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A supplement to the Texas US history textbook

This Supplement is a productive response to the controversy surrounding the Texas Board of Education's US history and social studies textbooks.

A Response, Not A Reaction
The new standards for these textbooks will require that they reflect a decidedly conservative point of view. This conservative point of view will not be presented as one point of view among many, but as American history itself. At times this point of view might be persuasive, and at times it might be motivated by actual historical facts, but to present it as anything other than a conservative point of view is a distortion of history. In some cases the violence that these new standards do to our history goes even further. For example the standards strongly suggest that the founders intended for the United States to be a Christian nation. Indeed, in a prayer opening the debate on these standards Cynthia Dunbar prayed: "I believe no one can read the history of our country without realizing that the Good Book and the spirit of the savior have from the beginning been our guiding geniuses. Whether we look to the first charter of Virginia, or the charter of New England…the same objective is present — a Christian land governed by Christian principles." (see video of this prayer here). Such a reading of US history is more than just a conservative slant, it is an activist rewriting of our history.

The "culture wars" or "history wars" are a trap. On the one hand if we don't do anything these distortions will go unchallenged, so we must contest them. Yet on the other hand it is easy to fall into a kind of mimetic rivalry where we produce left-wing distortions that mirror the right-wing distortions of the Texas textbooks. Our goal is not to create an activist rewriting in the opposite direction. If we do this we become reactionary, whereas our goal is to be forcefully responsible.

We must be forceful. Make no mistake, this project is a protest in the fullest, truest sense of the term, a testimony that contests the version of history espoused by the Texas Board of Education. In this sense this textbook aims at fidelity to the rich history of democratic protest that makes up American history.

We must also be responsible so that the form of our Supplement is not defined through opposition to the distortions of the Texas textbook. Our response is made with a spirit of healthy indifference towards the Texas textbook, one which focuses on doing responsible history, one that keeps its eyes on the prize and is not to distracted history warriors like Lynn Cheney.

In short, if the Texas textbooks are like Conservapedia, then our supplement should be like Wikipedia. If the Texas textbooks are like Fox News then our supplement should be like the Daily Show.

Criticism
Rod Paige, President George W. Bush's secretary of education protested the new standards saying "What students are taught should not be the handmaiden of political ideology."

More than 1,200 historians and college faculty members from across the nation have signed a petition calling the standards academically shoddy.

There is a Facebook group 1,000,000 Against the Texas School Board's Version of History.

Some controversial elements of the Texas textbook
To read the full list of standards see for grades 6-8 see here (PDF). for the high school standards see here (PDF).

 * The new standards removed [[w:Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson]'s views on the separation of church and state] (He is replaced by the great medieval philosopher/theologian Thomas Aquinas and the 16th century theologian John Calvin)

 * The new textbooks will claim that McCarthyism was not a witch hunt, it was vindicated by the Venona papers.

 * Students will be forced to draw equivalences between Jefferson Davis's and Abraham Lincoln's inaugural addresses.

 * The new standards will require that student are taught that the United States is not a democracy. This seems to be based in part on their preference for the word "republican" over the word "democratic." David Barton, the founder of Wallbuilders and one of the social studies 'experts' that the Texas Board of Education relied on, said in his review (PDF) of the old social studies standards that, "Because America is correctly identified as a republic and not as a democracy, the derivative of this is that 'republican' rather than 'democratic' is the proper adjective – that is, we have 'republican' values or 'republican' process rather than 'democratic' values or process."

 * Place disproportionate emphasis on right wing figures while minimizing the contribution of left wing figures. Particular emphasis is placed on the conservative resurgence of the 1980s and 1990s. Students will be required to learn about Phyllis Schlafly, the Contract With America, the Heritage Foundation, the Moral Majority and the National Rifle Association.

 * Students will be taught that the UN is a threat to US sovereignty.

 * Students are asked to discuss "alternatives regarding long term entitlements such as Social Security and Medicare, given the decreasing worker to retiree ratio."

Some proposed changes included:

 * Remove the word slavery and replace it with phrase "the Atlantic triangular trade." This proposal was eventually voted down, slavery will be referred to as the "trans-Atlantic slave trade."

 * Remove Anne Hutchinson (Peter Marshall, an evangelical minister who advised members of the Texas Board of Education said of Hutchingson "[She] didn’t accomplish anything except getting herself exiled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for making trouble. Anne Hutchinson does not belong in the company of these eminent gentlemen [William Penn, Roger Williams and others]".)

 * Remove César Chávez (Marshall: “Chavez is hardly the kind of role model that ought to be held up to our children as someone worthy of emulation...[Chávez] lacks the stature, impact and overall contributions of so many others.")

 * Remove Thurgood Marshall.

Principles
As we create this supplement there are a number of history books that we take inspiration from. One such book is History Lessons: How Textbooks from Around the World Portray U.S. History edited by Dana Lindaman and Kyle Ward. This book is an experiment in comparative history. The editors took high school textbooks from other countries and translated the sections where these countries' histories involve the United States in some way. At least three important lessons can be learned from this book:

First, stark contrasts appear between responsible histories and the wild distortions that some of these history books present. The selections from North Korean textbooks, for example, are little more than bizarre fantasies (describing the Korean War: "The bastards who crossed the 38th parallel at dawn were stoking the flames of war, jumping around like mad men, yearning to invade the North under any pretext. And so our peaceful homeland was surrounded by the roar of cannons and the clouds of war"). Other selections, such as those by Canadian and British textbooks, show an admirable amount of critical analysis.

Second, we begin to question how distorted our own history textbooks might be. To what degree are they self-aggrandizing? To what degree do they whitewash or otherwise 'tidy up' our history? What do they leave out? What do they include that isn't really important to ordinary Americans? Whose interests do they serve and whose values do they promote? Looking at the changes that the Texas School Board has proposed, we worry that US history textbooks will become more like an American version of North Korean textbooks. Rather than being counter-propaganda, this supplement is meant to be an antidote to all such propaganda by motivating critical thinking and questioning on the part of the student.

Third, some of the selections, such as those from the Caribbean and the Philippines, fill in badly needed aspects of our story that are often neglected, allowing us to see ourselves through another's eyes. America is a diverse country, economically, religiously, culturally, linguistically, and racially. Together our stories make up the American story. It is important for students to be able to see the history of the United States as being in some real way their own story. But for most Americans, the history that will be taught in Texas will be someone else's story. As one Texas school board member Mary Helen Berlanga said in frustration as she left a meeting “They can just pretend this is a white America and Hispanics don’t exist.” Our supplement does not present a singular story. It is essentially plural. It cannot be just one protest but many testimonies bearing witness to our shared fabric of history. All Americans will be able to follow multiple threads of this story which combine and lead to their own story, to how they got here, why the world is the way it is, and part of why they are the way that they are. And all of us will have our story partially contested by other stories. We will be able to see our own story as something uncanny when looked at through the eyes of our fellow citizens. American history is a tangled mess and we aim to be faithful to this messiness.

Program or Be Programmed: On the Uniqueness of this Supplement
This resource isn't just a supplement to the Texas textbooks, it is an experiment in telling our own history. One problem with standard textbooks is that our story is told for us by someone else, usually a single historian or a small group of historians. To be blunt, the Texas School Board thinks that by controlling what is in the textbook they can brainwash Texas students. We aim to distribute the process of writing this history, to wrest back the power to tell our own story away from the privileged few who are trying to tell it for us. Our writers will be professional historians and amateur history buffs, plumbers and philosophers and police officers and poets. Even high school students themselves will have the opportunity to shape the very textbook their peers read (what better way to learn history!). Standard history textbooks tend to impose a top down structure to our history, dividing time into presidential administrations and wars. We aim at a bottom up history, and here we acknowledge a debt to another of our influences, the justly celebrated A People's History of the United States. The uniqueness of this supplement is that we get to decide what is important and what we value. What would we include that is normally overlooked as "unfit to print" by standard textbooks? Would we consider the invention of corporate personhood as more important to shaping the form of our actual lives than the moon landing? What about Stonewall, or the WTO protests, or the Triangle Factory Fire? What would we elevate and what would we minimize? Is the first episode of Star Trek an important cultural milestone? If not, then what should count as such?

