. Note that the selected musical accompaniment is ‘What I like about you’ produced in 1980 by The Romantics has been specifically identified for this presentation as the lyrics have been interpreted to represent the consumer liking the company’s choice to become a corporate sport sponsor.

The presentation links closely to the article Corporate Sponsorship of Major Sporting Events: an Alternative Marketing Method. The use of sponsorship as a method of marketing an organisation is increasing in popularity. The aim of this article is to provide an outline of the current situation in which corporate sponsorship of major sporting events exists, and the aspects that influence its development as an alternative marketing method.

=View the Presentation=

To view the presentation please follow this link: Corporate Sponsorship of Major Sporting Events; an Alternative Marketing Method Presentation and download the powerpoint presentation (left hand side of page). NOTE: Ensure that you have the volume on your computer on in order to hear the audio within the presentation.


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User:Epcole/enes100/Sound Powered Phone

Link to project EPC team page.

Give instructor top 3 project choice list
My top three projects were Power Projects, Corn Starch, and Infared.

Write problem statement
Make a sound powered telephone system

Assign Task1
Test how speakers can transmit sound

Compare actual work done to Task1
Recorded electrical signals created by speaker when diaphragm vibrates.

Week1 Narrative
Speakers and microphones convert sound vibrations into small electrical signals. To better understand this, I took a speaker and connected it to a National Instruments Data acquisition board. The electrical signal is generated when the speaker's coil moves inside the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. It creates sound when the coil is magnetized by electrical current - this attracts it to the permanent magnet, which causes the diaphragm to move. For this experiment, I basically used the speaker as a microphone and recorded the electrical signal created when the coil passes through the magnetic field. The signals were quite small, around 3mV peak.

Assign Task2
Learn about the history of the microphone and also the construction of sound powered telephone elements

Compare actual work done to Task2
Studied the construction of Sound Powered Telephone Elements

Week2 Narrative
I found out that unlike the speaker, the element of the sound powered phone has its coil attached to the end of a drive rod. Although there are different constructions, the basic idea is similar. the speaker has its coil attached directly to the diaphragm and it moves back and forth along one plane. I think attaching the coil on a balanced armature at the end of the drive rod allows the coil to move and vibrate freely. The coil is also balanced between 2 magnets. A drawing of this can be found here. I also did some searches for parts but haven't yet turned up anything. I would like to find an old unit or a part of it that I can take apart and get a better understanding of the elements inside.

Week2 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:32, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task3
Search for sound powered telephone parts.

Compare actual work done to Task3
Spent the week trying to find parts from sound powered phones

Week3 Narrative
I did some searches for any antique electronics dealers in MD. Found a few but no one carried sound powered phone parts. I visited a flea market also and didn't have any luck. I did come across the NAVSEA website and found some information on the Inactive Ships Program. Its a program which allows the Navy to donate "obsolete" shipboard parts from scrapped ships to nonprofit organizations for educational purposes. Hoping there is one of those in the area that I can visit. There is also the DLA where the DOD auctions off some scrap parts to the general public. No sound powered parts on there at this time. Right now it looks like building a unit from the ground up might be a good way to better understand how they work. Thankfully, crystalradio.net has very detailed pictures of what the inside of an element looks like and has pictures of all its parts. That seems like a good place to start.

Week3 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task4
Find individual parts and start planning on building a sound powered element from scratch.

Compare actual work done to Task4
Continued Search for Sound Powered Phone parts. Also began designing a prototype microphone unit.

Week4 Narrative
I haven't been able to find any sound powered phone parts yet, and the next Hamfest doesn't happen till January, so I started to move ahead with trying to build a sound powered system from the ground up. The first part is the microphone. It would be made from PVC since it is easier to cut and machine. Since the diaphragm would be made from latex, which I believe could be highly sensitive, we could end up with unwanted vibrations. To prevent this, there will be a dome over the diaphragm, which would be lined with a foam sheet to dampen vibrations in the casing from the sound waves. The entire casing might need to be lined with this if needed but for now, the dome will be the only part. In my research, I saw that a lot of microphones using diaphragms use two separate magnets, and the sound powered units on crystalradio.net also used two, so our mic would have the same. As of right now, I'm going to try to buy a coil but there is the possibility of building one if I can't find a suitable coil.

Week4 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Complete Project Page
Follow the "project done" format.

Start Next Project Week0 activities
During this week you will perform the week0 activities of the next project.

title: User:Epcole/enes100/Sound Powered Phone


text: File:Bps.MitchellKing.ogv

title: File:Bps.MitchellKing.ogv


text: File:The Olympic Games As A PolitcalDriver.ogv


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User:Antperry/The Intersection of Politics and Business in Rugby Union

Introduction
Since entering the post-modern era, professionalism has clouded the world of sport. Rugby union has been no exception to its merciless growth, particularly in the 21st century. The ruthless rise of professionalism has been the precursor of rugby union drawing parallel to the realms of politics and business.

Rugby entered the professional marketplace to avoid being left “behind as a fossilised relic of a gentlemanly age that had gone” (Laidlaw, 2010). Indeed, it avoided being left behind. More than a decade on from rugby’s addition to the bazaar, the sport has become fond bedfellows with politics and business.

As rugby has continued to grow in its professionalism, politics and business, and how they intersect within the sport, have become entrenched within all facets of the game – international, national and local.

The amendments of rugby’s rules and the implementation of such changes by the International Rugby Board (IRB), has ensured rugby union remains an attractive product within the marketplace, thus helping it to remain a viable business on an international scale.

Sponsorship ensures adequate financial backing for national rugby competitions, allowing such competitions to flourish.

The inception of judicial committees in local levels of rugby, aimed at minimising illegal and foul play within the game, has contributed a steady income, enabling the sport’s smallest sector to remain afloat.

Business and politics, undoubtedly, intersect within the 15-a-side game.

International
As societies worldwide are presided over by a government, rugby, too, has its own governing body. The IRB is the world governing and lawmaking body for the sport. Of its four main functions, perhaps the IRB’s most significant role is the “governance of the Laws and Regulations and their enforcement” (International Rugby Board). This role ultimately determines how successful the sport is both on and off the rugby pitch.

As governments around the world continually legislate more rules, the IRB is no different. Calls for amendments to rugby’s rule book surfaced in the mid 2000s. Such amendments were dubbed as experimental law variations (ELVs) and were first trialled at South Africa’s Stellenbosch University in 2006. Following the 2007 Rugby World Cup, the sport’s global showpiece event, the ELVs came to wider prominence. Outgoing IRB president Syd Millar expressed the need for amendments because delays in the release of the ball from the contest for possession were having adverse effects on the game (Rugby Football History, 2007).

The IRB announced in 2008 that its Council had approved a global trial of ELVs. For a period of 12 months, commencing 1 August 2008, all levels of rugby union were to trial 13 of the 23 approved variations to rugby’s current laws. Following the trial period, 10 of the 13 trialled rule variations were implemented into Law on 23 May 2009 (The Telegraph, 2009);

•	Law 6 - assistant referees allowed;

•	Law 19 - Kicking directly into touch from ball played back into 22 equals no gain in ground;

•	Law 19 - Quick (lineout) throw permitted in any direction except forward;

•	Law 19 - Positioning of player in opposition to the player throwing in to be two metres away from lineout and the line of touch;

•	Law 19 - Pre-gripping of lineout jumpers allowed;

•	Law 19 - Lifting in the lineout allowed;

•	Law 19 - Positioning of receiver must be two metres away from lineout;

•	Law 20 - Five-metre offside line at the scrum;

•	Law 20 - Scrum-half offside line at the scrum;

•	Law 22 - Corner posts no longer touch in goal.

Head of the IRB’s Referee Board Paddy O’Brien stated that before the adoption of the ELVs, rugby was not subject to the laws of the game and the constant blowing of the referee’s whistle was enough to “send the spectators out of the ground” (Harlow, 2006). When rugby went professional, it became a business and if it were to lose the support of its clientele, it would be left in a vulnerable position in the marketplace.

This is where politics and business intersected on rugby’s international stage. The introduction of said ELVs by the IRB has ensured that rugby remained an attractive product and has since seen business thrive in the international bazaar. The game is now simplified, faster and a more open “product” on the pitch (Harlow, 2006). It is also more entertaining according to Stellenbosch University Rugby Club president Jourie Roux, who saw the ELVs trialled before the rest of the rugby world (Harlow, 2006).

