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Materials Science and Engineering/Doctoral review questions/Daily Discussion Topics/01072008

The Kelvin-Stokes Theorem

The classical Kelvin-Stokes theorem:

 * $$ \int_{\Sigma} \nabla \times \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{\Sigma} = \oint_{\partial\Sigma} \mathbf{F} \cdot d \mathbf{r}, $$

which relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector field over a surface $$\Sigma$$ in Euclidean three-space to the line integral of the vector field over its boundary, is a special case of the general Stokes theorem (with n = 2) once we identify a vector field with a 1 form using the metric on Euclidean three-space. The curve of the line integral ($$\partial\Sigma$$) must have positive orientation, such that $$d\mathbf{r}$$ points counterclockwise when the surface normal ($$d\mathbf{\Sigma}$$) points toward the viewer, following the right-hand rule.

Mathematical Statement

Suppose V is a subset of Rn (in the case of n = 3, V represents a volume in 3D space) which is compact and has a piecewise smooth boundary. If F is a continuously differentiable vector field defined on a neighborhood of V, then we have

 * $$\iiint\limits_V\left(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}\right)dV=\iint\limits_{\partial V} \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbf{n}\, dS.$$

The left side is a volume integral over the volume V, the right side is the surface integral over the boundary of the volume V. Here ∂V is quite generally the boundary of V oriented by outward-pointing normals, and n is the outward pointing unit normal field of the boundary ∂V. (dS may be used as a shorthand for ndS.) In terms of the intuitive description above, the left-hand side of the equation represents the total of the sources in the volume V, and the right-hand side represents the total flow across the boundary ∂V.

Example

Suppose we wish to evaluate

 * $$\iint\limits_S\mathbf{F}\cdot \mathbf{n}\, dS,$$

where S is the unit sphere defined by $$x^2+y^2+z^2=1$$ and F is the vector field

 * $$\mathbf{F} = 2 x\mathbf{i}+y^2\mathbf{j}+z^2\mathbf{k}.$$

The direct computation of this integral is quite difficult, but we can simplify it using the divergence theorem:

\begin{align} \iint\limits_S \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbf{n} \, dS &= \iiint\limits_W\left(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}\right) \, dV\\ &= 2\iiint\limits_W\left(1+y+z\right) \, dV\\ &= 2\iiint\limits_W \,dV + 2\iiint\limits_W y \,dV + 2\iiint\limits_W z \,dV. \end{align} $$

Since the functions $$y$$ and $$z$$ are odd on $$S$$ (which is a symmetric set in respect to the coordinate planes), one has

 * $$\iiint\limits_W y\, dV = \iiint\limits_W z\, dV = 0.$$

Therefore,
 * $$2\iiint\limits_W\left(1+y+z\right)dV = 2\iiint\limits_W \,dV = \frac{8\pi}{3}$$

because the unit ball W has volume 4π/3.

Original Ampère's circuital law

In its historically original form, Ampère's Circuital law relates the magnetic field $$\mathbf{B}$$ to its source, the current density $$\mathbf{J}$$. The equation is not in general correct (see "Maxwell's correction" below), but is correct in the special case where the electric field is constant (unchanging) in time.

The law can be written in two forms, the "integral form" and the "differential form". The forms are equivalent, and related by the Kelvin-Stokes theorem.

Integral form
In SI units, (the version in cgs units is in a later section), the "integral form" of the original Ampère's Circuital law is:

 * $$\oint_C \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 \iint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{S}$$

or equivalently,
 * $$\oint_C \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 I_{\mathrm{enc}}$$

where:
 * $$\oint_C $$ is the closed line integral around contour (closed curve) C.
 * $$\mathbf{B} $$ is the magnetic field in teslas.
 * $$\cdot$$ is the vector dot product.
 * $$\mathrm{d}\mathbf{l} $$ is an infinitesimal element (differential) of the contour C (i.e. a vector with magnitude equal to the length of the infinitesimal surface element, and direction equal to the direction of integration, see below),
 * $$\iint_S$$ denotes an integral over the surface S enclosed by contour C (see below). The double integral sign is meant simply to denote that the integral is two-dimensional in nature.
 * $$\mu_0 \!\ $$ is the magnetic constant.
 * $$\mathbf{J} $$ is the current density (in amperes per square meter), both bound and free, through the surface S enclosed by contour C
 * $$ \mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} \!\ $$ is the vector area of an infinitesimal element of surface S (i.e. a vector with magnitude equal to the area of the infinitesimal surface element, and direction normal to surface S),
 * $$I_{\mathrm{enc}} \!\ $$ is the net current that penetrates through the surface S, both bound and free.

Biot-Savart Law
The Biot-Savart law is used to compute the magnetic field generated by a steady current, i.e. a continual flow of charges, for example through a wire, which is constant in time and in which charge is neither building up nor depleting at any point. The equation is as follows:

 * $$ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{r}}{r^3} $$

(in SI units), where
 * $$\scriptstyle{I}$$ is the current,
 * $$\scriptstyle{d\mathbf{l}}$$ is a vector, whose magnitude is the length of the differential element of the wire, and whose direction is the direction of conventional current,
 * $$\scriptstyle{d\mathbf{B}}$$ is the differential contribution to the magnetic field resulting from this differential element of wire,
 * $$\scriptstyle{\mu_0}$$ is the magnetic constant,
 * $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}}$$ is the displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed,
 * $$\scriptstyle{r}$$ is the distance from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed, and
 * $$\scriptstyle{\times}$$ denotes cross product.

To apply the equation, you choose a point in space at which you want to compute the magnetic field. Holding that point fixed, you integrate over the path of the current(s) to find the total magnetic field at that point. The application of this law implicitly relies on the superposition principle for magnetic fields, i.e. the fact that the magnetic field is a vector sum of the field created by each infinitesimal section of the wire individually.

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux, represented by the Greek letter Φ (phi), is a measure of quantity of magnetism, taking into account the strength and the extent of a magnetic field. The wiki:SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the unit of magnetic field is the weber per square meter, or tesla.

Description
The flux through an element of area perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field is given by the product of the magnetic field and the area element. More generally, magnetic flux is defined by a scalar product of the magnetic field and the area element vector. Gauss's law for magnetism, which is one of the four Maxwell's equations, states that the total magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero. This law is a consequence of the empirical observation that magnetic monopoles do not exist or are not measurable.

The magnetic flux is defined as the integral of the magnetic field over an area:

 * $$\Phi_m = \int \!\!\! \int \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf S\,$$

where
 * $$\Phi_m \ $$ is the magnetic flux
 * B is the magnetic field
 * S is the surface (area).

We know from Gauss's law for magnetism that

 * $$\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B}=0.\,$$

The volume integral of this equation, in combination with the divergence theorem, provides the following result:

 * $$\int \!\!\! \int \!\!\! \int_V \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} \, d\tau = \oint \!\!\! \oint_{\partial V} \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S}=0. $$

In other words, the magnetic flux through any closed surface must be zero; there are no "magnetic charges".

By way of contrast, Gauss's law for electric fields, another of Maxwell's equations, is

 * $$\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = {\rho \over \epsilon_0},$$

where
 * E is the electric field,
 * $$ \rho $$ is the free electric charge density, (not including dipole charges bound in a material),
 * $$ \epsilon_0 $$ is the permittivity of free space.

Note that this indicates the presence of electric monopoles, that is, free positive or negative charges.

The direction of the magnetic field vector $$\mathbf{B}$$ is by definition from the south to the north pole of a magnet (within the magnet). Outside of the magnet, the field lines will go from north to south.