There is already an excellent wikibook on US history, and although we may choose to reference it or borrow from it, that wikibook is too similar in structure, style and content to the standard textbooks that we wish to supplement. This supplement responds to a specific need that the 'standard' wikibook cannot adequately fill.

This supplement is similar in spirit to the Ohio Social Studies 7th Grade World History Textbook that is actually being produced by 7th graders at Beachwood Middle School. We applaud their efforts and see the ability to write one's own history as a way to avoid being written out of it.

We are especially hoping to get Texas school students involved in the creation of their own textbook. If you teach a class where it might be appropriate, please consider having your students conduct research to write articles for this supplement instead of writing term papers. This article describes a similar assignment. The spirit of such an assignment would be to ask your students to learn a subject so well that they could fascinate their peers by explaining the subject to them.

Structure
The structure of this resource is inspired by the structure of "Art Since 1900" by Hal Foster, Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, and Benjamin Buchloh. Art Since 1900 is organized around a series of emblematic events, each of which advanced art history in a significant way. Examples of article titles include:

"1949 Life magazine asks its readers 'Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?': the work of Jackson Pollock emerges as the symbol of advanced art"

and

"1988 Gerhard Richter paints October 18, 1977: German artists contemplate the possibility of the renewal of history painting."

What is nice about this structure is that it allows for multiple storylines to develop simultaneously and intertwine, the monumental can be juxtaposed to the mundane. Each article will have a series of tags associated with it so that students can easily follow a single storyline as it develops through time, or they can choose a particular moment and read a cross-section of history. Each article should be able to be placed on an interactive timeline, with beginning and end dates, punctuated by one emblematic date. So, for example, one article in our supplement might cover the emergence of television and all that it entailed for our society through a study of the Beatles appearance on Ed Sullivan on February 9th, 1964. The advent of internet piracy and its effects on economics and law could discuss the invention of Napster in June 1999.

Another advantage of this structure is that it democratizes significance. Anyone could create an article on any topic that they think has played an important role in shaping our history. Wars get equal billing with the Great American Street Car Scandal, and presidential elections are juxtaposed with the invention of corporate "personhood".

Style
"A camel is a horse designed by a committee."

The main limit of wiki-generated content is that it tends to result in a rather muddled, uninspired style. We aim to create a resource that is not only historically accurate, but that animates history, that can intoxicate young readers and show them why history is a fascinating subject worthy of their energy and intelligence. In order to do this we need the articles of this resource to be written with a forceful, unified style. To achieve this while still maintaining the benefits of wiki-generated texts, each article should have one principle author who generates a first draft and nurses it along as it gets improved collectively. If you see an article on a topic that you think could be dramatically improved we recommend starting from scratch and creating a totally new article on the same subject. We can then improve that article as well and compare it to the first one and choose which one is better.

We also would like to make a specific call to poets. To these poets we would like to ask you to use your poetic ear to rewrite the text, treating it as if it were being translated into a new language. That is, be faithful to the underlying meaning, but give it life and energy and action. Make history breathe fire.

Languages
“If English was good enough for Jesus Christ, it ought to be good enough for the children of Texas.” -attributed to Texas Governor Miriam A. Ferguson

Much to the chagrin of this lady, the United States has no "offical" [sic] language. We intend this supplement to be written and read in multiple languages. Not just English and Spanish, but also Navajo, Hindi, Arabic, Norwegian, Latin, Esperanto, Klingon and any other language anyone might want to read/write it in. Traduwiki and similar sites can be utilized to facilitate composition and translation in multiple languages.

Reading Level
This resource's target audience is high school students. We aim for accessibility but refuse to dumb down ideas. We don't think that history needs to be made exciting, we believe that history already is exciting and that if we present our history as complex, and not always easy to make sense of, we can trust the intelligence and imagination of our students. Although we will be dealing with 'big ideas,' these ideas are the type of things that almost everyone can be initiated into and engage creatively if they are presented in an appropriate way. One thing that we should pay attention to--and this perhaps should be one of the first debates that we have--is what reading level(s) we should be writing for. Since many high schoolers are not reading at their grade level, should we write at their grade level in order to give them practice reading as well as learning history? Or should our guiding ethic be to convey history as clearly as possible, in which case maybe writing at a lower level is required? How do we make sure we are writing for and challenging every student?

This website can be used to run an analysis of the reading level of our entries using the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level readability test as well as other readability tests.

Distribution
This supplement is intended to be used by teachers in Texas high school classrooms, by parents who care about what their children are learning, and by students who take the initiative to teach themselves as any student worthy of the name must do. We intend to distribute this resource to classrooms on request free of charge, raising money for the printing costs through sites such as Donors Choose and Kickstarter. We also intend to model how we can build a better textbook and a cheaper textbook so that public schools don't need to pay for overpriced textbooks that enrich publishers more than they enrich minds.

Democracy is a Participation Sport
If you are new to Wikiversity, go here to learn how to add a new page. It is your story, you might as well write it down.

Supplements by Grade
The following links lead to active sections for each grade. According to the curriculum standards (grades 6-8 [PDF], high school [PDF]) students study a specific topic in each grade.

/6th Grade - Contemporary Society/

/7th Grade - The History of Texas/

8th Grade - The History of the United States from the Early Colonial Period through Reconstruction

9th Grade - History of the United States since 1877


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/7th Grade - The History of Texas

Preface
As outlined in this statement, this resource is a supplement to the 7th grade social studies textbook for the state of Texas. Please read the statement before contributing to this resource.

Scope
According to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Social Studies [PDF]:

 * In Grade 7, students study the history of Texas from early times to the present. Content is presented with more depth and breadth than in Grade 4. Students examine the full scope of Texas history, including Natural Texas and its People; Age of Contact; Spanish Colonial; Mexican National; Revolution and Republic; Early Statehood; Texas in the Civil War and Reconstruction; Cotton, Cattle, and Railroads; Age of Oil; Texas in the Great Depression and World War II; Civil Rights and Conservatism; and Contemporary Texas eras. The focus in each era is on key individuals, events, and issues and their impact. Students identify regions of Texas and the distribution of population within and among the regions and explain the factors that caused Texas to change from an agrarian to an urban society. Students describe the structure and functions of municipal, county, and state governments, explain the influence of the U.S. Constitution on the Texas Constitution, and examine the rights and responsibilities of Texas citizens. Students use primary and secondary sources to examine the rich and diverse cultural background of Texas as they identify the different racial and ethnic groups that settled in Texas to build a republic and then a state. Students analyze the impact of scientific discoveries and technological innovations on the development of Texas in various industries such as agricultural, energy, medical, computer, and aerospace. Students use primary and secondary sources to acquire information about Texas.

Reading Level
The reading level for the 7th grade as defined by the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level is approx. 7 = (0.39 x Average Sentence Length) + (11.8 x Average Syllables per Word) − 15.59.

This website can be used to automatically analyze the reading level of our entries.

How to Participate
We are especially hoping to get Texas school students involved in the creation of their own textbook. If you teach a class where it might be appropriate, please consider having your students conduct research to write articles for this supplement instead of writing term papers. This article describes a similar assignment. The spirit of such an assignment would be to ask your students to learn a subject so well that they could fascinate their peers by explaining the subject to them.


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Talk:A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/7th Grade - The History of Texas

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A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/8th Grade - History of the United States

Preface
As outlined in this statement, this resource is a supplement to the 8th grade history textbook for the state of Texas. Please read the statement before contributing to this resource.