This year’s Rugby World Cup (RWC) tournament in New Zealand, the first to be played since the introduction of the amended laws, produced $NZ268.7 million (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2011) in ticket sale revenue with two matches still left to be played. The figure exceeded Rugby New Zealand’s target of $NZ268.5 million (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2011) set two years ago. Overall, 87% of available tickets were sold at the tournament (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2011) and the showpiece event attracted 100,000 visitors from around the world (Rugby World Cup, 2011). Furthermore, RWC 2011 was broadcast in more than 200 territories worldwide, more than any previous Rugby World Cup tournament (Rugby World Cup, 2011). Indeed, international rugby seems to be more a more entertaining product post the implementation of the ELVs.

In 2010 (post the introduction of the ELVs), average attendance figures for the southern hemispheres and the northern hemisphere’s pinnacle international events, Tri Nations and Six Nations tournaments respectively, eclipsed the average attendance recorded at 2007 RWC matches (pre the introduction of the ELVs). 49,111 spectators attended nine Tri Nations matches in 2010 and an average of 70,351 spectators were on hand for each the 15 Six Nations fixtures in the same year, while the average attendance at the 48 RWC games in 2007 was 47,376 (Wikipedia, 2011).

The amendments made to rugby’s laws and the introduction of them by the IRB indeed shows the intersection of politics and business within the 15-a-side game, and as a result, the sport has since benefitted at an international level.

National
There was a time when rugby had no external support. It was, essentially, valueless to the outside world. But with the arrival of professionalism came the commoditisation of rugby. Sponsorship of the sport all of a sudden became an option. Now, rugby and sponsorship are synonymous with one another.

Sponsorship within rugby has been defined as a “relationship between a provider of funds, resources or services and an individual, event or organisation which offers in return some rights and associations that may be used for commercial advantage” (Rugby Australia).

Competitions are now sponsored by globally recognised organisations, even on a national scale. The inception of sponsorship within rugby’s national realm has been brought on by the growing pressures of professionalism and the need for the game to keep pace with other global sports.

Sponsorship is dealt with by the national body and the steps involved in the process have been outlined; (Rugby Australia)

1.	Setting up a sponsorship plan that outlines the various options available to sponsors;

2.	Sponsorship proposal – is developed to target a sponsor or group of sponsors;

3.	Sponsorship agreement – a formalized partnership agreement securing the sponsorship for your club/Association;

4.	Final checklist to ensure that the process is complete.

Businesses require money to stay afloat, remain competitive and to make improvements to products. Rugby on a national scale is no exception.

The successful completion of the sponsorship process portrays the intersection of politics and business, as the money needed for national rugby to thrive is supplied by sponsorship.

In 2008, ABSA, a consumer bank in South Africa, renewed its long-standing sponsorship of the Currie Cup, South Africa’s premier domestic rugby competition (Biz Community, 2008).

Angie Burton, GM, group marketing at ABSA, said of the sponsorship renewal: “From a business perspective, the ABSA Currie Cup sponsorship creates an opportunity for the rugby public to interact with and experience the ABSA brand through various leveraging and marketing activities” (Biz Community, 2008).

A sponsorship deal worth £20m saw Premiership Rugby, England’s top-flight national competition, become The Guinness Premiership in 2005 (Morning Advertiser, 2005). The deal was aimed at enhancing “the fans’ experience as much as possible” and “to grow the club game in England still further” (Morning Advertiser, 2005).

In 2010, Premiership Rugby announced a four-year sponsorship deal with Aviva, who would replace Guinness as its title sponsor, worth £20m. It was intended that the joining of the two would lead to “significant investment into community programs” (The Guardian, 2010).

The inception of sponsorship within rugby’s national realm was perhaps a necessity. Governing organisations saw the need for sponsorship to maintain the high standard of national competition seen in England and South Africa. Sponsorship has enabled national rugby union to remain a viable business in which the public interact with, highlighting the intersection of politics and business on the sport’s national stage.

Local
Since the advent of professionalism, rugby has become more competitive and the thirst for victory is stronger than ever before. In a team’s quest for glory, its players will do anything to achieve magnificence and to satisfy the demands and expectations of fans and coaches alike. The actions of players, though, are not always within the laws of the game, even at rugby’s local levels. In an attempt to combat the illegal and foul play committed by players, local rugby union bodies have established internal judiciaries.

New South Wales Suburban Rugby Union’s (NSWSRU) Judiciary deals with “all protests, disputes, misconduct or other matters stipulated in the Union’s Objects and Rules, these Competition Rules, the Code of Conduct or such items referred to it by the Board or the Executive Director” (New South Wales Suburban Rugby Union, 2011).

New South Wales Country Rugby Union’s (NSWCRU) Judiciary Committee determines all matters arising from: “Orderings off from the playing enclosure; Citings by the Citing Commissioner; Breaches of the Code of Conduct; Citings by the Chief Executive Officer; Any dispute referred by the Board” (New South Wales Country Rugby Union, 2010).

Similarly, Queensland Rugby Union (QRU) holds the following as warranting disciplinary action from its Judiciary: “When a Player is Ordered Off the playing enclosure; When a Player is cited for an act or acts of Illegal and/or Foul Play; When a Player has been Temporarily Suspended three times in accordance with Regulation 17.20; When an act or acts of Misconduct may have been committed by a Union, Player or Person” (Queensland Rugby Union, 2003).

Since their inception, local rugby judiciaries have played a large part in minimising the number of cases in which players commit illegal and foul play. While one would hope local union bodies introduced such committees purely to maintain the sport’s clean image, other agendas are strongly evident. Just as rugby is a business on the international and national stage, it is, too, at a local level. While local rugby is insufficiently backed fiscally by sponsors and other corporate bodies, much unlike the sport’s two upper tiers, the presence and operation of judiciaries ensures an income.

Players and participants summoned to a judicial hearing have the opportunity to appeal a decision made by a judicial committee, but for a price.

NSWCRU grants players the right of appeal. A cheque for $200.00 made out in favour of the Union must be lodged with the appeal. Referees, too, have the right of appeal, and must also include a cheque for $200.00 when lodging an appeal (New South Wales Country Rugby Union, 2010).

QRU also allows players and participants the right of appeal from any decision of a Judicial Committee. Each notice of appeal must be accompanied with a deposit of $250.00 (Queensland Rugby Union, 2006).

The presence and operation of judiciaries essentially highlights one of the intersections of business and politics in local rugby. Its mere existence and policies, put in place by governing bodies, is a catalyst for some of the sport’s income in its local sector.

Conclusion
Since its turn to professionalism, rugby union has become inseparable from the realms of politics and business and the intersection of the two within the sport is evident at every level – international, national and local.

On the international scale, the IRB’s amendments to rugby’s rule book have created a more open and entertaining product. This has increased the sport’s appeal and as a result, rugby is thriving within the international bazaar.

The commoditisation of rugby since the arrival of professionalism has seen the sport, at a national level, combine with sponsorship and benefit because of it.

The implementation of judiciaries and their policies at rugby’s local level provides the sport’s smallest sector with a source of income, enabling it to remain viable.

Indeed, politics and business intersect within rugby’s international, national and local levels. The arrival of professionalism, one could argue, was the precursor of their involvement within the sport. As a result, rugby union has flourished since the attachment was formed and has most certainly avoided being left “behind as a fossilised relic of a gentlemanly age that had gone” (Laidlaw, 2010).

Presentation
Click on the following link to view my presentation - http://www.archive.org/details/TheIntersectionOfPoliticsAndBusinessInRugbyUnion


text:
User:JonathanStone/Player Wages & Salaries between elite football leagues - Online Presentation

Hi all,

the below links include both my prezi powerpoint and also the recordings you will need to follow for the presentation.

I would advise opening the prezi presentation in a different page as you will need to click on the individual audios for each topic.

Please use the arrows down the bottom right hand of the screen to scroll through the presentation/ or bottom-middle of the webpage.

The audios are listed below linked below to my page at archive.org

Enjoy!

Prezi Powerpoint

Presentation Recording


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Extreme achievers

Overview

The 16-time Olympic medal winner Michael Phelps trained everyday of the year, has three weight lifting sessions a week, swims at least twice a day, swimming a minimum of 80,000 metres a week (Michaelis, 2008). Three time Iron man world champion Craig Alexander's training sessions can include rides of over 180 kilometres which can last upwards of 7 hours (Godwin, 2011). Rafael Nadal, the former world number one tennis player, has a daily training regime that includes four hours of playing tennis on court, two and a half hours in the gym, and a strict stretching routine (Rajkhowa, 2011). So how do these people summon such incredibly high levels of motivation when most people can barely drag themselves to the gym once a week? How can people attain such high levels of motivation? How can we achieve more?