A change of magnetic flux through a loop of conductive wire will cause an electromotive force, and therefore an electric current, in the loop. The relationship is given by Faraday's law:

$$\mathcal{E} = \oint \mathbf{E} \cdot d\mathbf{s} = -{d\Phi_m \over dt}.$$

This is the principle behind an electrical generator.

Skin Effect
The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase with the frequency of the current. Skin effect is due to eddy currents set up by the AC current.

Skin Depth
When an electromagnetic wave interacts with a conductive material, mobile charges within the material are made to oscillate back and forth with the same frequency as the impinging fields. The movement of these charges, usually electrons, constitutes an alternating electric current, the magnitude of which is greatest at the conductor's surface. The decline in current density versus depth is known as the skin effect and the skin depth is a measure of the distance over which the current falls to 1/e of its original value. A gradual change in phase accompanies the change in magnitude, so that, at a given time and at appropriate depths, the current can be flowing in the opposite direction to that at the surface.

The skin depth is a property of the material that varies with the frequency of the applied wave. It can be calculated from the relative wiki:permittivity and conductivity of the material and frequency of the wave. First, find the material's complex permittivity, $$\varepsilon_c$$

 * $$\varepsilon_c={{\varepsilon}\left(1 - j{{\sigma}\over{\omega \varepsilon}}\right)} \qquad \qquad(1) $$

where:
 * $$\varepsilon$$ = permittivity of the material of propagation
 * $$\omega$$ = angular frequency of the wave
 * $$\sigma$$ = electrical conductivity of the material of propagation
 * $$j$$ = the imaginary unit

Thus, the propagation constant, $$k$$, will also be a complex number, and can be separated into real and imaginary parts.

 * $$ k_c = {\omega}\sqrt{\mu\varepsilon_c} = \alpha + j\beta$$ = $$j\omega \sqrt {\mu \varepsilon \left( {1 - \frac} \right)} \qquad\qquad(2) $$

The constants can also be expressed as

 * $$ \alpha = {\omega}\sqrt{{{\mu\varepsilon}\over2}\left(\sqrt{1 + \left({{\sigma}\over{\omega \epsilon}}\right)^2} - 1\right)}\qquad\qquad (3) $$

 * $$ \beta = {\omega}\sqrt{{{\mu\varepsilon}\over2}\left(\sqrt{1 + \left({{\sigma}\over{\omega \epsilon}}\right)^2} + 1\right)}\qquad\qquad (4) $$

where:
 * $$\mu$$ = permeability of the material
 * $$\alpha$$ = attenuation constant of the propagating wave

The solution of the equation above is if it represent a uniform wave propagating in the +z-direction

 * $$ E_x = E_0 e^{-\alpha z} e^{-j\beta z}\qquad\qquad (5) $$

The first term in the solution decreases as z increases and is for this reason an attenuation term where $$\alpha$$ is an attenuation constant with the unit Np/m (Neper). If $$\alpha = 1$$ then a unit wave amplitude decreases to a magnitude of $$e^{-1}$$ Np/m.

It can be seen that the imaginary part of the complex permittivity increases with frequency, implying that the attenuation constant also increases with frequency. Therefore, a high frequency wave will only flow through a very small region of the conductor (much smaller than in the case of a lower frequency current), and will therefore encounter more electrical resistance (due to the decreased surface area).

A good conductor is per definition if $$1\ll\sigma / \varepsilon \omega $$ why we can neglect 1 in equation (2) and it turns to

 * $$k_c = \sqrt j \, \sqrt {\mu \omega \sigma } = \frac\sqrt {\mu 2\pi f\sigma }  = (1 + j)\sqrt {\pi f\mu \sigma }\qquad\qquad(6) $$

The skin depth is defined as the distance $$\delta$$ through which the amplitude of a traveling plane wave decreases by a factor $$e^{-1}$$ and is therefore

 * $$\delta = \frac{1}{\alpha} \qquad\qquad(7)$$

and for a good conductor is it defined as

 * $$\delta = \frac{1}{\sqrt {\pi f\mu \sigma }} \qquad\qquad(8)$$

The term "skin depth" traditionally assumes ω real. This is not necessarily the case; the imaginary part of ω characterizes' the waves attenuation in time. This would make the above definitions for α and β complex, and so they would need to be redefined so that $$ Im\{k_c\} = \beta $$.

The same equations also apply to a lossy dielectric. Defining

 * $$\varepsilon_c={\left({\varepsilon'} - j{\varepsilon''}\right)}$$

replace $$ \varepsilon $$ with $$\varepsilon' $$, and $$ {\sigma\over{\omega\varepsilon}} $$with $$ \varepsilon''\over{\varepsilon'} $$

Rayleigh Scattering
Rayleigh scattering (named after Lord Rayleigh) is the scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. It can occur when light travels in transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in clear atmosphere is the main reason why the sky is blue. Rayleigh and cloud-mediated scattering contribute to diffuse light (direct light being sunrays).

For scattering by particles similar to or larger than a wavelength, see Mie theory or discrete dipole approximation (they apply to the Rayleigh regime as well).

Small Size Parameter Approximation
The size of a scattering particle is defined by the ratio (x) of its characteristic dimension (r) and wavelength (λ):

 * $$ x = \frac{2 \pi r} {\lambda} $$.

Rayleigh scattering can be defined as scattering in small size parameter regime x < < 1. The amount of Rayleigh scattering that occurs to a beam of light is dependent upon the size of the particles and the wavelength of the light; in particular, the scattering coefficient, and hence the intensity of the scattered light, varies for small size parameter inversely with the fourth power of the wavelength. Scattering from larger spherical particles is explained by the Mie theory for arbitrary size parameter x including small size parameter - in this case Mie theory reduces to Rayleigh approximation.

The intensity I of light scattered by a single small particle from a beam of unpolarized light of wavelength λ and intensity I0 is given by:

 * $$ I = I_0 \frac{ 1+\cos^2 \theta }{2 R^2} \left( \frac{ 2 \pi }{ \lambda } \right)^4 \left( \frac{ n^2-1}{ n^2+2 } \right)^2 \left( \frac{d}{2} \right)^6,$$

where R is the distance to the particle, θ is the scattering angle, n is the refractive index of the particle, and d is the diameter of the particle.

The angular distribution of Rayleigh scattering, governed by the 1+cos2 θ) term, is symmetric in the plane normal to the incident direction of the light, and so the forward scatter equals the backwards scatter. Integrating over the sphere surrounding the particle gives the Rayleigh scattering cross section σs:

 * $$ \sigma_s = \frac{ 2 \pi^5}{3} \frac{d^6}{\lambda^4} \left( \frac{ n^2-1}{ n^2+2 } \right)^2. $$

The Rayleigh scattering coefficient for a group of scattering particles is the number of particles per unit volume N times the cross-section. As with all wave effects, in incoherent scattering the scattered powers add arithmetically, while in coherent scattering, such as if the particles are very near each-other, the fields add arithmetically and the sum must be squared to obtain the total scattered power.

The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering ((~λ-4)) means that blue light is scattered much more than red light. In the atmosphere, this results in blue wavelength being scattered to a greater extent than longer wavelengths, and so one sees blue light coming from all regions of the sky. Direct radiation (from definition) is coming directly from the Sun. Rayleigh scattering is a good approximation to the manner in which light scattering occurs within various media for which scattering particles have small size parameter.

Mie Theory
Mie theory, also called Lorenz-Mie theory or Lorenz-Mie-Debye theory, is a complete analytical solution of Maxwell's equations for the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles (also called Mie scattering). Mie solution is named after its developer German physicist Gustav Mie. However, Danish physicist Ludvig Lorenz and others independently developed the theory of electromagnetic plane wave scattering by a dielectric sphere.