Scope
According to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Social Studies [PDF]:

 * In Grade 8, students study the history of the United States from the early colonial period through Reconstruction. The knowledge and skills in subsection (b) of this section comprise the first part of a two-year study of U.S. history. The second part, comprising U.S. history from Reconstruction to the present, is provided in §113.41 of this title (relating to United States History Studies Since 1877 (One Credit), Beginning with School Year 2011-2012). The content in Grade 8 builds upon that from Grade 5 but provides more depth and breadth. Historical content focuses on the political, economic, religious, and social events and issues related to the colonial and revolutionary eras, the creation and ratification of the U.S. Constitution, challenges of the early republic, the age of Jackson, westward expansion, sectionalism, Civil War, and Reconstruction. Students describe the physical characteristics of the United States and their impact on population distribution and settlement patterns in the past and present. Students analyze the various economic factors that influenced the development of colonial America and the early years of the republic and identify the origins of the free enterprise system. Students examine the American beliefs and principles, including limited government, checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, and individual rights, reflected in the U.S. Constitution and other historical documents. Students evaluate the impact of Supreme Court cases and major reform movements of the 19th century and examine the rights and responsibilities of citizens of the United States as well as the importance of effective leadership in a constitutional republic. Students evaluate the impact of scientific discoveries and technological innovations on the development of the United States. Students use critical-thinking skills, including the identification of bias in written, oral, and visual material.

Reading Level
The reading level for the 8th grade as defined by the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level is approx. 8 = (0.39 x Average Sentence Length) + (11.8 x Average Syllables per Word) − 15.59.

This website can be used to automatically analyze the reading level of our entries.

How to Participate
We are especially hoping to get Texas school students involved in the creation of their own textbook. If you teach a class where it might be appropriate, please consider having your students conduct research to write articles for this supplement instead of writing term papers. This article describes a similar assignment. The spirit of such an assignment would be to ask your students to learn a subject so well that they could fascinate their peers by explaining the subject to them.

Table of Contents
Henry David Thoreau embarks on a two-year experiment in simple living, is arrested for war tax resistance, and writes Civil Disobedience and Walden, or Life in the Woods

Emerson delivers his "American Scholar" address challenging Americans to think for themselves and come out from the shadow of European letters

1859 The United States and Britain prove they are totally mature nation-states by nearly waging all out war over a trespassing pig on Vancouver Island


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text:
A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/9th Grade - History of the United States Since 1877

Preface
As outlined in this statement, this resource is a supplement to the 9th grade history textbook for the state of Texas. Please read the statement before contributing to this resource.

Scope
According to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Social Studies [PDF]:

 * In United States History Studies Since 1877, which is the second part of a two-year study that begins in Grade 8, students study the history of the United States from 1877 to the present.

Reading Level
The reading level for the 9th grade as defined by the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level is approx. 9 = (0.39 x Average Sentence Length) + (11.8 x Average Syllables per Word) − 15.59.

This website can be used to automatically analyze the reading level of our entries.

How to Participate
We are especially hoping to get Texas school students involved in the creation of their own textbook. If you teach a class where it might be appropriate, please consider having your students conduct research to write articles for this supplement instead of writing term papers. This article describes a similar assignment. The spirit of such an assignment would be to ask your students to learn a subject so well that they could fascinate their peers by explaining the subject to them.

Table of Contents
1886 Santa Clara Count v. Southern Pacific Railroad: Corporations Become Persons Under the Fourteenth Amendment

1920 A Great Experiment and Tragic Result: Prohibition of alcohol, motivated by noble intentions of reducing crime and corruption, leads to the creation of gang culture in America

1922 Alfred P. Sloan creates a special unit at GM tasked with replacing America's electric railways with cars, trucks and buses

1933 Albert Einstein emigrates to the United States: America benefits from an influx of artists and intellectuals driven from Europe by the Nazi's and WWII

1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbor: The United States enters World War II

1945 Soviet troops liberate Auschwitz: The Allies begin to expose the full horror and scale of the Holocaust

1945 The United States uses atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Hundreds of thousands of people die in the attack which helped end WWII while inaugurating the cold war and global ethical debates about the existence and use of nuclear weapons of mass destruction

1955 Rosa Parks is arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat for a white passenger: The Montgomery Bus Boycott launches the Civil Rights Movement

1962 Biologist Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring: The environmentalist movement enters mainstream consciousness

1971 The Great Experiment Redux: President Nixon announces the War on Drugs

1973 The Supreme court rules on Roe v Wade concerning abortion rights

1989 The Berlin Wall falls marking the end of the Cold War: Francis Kukuyama declares the end of history as capitalism achieves global hegemony

1996 Fox News launches, The Daily Show premieres and The Onion goes on-line: The media landscape changes as right-wing radio moves to TV and satirical news increasingly takes on the role of informative journalism

2000 Al Gore Wins the Popular Vote, George Bush Becomes President

2001 Al-Qaeda attacks centers of American military and economic power on September 11th: A new form of global war emerges between nation-states and terrorist networks

2001 Napster is shut down, meanwhile Larry Lessig, Hal Abelson and Eric Eldred found Creative Commons: Peer-to-peer sharing redefines personal property, copyright, and the economy at large


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Talk:A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/9th Grade - History of the United States Since 1877

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A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/6th Grade - Contemporary Society

Preface
As outlined in this statement, this resource is a supplement to the 6th grade social studies textbook for the state of Texas. Please read the statement before contributing to this resource.

Scope
According to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Social Studies [PDF]:

 * In Grade 6, students study people, places, and societies of the contemporary world. Societies for study are from the following regions of the world: Europe, Russia and the Eurasian republics, North America, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Southwest Asia-North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific realm. Students describe the influence of individuals and groups on historical and contemporary events in those societies and identify the locations and geographic characteristics of various societies. Students identify different ways of organizing economic and governmental systems. The concepts of limited and unlimited government are introduced, and students describe the nature of citizenship in various societies. Students compare institutions common to all societies such as government, education, and religious institutions. Students explain how the level of technology affects the development of the various societies and identify different points of view about events. The concept of frame of reference is introduced as an influence on an individual's point of view.

Reading Level
The reading level for the 6th grade as defined by the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level is approx. 6 = (0.39 x Average Sentence Length) + (11.8 x Average Syllables per Word) − 15.59.

This website can be used to automatically analyze the reading level of our entries.

How to Participate
We are especially hoping to get Texas school students involved in the creation of their own textbook. If you teach a class where it might be appropriate, please consider having your students conduct research to write articles for this supplement instead of writing term papers. This article describes a similar assignment. The spirit of such an assignment would be to ask your students to learn a subject so well that they could fascinate their peers by explaining the subject to them.


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Talk:A supplement to the Texas US history textbook/6th Grade - Contemporary Society

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Ideas in Geometry/Section 3.2

Lattice
The plane of black dots on which the objects are drawn is referred to as a lattice or Lattice (group). A lattice consists of a set of dots which lie in perfect rows and have a distance of 1 to any dot directly above, below, left, or right of itself. The lattice acts as a guide for drawing objects.

Pick's Theorem
Pick’s theorem is a tool used to determine the area of any object constructed on the lattice.

The formula looks like this: A=b/2+n-1

Regions
Small region: The red-ish area inside the larger region

Large region: The pink/purple-ish area inside formed on the lattice.

Where:

A = Area (in units^2)

b = The number of lattice points on the border of the object.

n = The number of lattice points inside the object (do not include border points)

Step 1: Find the Area of the Larger Region
By simple counting we can determine that there are 9 border points and 9 internal points.

Now we plug them into Pick’s Theorem:

A = 9/2+9-1

A = 4.5 + 9 – 1

A = 12.5 units^2

Step 2: Find the Area of the Smaller Region
By counting we can determine that there are 5 border points and 0 internal points.

Now for Pick’s Theorem:

A = 5/2 + 0 – 1

A = 2.5 – 1

A = 1.5 units^2

Step 3: Find the ratio of the two regions
From Pick’s Theorem, we have determined that the Area of the larger region is 12.5 units^2 and that the Area of the smaller region is 1.5 units^2. This gives us a ratio of 1.5/12.5. We are comparing the amount of space in the smaller portion to the amount of area in the larger region. This helps us compare the area in a simple way.