Goal setting
Setting goals is an important first step in achieving something you want as it gives you something to aim for. It turns a vague idea such as "I want to lose weight" into "I want to lose 10 kilograms in 10 weeks". Many studies have found that people who make goals outperform those who do not (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Weinberg, Bruya, Longino & Jackson, 1988). To get the intended enhanced performance from goal setting it is important, however, that the goals are both difficult and specific (Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham, 1981). A person with a difficult goal will have to be persistent and increase efforts to accomplish it and specific goals focus and direct energy. The above example, losing 10 kilograms in 10 weeks, is very specific and quite difficult, which should make the individual more persistent and focused on achieving it, when compared with a more general "I want to lose weight".

Research by Burton, Pickering, Weinberg, Yukelson and Weigand (2010) sought to investigate the effects of goal setting on extreme achievers. They included 338 prospective Olympic athletes from 12 different sports and found that those who they referred to as ‘multifaceted goal setters’ outshone the rest. These multifaceted goal setters had a strong belief in the effectiveness of the short-term, long-term and psychological goals they had set for themselves. When compared to those who did not believe in the effectiveness of their goals, they found that the multifaceted goal setters set more goals, had higher levels of commitment, more self-confidence and greater success in their sporting careers.

Long-term goals
Having a goal such as making it to the Olympics is a long term goal as usually you would need to be in intense training for years to reach the required standards to compete. Whether your goal is short-term or long-term has no significant effect on performance unlike having no goal at all, which significantly lowers performance (Weinberg, Bruya, Longino & Jackson, 1988). Although having a long-term goal does have a negative effect on persistence and intrinsic motivation (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). A possible explanation for this is due to the lack of feedback that is given during the pursuit of a long term goal. One way to counter this is to break a goal down. Bandura et al. argue that breaking down a goal into sub-goals can promote and increase intrinsic motivation.

Short-term sub-goals
Breaking a long-term goal down into achievable sub-goals can make a large and distant goal more attainable. In a classic study by Bandura and Schunk (1981) this was put to the test. They put children in one of three self-directed learning conditions, one with short term sub-goals, one with distant future goals and one with no goals. They found that those in the group with short-term sub-goals progressed quicker, achieved more and developed an intrinsic motivation for the learning. Bandura and Schunk stated that creating short term sub goals would have three main effects. The sub-goals would sustain motivation, provide immediate feedback and encouragement and make it more unlikely that a person would relax their efforts to achieve their long term goals in the present. All very important factors for an individual who has a long term goal, like competing in the Olympics.

Implementation intentions
Turning these goals into reality is a different matter. One thing that can assist the execution of a goal is forming implementation intentions. For example, the goal may be to train so you can run the famous 42 kilometre New York City marathon whereas the implementation intention would be that after breakfast tomorrow morning I’m going to run 10 kilometres. It has been shown that an effective tool in achieving goal attainment is the forming of implementation intentions (Webb & Sheeran, 2004). Gollwitzer and Schaal (1998) argued that implementation intentions were more effective when they were linked with a situational cue. In the above example, the implementation intention was to run 10 kilometres after breakfast, so therefore eating breakfast would be the situational cue for you to start training. Gollwitzer et al. stated that the situational cues can help avoid bad habits or temptations like procrastination, it can be very tempting for example to put off the run till another time.

Feedback
To increase performance a person’s goals need to be reinforced with timely and accurate feedback. Feedback has been shown to be very important in maximising a person’s performance (Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham, 1981). Meeting your goal of losing 10 kilograms will be very hard to judge without a set of scales, do you need to work harder to achieve your goal or not? On the other hand, feedback is pretty much useless if you have not set a goal. Jumping on the scales and finding that you’ve lost one kilogram will just be irrelevant information without a predetermined weight lose goal in mind. To read more about the importance of feedback, refer to the book chapter on feedback.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is when the motivation to do an activity is genuine and comes from within you. Basically, it is when you want to do something because you want to. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is where the motivation comes from a social environmental event, like feedback, rewards or incentives. A child who reads a book because they like reading is intrinsically motivated, however a child who reads a book because their parents have promised them $5 for doing so is extrinsically motivated.

Deci and Ryan (1985) argued that a person’s source of motivation, whether intrinsic, extrinsic or impersonal, were generally stable personality traits. They developed the General Causality Orientations Scale (GCOS) to assess people’s motivation. This scale has been shown to directly relate to the theoretical constructs intended and to be internally consistent (Deci et al.). Below is a modified version of the GCOS from the University of Rochester (2008). In this form the validity and reliability of this quiz has not been assessed and because of this it should only be used as an example.

 {A close (same-sex) friend of yours has been moody lately, and a couple of times has become very angry with you over "nothing." You might: + Share your observations with him/her and try to find out what is going on for him/her. - Ignore it because there's not much you can do about it anyway. - Tell him/her that you're willing to spend time together if and only if he/she makes more effort to control him/herself.
 * type=""}
 * A
 * I
 * C

{You have just received the results of a test you took, and you discovered that you did very poorly. Your initial reaction is likely to be: - "I can't do anything right," and feel sad. + "I wonder how it is I did so poorly," and feel disappointed. - "That stupid test doesn't show anything," and feel angry.
 * type=""}
 * I
 * A
 * C

{You have been invited to a large party where you know very few people. As you look forward to the evening, you would likely expect that: - You'll try to fit in with whatever is happening in order to have a good time and not look bad. + You'll find some people with whom you can relate. - You'll probably feel somewhat isolated and unnoticed.
 * type=""}
 * C
 * A
 * I

{You are asked to plan a picnic for yourself and your fellow employees. Your style for approaching this project could most likely be characterized as: - Take charge: that is, you would make most of the major decisions yourself. - Follow precedent: you're not really up to the task so you'd do it the way it's been done before. + Seek participation: get inputs from others who want to make them before you make the final plans.
 * type=""}
 * C
 * I
 * A

{Recently a position opened up at your place of work that could have meant a promotion for you. However, a person you work with was offered the job rather than you. In evaluating the situation, you're likely to think: - You didn't really expect the job; you frequently get passed over. - The other person probably "did the right things" politically to get the job. + You would probably take a look at factors in your own performance that led you to be passed over.
 * type=""}
 * I
 * C
 * A

{You are embarking on a new career. The most important consideration is likely to be: - Whether you can do the work without getting in over your head. + How interested you are in that kind of work. - Whether there are good possibilities for advancement.
 * type=""}
 * I
 * A
 * C

{A woman who works for you has generally done an adequate job. However, for the past two weeks her work has not been up to par and she appears to be less actively interested in her work. Your reaction is likely to be: - Tell her that her work is below what is expected and that she should start working harder. + Ask her about the problem and let her know you are available to help work it out. - It's hard to know what to do to get her straightened out.
 * type=""}
 * C
 * A
 * I

{Your company has promoted you to a position in a city far from your present location. As you think about the move you would probably: + Feel interested in the new challenge and a little nervous at the same time. - Feel excited about the higher status and salary that is involved. - Feel stressed and anxious about the upcoming changes.
 * type=""}
 * A
 * C
 * I

{Please disregard the score as there is no right or wrong answers and just look at the letters underneath the answers that you gave.}

If you answered mostly A's - The Autonomy Orientation assesses the extent to which a person is oriented toward aspects of the environment that stimulate intrinsic motivation, are optimally challenging, and provide informational feedback. A person high in autonomy orientation tends to display greater self-initiation, seek activities that are interesting and challenging, and take greater responsibility for his or her own behavior.

If you answered mostly C's - The Controlled Orientation assesses the extent to which a person is oriented toward being controlled by rewards, deadlines, structures, ego-involvements, and the directives of others. A person high on the controlled orientation is likely to be dependent on rewards or other controls, and may be more attuned to what others demand than to what they want for themselves. In the U.S., at least, a person high in the controlled orientation is likely to place extreme importance on wealth, fame, and other extrinsic factors.

If you answered mostly I's - The Impersonal Orientation assesses the extent to which a person believes that attaining desired outcomes is beyond his or her control and that achievement is largely a matter of luck or fate. People high on this orientation are likely to be anxious and to feel very ineffective. They have no sense of being able to affect outcomes or cope with demands or changes. They tend to be amotivated and to want things to be as they always were.

Intrinsic motivation
When intrinsically motivated an individual will be more persistent in their goal (Hardre & Reeve, 2003), perform to a higher level, be more creative (Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne & Ilardi, 1997), have a higher conceptual understanding (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Soenens & Matos, 2005), have higher self-esteem and greater psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). If you were a star gridiron player in the NFL and were intrinsically motivated, you should be more persistent, able to perform better, think of new ways to train, have a better understanding of the game, higher self-esteem and greater well-being. As you can see being intrinsically motivated would be a great asset for an athlete. Indeed intrinsic motivation seems to be vital to Michael Phelps’ success with him himself saying “If I want to accomplish my goals, I have to do it myself... For me to show up for a workout, that’s on me. I have to want to do that.” (Anderson, 2011, p. 31).