The term "Mie theory" is misleading, since it does not refer to an independent physical theory or law. The phrase "the Mie solution (to Maxwell's equations)" is therefore preferable. Currently, the term "Mie solution" is also used in broader contexts, for example when discussing solutions of Maxwell's equations for scattering by stratified spheres or by infinite cylinders, or generally when dealing with scattering problems solved using the exact Maxwell equations in cases where one can write separate equations for the radial and angular dependence of solutions.

In contrast to Rayleigh scattering, the Mie solution to the scattering problem is valid for all possible ratios of diameter to wavelength, although the technique results in numerical summation of infinite sums. In its original formulation it assumed an homogeneous, isotropic and optically linear material irradiated by an infinitely extending plane wave. However, solutions for layered spheres are also possible.

Mie theory is very important in meteorological optics, where diameter-to-wavelength ratios of the order of unity and larger are characteristic of many problems regarding haze and cloud scattering. A further application is in the characterization of particles via optical scattering measurements. The Mie solution is also important for understanding the appearance of common materials like milk, biological tissue and latex paint.

Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition, so fields due to particular particles or time-varying electric or magnetic fields contribute to the fields due to other causes. (As these fields are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition.) These properties cause various phenomena including refraction and diffraction. For instance, a travelling EM wave incident on an atomic structure induces oscillation in the atoms, thereby causing them to emit their own EM waves. These emissions then alter the impinging wave through interference.

Since light is an oscillation, it is not affected by travelling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. In nonlinear media such as some crystals, however, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields - these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.

In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light disperses into a visible spectrum as light is shone through a prism because of refraction.


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User:Dank55

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User talk:Dank55

Please feel free to email me; I don't drop by Wikiversity very much. Dank55 15:55, 23 October 2009 (UTC)

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Psychiatric Liberation/History of Psychiatric Institutionalization

Introduction
Psychiatric Hospitalization has been around for a long time. The first psychiatric hospitals and insane asylums were built in the medieval Islamic world as early as the 8th century. Muslim physicians built the first ones in Baghdad from 705, followed by Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800. Other famous psychiatric hospitals were built in Damascus and Aleppo in 1270. Bethlem Royal Hospital (Bedlam) was the first known psychiatric hospital in Europe, founded in London in 1247 and by 1403, had begun accepting social outcasts, the "crazy people", "lunatics" and those who just couldn't stay hidden in society anymore. It soon became infamous for its cruel treatment of the insane, and in the 18th century would have outsiders pay a penny to come and watch their patients as a form of torturous entertainment. In 1700 it is recorded that the "lunatics" were called "patients" for the first time, and within twenty years separate wards for the "curable" and "incurable" patients had been established. Mental illness was now no longer an affliction, but a disease, to be diagnosed and potentially cured.

Anti-Mental Health and Anti-Psychiatry Politics
Psychiatric liberation can have various definitions or connotations, with the respective points of view or opinionations. As a barrier to liberation social stigma, prejudice and discrimination can harm the person seeking the liberation from psychiatry. In large those who are fighting the mental health system and against psychiatry often wash their hands of assisting the victims of the mental health system. It is apparent that the person liberated is not granted sanctuary by the hands of the anti-psychiatry groups. In Washington, there were official successes of the mental health lobby, although a deep distrust of psychiatry continued to be elsewhere in the nation in the late 1950s. This distrust became clear in 1956 when forces emerged to oppose an apparently innocuous bill introduced in Congress to allow Alaska, which had not yet achieved statehood, to build a public psychiatric hospital. Because Alaska had no hospital of its own, Alaskan residents who needed psychiatric hospitalization had to be sent to Portland, Oregon, an obviously confusing experience for a psychiatrically impaired Alaskan native from a rural village. Right-wing groups across the United States organized a campaign to oppose the hospital legislation, claiming that the proposed psychiatric hospital would really be “a concentration camps for political prisoners under the guise of care and treatment of mental cases.” A housewife in California labeled the proposed hospital “Siberia, U.S.A.” and this name became a battle cry mental health advocates were said to be part of a broad Communist conspiracy to subvert American liberties and seize political power. Many racists groups tied the alleged communist plot to a broader Communist-Jewish conspiracy. For example, John Kaspar, a racist agitator, segregationist, and protégé of Ezra Pound (who corresponded with Kaspar regularly from his room at St. Elisabeth’s Hospital in Washington, D.C.) argued that the proposed Alaskan psychiatric hospital was another attempt by Jews to brainwash Americans: “Psychiatry is a foreign ideology; it is alien to any kind of American thinking…its history began with Sigmund Freud who is a Jew…almost 100 percent of all psychiatric therapy and 80 percent of the psychiatrists are Jewish…one particular race is administering this particular thing.” The bill to build a psychiatric hospital in Alaska ultimately passed Congress, but an anti-mental health lobby had been established. Across the country, local initiatives to open mental health clinics ran the risk of encountering fierce opposition. In Delaware, thirty-five young men in black leather jackets disrupted an organizing meeting of a local mental health organization shouting that mental health was a Communist plot. In Utah, anti-mental health lobbyists packed a meeting of the state legislature that was considering setting up mental health services. In Wisconsin, opponents “caused the defeat of some twenty mental health measures that seemed certain of passage.” The magazine, of the Daughters of the American Revolution published a two-part series on mental health describing it as ‘a Marxist weapon” and alleging not only that 80 percent of American psychiatrists were foreigners but that "most of them…were… educated in Russia." The executive director of the Dallas Association of Mental Health received threatening telephone calls, and an academic symposium on mental health in Lubbock was picketed. The heartland of the anti-mental health movement, however, was Southern California. There the movement was adopted by some members of the John Birch Society and was well financed. Literature was widely distributed with allegations such as: "Mental health programs are part of a Communist plot to control the people’s minds” “"Mental hygiene is a subtle and diabolical plan of the enemy to transform a free and intelligent people in to a cringing horde of zombies” “Do we want to be become a regimented nation, brain-washed and brain-fed through a powerful army of psychiatrists” In the suburbs of Los Angeles a large billboard was erected in July 1958 : “It is amazing and appalling how many supposedly intelligent people have been duped by such Communist schemes as fluoridation and ‘Mental Health’ especially since both the American Legion and the D.A.R. have publicly branded ‘Mental Health’ as a communist plot to take over our country” When the Los Angeles City Council was asked to vote on a proposal to allow an unoccupied health center to be used as health clinic, the measure was defeated by 11 to o. One of the senators from California at the time was Richard M. Nixon, who had been elected in 1950 and would play an important role in opposing the mental health movement when he became president. It would become clear in later years that both Nixon and members of his staff (many of whom who also came from the Southern California area) were overtly antagonistic to psychiatry as well concept of mental health. Although the right-wing lobby was ridiculed as a lunatic fringe by the mental health establishment, some of its members were asking such cogent questions as ‘What is mental health” “By whose standards can we deduce that one person is normal and another is not?” They sensed intuitively what Kingsley Davis had described twenty years earlier, that “the mental hygienist is really enforcing in a secular way and under the guise of science the standards of the entire society health professionals claimed that they had revealed truth regarding such things as child-rearing practices and interpersonal relations, and the anti-mental health forces were asking where the revealed truth had come from. Unfortunately, these questions were usually so mixed in with anti-Communist and anti-Semitic slogans as well as with other issues such as the fluoridation of water and conspiracy theories, that the otherwise legitimate questions about the nature of mental health are never heard.

The above article, while appearing to contain some truth, lacks references and bears the hallmarks of Scientology teaching as promoted by David Miscavige on the Nightline show. CCHR (mentioned below) is a Scientology-based organization. Actual data on the events that took place in Alaska is provided here

Readings

 * Coercion As Cure: A Critical History of Psychiatry


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Angles

An angle can be defined as two rays sharing a common vertex.