Step 4: Find the probability of selecting a random point that is in the large region and the small region
From our ratio, we found that of 12.5 units^2 in the larger region, 1.5 units^2 belong to both the larger region and the smaller region. To determine the probability, we need to compare the chances of picking a point in the smaller region with the availability of the entire region.

Because 1.5 units^2 are contained in the 12.5 units^2, we can say that when selecting a point in the larger area of 12.5, there is a chance we will pick a point in the smaller region of 1.5. So there is a 1.5 chance in 12.5 of selecting a point in the smaller region. Our initial probability is 1.5/12.5. However, mathematicians rarely like decimals contained in fractions for a final answer, so we can increase the numbers by dividing by a common factor of .5. After doing this, we arrive at our final probability of 3/25.

Final Answer:
In sum, the chance of selecting a point in the larger region that is also in the smaller region is 3/25.

title: Ideas in Geometry/Section 3.2


text:
Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 3.2 Problem 42 - Lattice Area, Pick's Theorem, and Probability

Lattice
The plane of black dots on which the objects are drawn is referred to as a lattice or Lattice (group). A lattice consists of a set of dots which lie in perfect rows and have a distance of 1 to any dot directly above, below, left, or right of itself. The lattice acts as a guide for drawing objects.

Pick's Theorem
Pick’s theorem is a tool used to determine the area of any object constructed on the lattice.

The formula looks like this: A=b/2+n-1

Where:

A = Area (in units^2)

b = The number of lattice points on the border of the object.

n = The number of lattice points inside the object (do not include border points)

Regions
Small region: The red-ish area inside the larger region

Large region: The pink/purple-ish area inside formed on the lattice.

Finding the probability of selecting a random point within the large region which is also contained in the small region:
To do this, I have selected the following method:

1.	Find the area of the larger region using Pick’s Theorem.

2.	Find the area of the smaller region using Pick’s Theorem.

3.	Create a ratio of the Area of the smaller region and the larger region.

4.	Determine the probability of the likelihood a random point will fall in the smaller region and the larger region.

Step 1: Find the Area of the Larger Region
By simple counting we can determine that there are 9 border points and 9 internal points.

Now we plug them into Pick’s Theorem:

A = 9/2+9-1

A = 4.5 + 9 – 1

A = 12.5 units^2

Step 2: Find the Area of the Smaller Region
By counting we can determine that there are 5 border points and 0 internal points.

Now for Pick’s Theorem:

A = 5/2 + 0 – 1

A = 2.5 – 1

A = 1.5 units^2

Step 3: Find the ratio of the two regions
From Pick’s Theorem, we have determined that the Area of the larger region is 12.5 units^2 and that the Area of the smaller region is 1.5 units^2. This gives us a ratio of 1.5/12.5. We are comparing the amount of space in the smaller portion to the amount of area in the larger region. This helps us compare the area in a simple way.

Step 4: Find the probability of selecting a random point that is in the large region and the small region===

From our ratio, we found that of 12.5 units^2 in the larger region, 1.5 units^2 belong to both the larger region and the smaller region. To determine the probability, we need to compare the chances of picking a point in the smaller region with the availability of the entire region.

Because 1.5 units^2 are contained in the 12.5 units^2, we can say that when selecting a point in the larger area of 12.5, there is a chance we will pick a point in the smaller region of 1.5. So there is a 1.5 chance in 12.5 of selecting a point in the smaller region. Our initial probability is 1.5/12.5. However, mathematicians rarely like decimals contained in fractions for a final answer, so we can increase the numbers by dividing by a common factor of .5. After doing this, we arrive at our final probability of 3/25.

Final Answer:
In sum, the chance of selecting a point in the larger region that is also in the smaller region is 3/25.


text:
Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/9 from 2.1, Proof by Picture using Venn Diagrams

Prove that: (X-Y) u (Y-X)=(X u Y)-(X n Y)

First, look at each side of the equation separately. The first part of the left side is (X-Y). This means X complement Y, which is the set of all the elements that are in X and are not in Y. X will be shaded, but not where it overlaps Y. X-Y is shown in image 1 below.

The second half of the left side is Y-X. Y complement X is the set of all the elements that are in Y and not in X. Like the first half of the left side, Y will be shaded, but not where it overlaps with X. This is shown in image 2 below.

In between these two sets is a u, or union. This refers to all the elements in X-Y and Y-X. This means that everything in both pictures that we have constructed will combine and everything will be shaded. This is shown in image 3 below.

After we have finished with the left side of the equation, we can move on to the right side. The right side begins with (X u Y). As I stated before, union means that the set of all the elements in X and all the elements in Y. For this picture, we will shade both X and Y entirely. This is shown in image 4 below.

The second half of the right side of the equation is (X n Y). This means that given two sets X and Y, X intersect Y is the set of all the elements that are simultaneously in X and in Y. Pictorially, the only part that will be shaded is where X and Y overlap. For this, refer to image 5 below.

In between (X u Y) and (X n Y) on the right side is a complement. This means that the set of all the elements that are in X u Y and are not in X n Y will be shaded in. Look at image 6 below.

After we have finished working on both sides. We need to compare our final product. Looking at the pictures from each side of the equation (pictures 3 and 6), we can conclude that they are equal due to the fact that they are both shaded in the same areas.


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Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 3.1

I think you did a great job explaining what a Euler line is. It was especially helpful how you explained the parts of a Euler line in depth. By describing what an orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid were, it helped me to understand how this line is formed. I thought your pictures were very clear and went along with your explanation. Everything was easy to follow along with and I understand what a Euler line is now. Maybe you could give an explanation of why these points always lie on the same line. Otherwise, I think you did a great job!

Comment made by Charmaine Ramos (cramos2):

I thought you did a great job explaining the meaning of an Euler- Line. Explaining the terms of the circumcenter, centroid, and orthocenter really strengthened your description. Additionally, I like the fact you included pictures to demonstrate the terms as well. In my opinion, if you draw one triangle that is made up of all three of the pictures you have shown, it would bring clarity of how these points lie on the same line. In other words, if you combine the pictures you have demonstrated to show the circumcenter, centroid, and orthocenter, you would have a clear picture of all three points lying on the same line.


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 1.3

I was able to find your original work, and everything seems great! Make sure that your problem shows the work you did opposed to someone else's work. You can do this by looking at your history and changing it back. I think you did a great job of explaining the midset. Your pictures were very clear and concise and I knew what you were talking about at all times. Your explanation was very easy to follow and even if I wasn't a geometry student, I would understand what you were talking about. Good work! Just make sure your work shows for your problem. Otherwise, everything was great!

I thought your explanation of how to find the midset was very clear and easy to follow. However, it would have been helpful to see a picture of what to do when finding a midset. If you had a picture it would make it a little easier to follow because people who have never seen this done before would be able to follow what you said with the picture and be able to do it easier themselves. I agree with the above response that your explanation was easy to follow, but it would be beneficial to add a picture of what you are doing especially if someone who has never been exposed to this before was trying to do it themselves. Very good explanation though! -Katy Anderson

You did a good job of explaining the steps you took to find the midset. However, I think it would be helpful if you defined what the midset was? What is significant about all of those points. Also, i would explain the distance formula before you plug numbers into it, so that people can understand where those numbers are coming from. That's about it. Good job! -Stephanie Lobraco

I agree with everyone above me. The only comment I have is I wish you would have drawn a picture and uploaded it to the wiki for more of a visual experience-cynthia gonzalez

Awesome job so far! I see that you have a picture linked up, but if you could find a way to incorporate it into the page, it would be so much better! You explanation was well done, clear, and easy to follow. I look forward to commenting on the final product! Joe.Delinski 16:55, 29 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 2.1

I think your explanation is very good. I really liked how you broke the solution down into steps. The only problem that I have with your solution is that it is kind of frustrating that the picture is so large and that you have to scroll different directions to see what comes next. It would be better if the image were shrunk.