Cognitive evaluation theory
Cognitive evaluation theory, first proposed by Deci and Ryan in 1985, is a sub-theory intended to complement self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It states that an individual’s social environment is very important as it can either aid or thwart their intrinsic motivation. When referring to a person’s social environment they mean things such as feedback or rewards. The most important thing is that these social environmental events generate feelings of competence and autonomy. If this is the case then intrinsic motivation will be increased. In other words if you were training to compete in the [[w:Tour_de_France|Tour de France], the three week long bike race that covers more than 3,600 kilometres, and you were to receive feedback, to enhance your intrinsic motivation the feedback would need to give you a feeling of competence or belief in your abilities and also a sense of autonomy, or the feeling that your success in training was due to yourself and your hard work (an internal locus of control).

Flow theory
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi proposed flow theory in 1975, sometimes referred to as "optimal experience", which is now a very well-known theory of intrinsic motivation (Keller & Bless, 2008). Flow theory describes a state called ‘flow’, which can be explained as a complete and entire absorption in an activity. For example, an athlete that is "in the zone", completely absorbed and involved in what they are doing. This activity is said to be intrinsically motivating, being interesting and involving of itself, regardless of any rewards or incentives. This state of ‘flow’ can be attained when the balance between an activities difficulty and an individual’s skills are aligned.

As you can see on the diagram to the right, if the task is difficult and the skill level is low it will produce anxiety, alternatively if the person’s skill level is high but the task is easy it will produce boredom. So making sure the tasks achieve ‘flow’ could be one way to increase motivation. This can be done by increasing a tasks difficulty if it is boring, or increasing an individual’s skill level if the task is anxiety provoking.

Extrinsic motivation
It has been proposed that giving extrinsic motivation can undermine a person’s intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1971). In other words, rewarding an individual for doing an activity that they already enjoy will make them want to do it less. A meta-analysis of 128 studies by Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999) confirmed that this is the case. Deci et al. stated that rewards that were contingent on engagement, completion and performance were detrimental to intrinsic motivation. This, however, seems a little confusing as it is a pretty fair assumption that Olympic athletes are receiving rewards (e.g., medals, prizes, bigger sponsorship deals) when they engage in or complete an event or when they perform at their best. Deci et al. did state however that although rewards deminished intrinsic motivation positive feedback actually increased it. Cognitive evaluation theory would explain the phenomenon this way too, that these rewards are acting as feedback to let the individual feel competent.

Summary
The examples of extreme achievers used so far have all been of elite athletes, however a student that will have to go through over 10 years of intense studying and training to reach their goal of being a doctor would also be an extreme achiever. So would the musician who practices for hours a day to perfect their craft. All of the above mentioned theories and research can help you maximise your motivation and in turn your achievements in whatever setting you wish. Like setting goals, both long term and short. Creating implementation intentions and setting up measures for timely and accurate feedback. Ways to increase intrinsic motivation and how to place yourself in an optimal experience. Methods to make sure extrinsic motivators do not damage your intrinsic motivation. Using what psychological science has shown us can help everyone achieve more.


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User:U3025472/The Impacts of the Proposed 'Pokies Legislation' on Sporting Sponsorship

Overview
Preentation on Youtube.

Hi, my name is Kait Ludwig and today my presentation will be about the impacts of the proposed ‘Pokies Legislation’ on sporting sponsorships.

Politics has played a major role in shaping and developing sport over the past decades as a result of an increased government involvement in sport.

The introduction of a proposed pokies legislation has become a prominent news story of late, attracting the attention of licensed venues and sporting teams around the nation. It is feared that the proposed legislation which requires punters to register and set limits on their gambling, will have detrimental impacts on the annual revenue of clubs and casinos. Thus, having impacts on the overall commodification of sport at all levels. This presentation will address the importance of sponsorship in sport and the impacts of this proposed legislation on sports sponsorship at a local and national level.

I am also fortunate enough today to be joined by Spiro Tsiros, the commercial and marketing manager for the Canberra Raiders. As NRL is one of the sports which would be largely affected should this legislation come to pass, the information Spiro can provide will give a detailed insight into the impacts of this legislation at a local, national and even international level. Sports ranging from a grass roots level up to the elite rely heavily on sponsorship funding from large companies and licensed venues. Sponsorship funding is often used to purchase equipment, pay staff and athletes and promote the sport or team to the sports consumer. The proposed pokies legislation has been developed to target problem gamblers but what some have failed to recognise, is the detrimental impacts this will have on the funding of local and national sport.

If implemented, the pokies reform will lead to the discontinuation of many partnerships between sporting clubs and licensed venues which could see a large change in Australian sports in the future.

Transcript
I am now joined by Spiro Tsiros, the Commercial and Marketing Manager for Canberra’s premier Rugby League team, the Canberra Raiders. Sprio, thank you for giving up your time to discuss this issue with me today. So, obviously you and the club have been working hard in the off season to re-sign sponsors for 2012 and,

How vital is sponsorship funding for the Club in achieving its goals and objectives for next year?

''Well first and foremost, we’re measured by our success on the field but in the office, we’re measured off the field. To keep ‘on-the-field’ running, we need a budget of which about 40% is taken up by sponsorship revenue. So if you don’t achieve your revenue target, it’s hard to give the players everything they need to achieve on the field.''

In the wake of the new ‘Pokies Legislation Proposal’, sporting sponsorships have come under fire, with a lot of major clubs and casinos pulling their sponsorship from sporting teams. Has this proposal had an impact on the Canberra Raiders and if so, what does it mean for the club going forward?

''Well it hasn’t had an impact yet. But we’re supported by 8 licensed clubs. Which is, without talking out of school, on an average, the 15 clubs that participate in the NRL that are supported by poker machines, have somewhere between 10 and 15% of their operating budget supplied by poker machine revenue. So, whilst the laws haven’t come into play, it’s put the pressure on clubs to go out there and find additional sources of revenue or tighten up expenditure, to come into line.''

Okay, so aside from NRL sponsorships, are there any other elements of the club that may be affected by the implementation of this legislation?

''It’ll probably have far reaching effects further into the future than the short term. We’re facing a TV rights deal so, if we’re short in funding because of poker machine legislation, we’ll probably be insulated in the short term. Going forward however, with the amount of revenue, about 7.5% of obligatory spend in the community driven by poker machine funding, when that starts to dry up, what we’ll see is not only in rugby league but across all sports, a drying up of junior talent because community groups will not receive the funding from poker machine environments to then put their kids in the sporting competition.''

So should this legislation come in to pass, do you think Australian teams in Rugby League will be disadvantaged to their counterparts overseas?

''Not in the short term. But with the stemming of junior participation in the next 5 to 10 years, and then the slower flow on effects of younger kids coming through the ranks to first grade football, there will obviously be a smaller talent pool. When you have a smaller talent pool, there’s less ability to identify big and large talents. So, in the next 10 to 15 years, there will start to see a slimming of top grade rugby league players in Australia. However, in saying that, New Zealand have never had a poker machine environment for which to fund Rugby league and they seem to be going ahead in leaps and bounds. So maybe we’ve just got a bit of catching up to do.''

It is evident that sponsorships and the sale of sponsorships can mirror team performance both on and off the field. After a somewhat unsuccessful season in 2011, have you seen the impacts of the performance on your sponsorship sales?

''Well, there’s a few different levels of sponsorship. One is overt branding, which you see on our playing apparel. That in some cases is a little more insulated from team performance because the decisions on that property are normally made on a marketing/commercial level. We get below that and get into the more personal sponsorships, particularly Canberra being a small business market, you’re confronting owners, and they’re emotionally driven decisions in much of the case. So it becomes more difficult to attract probably the smaller investor. Whilst we haven’t seen how difficult it is yet to attract the larger ones.''

And what means are you going to in order to provide, I guess, an additional benefit to the sponsors that do re-sign for next year?

''Well, using some experience as a guide, I think the sponsors we have in the Canberra marketplace are quite well looked after by not only the club but this team. So going forward, if we can just monitor what we have done for them historically, that should see them stay on board for years to come.''

Conclusion
It is evident that sport sponsorship plays a vital role in the funding of sport not only at an elite level but from the grass roots level and upwards. The funding received from sponsorship often provides valuable resources to a sporting team which enables them to achieve success in their given competition.