Measurement of angles
An angle is measured by considering the ratio of an arc to the radius of the arc. A scaling constant k is multiplied for various units.
 * $$\theta=\frac{s}{r}(k)$$°

Units of measurement
There are various units of measurement for measuring angles, however the most commonly used are degrees or radians. "1° = 60' (60 arcminutes) = 3600' (3600 arcseconds)"
 * Degrees - It is denoted by a small circle as a superscript (°). One full rotation is considered equal to 360 degrees. Degree is subdivided into minutes and seconds as:-
 * Radians - This is a number and is dimensionless. A full circle is equal to $$2\pi$$ (pronounced two pi) radians. This in conjunction with the formula for arc length defines the historically famous irrational number $$\pi$$ (pronounced pi) as,
 * $$\pi=\frac{1}{2}\frac{circumference~of~a~circle}{radius~of~the~circle}$$

There are six types of angles: Acute, Obtuse, Straight, Right, Reflex and Complete.
 * 1) An Acute angle is less than 90° and more than 0°
 * 2) An Obtuse angle is more than 90° and less than 180°
 * 3) A Straight angle is 180°.
 * 4) A Right angle is 90°.
 * 5) A Reflex angle is more than 180°.
 * 6) A Complete angle is 360°.

Apart from those six types of angles, we have two types of relative angles namely complementary angles and supplementary angles.
 * 1) Complementary angles are the pair of angles whose sum is equal to a right angle.
 * 2) Supplementary angles are the pair of angles whose sum is equal to a straight angle.

title: Angles


text:
Portal:Thermoelectrics

Part of the Division of Thermal Sciences and the School of Engineering

Content summary
Thermoelectrics is the branch of Topic:Mechanical_engineering and thermodynamics that studies the relationships between heat and electricity. Subjects studied herein include:
 * The Seebeck Effect
 * 1) Researchers at UC Berkeley have recently demonstrated the Seebeck effect using benezedithiol, a cheap organic molecule.
 * 2) Recently developed at Carnegie-Mellon, the thermocouple thermoelectric-generator has been loosed upon the market.

Mathematics

 * Algebra
 * Trigonometry
 * Calculus
 * Differential Equations

Physics

 * Introduction to physics
 * Thermodynamics
 * Electromagnetism

Texts

 * ...

Thermoelectrics Lessons

 * Thermoelectrics Lesson One

Preliminary Study guide

 * 1) Wikipedia article:Thermodynamics
 * 2) Wikipedia article:Units

Readings

 * Peruse the appropriate sections of ...

Active participants
Please sign up!! Active participants in this Learning Group
 * [[user:...|...

Mécanique des fluides/Statique des fluides

title: Portal:Thermoelectrics


text:
United States currency/$1 bill

United States $1 bill

The USA $1 bill is a denomination of U.S. currency. It is the most common denomination in the United States currency. George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart, is currently featured on the obverse, and the Great Seal of the United States is featured on the reverse. The $1 bill has this design since 1963, when it first became a Federal Reserve Note.

The motto "In God We Trust" was added on the bill by law in 1957.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the "average life" of a $1 bill in circulation is 21 months before it is replaced due to wear. ≈ 45% of U.S. currency produced today are $1 bills.

All $1 bills produced today are Federal Reserve Notes.

Large size notes
(approximately 7.4218 x 3.125 in. ≅ 189 x 79 mm)

 * 1862: The first $1 bill was issued as Legal Tender Notes (United States Note) with a portrait of Salmon P. Chase, the Secretary of the Treasury under Pres. Abraham Lincoln.
 * 1869: The $1 United States Note was redesigned with a portrait of George Washington in the center and a vignette of Christopher Columbus sighting land to the left. The obverse featured green and blue tinting. Although a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead.
 * 1874: The Series of 1869 United States Note was revised. Changes on the obverse include: removing the green and blue tinting, adding a red floral design around the word WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This note was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878.
 * 1880: The red floral design around the words ONE DOLLAR and WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed.
 * 1886: Martha Washington, the first woman to appear on U.S. currency was featured on the $1 Silver Certificate. The reverse featured an ornate design which occupied the entire note, excluding the borders.
 * 1890: One dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured the large word ONE in the center surrounded by an ornate design which occupied almost the entire note.
 * 1891: The reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.
 * 1891: The reverse of the $1 Silver Certificate was redesigned. More open space was incorporated into the new design.
 * 1896: The famous "Educational Series" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse was covered with artwork of allegorical figures representing "history instructing youth" in front of Washington D.C. The reverse featured portraits of George and Martha Washington surrounded by an ornate design which occupied almost the entire note.
 * 1899: The $1 Silver Certificate was again redesigned. The obverse featured a vignette of the U.S. Capitol building behind a Bald Eagle perched on an American Flag. Below that were small portraits of Abraham Lincoln to the left and Ulysses S. Grant to the right.
 * 1917: The obverse of the $1 United States Note was changed slightly with the removal of ornamental frames which surrounded the serial numbers.
 * 1918: The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $1 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at that corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of George Washington to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a Bald Eagle in flight clutching an American Flag.
 * 1923: Both the one dollar United States Note and Silver Certificate were redesigned. Both notes featured the same reverse and an almost identical obverse with the same border design and portrait of George Washington. The only difference between the two notes was the color of ink used for the numeral 1 crossed by the word DOLLAR, treasury seal, and serial numbers along with the wording of the obligations. These dollar bills were the first and only large size notes with a standardized design for different types of notes of the same denomination; this same concept would later be used on small size notes.

Small size notes
(6.14 x 2.61 x 0.0043 in. ≅ 155.956 x 66.294 x 0.10922 mm)
 * 1929: All currency was changed to its current size. Initially, the one dollar bill was issued as Silver Certificate only under Series of 1928. The treasury seal and serial numbers on it were dark blue. The obverse was nearly identical to the Series of 1923 $1 Silver Certificate, but the treasury seal featured spikes around it and a large gray ONE to the left replaced the blue "1 DOLLAR". The reverse, too, had the same border design as the Series of 1923 $1 bill, but the center featured a large ornate ONE superimposed by ONE DOLLAR. These $1 Silver Certificates were issued until 1934.
 * 1933: $1 United States Notes were issued to supplement the supply of $1 Silver Certificates. Its treasury seal and serial numbers were red. However, a month after their production, it was realized that there would be no real need for these notes and production was stopped. A small number of these $1 bills entered circulation and the rest were kept in treasury vaults until 1949 when they were issued in Puerto Rico.
 * 1934: The design of the $1 Silver Certificate was changed to reflect the Silver Purchase Act of 1934. Under Washington's portrait, ONE SILVER DOLLAR was changed to ONE DOLLAR due to the fact that Silver Certificates could be redeemed for silver bullion. The treasury seal was moved to the right and superimposed over ONE, and a blue numeral 1 was added to the left. The reverse remained the same.
 * 1935: Again, the design of the one dollar changed. On the obverse, the blue numeral 1 was changed to gray and made smaller, the gray ONE to the left was removed, the treasury seal was made smaller and superimposed by WASHINGTON D.C., and a stylized ONE DOLLAR was added over the treasury seal. The reverse was also changed to its current design, except for the absence of IN GOD WE TRUST.
 * 1942: WWII brought about specials issues of one dollar bills. Special $1 Silver Certificates were issued for Hawaii in case of Japanese invasion. HAWAII was printed vertically on the left and right side of the obverse and also horizontally across the reverse. The seal and serial numbers were changed to brown. Special Silver Certificates were also issued as payment for Allied troops in North Africa about to begin their assault into Europe. The only difference on these one dollar bills was a yellow instead of blue seal. Both of these types of notes could be declared worthless if they fell into enemy hands. US $1 1935A North Africa Silver Certificate.jpg
 * 1957: The next change came when the $1 bill became the first piece of U.S. currency to bear the motto IN GOD WE TRUST; it was added over the word ONE on the reverse. Initially the BEP began printing the motto on notes which were printed with the new 32 note press, but soon Series of 1935G bills printed on a 16 note press featured the motto.
 * 1963: The final production of $1 Silver Certificates occurred. The redemption of Silver Certificates for silver coin ended and in 1968 the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver billion ended.
 * Late 1963: Production of one dollar Federal Reserve Notes was undertaken to replace the soon-to-be obsolete $1 Silver Certificate. The design on the reverse remained the same, but the border design on the obverse was completely redesigned and the serial numbers and treasury seal were printed in green ink. This was the first time the one dollar bill was printed as a Federal Reserve Note.
 * 1969: The $1 began using the new treasury seal with wording in English instead of Latin. Excluding the signatures and series date, the design of the one dollar bill has remained the same ever since then.
 * 1995: Though bill denominations of $5 and higher have been redesigned twice as part of ongoing anti-counterfeiting efforts, there are currently no plans to redesign the $1 bill.