Comment 2 (by Marcus Eck)

I liked your explanation as well. It was very easy to follow along with you showing the first step and then explaining it with great clarity. I was right there with you the whole time and I think any student that is capable of understanding this material could learn it the way you have showed here. I do agree that the image is quite large and, at times, difficult to scroll through. Not that big of an issue though, good work.

Comment by Charmaine Ramos (cramos2):

I noticed the link stated that this problem was 2.1.6. However, this is not the problem for 2.1.6. This is the problem for 2.1.7. Nevertheless, your explanation for the problem is very detailed and it was easy to follow along. In my opinion, explaining the meaning of the symbols will strengthen your explanation. This will make the explanation more clear for non- geometry students.

Comment by Tim McCormick:

Like everyone has pretty much mentioned above, I think your explanation is very clear and available to both those who know geometry and those who have no background at all. Most students will likely have some background in geometry, and will therefore be able to recognize some of the key terms. One thing that might affect the understand is the most recent format that was uploaded. Its very detailed, which is great, but it is kind of tough to read. It is definitely readable, but some parts are difficult to read at times, so that might be something to look into. Overall, the explanation is very good and should make it understandable to anyone who tries to comprehend why the problem works the way it does.

TMcCormick31 21:36, 29 October 2010 (UTC)

2.1.6
I think you did a good job with this problem. Your answer is well thought out, but the only thing I might suggest is making your explanation a little more concise ad a little less wordy. Also, you might want to upload a version that is easier to read. Other than that, great job! --Christine Yu 06:43, 30 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Continued Fractions, Section 3.2

You have a very good explanation in terms of steps, but it would be better if under each sentence you showed the work that you did with a pencil and paper so that the reader can actually see what is happening at each step.

I really like the process you used to solve this problem. I also liked how you mentioned the whole number part plus the fractional part while working out the problem. However, I think the problem would be easier to follow if you wrote the problem on paper and scanned it in into the website.


text: File:Communication Problem 3.jpg

title: File:Communication Problem 3.jpg


text: File:Communication Problem 3.2.jpg

title: File:Communication Problem 3.2.jpg


text: File:Communication Problem 3.3.jpg

title: File:Communication Problem 3.3.jpg


text:
User talk:Terrilen

 Hello Terrilen, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 23:09, 25 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Terrilen


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 2.4 number 23

Hey, I think this is a good start. I think that you should provide the picture on here so someone who doesn't have the book readily available can see what you are talking about. It is a little hard to follow at times. I think the picture would aid in this as well. What do you mean by 6 half triangles? Are you referring to the 6 gray figures? and I don't quite understand where we switched from triangles to halves. I would look at your wording a little more carefully. I just dont follow how you got both sides of the equation equal.(Hbrozowski 23:12, 25 October 2010 (UTC))

I think you did a good job of explaining this; however, it is a very confusing without a picture. If you added the picture from the book you could show exactly what you are doing in realtion to the part of the picture. Also there are two things you should change:          But since we only wants<---change to want           6 halves we need to divide n/2< are these halves the triangles? this should probably be relabeled. Lorenmartell 18:19, 29 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 2.3

This is amazing. I honestly don't know what I would change. You're thoughts flowed very logically and the pictures you used were really helpful in figuring out your thoughts. Each step is clear and your logic is really good. I like how you tried to use another example as well. Great Job!(Hbrozowski 23:18, 25 October 2010 (UTC))

This is so in depth and clear. Great job. I would just give an example for the last statement to show why it is false. Great job! --Molly.mueller12 22:34, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

Your explanations were really detailed and very clear. Having the table helped explain a lot. You left some answers without explanations though, so maybe add some more there, but overall great job!--Hynes3 01:42, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

The first portion of this is really well done so far! It was clear you knew what you were talking about, and the examples and chart really added to the explanation. It looks like you have some more work to do, but for b), c), and e), but I would expect great explanation for them. I'm looking forward the see the final product and commenting on it! Joe.Delinski 16:46, 29 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
User talk:NGHI

 Hello NGHI, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Ottava Rima (talk) 02:01, 26 October 2010 (UTC)

Human Legacy Course
Hello NGHI! I am very glad that you have decided to join my Human Legacy course and I'm very sorry that it took so long for me to respond. If you would like to have an orientation session so that you can get the basics of what will be going on with this course and any other questions that you may have, please tell me when you are free and I will create the class. In order to come to these classes, you must be a member of WiZiQ. I hope to hear from you very soon and if you have any questions at all, please do not hesitate to ask! :)

--MrABlair23 16:26, 13 June 2011 (UTC)

Hello NGHI! I know that it has been a while, however, I would like to invite you to join my Human Legacy Course. If you are interested, please contact me on my talk page and we can set up an orientation session. I hope to see you soon! :)

title: User talk:NGHI


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Problem

This is a really good explanation. I felt like even if I hadn't learned this stuff in class and didn't know what you were talking about, I would have easily understood it by your explanation. It went step by step and was very easy to understand. I also felt like you simplified each step so that it was easier to understand too. And the picture was really helpful and clear in what you were trying to say. Good job!

-Erin Bernstein

You did a great job of breaking down the solution to this problem. I could easily follow how you did every part of this problem. I think that your explanation made this problem much easier from your explanation. Great job!


text:
Talk:Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 2.4

I liked how you broke the steps up but in the end it didn't really sum up the problem and explain how those steps proved that you can use the base times height of a parallelogram to find the area of it. Besides that it was easy to understand and simple for someone who didn't know what was going on. Maybe try to shrink the picture so it is easier to see on the main page. Good job!

-Erin Bernstein


text:
Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/October 2010

Import
There are a couple outstanding requests. Please rule on them one way or another. Thanks. Adrignola 16:02, 4 October 2010 (UTC)

f.t.l?
greetings, people

i have an issue. and that is the following.. if nothing can exceed the speed of light, than how is it possible that the inflation at the very beginning, exceeded this parameter? (or am i just a tad ignorant?) according to my information, this inflation, after the first 100 seconds, was equal to the size of our galaxy!? light obviously takes longer than that to cross it! --alexander 09:19, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I may be remembering wrong, but I think I saw/heard about an experiment done in a lab where it was discovered that light doesn't travel at a constant speed, that gravity can bind light and influence the speed in which light travels, and in some circumstances its possible for sound to travel faster than the speed of light when gravity has the affect of slowing down the speed of light. So the answer might be in the beginning light traveled at a slower speed and over time became faster when gravitational forces caused light to bind at just the right angel to speed it up. -- dark lama  12:17, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I'd suggest looking into general relativity to learn more about how the speed of light, time, and gravity are connected. Devourer09 14:34, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Also, that theory puts emphasis on the fact that the speed of light is constant and time is variable. Most people will assume that time changes at a constant rate but this is not true. Devourer09 14:36, 12 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Check the Randall–Sundrum model.Harrypotter 21:52, 12 October 2010 (UTC)