The announcement of this proposed legislation has caused many clubs to assess their budgets and revenue sources as a loss of poker machine revenue could result in a large void in their annual income. This has left many licensed venues reconsidering the distribution of their funds and many may no longer be able to afford to sponsor local sports if this legislation eventuates. This extinction of funding for local sport could result in a decline in community or grass level sports. Which, in some circumstances may lead to a decline overall sport participation in future years.

The government needs to asses these factors, as this political decision could hinder the sporting pride and success of the nation. Funding assistance may be provided through additional government grants or initiatives as other countries have done. In the short-term, the Canberra Raiders will endeavour to continue their relationships with both large and small businesses and further grow their sponsorship base within the Canberra area.

I hope you have enjoyed this presentation. Thank you.


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User:Kayla

Hi :)

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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Healthy eating

Overview
This chapter looks at the factors behind why people eat an unhealthy diet and explains what an individual can do to foster the motivation to eat a healthy diet instead. There are many researches done into different factors which may affect what an individual chooses to eat; some of which will be shared in this chapter.

Why eat a healthy diet?
There are many reasons as to why an individual would want to eat a healthy diet, such as:
 * Health (Prevention of illness equals a longer life)
 * Healthy ageing
 * Look good and feel good
 * Lose weight (Getting the perceived body of your dreams)
 * Save money (Fruit and vegetables are cheaper)
 * Increased amount of energy
 * Save the planet (Vegetarianism)
 * Spiritual beliefs (Can be cultural; for example Hindu's are vegetarian as they do not believe in the violence of killing animals)
 * Social pressure

What triggers unhealthy eating?
An individual must ask them self before starting to alter their diet to a healthier one, What went wrong in the past whilst trying to achieve a healthy diet? Were you perhaps too strict and did not allow any indulgences? Or maybe you allowed too many treats on a regular basis. There are usually certain situations or stimulants that trigger the need to eat unhealthy foods. Lechky (1995) suggests after having conducted studies, that strategies can be set in place with the assistance of a health professional to prevent unhealthy eating triggers. Lechky (1995) suggests that there is not enough communication between health professionals and patients, which leads to avoidance of healthy eating as an individual cannot always understand all the information put forward by the media. Lechky (1995) believes this may cause poor motivation and unless an individual makes a conscious effort to gain a more thorough knowledge of healthy eating the motivated behaviour of an individual will be blocked. Lechky (1995) recommends that people use less statisitical methods of analysing food and instead implement other strategies such as, visualising butter instead of fat in foods that are high in fat (for example how many pats of butter does a particular food contain rather than fat?) Lechky (1995) recommends the use of multiple strategies for avoiding the consumption of unhealthy food on a regular basis. Lechky's studies (1995) suggest that by looking into reasoning as to why a person may fail to adopt a healthy diet and implementing strategies to assist in motivating individuals to eat healthy and avoid unhealthy foods more people may swap to a healthier life style.

Economic theory
It is believed that the economic theory is what individuals base their foods choices upon whilst shopping or eating out (Finkelstein et al, 2004). The acronym TECHV is what the economic theory is based on, it stands for Taste, Economy (food prices and income), Convenience (opportunity costs), Health (including weight), and Variety (Finkelstein et al, 2004). Most people whilst shopping consider some if not all of these factors and make a decision accordingly, therefore Finkelstein et al (2004) believes that to adapt a healthy balanced diet at least one of the TECHV factors must be influenced. Finkeltein et al (2004) suggests that individuals need more of an education of how the nutrition content of foods is translated into actual health and from lack this knowledge therefore make bad food choices. Finkelstein et al (2004) states that due to advancements in technology, food in general and high energy-dense foods in particular; unhealthy foods have become less expensive and more convenient. This may mean that individuals need to start thinking outside their normal economic routine and consider alternatives that may not be more expensive such as fruit and vegetables. An individual just needs to consider trying new foods and anticipate spending more time preparing meals to stay motivated to eat in a healthy manner.

Why am I trying to change my diet?
This could be an important question when it comes to healthy eating that everyone should ask them self as it may change your perception of why you really want to change your diet to a healthier one. Putterman et al (2004) conducted a study on two of the main reasons why people change their diet; to change their bodily appearence and to improve their health. Which reason is setting you up to fail? Putterman et al (2004) found that individuals who were motiavted to change their diet in order to change their appearence were more likely to start using drastic dieting strategies compared to those who were motivated to change their diet to improve theri health, this put them at higher risk of harming themselves. Putterman et al (2004) also found through their studies that individuals who were changing their diet to change their appearence were more likely to score higher on measures of disinhibited eating or eating without restraint, however those individuals who changed their diet to improve their health came across fewer negative situations in which they may fail to retrain themsleves around unhealthy foods. The results from the study conducted indictated that the "typical dieter" (those who attempt to change their diet regularly) who stricted unhealthy foods completely experiences long periods of greatly restrained eating yet more periods of of over eating or binge eating of unhealthy foods (Putterman et al, 2004). These results show that setting a healthy eating goal that is too strict or restrained may lead to failure and relapse of unhealthy eating or binge eating (Putterman et al, 2004).This suggests that eating to improve overall health is associated with more positive eating behaviours (Putterman et al, 2004). This indicates that people may be setting themsleves up to fail eating a healthy diet only to change their bodily appearence, and are better of changing their diet to improve their health as they may benefit more from this approach (Putterman et al, 2004).

Elimination of obeseogenic determinants
What sorts of environments encourage unhealthy eating and how can we avoid sabotaging our health when this obeseogenic environment seems like it’s everywhere? Brug (2008) conducted studies into the determinants of motivation, ability and environmental factors related to nutrition behaviours. Brug (2008) believes that attitudes are an important determinant of motivation, as they are based on subjective weighing of expected positive and negative consequences of our behaviour. Other related determinants are decisional balance, outcome expectations and perceieved threat (Brug, 2008). Brug (2008) suggests that an individual believes that short term outcomes are more important than long term outcomes, for example taste, satiety and pleasure are short term outcomes of eating particular foods. However taste preference can be learned and unlearned depending on the surroundings or the company in social situations, for example an individual is not born liking the bitter taste of coffee it is usually learned through a process of operant conditioning (psychologically learning a behaviour through positive or negative reinforcements), this explains however why people learn to dislike the foods that they are allergic or intolerant to (Brug, 2008). Since unhealthy energy-dense foods provide these strong positive reinforcements, people often don’t associate them with negative effects and they do not have a large impact on individual choice towards unhealthy food (Brug, 2008). These results suggest that an individual should make an effort to understand their food choices and focus on long term consequences of food as well as short term consequences (Brug, 2008).

Brug’s study (2008) indicates that self-efficacy or perceived behavioural control is a strong determinant of one’s abilities, as this determines a person’s confidence in their ability and skills to engage in certain behaviours (for example if someone believes they can cut back on sugary foods even when faced with difficult barriers than they have a strong sense of self-efficacy and will have a better chance at succeeding). Brug (2008) suggests that self-efficacy is strongly related to practical knowledge of a topic as well as skills in the area, this means the more practical knowledge and skills a person has on how to eat a healthy diet the more likely they are to have a stronger sense of self-efficacy and therefore the more likely they are to succeed.

Healthy eating barriers many men face
Many people do not realise the difficulties many men face that prevents them from eating a healthy diet. Gough et al (2005) realises that men may have difficulties sticking to a healthy diet and has therefore conducted research into this issue. Gough et al (2005) suggests that much literature on men’s health highlights forms of masculinity as a negative factor which may affect men’s health behaviour. Gough et al (2005) found results in their study which suggest that two main barriers exist in men preventing them from eating a healthy diet, these are cynicism about the Government’s health messages and initiatives and rejection of healthy foods based on poor taste and lack of satisfaction. Gough et al (2005) interviewed 24 men on based on their opinion of the reasoning behind the lack of healthy eating in their life styles. There were many different reasons such as time constraint and expense, however most of the men mentioned criticisms towards the Government, such as the Government being overly intrusive (Gough et al, 2005). Other points were touched on such as the messages from the media being too “extreme” and “ineffective” and some men’s perception of a healthy diet was a particularly strict diet involving no or limited personal choice in foods consumed (Gough et al, 2005). Overall there appears to be a negative view held by many men aimed towards the Government and the healthy eating messages being presented, as many men describe the information as misleading, ideological and associated with great confusion (Gough et al, 2005).