Experimental issues
Over numerous years the one dollar bill has served as the exclusive circulating denomination of several experiments.

The first experiment was conducted in January and February of 1933 to test different ratios of cotton and linen used in the paper of dollar bills. Series of 1928A and 1928B $1 Silver Certificates with serial number block letters X-B and Y-B were used as the experimental group; the Z-B block was used as the control group. Test results were inconclusive.

Another test was done in 1937 which was similar in style to the 1933 experiment. Series 1935 one dollar bills were used once again. The particular notes used in this experiment can be identified by their serial numbers. Notes ranging from A00000001B–A06180000B and B00000001B–B03300000B were the experimental group and notes ranging from C00000001B–C03300000B were part of the control group. No conclusive results were found.

A more well-known test was done in 1942 during World War II to test alternative types of paper; this was a precautionary measure in case the current type of paper supply could not be maintained. Series 1935A notes made of the special paper were printed with a red "S" to the right of the treasury seal and notes of the control group were printed with a red "R". Fake red S's and R's have been applied to regular Series 1935A notes to try and pass them at a higher value; checking a note's serial numbers can prevent this. Serial numbers of the R group range from S70884001C–S7206800C and serial numbers of the S group range from S73884001C–S7506800C.

One dollar bills were again the subject of experimentation in May 1992 when the BEP began to test a web-fed press. Instead of printing one side of a square sheet of 32 notes at a time, a web-fed press used 96 plates to print both sides of notes from a continuous roll of paper. The notes were issued in Series 1988A, 1993, and 1995. Because of mechanical problems as well as the sometimes poor quality of the notes, the test was ended in July 1996. Web notes can be identified by the back plate number next to IN GOD WE TRUST and the removal of face check letters and quadrant numbers.

Reverse of current $1 bill
The reverse of the one dollar bill has an ornate design which incorporates the Great Seal of the United States, and it is of noted interest to historians and numerologists for the symbols contained therein.

To the left is the reverse of the seal which portrays an unfinished pyramid. The separated cap of the pyramid, portraying the all-seeing eye, symbolizes that the United States is still far from finished. The shadow cast by the pyramid from the rising sun represents the undiscovered lands to the west. The sun, which is rising, represents that a new nation has begun. The Latin phrase Annuit Cœptis is located above the pyramid. Taken from the Latin words annuere ("to nod, approve") and cœpere ("to begin, undertake"), it literally means "he/it favors the things having been begun." The official translation given by the U.S. State Department, the U.S. Mint, and the U.S. Treasury is "He (God) has favored our undertakings."

Novus Ordo Seclorum is shown on a ribbon below the pyramid and is a phrase taken from the fourth Ecologue of Virgil. In English, the Latin seclorum is the genitive plural form of the word saeculum, meaning "generation, century, or age." Thus the motto can be translated as "a new order of the ages". Written at the base of the pyramid in Roman Numerals is MDCCLXXVI (1776), the year the United States Declaration of Independence was signed.

The eye above the pyramid is popular among conspiracy theorists, and alleged to have connections with the Illuminati secret society. The history of the dollar bill was featured on The History Channel's "Decoding The Past" program.

In Rich Hall's books of sniglets, the pyramid is known as a "pyramonster" and described as "that thing with one big eye on the back of a dollar bill."

To the right is the obverse of the Great Seal portraying a heraldic Bald Eagle. In front of the eagle is an unsupported shield which symbolizes the fledgling country's ability to stand on its own, unified by congress; this is symbolized by the blue bar on top of the shield. Above the eagle's head is a glory with 13 stars. The star points to the letters M, A, S, O, N when transposed onto the pyramid section. Clutched in the eagle's beak is a ribbon which reads "E PLURIBUS UNUM" ("From many, one"). It also holds an olive branch (which the head always points towards) and arrows in its claws, symbolizing the desire of peace, but the readiness to fight.

President Franklin Roosevelt's conditional approval of the one-dollar bill's design in 1935, requiring that the appearance of the sides of the Great Seal be reversed, and together, captioned.

The number thirteen, symbolizing the 13 original colonies, shows up numerous times:

 * 13 total letters/digits in both 1776 (4) and its Roman Numeral equivalent MDCCLXXVI (9)
 * 13 stars above the eagle
 * 13 steps on the Pyramid
 * 13 letters in ANNUIT CŒPTIS
 * 13 letters in E PLURIBUS UNUM
 * 13 vertical bars on the shield
 * 13 horizontal stripes at the top of the shield
 * 13 leaves on the olive branch
 * 13 berries on the olive branch
 * 13 arrows
 * 13 hats

title: United States currency/$1 bill


text:
User talk:Jjkr~enwikiversity

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title: User talk:Jjkr~enwikiversity


text: File:Attenuation versus wavelength of silica fiber 2.png


text: File:Dielectric constant as function of frequency.png


text:
User talk:Prof.Vivek Sharma

HI, Welcome to my talk. I Have been teaching a large no. of topics including Entrepreneurship, Intrapreneurship,Family business, ethics, social responsibility, environmental problems, strategy and business policy and so on. I intend to develop a learning portal for Entrepreneurship, Intrapreneurship and family business.I can start develop assignments for different categories of learners,I can contribute even in learning about oriental wisdom and cultural differences. Pl. feel free to write if you feel i can be of some help in your learning process. Vivek--Prof. Vivek Sharma 05:52, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Prof.Vivek Sharma


text:
User:Geekybroad

Portal:Computer_Science

Hi from Winnipeg, MB, Canada. Recovering Wikiholic, but will allow myself to edit Wikiversity. Hoping to do a lot of work on here when I take more courses. Paraphrasing should help me understand material and give something back to the rest of you all at the same time. Leave me a message on my user page if you like. --Geekybroad 06:16, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Geekybroad


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User talk:Lanrover

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User talk:Vickdini

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User talk:Danielsconrad

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text:
Assistant teacher program/News

News

 * The Subdivision was founded. --Fasten 22:16, 31 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Individual curriculum is now a mandatory course phase. --Fasten 13:22, 17 March 2008 (UTC)
 * The $Research forum$ has been added. --Fasten 10:08, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

title: Assistant teacher program/News


text:
User talk:Ddmitchell777~enwikiversity

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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User talk:Sthompson18

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User talk:Spec456

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User talk:Geekybroad

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User talk:Sankararao.lokareddy

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User talk:Rebekah~enwikiversity

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Renamed
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User talk:Sam0927x~enwikiversity

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Your account will be renamed
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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sam0927x~enwikiversity


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Template:Wmdgs-survey-OS-1

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title: Template:Wmdgs-survey-OS-1


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Assistant teacher course/Reinventing the wheel

Reinventing the wheel
An important goal of the course is to allow the assistant teachers to form a solid understanding of their new office and its obligations and goals. While it is commonly seen as an anti-pattern to reinvent wheel it appears to be a good way to allow the pupils to come to a good understanding of their work. This unit aims to guide the assistant teachers to deduce and to document important aspects of their office by themselves.