Is my project appropriate for Wikiversity?
Hello! I'm new to Wikiversity, though I have some experience contributing to Wikibooks and to Wikipedia. I have started a project on Wikibooks, where one Wikibookian has told me that this project may be better suited to Wikiversity. (A second Wikibookian also questioned the project's appropriateness to Wikibooks, but seems to have dropped his/her opposition.) As I explained to that editor, I don't wish to move my project to Wikiversity only to discover Wikiversitians advising me to move it to Wikibooks! So I'd like your views, please. Would my project be welcomed at Wikiversity? I hope you'll comment. My project is called "Wikistution." It is a very serious experiment (in the loose sense of the term "experiment") in an evolving version of the United States Constitution to see if 21st-century collaborative techniques might be feasible as a substitute for the 18th-century amendment procedure provided for in Article V. It is not associated with a class or a school, though it could be so used. I recognize that a project of this kind will attract pranksters, but it is intended in perfect seriousness. The Wikipedia concept seemed (to many) laughable and has worked vastly better than most expected. I am interested in seeing if the low expectations many would hold for Wikistution might also be vastly exceeded. If the project succeeds, those who take a constructive interest in it will limit the intrusions of the pranksters. So in short, Wikistution is a United States Constitution in wiki format, with an invitation to all edit it in the ways they judge best, consistent with the premise that governments derive their just powers by the consent of the governed, and that citizens institute such governments to secure their unalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Would Wikiversitians welcome this project? Appreciatively, --Norton 13:33, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Welcome to Wikiversity. I think Wikistution is welcome here and would be a good home for it. I'm writing this mostly for the benefit of anyone else since you already know this from me. I hope more people will welcome you and Wikistution to Wikiversity. I think this resource is similar to Great Repeal Bill, but unlike that resource this one is intended more as an exercise or theoretical experiment which I believe will still encourage educational debate useful for anyone interested in Jurisprudence and understanding governance. I believe Wikistution is perfect for Wikiversity since debates are a form of active engagement in learning. -- dark lama  10:11, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Thank you, Darklama. I believe you've characterized Wikistution accurately, and your judgment that Wikistution belongs here is reassuring.  I am convinced that Wikistution is appropriate for Wikiversity, but I will welcome any different views from other Wikiversitians. - Norton 14:35, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

How to interact with other wikiversitarians and find collaborators
--Opriter 04:36, 31 October 2010 (UTC)I would like to know how to interact with other wikiversitarians and find colaboators
 * Either via the Colloquium here or via Talk pages. You can also colloborate by editing and improving pages. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:48, 31 October 2010 (UTC)

--119.158.40.247 13:48, 31 October 2010 (UTC) this is good oppertunity to avail

"Pages moved from Wikipedia"
A number of pages that I have written (many of them resubmissions of things that I had written at Conservapedia, but never Wikipedia, and, in any case, were resubmissions, not copying), have had the template marking "Pages moved from Wikipedia" added to the bottom. These include things in my personal sandbox, like User:SamHB/MVCalc2. I never added those templates, and their presence is incorrect. Looking at the category itself, it appears to be things created with "special:import", a function that I know nothing about and don't have permission to use.

I'm a little annoyed by the implication that these pages were copied from WP. It appears to be a software bug, or perhaps someone making an incorrect assumption. Can someone fix this?

--SamHB 17:01, 31 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Hi, you should find this is fixed now. What was happening was that the category "Pages moved from Wikipedia" as being added because one of the templates you have on that page has been added to Category:Pages moved from Wikipedia but in such a way that any pages which use that template also get added to the category. I've edited the template so this won't happen now although it remains possible that you may find on some pages it remains as there could be another template also incorrectly adding the category. Adambro 18:44, 31 October 2010 (UTC)


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Facial expression

Introduction
Facial movements and expressions are seen by psychologists as one of the most effective and accurate ways of communicating one’s emotions. Emotions and feelings can be difficult at times to put into words but our behavioural reactions to these feelings are universally accepted as being similar and easily noticeable; like a smile which is accepted as conveying happiness, or a an upside down frown which usually represents the feeling of sadness or anger. This chapter discusses the relationship between facial expressions and emotions and discusses theories which link the two together.

Historical overview
A full history about the process and the origins of facial expression, is still yet to be written, but over the last 100 years there has been few behavioural scientists who have cemented the theories of facial expressions into the study of emotions (Russell & Fernandez Dols, 1997).Charles Darwin and Ekman and Friesen have been the most influential theorists and researchers of facial expressions and in this history section we look at their most important findings and developments in understanding facial expressions as a tool for emotion.

Work of Charles Darwin

The work of Charles Darwin has been the stepping stone for understanding the encoding of expressions of specific emotions and most of his published work went to be studied further by many other facial analysts. Darwin (1872) proposed that particular facial expressions represent an individual’s emotions and he made three distinctive points in explaining his reasons behind this (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). Firstly, the principle of serviceable habits was explained by Darwin about how certain behaviours lead to rewards. In observing mammals, Darwin noticed that angry animals showed the facial features of a furrowed brow and exposed teeth when under attack. Darwin observed this expression as being beneficial in aggressive encounters, as it scared off attackers in many of his observations. Darwin thus proposed that the angry facial expressions of mammals (which are very similar to humans) were successful, as they had been proven to being effective in scaring away opposing threats. The second principle of ‘Antithesis’ is explained by Fridlund (1994) as "opposing states are associated with opposing expressions". In an example when an individual is showing confidence this is usually expressed with an extended neck, chest and shoulders. Both of these first two principles suggest that a feeling is expressed through body language, a notion that has been carried through to the present study of facial expressions. Darwin's most prominent claim which was published was that facial expressions, much like all other learned human development, are universal and are seen as being expressed and identified in the same way all around the world (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).

Work of Ekman and Friesen
This third principle of Darwin's led to the further work and study of Paul Ekman and Friesen (1969) who through Darwin's principles and observations proposed the encoding and decoding hypothesis of facial recognition. The hypothesis predicts that if facial expressions are universal, then the expression and feeling should be represented and identified in the same way across every culture and country around the world (Fridlund, 1994). This hypothesis is most notably tested by Ekman and Friesen in 1969. The scientists took over 3000 photographs of different people around the world from Chile, United States, Argentina, Brazil and Japan. The photographs displayed the six main emotions, according to Ekman and Friesen, of sadness, surprise, anger, happiness, fear and disgust. The participants were asked which photographs best predicted each of the emotions and there was found to be an 80 to 90% accuracy rate across the sample of all participants associating the correct emotion with the expression.

There was one main limitation in the experiment as all of the tested countries had access to Western (American culture) media. Darwin's principle stated that facial expressions were universal across all cultures and therefore Ekman extended his study to Papua New Guinea and observed a group of people who had never watched a movie or read a Western cultured magazine. The procedure replicated the first study participants were asked to point out the photograph that best represented a particular emotion. The results reflected those of the first study, therefore confirming Darwin's hypothesis that all facial expression of emotions and feeling are universal (Ekman & Friesen, 1971).

Facial Coding System
Along with the study of the universal nature of facial expressions, Ekman and Friesen (1978) developed a system which measured and described particular facial behaviour. This method is known as the Facial Coding System (FACS)(Farah, Wilson, Drain & Tanaka, 1998). FACS objectively measures particular facial signals in terms of actions and these actions were determined by Ekman and Friesen through observation of videotapes and knowledge of facial anatomy. After observing the contractions of many facial muscles Ekman defined a total of 46 action facial units which can be used in the system (Ekman & Friesen).

The development of FACS was highly beneficial when it was introduced as it increased the importance of facial expression study in field of behavioural science and even though the method was extremely time consuming because it is precise in the encoding of facial features (Farah, Wilson, Drain & Tanaka, 1998). FACS is still used as an effective tool in the measurement of facial expression and according to Sloan and associates(2002) the system is mainly used in showing the differences between a genuine or stimulated expressions, like pain, and also in identifying people who are lying from those who are telling the truth. One of the main advancements of the process, since FACS was developed 30 years ago, has been the incorporation of the system being used through computer software. This has made the process a lot faster in recognition and more accurate as it prevents human error (Ganel, 2010).

Theories of facial expressions
The work of Charles Darwin, Ekman and Friesen on facial expression has influenced many theories and hypotheses. Theories like the innateness of facial expressions, expression-feeling link, feedback, and the readout and behavioral ecology hypothesis, and also the spontaneity and voluntary nature of expression have all been defined by the way they are influenced by and affect emotions and how particular feelings are linked to certain facial expressions.

Voluntary and spontaneous expressions
A person’s facial expression can occur spontaneously or voluntarily, as a response to an external/emotional stimulus or is expressed due to personal force with no influences from a felt emotion (Naab & Russell, 2007). Spontaneous expressions result from an immediate reaction to stimuli, such as bursting into tears after hearing something distressing, whereas forced expressions are made solely for personal gain like in the profession of acting. It is often hard to distinguish between a voluntary and involuntary facial expression as both originate from the contraction of musclesand signals from the brain (Galati, Scherer & Ricci-Bitti, 1997 & Naab & Russell, 2007).