Gough et al (2005) found that another major reason why men find it difficult to adhere to a healthy diet is that many of them associate it with a failure to satisfy. A preference for better tasting foods that are considered unhealthy or “bad” was evident (Gough et al, 2005). However many men rationalised their poor diet based on the perception that they were in fact already in a healthy state and did not see a great need to change their diet (Gough et al, 2005). One point that was mentioned was the distinction between masculine foods and “vegetarian” feminine foods, as some men believed that healthier options would not provide them with enough energy required for the day’s work and they would have to starve themselves in order to adhere to a healthy diet (Gough et al, 2005). Overall Gough et al (2005) found that much of the men interviewed had perceptions of eating that were linked to masculine conventions. To overcome this dilemma men could always take a step up and research healthy eating themselves if they are not satisfied with the Government’s representation of healthy eating, or join a healthy eating group or visit a nutritionist or dietician and learn from others that healthy eating is not about starving yourself or denying loved foods and it really does make a difference to your health and how you feel. Men may feel more motivated to adhere to a healthy diet by challenging their friends to join them in becoming healthier or by making an effort to try new healthy foods every day.

What do intentions have to do with it?
Some theories suggest that by forming intentions that match one’s regulatory orientation, (that means a person is pursuing a goal in a way that maintains their own personal values and beliefs) one is more likely to succeed in changing a behavior. Tam et al (2010) conducted a study into the effect that forming implementation intentions which match with one’s regulatory orientation have on unhealthy snacking habits. Tam et al (2010) found through this study that there was a difference in effectiveness in strong versus weak snacking habits. People with a weak unhealthy snacking habit snacked more readily on healthier foods once they had formed an implementation intention in general, however people with a strong unhealthy snacking habit broke their unhealthy snacking habit only when they had formed implementation intentions that specifically matched their regulatory orientation (Tam et al, 2010). Tam et al (2010) found that when people with strong unhealthy snacking habits failed to form an implementation intention which matched their regulatory orientation their unhealthy snacking behaviour was similar to or was than when they made no implementation intentions at all.

Tam et al (2010) identified two main processes involved with healthy snacking behaviour resulting from regulatory fit in food consumption habits; they are heightened motivation and intentional control of eating. This suggests a “value from fit” component is present which occurs when the behaviour of an individual is changed through the process of intensified motivation through fitting intentions with regulatory orientation (Tam et al, 2010). Tam et al (2010) has discovered that heightened motivation intensity is important in translating intentions into behaviour, if lack of motivation intensity is present than a person will struggle to achieve the desired change in healthy snacking or eating behaviour. Tam et al (2010) also suggests that heightened motivation assists in bringing the undesired behaviour under intentional control. Therefore to successfully achieve a change in unhealthy snacking or eating behaviour an individual must plan implementation intentions which match their regulatory orientations in order to heighten their motivation intensity and therefore bring their behaviour under intentional control (Tam et al, 2010).

Protection motivation theory
This theory presents the idea that motivation towards protection results from a perceived threat or the desire to avoid potential negative outcomes (Floyd et al, 2000). Floyd et al (2000) conducted an analysis on previous studies on the protection motivation theory, testing the effect this theory has on various health issues, although it is obvious how it can easily relate to the pursuit of a healthy diet. Floyd et al (2000) suggests that a cost-benefit analysis component is present in this theory in which individuals weigh the cost of taking precautionary action against the threat and the benefits expected from following through with that action. The results show that people when faced with a perceived threat tend to change their attitude and behaviour to conform to the threat, also when certain factors change such as threat severity, threat vulnerability and self-efficacy, adaptive intentions or behaviour is facilitated (Floyd et al, 2000). Floyd et al (2000) also determined that adaptive behaviour is further increased by a reduction in maladaptive rewards (Benefits of behaving in a disturbing manner) and adaptive response costs (Disadvantages of behaving in an appropriate manner).

Floyd et al (2000) determined that all components of the protection motivation theory is linked to healthy outcomes and the decision to take protective action is a positive approach as one must believe that they are at risk of being harmed. To adopt a coping process one must believe that this coping response will avoid dangerous aspects and that they have the ability to follow through with this coping action and behaviours (Floyd et al, 2000). Floyd et al (2000) discovered that the cessation stage of the coping process was most strongly related to a change in behaviour or intentions than in the initiation stage, this suggests that the protection motivation theory is more effective in getting an individual to stop performing a behaviour compared to starting a new behaviour. One way of looking at this point is to rather stop eating unhealthy foods to avoid chronic illness compared to start eating a healthy diet, as this may be a better coping method.

Healthy eating guidelines for Australia
The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating is a food guide for Australia which reflects the multicultural nature of the Australian population and which is relevant for all sectors of the Australian food system to use and as a nutrition education and information tool for everyone. This section gives a quick overview of the current Australian healthy eating guidelines booklet. There are in fact five main food groups referred to by health professionals there are:

 * 1) Breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles Multigrain.jpg
 * 2) Vegetables and legumes
 * 3) Fruit
 * 4) Milk, yoghurt, cheese
 * 5) Meat, fish, poultry (chicken and turkey), eggs, nuts, legumes

These main 5 food groups provide the body with the most important nutrients that the any body needs to function optimally. Extra foods are to be eaten occasionally and in moderation. Quantity: (For people over the age of 4 years old only)

 * Breads, cereals, rice, pasta and noodles= 4-5 serves daily (e.g. 1 serve= 2 slices of bread)
 * Vegetables and legumes= 5 serves daily (e.g. 1 serve= 1 cup of salad vegetables or 1 potato)
 * Fruit= 2 serves daily (e.g. 1 serve= 1 medium banana or 2 small apricots)
 * Milk, yoghurt and cheese= 2 serves daily (e.g. 1 serve= 250mL or 1 cup of milk or 40g or 2 slices of cheese)
 * Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, legumes= red meat 3-4 serves weekly, 1-2 serves of fish weekly and include poultry throughout the week (e.g. 1 serve= 2 small chops or 1 third of a cup almonds)
 * Water= 8 glasses daily at least (more needed during physical activity or in hot weather)

To have a read through the guidelines follow this link: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/health-pubhlth-publicat-document-fdcons-cnt.htm


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User:Trent hop/Why GWS will win the battle of Western Sydney

Abstract
In 2012 The Greater Western Sydney (GWS) Giants will enter the Australian Football League (AFL). This has lead to a rivalry between the AFL and National Rugby League (NRL) as GWS has a home base in the heartland of Western Sydney. the NRL has four clubs in Western Sydney area and have refused to be threaten by GWS, which may prove to be their downfall. Although spectulation has surrounded whether GWS will be successful, obvious signs have lead to the expansion into Western Sydney. Excessive crowds of 30 thousands on average to Sydney swans matches, an area with a population of 4 million people branching from Western Sydney down to the border of New South Wales (NSW) and the desire of the AFL to expand the game with plenty of money are just some of the reason to expand the AFL into Western Sydney. To ensure that GWS are successful they had to do the right things as past expansion clubs to the AFL have made mistakes that have limited the success of the expansion. GWS has done this by utilizing the Area it has been given to them in Southern NSW and Canberra. They have also utilized the money and resources they have received from the AFL, so that they can market and promote their club properly,to not only be successful not just in 2012, but in the future as they embark on their journey to expand AFL into Western Sydney.

Presentation
Why GWS Giants will win the battle of Western Sydney

Interviews Conducted
Cameron James- Development Manager AFL ACT/NSW Commission

Picture Credits

 * www.gwsgiants.com.au, Assessed 28th October 2011.

www.nrl.com.au Assessed 28th October 2011.

 * have contacted GWS seeking a release of images copyright that were used in presentation. Have been allow to use this in presentation, However has not been successful in getting a release of copyright.


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Facial expression

Comments
Hey, getting my information up slowly! Haven't done much coding/spruced up the layout yet, so would appreciate some suggestions! Tashc 08:49, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey :) Very interesting topic chapter! You have done some really good research! As you said, you haven't done much with coding etc, but I do have one suggestion in mind. Near the end where you list the characteristics of the different facial expressions, it would be nice to include a photo for each different type. It would make the chapter appealing and help identify the core features that differentiate each facial expression! Good luck with it, can't wait to see your final version! :) SKM1501 03:11, 02 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi, thanks for the feedback on my page. I put a quote you had that was going off the page into a table, if you don't want it there please change it back, just thought it looked a bit tidier. Anyways I love this topic and the page is looking good. If you wanted to expand more you could include concealment of emotions and how people do this. Also something I am interested is how sociopaths and psychopaths do not show the same facial expressions as others and they do not have the same emotional development. Anyways good luck :) (Benk 08:27, 2 November 2011 (UTC)).