Future participants may have had the opportunity to observe assistant teachers in their own class during fifth grade to seventh grade already. They can be asked to describe their own observations and to be inventive.

It is recommended to discuss the two questions for a while to allow everybody to better relate to the topic and then to go into detail questions in group work or solitary work.

The participants can work alone or in groups and write down their ideas.

The participants can be invited to try out their ideas if the group shows undesirable behavior: Are pupils inattentive? What can be done for them? Two or three pupils in a room can be invited to show notable disinterest after a while. How do the participants react?

The course instructors should explain the situation afterwards and, should anybody have reacted to the challenge, let the pupils who did react explain what they did and why. The answers may be simple but may allow the whole group to better relate to the topic.

Has a group or invidiual been unproductive? The participants should verify if their neighbors have been more inventive or less inventive. If there are groups or individuals who appear to need help the groups should be changed accordingly. At the end of the unit every single participant should be able to take the view that he did help to define and to understand what the assistant teacher office actually is.

The course instructors can collect and discuss some of the ideas that were written down. Working groups can name speakers who represent their groups.

The results should be discussed again.

The results should be discussed. If the pupils have invented different ideas and views the course instructor can try to assemble different models from the ideas (e.g. direct democratic approach, representative approach, teacher-guided approach)


text: Category:WMDGS/Northwest Earth

title: Category:WMDGS/Northwest Earth


text: Category:WMDGS/Regularly contributes to Commons


text: Category:WMDGS/Regularly contributes to Wikipedia


text: Category:WMDGS/Primarily contributes to Wikibooks


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Wikimedian Demographics/Operating Systems

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Operating Systems.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Operating Systems:
 * OS survey

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none yet)

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Nationality, residence, and travel

This subpage is for developing surveys and other discussions about Nationality, residence, and travel

Available Surveys

 * Wmdgs-nationality, residence, and travel (Europe)
 * Wmdgs-nationality, residence, and travel (North America)

Related surveys

 * (none suggested yet)

Requested additional questions:
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none currently)

Surveys under construction
These surveys are under development:
 * (none currently)

Related topics in Wikimedian Demographics

 * (none suggested yet)

Related topics on Wikiversity

 * (none suggested yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

Wiki-based forums

 * (none suggested yet)

Mailinglist and IRC forums

 * (none suggested yet)

Talkpage mailer bots

 * (none suggested yet)

Other forums

 * (none suggested yet)


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Gender issues

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Gender.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Gender:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none yet)

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Gender issues


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Wikiquote

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wikiquote.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wikiquote:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none yet)

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Wikiquote


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Wikimedian Issues

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wikimedians, the people who contribute to and care for the various Wikimedia projects.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wikimedian issues:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * Contribution type (content creation, copyediting, maintenance, etc.)
 * Custom signatures
 * Edit comments
 * Licensing

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Wikimedia


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Meta

title: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Meta


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Wikiversity


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Wikiquote


text: Category:Wikimedian Demographics/Wikimedia Commons


text: Category:WMDGS/Occaisionally contributes to Wikibooks


text: Category:WMDGS/Rarely contributes to Wikinews


text: Category:WMDGS/Occaisionally contributes to Meta


text: Category:WMDGS/Rarely contributes to Wikiquote


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Wikimedian Demographics/Wikinews

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wikinews.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wikinews:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none yet)

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Wikinews


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Wikispecies

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wikispecies.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wikispecies:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * (none yet)

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Wikispecies


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Wiktionary

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wiktionary.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wiktionary:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * Is it easy to find what you're looking for?
 * Content quality
 * Completeness

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Wiktionary


text:
Wikimedian Demographics/Wikisource

This Wikimedian Demographics subresource is dedicated to Wikisource.

Available Surveys
The surveys listed below are available for topics specific to Wikisource:
 * (none yet)

Requested Surveys
Surveys have been requested for the topics listed below:
 * Is it easy to find what you're looking for?
 * Content quality

New Surveys
These surveys have been developed, and will be announced on :
 * (none yet)

Survey Announcement Forums
New surveys will be announced :

title: Wikimedian Demographics/Wikisource


text: Template:About Wikiversity

title: Template:About Wikiversity


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User:Mu301/Learning blog/2008-01

January 2008

 * As mentioned in my Dec. 2007 blog I'll be working with teachers in the Rhode Island area as part of an outreach project through Ladd Observatory. I'll try to develop the School and university projects page as this progresses.  I am also trying to coordinate with the Wikipedia projects at w:Wikipedia:School and university projects and w:Wikipedia:WikiProject Classroom coordination plus some notes that I left on individual wikipedian talk pages.  The Wikiversity page really needs some work.  Mirwin and I started User:Mu301/sandbox to improve the references in that article.  --mikeu 16:20, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I've started a planning page for the outreach project that I am working on. This will be developed more in the next month or so, and then spunoff into mainspace.  One component already has a mainspace project coordination page at SkyCam and a domain on the Sandbox Server at http://skycam.sandboxserver.org --mikeu 16:35, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I am now a probationary custodian. Feel free to provide feedback on my talk page or comments at Candidates for Custodianship/Mu301.  See also: Custodian feedback.  --mikeu 16:43, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Mu301/Learning blog/2008-01


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Template:Wmdgs-wikipedia-survey1

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text: Category:WMDGS/Occaisionally uses IRC

title: Category:WMDGS/Occaisionally uses IRC


text: Category:WMDGS/Never uses Wikimedia mailinglists


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Wikiversity:Welcome

Welcome to Wikiversity! Wikiversity is for learning. It is a place where you'll find free learning materials and learning projects. Everyone can participate. There is no cost, no advertising, and no credentials are required. No degrees are awarded — just learning.

Everyone can create and revise teaching materials. Anyone can participate in the learning activities. Everyone can take a course. Everyone can teach a course. There are no entrance requirements and no fees. All content in Wikiversity is written collaboratively, using wiki software, and everyone is welcome to take part through using, adding and discussing content.

Feel free to dive in, and create or amend any page you think warrants improvement! Be bold! You don't even need to create an account to contribute. However, doing so will help to identify you to others as a regular participant and at the same time provide you with a personal set of user pages.

If you have educational content you feel could be useful, or want to develop your own, you might find it useful to read our page on adding content before doing so. It may also be helpful to explore Wikiversity a bit, and just try to come away with a sense of how things have been done thus far in the endeavor. Perhaps you might also like to check out  Introduction for the basics, take a longer guided tour to find your way around the project, or to work through an activity to make Wikiversity activities.

Visit the Colloquium if you have any questions. And again, welcome to Wikiversity!

title: Wikiversity:Welcome


text:
User:HLJackson

I work at the BA (British Association for the Advancement of Science) in the Science in Society team. I'm particularly interested in science communication and public engagement in the UK and overseas.