Expression-Feeling Link
Through the work of both Darwin and Ekman it is seen evident that both facial expressions and feelings are both components of emotions. Deckers (2006) describes this relationship as the Expression-feeling Link which describes how different facial movements are linked to particular feelings which represent a certain emotion. For example, producing a tear or a frown and feeling a sense of loss and despair represents the emotion of sadness (Ganel, 2010). There are two hypotheses which describe this link with the first one being the most commonly accepted and simplest notion. The first hypothesis states that both feelings and expression evolve from the influence of an environmental stimulus (Diagram One) and then these expressions and feelings form to represent a particular emotion(Coon & Mitterer, 2008).

The second hypothesis that links feelings and expressions states that it is the feelings that activate the corresponding expressions (Diagram Two). A paper written by Izard (1993) studied this hypothesis and concluded that feelings produce the onset of its corresponding facial expressions. The researcher found that feeling sad results in tears developing and suggested that the reason for this was that the feelings activate a particular brain impulse which send information to particular facial muscleswhich produces the expression of the felt emotion. Since this study this process has been called the Efference Hypothesis (Decker, 2005).

If facial emotions are a result from an environmental stimulus and if feelings produce certain expression, is it possible for the expressions to produce a feeling? This hypothesis is known as the Facial Feedback Hypothesis.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
The facial feedback hypothesis is one of the most controversial and widely researched facial expression hypotheses. The hypothesis holds the notion that the construction of a facial expression will produce the subjective feeling of an emotion. For example, if you were to (naturally) smile while you were reading this section you would feel a sense of happiness (Reisanzein & Studtmann, 2007). This hypothesis still relates to the expression-feeling link as there still needs to be an emotional stimulus needed to produce the expression. The only difference is instead of both the feeling and expression being components of the emotion, the feedback hypothesis suggests that the muscles which form an expression(smile), send a message to the brain which than produces the feeling(Joy) (Soussigman, 2002). Charles Darwin predicted this hypothesis when he explained that the expression of an individual will intensify any particular emotion; in other words making any expression will heighten or suppress an emotion/feeling (Deckers, 2005).

The facial feedback hypothesis has been tested rigorously over the last 20 years and a recent study conducted by Soussignan (2002) examined the effect of smiling on eliciting the feelings of joy/happiness. The study mimicked an early research paper by Strack (1988), and was conducted by asking participants to hold a pencil in their mouth while watching a humorous cartoon. Some of the participants were asked to hold the pencil with both their lips and teeth (which restricted the muscle movement around the mouth) others just held the pencil with their teeth muscles around the mouth could still be used) and finally the remainder of the participants just held the pencil in their hand. Soussignman, hypothesised that according to the feedback rule, that the participants who couldn't use the muscles around their mouth to form a smile would express nil to low feelings of happiness/joy after watching the cartoon. The hypothesis was supported as the participants holding the pencil with just their teeth or in their hand were able to smile from watching the cartoon and had higher rating of feeling happy compared to the others. The results of this study and others similar to it support the facial feedback hypothesis, however, there is an equal amount of criticism that surrounds this hypothesis. Most notably it is evident that people who suffer from permanent facial paralysis are still able to express and feel particular emotions without having the use of their facial features (Deckers, 2006 & Keillor, 2002).

The Innate Nature of Facial Expression
The idea that facial expressions are innate and universal is a theory which can be dated back to work of Darwin, Ekman and Izzard. Facial expression are considered to be inherent in nature as they occur in life very early on, are universal across different cultures and countries, and also children who are born or develop blindness at a very early age still produce some facial expressions (Elfenkein & Ambady, 2002). Facial expressions are evident in newborn infants long before any other cognitive functions develop. Infants from just two weeks old are observed to smile at the sound of their mother’s voice. Within the first few months of life infants express feelings of disgust as they regularly pull faces as they react to new bitter or sour tastes (Ekman, 1972). According to Izard (1994) these facial expressions which the infants make towards an emotional stimulus are true indications of the emotion the infant is feeling at that particular time. Additional evidence supporting the innate and universal nature of expressions is through the observation of children who have become blind within the first few months of birth or who have been born with the disability. Past research has shown that these children still portray the exact expressions of smiling, crying and glaring to represent feelings of joy, sadness and anger/rage (Eibestedt, 1973 & Galati, 1997 & Thompson, 1941). Although the expressions aren't as finely tuned as 'seeing children' it still supportsu the theory that facial expressions are inherent and universal.

Readout and Behavioural Ecology Hypothesis
The behavioural functions of facial expression are hard to put into theory and for this reason there are two main hypotheses that aim to represent the functions of behavioural expressions (Russell & Fernandez Dols, 1997). So why does a tear form when we are sad? Is it because we want to show another individual our feeling or is it due to higher social motives? These concepts are explained in the readout and behavioural ecology hypothesis. The readout hypothesis explains that we express our feelings through the face, as it is a way of communicating these feelings with another individual. The hypothesis also highlights that expressing an emotion isn’t only to convey the expression to an individual (Ganel, 2010). The expression is an automated response to a stimulus, which occurs regardless of whether you are alone or in the company of others. Behavioural Ecology hypothesis on the other hand specifically refers to the behaviour of facial expressions as being tools to express one's social motives. Expressions of the face are windows into an individual’s emotions and desire for those emotions to be accepted in a social environment (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).

Main Types of Emotions and Expression
Ekman and Tonkins in 1969 listed the main recognisable facial expressions and feelings as being happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise. Their study found these expressions to be universally accepted around the world and to be the most commonly expressed emotions in everyday life (Lewis, Haviland-Jones & Barrett, 2008). This section looks at the nature of these emotions paying particular attention to the facial components which express these emotions through the face.

Sadness
Sadness is an emotion that is produced from an array of visceral feelings like loss, sorrow and disadvantage (Lang, 1993). It is important to realise that the emotional state of sadness is only temporary and that the prolonged feelings of sorrow and unhappiness may be the result of an emotional disorder like depression (Haneli, Shomrat & Hess, 2009). According to Adolphs (2002), the expressions of sadness are mainly expressed more in women than men. One of the contributing factors for this is that the expressions that are associated with being sad, like expressing tears and sobbing, is considered by men to be a sign of weakness.

Ekman, Friesen and Tomkins, (1971) listed the main facial features of sadness as being:
 * Dropping eyelids
 * Lowered lips and cheeks
 * The formation of tears
 * Corners of the mouth drop downwards

The expressions which are portrayed from being sad are assisted through the contraction of the muscles around the eyes and mouth. The Orbicularis oculi muscle forces the eyelids to drop and close in the response to the formation of tears. The Depressor labii inferioris muscle is the main muscle around the mouth in which lowers and quivers the bottom lip when someone is expressing feeling of sadness (Sloan, Bradley, Dimoulas & Land, 2002).

Happiness

Happiness is an individual’s self-reported evaluation of their feelings of love, joy, pleasure and contentment (Young & Hugenberg, 2007). Harre and Parrott (1996) explain that the emotion of happiness comes from many positive interactions within an environmental stimulus, with the main influences being relationships, social networks, a healthy mind and body and financial stability. According to a study conducted by Wolf and Mass (2005), the main facial expressions which convey a happy face are:
 * Smile
 * Wide eyes
 * Lifted eyebrow and cheekbone

Wolf and Mass (2005), explains that lifting and accentuating these features is a result of positive arousal of the muscles around these features. Wikipedia outlines these main muscles and highlights that the use of the zygomaticus major is the muscle around the mouth which lifts to form a smile. Forming a smile also causes the raising of the cheekbones which is assisted by the buccinator muscle and the lifting and widening of the eyes and eyebrows is the result of the expansion of the occipito frontalis muscle.