Hey Tash, Thanks very much for your comment on my chapter on Overeating. It actually prompted me to a bit of a wider search on the social influence in eating. There does appear to be a trend that people consume less around strangers -particularly those of the opposite sex - but then restraineded eaters eat more in the presence of other people. So its definitely a point of discussion - thanks!! Your chapter is looking really interesting and I like the use of the guy from "Lie to Me"- nice pop culture reference. Claremw 11:15, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Great chapter and excellent presentation - congratulations - Magnolia

Hey, Thanks for your comment on my leaving home chapter. I have updated my cultural differences section but I looked at Europe, developing countries and Australia, oh and I even put Canada in, but hadn't really looked for much about America. I will consider it though. Looks like your chapter is coming along nicely. Just talking about culture, is there any cultural differences in facial expression? Also found in my 2 seconds of looking, http://www.cio.com/article/facial-expressions-test, figured it might be interesting to put something like that in. Good luck with it. Mlac 11:50, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Rfoster 07:18, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:13, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


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User:Dexterevi

Hi i'm Omugbe Silas Evi, Code Name: Dexterevi. I'm a Nigerian, from Dexter State. I speak English. I also understand Yoruba language. I have an unparalled passion for Education, Engineering, Music, Science and Business in relation to Software Development. I love challenges, and like proferring solutions to problems.

title: User:Dexterevi


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Change and happiness

Introduction
The way others see us, as being happy is the expression we give with our faces, our smile, our eyes tell someone wether we are happy, sad, or angry, Slessor, Miles, Bull, & Phillips, (2010) explain that the movement behind expressing a smile is The contraction of the zygomatic major muscles lifts the corners of the mouth obliquely upward into the typical shape of a smile on the face. Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, (1990) express however unlike non-enjoyment smiles, enjoyment smiles also involve the contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscles, which change our eye region and makes the eyes narrow and the wrinkles appear around our eyes, he has also mentioned that our eye brows are lowered when we seem happy or smiling genuinely. These features help us to judge whether the person is genuinely smiling because of happiness or whether it is a deliberately posed smile, or a spontaneously expressed enjoyment smile (Slessor, ‘‘et. al’’, 2010). According to Lyubomirsky, (2001) happiness is the experience of joy, contentment or the positive well-being of a person joined with a sense that their lives have meaning and are worthwhile.

This chapter will cover, the happiness in different perspectives, such as why some individuals are happier than others followed by appropriate different theories including objective determinant theory and happiness in adolescents followed by recognizing happiness through different age. Sex difference in happiness will be briefly covered and that will be closely followed by Freud’s id ego and super ego which make up the structural theory of happiness. It will also include how seeking happiness will lead to unhappiness.

Why are some people happier than others?
To find out whether some people are happier then others Lyubonmirsky (2001) conducted a study and to seperat happy and unhappy people he made his participants responde to a four-item Subjective Happiness Scale, two of these items ask the participants to characterize themselves using both an absolute rating and a rating relative to others (Lyubonmirsky, 2001). The remaining two items offer the participants a brief report of happy and unhappy individuals and ask the participants which description they related more to, and then, responses were combined and averaged to provide a single continuous composite score between one and seven (Lyubonmirsky, 2001). Those who scored below the median were classified as unhappy and those who scored above were considered to be happy in this study (Lyubonmirsky, 2001).

Self-rated happy individuals are far less sensitive to social comparison information especially when it comes to unfavourable information than are those that are unhappy (Lyubonmirsky, 2001). Research conducted by Lyubonmirsky, (2001) found that those that are unhappy are deflated instead of delighted about their peers’ successes and triumphs and are relieved instead of being disappointed or sympathetic in the face of their colleagues failures and humiliations.

Lyubomirsky & Tucker, (1998) has found that happy and unhappy people differ in the ways of responding to life events and daily situations, small and large, such as happy and unhappy people interpret and remember and experience hypothetical life events as well as real life events in a way that serves to highlight their individual emotional nature (Lyubomirsky &Tucker, 1998). This was shown in one of the experiments as students that chose other students as very happy individuals, they too reported experiencing similar types of positive and negative life events as well as those that were nominated by others as unhappy students (Lyubomirsky &Tucker, 1998). Those that were chosen as happy student tended to recall and think about both types of events more favourably and adaptively several weeks later, such as by drawing humour improving their value from difficulty or by emphasizing recent improvement in their lives (Lyubomirsky &Tucker, 1998). In another study by Lyubomirsky &Tucker, (1998) participants interacted with a female in the laboratory, they then watched a series of vedios showing a stranger in three different situations, thoes that were considered happy liked the person they met and recalled her in more positive terms, unlike the unhappy ones that recalled the person they met in unfavourable ways.

Research evidence show that happy individuals are relatively better prepared to manage with life stress, downturns and uplifts, they seem less concerned with external pleasure unlike their unhappy peers (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1999). Unhappy individuals are more likely to dwell on negative events such as difficult decisions or unfavourable social comparisons they tend to keep dwelling about themselves, their outcomes, and moods (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1999). So happy individuals and unhappy individuals have different turmoil in their lives, those who tend to have a strong marriage, a steady income and overall not so much trauma in their lives tend to live a happier life, and tend to think about situations in a more positive way. Whereas individuals that tend to see things as negative, suffer from going through difficult situations in life and dwell on negative thoughts.

"There is only one happiness in life -- to love and to be loved - George Sand"

Theory
Objective determinants is the extent to which well-being is associated with our environment both enforced (an example of this is our native culture) and relatively controllable (such as income and marriage life), as well as non-controllable things such as our age or gender. The focus of objective determinants of happiness is in the western culture. Objective determinants is also known as the bottom-up tradition, it expresses that happy people are simply those with the most advantages such as a steady income, healthy, a supportive marriage and a lack of misfortune or disturbance in their lives (Argyle, 1999). Lyubomirsky, (2001) Has found that happy individuals interpret naturally occurring life events as well as situations conducted in the laboratory, in ways that seem to preserve and even promote their happiness and positive self-views, whereas the unhappy persons interpreted experiences in ways that was seen to reinforce their unhappiness and negative self-views. Lyubomirsky, (2001) research shows that there was supporting evidence to show that top down perspective on well-being that happy people experienced and react to events and situations in very positive and more adaptive ways.

Happiness in adolescence
Manolis, Milich, and Harris (1993) studied with participants in late childhood–early adolescence (ages 8–12) showed that gender had influence on impression formation, individuals tended to favoured same gender children then the opposite gender for example girls favoure girls and found that the same gender children were more interesting than the opposite gender children. Chaplin, Bastos, & Lowrey, (2010) discovered that relationship between mood such as happy and sad and individuals judgments of others, for example they found that happy adolescents  formed more positive impressions of others than did sad adolescents who tended to form negative impressions of others. Chaplin, ''et. al'', (2010) studies have shown that when individual adolecents are happy, they tend to perceive that good events happen more frequently, they tend to interpret others behaviours more positively when the individual is in a good mood. According to Chaplin, ''et. al'', (2010) happier adolescents will have a larger social network, and have interactions with more individuals from diverse backgrounds which allows them to develop a more distinct view of others, these interactions allow them to appreciate the distinction of any given social role, this allows them to appreciate more variations within the same social role.

When it comes to adolescents happiness it mostly depends on their social groups, whether they have friends or not, whether they have a supportive family and background, and whether they are able to adapt to change (Chaplin, et. al, (2010). Chaplin, et. al, (2010) study consisted of 45 participants and he discovered that happy adolescents were less likely to form their stereotypes based on what people have, these adolescents used fewer words to describe a quiet kid than those that were considered to be unhappy adolescents.

Participants responses were broad, some adolescents that were considered happy described quiet kids in very positive words whereas the unhappy adolescents tended to be more broad with their answers when it came to describing quiet kids, unhappy ones used words such as “they can be mean, nice poor or rich” whereas happier ones used words such as “fun to be with, happy cool to hang around” for quiet kids Chaplin, ''et. al'', (2010). The difference is that happier adolescents tend to be more open minded and does not dwell on their past or feel sorry for themselves they support others and tend to see everything in positive ways than those that are considered unhappy adolescents who tend to think negatively in almost every situation that comes their way Chaplin, ''et. al'', (2010).

Happier adolescents were found to be less focussed on superficial cues such as what a person has and what they do not have, their impression of others where positive and their focused less on material possessions may indicate that adolescents that are happier may also be less materialistic then those that are considered to be unhappy adolescents Chaplin, ''et. al'', (2010).