I have a background in neuroscience having completed my PhD in Bristol in 2007.

title: User:HLJackson


text:
User talk:HLJackson

Welcome
Hello HLJackson, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --mikeu 14:30, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:HLJackson


text:
User talk:Priyanka cms

Welcome
Hello Priyanka cms, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWS 14:54, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Priyanka cms


text:
Wikiversity talk:Welcome

Context of this page
This page is a simplified version of "Welcome, Newcomers!", intended to replace the critical role of the latter in welcoming newcomers to Wikiversity. If you are looking for the very extensive FAQ's which were in welcome, newcomers, they can now be found in The Wikiversity FAQ (linked to as the "about" page from the bottom of every Wikiversity page), or at the old location. --McCormack 18:18, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Suggestion of omitting links in the welcome text
Base on my experiences on first coming to Wikiversity, I suggest that the following links should appear before other links --tomaschwutz 22:19, 21 November 2008 (UTC)
 * What is Wikiversity?
 * a concise description of the notions of learning materials, learning projects, and learning activities, without links to the full pages.
 * Guided tour
 * Browse

Discussion has a main article
I just found out about Main_page_design_changes and Main_page_learning_project. The insights from there apply also for this page. --tomaschwutz 22:36, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

User : Minaalah
What financial and accounting information dose it deal with? - Accounting information systen prepares its finanical information in both internal and external report. Accounting deal with those information that are needed for the internal users of the company to operate the business and financial accounting focus on the information that are needed for fullfilling the interest of external users.

What are the advantage of using this module? - Many businesses use accounting information system to record and process accounting transactions through the use of modules such as accounts payables, payroll, accounts receivables and trial balance. Accounting software is either specifically developed for a single company or bought from a third-party. Accounting information system can be an invaluable asset to a company. Example - Efficiency Accounting information system allows faster and more efficient processing of data. Once the information is entered in the associated module accounts payable it is processed and stored immediately

HW: what financial and accounting information does it deal with?
What financial and accounting information does it deal with? - Financial and accounting information are related topic. Accounting is record and paid or receive money for a person on business. Accountant will do reports and financial statements for they will have right decisions, know that the company is not losing or going to bankrupt. Financial accounting is conclude information and transaction meaning from statement such as balance sheet, loss/profit, and cash flow. The main objective is show information to customer and people who interested in financial information such as investment and creditor.

What are the advantage of using this module? – help company have right decisions - Make people know the profitability - Useful to government for tax purpose - Help to manage to know the liquidity state of the business - Useful to creditors and other financial such as banks - Provide information during budgeting

Advance accounting msc Mokemengistu (discuss • contribs) 10:43, 19 April 2019 (UTC)

title: Wikiversity talk:Welcome


text:
Talk:Linear representations of finite groups

maybe this would be better in the main namespace, yes? --Remi 19:40, 7 January 2008 (UTC)


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User:Postmodern Beatnik

Please see my primary user page on Wikipedia.

title: User:Postmodern Beatnik


text:
Brezhoneg Pemp

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" Brezhoneg Pemp Brezhoneg
 * style="background-color: #BEF574; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" |
 * style="width: 60%; background-color: #fffff0; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" |
 * style="width: 60%; background-color: #fffff0; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" |

Brezhoneg Pemp
"Brezhoneg Pemp" is a course in the Breton Department. In this advanced course, students are introduced to elaborate texts or proverbs, grammar complements and some colloquial phrases for a usual conversation.

Rekipeoù Breizh
 * rowspan="2" style="width: 40%; background-color: #efefff; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" |

Krampouezh (pancakes) is the best known of Breton cooking. More basic to the region's gastronomy than bread, pancakes come in two main varieties:
 * Sweet pancakes, made with plain wheat flour mixed with eggs and milk, are generally folded over a sweet filling of some kind.
 * Salted pancakes, also called "galettes", are made with buckwheat flour, eggs, and water, and are usually filled with savory ingredients. Crêperies, which dot almost every street in Brittany, serve extensive all-crêpe menus, offering fillings ranging from a sprinkling of sugar or a bit of jam to layers of ham, vegetables, and cheese.

Pancakes are eaten at any time of day, as a snack or as a full meal—and are almost always accompanied by a cup or bowl of locally pressed cold (alcoholic) cider.

One Breton seafood recipe that is slightly more complex is "cotriade", now considered a luxury dish, but long the traditional daily stew of poor local fishermen. Heading out to sea for four or five days, fishermen took along provisions that would not spoil easily—potatoes, onions, garlic, leeks. Throwing these into a pot of water spiked with sea brine, they'd put in some of the more common fish they caught that day—a mix that might include mackerel, conger eel, sardines, skate, crab, mussels, and shrimp, among other things.

If cotriade is Brittany's bouillabaisse, kig ha farz is its pot-au-feu. A specialty of the Leon region, it is a hefty stew made with beef or salt pork, cabbage, potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, garlic, and leeks. The farz, or stuffing, is a thick buckwheat porridge made with bouillon, milk, and a dollop of lard, wrapped in a dishcloth, and immersed in the pot to cook alongside the stew. By the time the stew is finished, the farz has become a heavy, crumbly dumpling or pudding, to be fluffed with a fork and served with the meat, vegetables, and broth. Like many stews, kig ha farz is better the next day.

Cakes an also important like "kouign amann", Breton for butter cake—a traditional dessert said to have originated in the mid-19th century in the port of Douarnenez, at the southwestern tip of Brittany. But now you find it throughout Brittany.

Traou Mad is a Breton delicacy produced in Brittany, being a full fat butter biscuit served for breakfast or afternoon tea. Traoù Mat (in peurunvan orthography) stands for Good Things in Breton.

 * style="width: 60%; background-color: #BEF574; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" |
 * style="width: 60%; background-color: #BEF574; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" |

Lessons

 * Kentel kentañ :  Goueliañ / Having fun
 * Eilved kentel :  Proverbs
 * Teirved kentel :  Cooking
 * Pederved kentel :  More tenses
 * Pempved kentel :  Traoù fentus (jokes)

 * }

title: Brezhoneg Pemp


text:
Brezhoneg Pemp/Lesson 1

{|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:99%;background-color:inherit"
 * style="border:1px solid #999999;background-color:#BEF574;-moz-border-radius:8px"|
 * style="border:1px solid #999999;background-color:#BEF574;-moz-border-radius:8px"|

You will learn ... / Te a zesk ...

 * Vocabulary
 * Going out
 * Bonfire, music and dance
 * In a tavern
 * Let's go back home ...

Ex 1 : Quiz
Go to the Quiz.

Ex 2 : Memory training
Write out the Breton words, section by section.

Have 2 columns, clearly separated, and write Breton and English. Then cover up one column (eg. English) with paper and write the corresponding words on the paper. Then try it the other way round, cover up the Breton, and write out the words using the English as cues. This will be a little bit more difficult.

Repeat all this after an interval, the more you do it the easier you will remember the words.

 * }

title: Brezhoneg Pemp/Lesson 1


text:
User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations/2008 January

observations from Erkan Yilmaz for 2008 January

You are invited to add your comments (e.g. but my perception of this issue is different) - please sign anything you add (howto Signature).

2008 January 29 - You are kidding ? Wikiversity is (also) about learning (?)
Some learning mechanisms:
 * habituation
 * classical conditioning
 * operant conditioning
 * 1) exploring/game (Spielverhalten)
 * 2) imitation -> learning by observing
 * 3) recombinant behavior -> cognitive learning
 * imprinting
 * tradition

Thanks for the references, this is great information about learning about learning! --Ncouture 11:21, 2 February 2008 (UTC)
 * great to hear :-) Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat + Identi.ca 11:14, 22 October 2011 (UTC)

edit 2011-10-21:
 * made this into a table with links to other languages
 * the user from above: did not edit more here, why?

2008 January 28 - German WV participates in the "year of mathematics" by the "Federal Ministry of Education and Research"
In Germany the year of mathematics has started (more info here by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research BMBF (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung)). Not only because of this German Wikiversity has initiated a project called Mathematics is everywhere (Mathematik ist überall). German WV applied for the event and participates now as sole non-profit organization so far and got also the logo for usage at WV.