Anger

[w:Anger|Anger]] is known as the ugly emotion which can range from annoyance to intense rage. This emotion is associated with many negative feelings of frustration and hurt, disappointment, worry and embarrassment and as a result all of these feelings are accompanied by many biological changes in your body (Harre & Parrott, 1996). When you get angry, your heart rate and blood pressure rise and stress hormones are released causing you to shake, feel out of control and become hot and sweaty. The main way a person or animal communicates this emotion is through external expressions of the face. The prominent facial changes of expressing anger are through (Aviezer, 2008 & Haneli, Shomrat & Hess, 2009):
 * Lowered eyebrows
 * Creased forehead
 * Wide exaggerated mouth
 * Tight chin

The muscles associated with this expression are strained and exaggerated to emphasise the intense feeling. The procerus muscle is the dominant muscle used in the expression of anger, as it forces the frown in between the eyes and lowers the brows making an angry person look extremely menacing. The mentalis muscle which is located near the chin and mouth is tightened to emphasis the lower face during anger (Sloan, Bradley, Dimoulas & Land, 2002).

Disgust

Disgust is the emotion which is more or so associated with the feelings annoyance, dislike, or repulsiveness to an emotional stimulus which displeases a person (Aviezer, 2008). Expressions of disgust are most commonly used as communicative tools of reacting to unwanted personal advances from others, the disliking of foods or the unappreciative response to gifts, other's lifestyles and even another person’s personality (Lang, 1993). Zeichner (2010) explains that the main physical features of someone whose disgusted are a wrinkled nose, pressed lips and frowning of the forehead. Zeichner states that the levator labii superioris muscle is the main facial contraction of disgust as it wrinkles the nose and raises the upper lip to express the feeling of dislike and revulsion. Like in anger, the mentalis muscle is also tightened to form the pressed lips and lifted chin.

Surprise

Surprise is another basic emotion which consists of a sudden feeling of surprise and astonishment (Lewis, Haviland-Jones & Barrett, 2008). The unexpected facial expression which this emotion evokes makes it one of the most dramatic and instantaneous expressions. The emotional state experienced when being surprised can range from being pleasant to unpleasant or even neutral in valence. Due to this reason, the emotion of being surprised usually only lasts for an instant before the valence of being surprised is transferred to another emotional state; for an example an unpleasant surpise may develop into fear or a pleasant surprise may form the feelings of happiness and joy (Haneli, Shomrat & Hess, 2009). Due to surprise being one of the more exaggerated emotions there are many ways in which the face expresses this:
 * Eyebrows are high and curved
 * Wrinkles are formed across the forehead
 * Wide open mouth which is formed by a dropped jaw (Reisanzein & Studtmann, 2007)

The high and curved eyebrows which a surprised face portrays is formed from the lifting and arousal of the occipito frontalis muscle. The wrinkles across the forward are formed from the lifting of the occipito frontalis muscle, which then contracts the frontalis muscle in the forehead forming a series of horizontal wrinkles (Reisanzein & Studtmann, 2007).

Fear

Fear is considered to be one the most distressing emotions in in response to either a real or imagined threat, danger or pain (Aviezer, 2008). Along with many physical reactions like increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilated pupils and higher production of sweat this emotion is predominately recognisable through a few particular facial features (Harre & Parrott, 1996):
 * Wide open mouth which is formed by the raising of the upper lip
 * Wide open/exaggerated eyes
 * The forehead and eyebrows are wrinkled and pull towards the center of the face
 * Stretched lips (Sloan, Bradley, Dimoulas & Lang, 2002)

The levator labii is the facial muscle which raises the upper lip and forms the wide exaggerated mouth. Another prominent facial change associated with fear is the frowning of the forehead and eyebrows to the middle of the face; this facial contraction is done through the frontalis and corrugators muscles. Finally the action of stretching lips is assisted through the buccinators muscle which pulls the lip outwards (Marsh, Kozale & Ambady, 2007).

Summary
History and General Facts
 * Facial expressions and movements are seen by psychologists as one of the most effective and accurate ways of communicating someone’s emotions.
 * A person’s facial expression has the ability to occur spontaneously or voluntarily, and either occurs as a result to an external/emotional stimulus or is expressed due to personal force and no influences from a felt emotion.
 * Darwin (1872) started the phenomenon that particular facial expressions represent an individual's emotions and he made three distinctive points in explaining his reasons behind this.
 * Darwin's most prominent claim which was published was that facial expressions, much like all other learned human development, are universal and are seen as being expressed and identified around the world.
 * Paul Ekman, and Friesman who through Darwin's principles and observations proposed the encoding and decoding hypothesis of facial recognition. The hypothesis predicts that if facial expressions are universal, then the expression and feeling should be represented and identified in the same way across every culture and country around the world.
 * Along with the study of the universal nature of facial expressions, Ekman and Friesman, developed a system which measured and described particular facial behaviour, this method is known as Facial Coding System (FACS).
 * FACS objectively measures particular facial signals in terms of actions.
 * Ekman and Tonkins in 1969 listed the main recognizable facial expressions and feelings as being happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise. Their study found that these expressions to be universally accepted around the world and to be the most commonly expressed emotions in everyday life.

Theories of Facial Expression {{Hide in print|
 * Expression-feeling Link describes how different facial movements are linked to particular feelings which represent a certain emotion. For an example producing a tear or a frown and feeling a sense of loss and despair represents the emotion of sadness.
 * The Facial feedback hypothesis is one of the most controversial and widely researched facial hypotheses. The hypothesis holds the notion that the construction of an expression will produce the subjective feeling of an emotion.
 * Facial expression are considered to be inherent in nature as they occur in life very early on, they are proven to be universal across different cultures and countries and also children who are born or develop blindness at a very early age still produce some facial expressions.
 * The readout hypothesis explains that we express our feelings through the face, as it is a way of communicating these feelings with another individual. The hypothesis also highlights that expressing an emotion isn’t only to convey the expression to an individual. The expression is an automated response to a stimulus, which occurs regardless of whether you are alone or in the company of others.
 * Behavioural Ecology hypothesis on the other hand specifically refers to the behaviour of facial expressions as being tools to express ones social motives.

Quiz
Please Review all Diagrams and Tables before attempting the quiz. {Which of the following is NOT an example of the facial feedback hypothesis: - sobbing causes the onset of grief - smile results in a person feeling more happy + feeling sad results in tears and frowning of the eyebrows - viewing cartoons evokes the expression of a smile and then the feelings of joy and happiness.
 * type=""}

{Which historical theorists predicted the facial feedback hypothesis? : - Ekman and Friesen + Charles Darwin - Ekman and Tomkins - none of the above.
 * type=""}

{True or false, Ekman and Friesen proved that facial expressions are universal around the world and throughout different cultures? : - False + True.
 * type=""}

{How many facial units does the facial coding system contain? : - 42 - 6 - Over 100 + 46.
 * type=""}

{A person who is expressing sadness through tears and frowning for the purpose of needing help and readiness to receive comfort, is emphasising the theory of? : + Behavioral Ecology Hypothesis - Feedback hypothesis - Expression- feeling link - Theory of innateness.
 * type=""}

{The main facial muscle that is responsible for smiling is?: - Zygomaticus minor - Frontalis muscle + Zygomaticus major - The lips.
 * type=""}

{Why are involuntary and voluntary expressions so hard to tell the difference between? : - both expressions are produced from muscle contractions - the involuntary and voluntary expressions are influenced by signals in the brain + both a and b - none of the above.
 * type=""}


text:
User:Onlyramram

Hi , My name is Kartik Thakkar and I am from mumbai. I happened to come accross yor article on real estate development process posted on 12:16, 9 September 2008 (UTC). I am in the real estate market and i have surface experience of all the operations involved .I am keen to learn more about it. It would be very kind of you to help me read the article that you have posted.

Awating Reply.

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