Recognising happiness through different ages
Younger adults are sensitive to differences in emotional meaning between deliberately posed non-enjoyment smiles and spontaneously expressed enjoyment smiles, categorizing more of the latter as reflecting genuine feelings of happiness when judging static images, video displays, and real-life interactions (Slessor, et al., 2010). Studies conducted by Slessor, et al., (2010) look at age differences in the ability to detect the underlying emotional state of others by openly discriminating between enjoyment and non-enjoyment smiles, people of various age groups were shown pictures of individuals displaying genuine enjoyment smiles, non-enjoyment smiles and neutral expressions, participants were then asked to openly discuss and identify the underlying emotional state of the photographed individual such as is the person feeling happy or is it a fake smile. The task at hand reveal age differences in happiness and perception because this task involves sensitivity to subtle differences in the emotional meanings of smiles rather than simply discriminating smiles from other facial expressions such as anger, fear, and sadness. Williams et, al., (2006) argues that older adults have more difficulty recognising negative emotional expressions rather than positive emotional expressions. These older adults may detect positive emotion, thinking that all individuals that are smiling individuals are experiencing happiness Slessor, et al., (2010). It could be considered that older adults misinterpret labels not happy as meaning unhappy, although older adults failed to categorize individuals with neutral expressions as happy. This shows that the older adults did not immediately respond to say an individual was happy without examining the photograph first Slessor, et al., (2010). So therefore it is believed that results shown by Slessor, et al., (2010) may reflect an age-related positivity bias towards thinking that those who are smiling are genuinely feeling happy even when their smiles are not genuine and true emotion is absent, yet older adults are very unlikely to spot the difference between the two.

Sex difference in happiness
In a cross cultural study conducted by Michalos (1987) which surveyed people in 23 different countries and up to 6,000 participants, the survey revealed that women reported being happy or even happier than men. However other surveys have revealed that women are less happier than men and some surveys find no difference, however to explain that women are unhappier than men, is that women who are having emotional distress in their lives are still likely to report that they are happy due to societal norms Fujita, Diener, & Sandvik, (1991). In general women are more affectively intense than men which allows them to experience both more joy and more sorrow Fujita, Diener, & Sandvik, (1991). In Fujita, ''et. al'',(1991) study, positive intensity, negative intensity, and global happiness were measured in four different ways to find which gender group is more happier than the other. In Fujita, ''et. al'', (1991) study they divide participants by gender to measure hedonic levels and affect intensity using the four measurement procedures mentioned above.

The results from Fujita, ''et. al'', (1991) study which was undertaken in the United States, found to support the idea that women experience more emotions then men, women tend to differ from men in positive and negative emotions. They also discovered in their study that those who experience strong negative emotions that person is more likely to experience strong positive emotion which can be concluded as those who report negative emotions can also be the ones that are likely to be happier than other at times when they feel happy (Fujita, et. al, 1991). In the study women scored higher on almost all the intensity measures, however they did not differ from men on the hedonic level measures (Fujita, et. al, 1991). If the findings were combined together there is a high probability that women experience more negative affect than men (Fujita, Diener, & Sandvik, 1991). However if the researcher was to balance positive affect against the negative affect, then the gender differences would equal to zero and cancel each other out although women score higher on the negative affects they still scored the same as men in the global happiness (Fujita, et. al, 1991).

Adaptation of change
Lucas, R. E. (2007), suggests that dominant models of subjective wellbeing after experiencing major life events, such as divorce, death of a loved one, disability, and unemployment, people unavoidably adapt to their natural self and personality factors, and teir genetically determined happiness. Fredrick & Loewenstein, (1999), believed that the adaptation process certainly serves important functions in life and when it comes to major life events (Lucas, 2007). These processes protect people from psychological and physiological concerns of extensive emotional harm (Lucas, 2007). Adaptation processes lets the unchanging stimuli fade into the attentional background, these processes makes sure that change in the environment receives more attention, also attention goes to environmental change which is advantageous because threats that have lasted for long periods of time are more likely to be less dangerous then new threats (Lucas, 2007). Similar to this rewards that have persisted are less likely to disappear quicker than new rewards, it will often  be very valuable to attend and react more strongly to new rewards than old (Lucas, 2007). Lastly by reducing emotional reactions over time, emotional adaptation processes lets people disengage from their goals that do not have a huge chance of succeeding, there for this can be beneficial, and there for adaptation to life circumstances occur (Lucas, 2007).

The structural theory of happiness
The structural theory of happiness is based on Freud’s id, ego, and superego, the id is the foundation of motivation which is the basic instincts, drives and emotional responses individuals have which functions on a unconsciousness level their conscious representatives are impulses, feelings and fantasies, the ego is in control of the information, it is responsible for first acquiring information about both internal and external environments, these are through perceptions which can be either conscious or unconscious, secondly this is responsible for storing information in memories which can also be conscious or unconscious and thirdly processing what it has learnt and stored, through associations, that can be known as thinking which also can be either conscious or unconscious Goldwater, (2010). The superego is a particular part of the ego which is devoted to rules procedures that help us to function in our everyday lives so that we do not have to decide what would be best for our survival Goldwater, (2010). Part of these rules are inborn, while other parts are derived from information individuals ego acquiers and processes, some of these rules and norms are other peoples that we have simply just copied so we can benefit from all of the wisdom that come from other family members and outsiders that we simply adapt to so we don’t have to learn everything for ourselves Goldwater, (2010). Our desire and impulse is controlled by our id thinking about our decisions is our ego at work so we know how to best deal with the situation facing us, we then are derived from rules and routine which is our superego which tries to make sense to us but not always Goldwater, (2010).

Goldwater, (2010) suggest that the stuctual theory of happiness revolves around the id, ego and superego of the mind. Joy is resulted by the satisfaction of the needs of id, feelings such as excitement, enjoyment, pleasure, and fun. However a lot of people can have enjoyment in their lives however can still remain unhappy Goldwater, (2010). The ego is security and the confidence that individuals have and the information that we need to survive day to day life, feelings that individuals suffer from lack of security are anxiety, and depression, thoes that feel more anxious or depressed and feel lack of confidence are usually not happy individuals Goldwater, (2010). However anxiety is helpful and useful as signals to our body like most feelings, however too much anxiety is incompatible with happiness Goldwater, (2010). The superego is our self-esteem, it is the feeling that we are functioning to our liking we are living to our standards and rules and norms as individual Goldwater, (2010).

Does seeking happiness lead to happiness?
Valuing happiness leads to positive outcomes in life because it is assumed that the more someone values happiness the happier the person is likely to be (Mauss, Tamir, Anderson, & Savino, 2011). Studies conducted by Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, (2011) had taken to account value of happiness, life stress and happiness and well-being, someone that value higher grades in their academic studies is going to be much disappointed at times when they fall short of the high standard. However it is still possible to achieve high grads while one is disappointed (Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, 2011). People are likely to feel sad or unhappy if they find that their best friend was in a car accident, however in relativity positive situations, they tend to have every reason to be happy and are likely to feel disappointed if they do not. According to Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, (2011), people who value their happiness may feel disappointed if they are not feeling happy at their own birthday party, so Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, (2011) expresses that the more people that value happiness, the less likely that the individual may obtain happiness, especially when happiness is near reachable.

Study conducted by Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, (2011) concluded that participants who were told to try make themselves as happy as possible while listening to a hedonically ambiguous piece of music reported feeling less positive mood unlike those who were not instructed anything. Results showed that valuing happiness not completely linked with one being happier, in certain conditions the study examined the opposite was shown such as under conditions of low life stress, people tended to value happiness a lot more, the lower were their hedonic balance, and life satisfaction and the higher symptoms of depression (Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, 2011).

This study has associations between valuables or effects of well-being for example being sad or unhappy might lead one to value happiness to a greater extent (Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, 2011). However it is extremely difficult to express why feeling unhappy would lead individuals to value happiness only when they experience low levels of life stress (Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, 2011). Second study conducted by the same author Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, (2011) demonstrates that valuing happiness can lead one to less happiness in life, which was found by using both an explicit and an implicit measure of emotion, these results were consistent throughout the study, the idea of valuing happiness leads to less happiness by setting individuals for disappointment. In the study valuing happiness on emotional responses were mediated alone by the participants disappointed about their feelings (Mauss, ‘‘et. al’’, 2011).

Summary
Hopefully you have a better understanding of what happiness is classified to be and what factors can change our happiness, and lack of joy, this chapter covered, the happiness in different perspectives, such as why some individuals are happier than others followed by appropriate different theories and happiness in adolescents followed by recognizing happiness through different age. Sex difference in happiness was also covered and that was followed by Freud’s id ego and super ego which make up the structural theory of happiness. It also included how seeking happiness will lead to unhappiness. This addressed why as we go to age we think that a smile is a genuine emotion of joy. Hopefully it has taught you why some people are happier than others and why this occurs and how.


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User talk:Danyellvreeman

cw-spammer. Ruy Pugliesi ◥ 11:08, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Danyellvreeman