Mathematics is everywhere at German Wikiversity

edit 2011-10-21: no results

2008 January 27 - history of WV

 * While reconstructing the history of German Wikiversity (for the history of en.WV see here, for el.WV see here) it seems that from the initial 5 members of Wikiversity only two are actively participating. Perhaps we might get the others back again on board ?
 * earliest known written evidence (please update, if you find earlier evidence):

 * {| class="prettytable"

!Wikiversity !date !where ?
 * en.WV
 * 2003 August
 * Wikibooks
 * de.WV
 * 2004 September
 * meta (Wikibooks 2005 February)
 * it.WV
 * 2004 November
 * Wikibooks (meta 2006 September)
 * es.WV
 * 2004 November
 * Wikibooks
 * fr.WV
 * 2005 January
 * Wikibooks (request on 2006 August)
 * beta
 * 2006 August
 * betawikiversity
 * el.WV
 * 2007 July
 * meta
 * }
 * 2006 August
 * betawikiversity
 * el.WV
 * 2007 July
 * meta
 * }
 * }

edit 2011-10-21: all gone now

2008 January 23 - whiteboard feature for Sandbox Server 0.5

 * Imagine a student, sitting in her chair and watching the board where the teacher has just written something.
 * Sounds boring ? Well, perhaps not:
 * if your chair is located not in the school building and
 * the board you see is a whiteboard on your notebook and
 * your teacher is 500 miles away :-)
 * a 2 mins test and it seems to work: Image:Whiteboard feature - test with Coccinella.jpg (another example)
 * needs to be tested more (e.g. with more than 2 people) - how to log in on the Sandbox Server 0.5

edit 2011-10-22:
 * did not succeed due to Sandbox Server never getting really off the ground
 * the only thing which survived over the years is the WV:Chat

2008 January 19 - new WV main pages & status of reading group "Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War"

 * new main page layout
 * The French Wikiversity has a new main page since 16th January. Also recently en.WV and www.wikiversity.org got a new layout.

 * status of reading group "Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War"
 * So far some people showed interest in the reading group:
 * Sundance (took part in one session)
 * Mirwin
 * interested people on German WV: 1, 2, 3

 * Unfortunately the announcement in various WVs and WBs did not bring new participants. Therefore there could be thought about how to improve this situation, since the heart of the group still consists of two people (thanks Daan). We will continue and hope for more people to join.
 * Some reasons which might hinder others to participate more could be:
 * no time or too much to read in total (per session so far 25 aphorisms were to read) and therefore too longterm project ?
 * not interesting enough ?
 * language difficulties ?
 * a desire to be entertained instead of doing something that appears to be like homework ?
 * please add :-)
 * edit 2008-Feb.-4: who would have thought this to happen

edit 2011-10-21:
 * layout of main page: hard to find consensus, though one could do several entry points depending on user's choice
 * more about Thucydides in my PLE: User:Erkan_Yilmaz/PLE

2008 January 15 - Wikipedia Signpost and Wikiversity & I must be crazy, really :-)

 * What might be written about Wikiversity and other wikimedia projects in the future issue: see here

 * I have now publicly offered a recently registered de.WV member that for each new member he woos, I will invest x mins of my lifetime to review articles: . Let's see the reaction to this marketing initiative

edit 2011-10-21:
 * There was also: w:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2008-05-09/Wikiversity interview
 * I think I shocked that de.WV guy with my offer :-(

2008 January 14 - translation status Wikiversities + what you can find on commons
translation status of not yet established Wikiversities:
 * ...can be seen here, e.g. for the Turkish Wikiversity it is (request page on meta):

 * {| class="prettytable"

!Most often used messages !Extensions used by Wikimedia !MediaWiki messages !All extensions
 * 93.35%
 * 12.13%
 * 69.36%
 * 3.35%
 * }
 * }

 * From all the languages only the following have for all 4 values good percentages (I am not sure if the values from above link are updated - but if it is uptodate not for all 4 fields are needed high values to found a WV - when looking at the values from the so far six established WVs): ar, en, fr, gl, hsb, nl, oc, sk.

 * edit 2008-Januar-28:
 * Question: How can I help ?
 * Answer: Slave, you dare to ask ? Your punishment therefore is: start translating (see here)

what can you find on commons?

 * {| class="prettytable"

!click !usage on wikimedia projects
 * Image:Ass.jpg
 *
 * Category:Nude women
 * Category:Nude men
 * Category:Nudity
 * }
 * Category:Nude men
 * Category:Nudity
 * }
 * Category:Nudity
 * }
 * }
 * }

 * You may ask yourself, why I searched for this of course :-)
 * Don't get funny ideas now, we were talking about a contest on IRC and then I searched for a keyword and found the above. I wonder what else you can find in the large commons archives (commons statistics). But interesting is: I did not try this special keyword before, because somehow I assumed on commons I would not find "such" things :-) You can always be wrong in your thinking patterns.

edit 2011-10-21
 * commons: still there ;-) I love commons attitude
 * Turkish WV: never got off the ground

2008 January 13 - votes for sysops and bots
Since the Greek Wikiversity is now launched, there are votes already going on for sysops and bots. Unfortunately not all requests are in English available :-( I also have some questions. If you want to vote, click here.

2008 January 12: request for Greek Wikiversity has been approved !
Don't forget to vote :-)

2008 January 07: cooperation with robots.wikia.com ?
Let's see what kind of cooperation can be with Wikiversity.

edit 2011-10-22:
 * nothing much more, I guess that guy was expecting something else


text:
Template:Tw

This template adds the page to Category:Pages for transwiki

 * See also
 * Template:Transwiki-user

title: Template:Tw


text:
User talk:Ramy diab

Welcome
Hello Ramy diab, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --mikeu 22:37, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ramy diab


text:
Portal talk:Quechua

following was removed
PLEASE DO NOT MAKE LESSONS OR NEW PAGES WITHOUT READING THIS. ONLY ADMINS CAN MAKE NEW COURSE PAGES ONLY TEACHERS CAN MAKE LESSONS IF YOU WISH TO BECOME ONE OF THESE PELASE READ THE INSTRUCTIONS ON THAT PAGE THIS IS TO CONTROL THE CREATION OF LESSONS WHEN OTHERS ARE PLANNED AND THE INSURANCE THAT THE LESSONS YOU ARE TAUGHT ARE IN PROPER QUECHUA

here at WV there are only a few restrictions, but everyone can make new pages. Perhaps the above can be phrased otherwise ? Also worthwile reading What is Wikiversity? and Template:Welcome, Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 23:23, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

 * May also wish to consider http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Productive_forking_and_tailoring_is_encouraged and the policies on community consensus.  In general, the essence of what appears to be desired (correct content delivered to newcomers to Quechuan language) is a matter of organizing the local community's editing and reviewing procedures.   This must be done within the context of broader Wikiversity policies of participation and consensus building.   There has been some emerging interest in policy discussions of how experts may participate effectively within voluntary content management and control systems.  Please consider adding your inputs into on wiki policy discussions at Colloquium, individual policy pages, and the IRC channel #wikiversity-en.  Directions and links to access at:  http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Chat   Feel free to contact me with any questions, comments or discussion of content protection and management.  I am interested in the same at Lunar Boom Town.  Mirwin 23:44, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Quechua


text:
Talk:Systems engineering/Workshop on Fundamentals of Systems Modelling

might this be more appropriate in the main namespace as something like Workshop on Fundamentals of Systems Modelling? --Remi 23:32, 7 January 2008 (UTC)