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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Handling stress

Overview

Stress has evoked multidisciplinary interest in organisational management, neurology, medicine, physics, and psychology. Stress effects people on a global level. Stress occurs regardless of race, gender, socioeconomic and professional status (Esia-Donkoh, Yelkpieri & Esia-Donkoh, 2011). Research suggests that stress directly effects our emotions, depending on biological and cognitive principles. While we might accept stress as a normal part of life, we can learn to control our emotions in stressful situations.

 * Focus questions
 * What are stress and emotion? How are they related?
 * What are the theoretical underpinnings of stress and emotion?
 * How to control emotion in stressful situations?

What is stress?

Stress is generally defined as response to concrete or mentally induced threats to a person’s bodily homeostasis (Levine, 2005). Aversive stress responses occur when a person fails to respond effectively to mental, emotional, or physical demands (Bansal & Yadav, 2010). These threats can be real or imagined. From a functionalist perspective, stress serves as a survival mechanism to evoke physiological changes needed to escape a threat (Levine, 2005). However, problems may arise when financial, family, or workplace stress induce a similar response.

The degree of stress that an individual encounters has been connected to a person’s physical health, the strength of their interpersonal relationship, their workload or commitments, and traumatic events (Sprague, Verona, Kalkhoff & Kilmer, 2011). Chances are you can think of someone who remains calm despite a crunching workload, or reports stress even though they have limited responsibilities. One explanation is that we develop our own stress schema (Lazarus, 1999). This is a mental representation of stress and what constitutes as a stressful event. This means that an event is only as stressful as perceived by an individual. However, commonalities are found between people and the events that elicit a strong stress response.

Types of stressors
A stressor refers to a causal stimulus (event) that evokes a stress response (Seyle, 1976). Many models have been generated to categorise stressors, predominantly defined as being physical (e.g. pain) or psychological (e.g., strain). Psychological stressors comprise of both mental and emotional components. Mental stressors are task or performance orientated, and require a high level of cognitive processing. Emotional stressors are characterised as being related to structures of emotion and emotional responses (e.g. social stressor) (Kemeny, 2003).

Public speaking is a good example of a mental and emotional stressor. Presenting in front of an audience is a mental stressor, given that task performance is required. Public speaking is also an emotional stressor, given there is the pressure of social evaluation. This provides a logical explanation for public speaking being reported as a significantly stressful event.

Alternatively, psychological stressors can be divided into three subtypes (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004);
 * 1) Major life events
 * 2) *Significant life changes or milestones (see Table 1.)
 * 3) Crises
 * 4) *Being uncontrollable circumstances where the outcomes are not influenced by behaviour
 * 5) Microstressors
 * 6) *Commonly referred to as daily hassles, occurring frequently across the course of the day. These have potential for cumulative value

What are emotions

We encounter emotion through our basic functioning. Summarising the experience in all-encompassing tangible terms is challenging. One definition states emotions are short term affective experiences, or state of mind, influenced by internal and external cues (Levenson, 2010).

The circumplex model of emotion suggests that there are eight basic emotions, each evolved to support survival mechanisms (Plutchik, 2001). The basic emotions purported are sadness, surprise, joy, anticipation, disgust, acceptance, anger, and fear. An intricate feature of this model suggests that more complex emotions are generated by blending the basic emotions in specific combinations (see Figure 2).

What are the effects of stress on emotion?
Contemporary views of stress state that a stressful event is usually followed by an emotion experience, mostly commonly depression, anxiety and anger (Lazarus, 1999). This may explain the correlation between chronic stress and psychological dysfunction, such as Generalised Anxiety Disorder, Major Depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Kemeney, 2003). These maladaptive conditions are marked by an impairment of an individual's ability to function, and can significantly reduce their quality of life (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). On a less extreme scale, stress has been shown to predict aggressive behaviours among children (Eisenberg, Valiente, & Sulik, 2009), and heighten depressive and anxious symptoms in adults (Hankin & Abramson, 2001).

If we trace back to our example of public speaking, we can make further assumptions regarding stress and emotion. A laboratory experiment asking participants to deliver a speech found that performance tasks produced a significant reduction in positive affect. Furthermore, subjects reported a higher frequency of negative affect after delivering their speech (Dowd, Zautra, & Hogan, 2010). This suggests a relationship between stress and the formation of positive and negative emotions. Finally, the psychosomatic expression of stress can include sleep and appetite disturbance, headaches, and muscle tension (Stoppler, 2011). These symptoms are associated with anxiety and depression, and may increase the risk of negative affect.

Neurological processes of stress and emotions
The three main brain structures the process a stressful event are the amygdala, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex. Stress stimulates stress receptors in the brain through activation stimulation. This activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system. SNS excitement disrupts bodily homeostasis, consistent with the fight/flight response. This activates various cranial sites including the adrenal medulla. This initiates the release of epinephrine, commonly referred to as adrenalin. This activates the endocrine system, causing arousal in the hypothalao-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis). The HPA axis is central to processing in the amygdala. The pituitary gland responds to these changes by stimulating the adrenal cortex. The biochemical response is the release of adrenocorticotroic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream. ACTH excites corticosteroid receptors, ending in the release of the stress hormone; cortisol (Kemeny, 2003).

One feature of stress response is that it alters the blood brain barrier (BBB). This is a semi-permeable structure that moderates hormones entering the brain via the bloodstream (Mealey, Gay, Martin & Waiting, 2007). This means that the stress reaction releases cortisol, and strengthens the neurological effects of cortisol by penetrating the BBB. Cortisol has been associated with poor health as it deregulates the immune system (see quiz below; The Social Readjustment Scale). Ongoing hippocampus exposure to cortisol can inhibit long-term memory function (Sapolsky, 1998). One stress response feature specific to humans is activation of the prefrontal cortex. This means that stress can influence executive functioning, which is crucial to cognitive processing (McEwen & Sapolsky, 1995).

MRI scans have shown interesting results for the neurological composition of emotions. Primitive emotions, such as anger and joy, are expressed in changes in the amygdala. Conversely, complex emotions generate activity in the prefrontal cortex (McEwen & Sapolsky, 1995). Both the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are densely lined with corticosteroid receptors. This provides a plausible neurobiological argument for the relationship between a stress response and emotional affect. Furthermore, lower levels of cortisol have been correlated with more frequent positive emotion (Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2003).

Biological perspective
The biological approach assumes that stress and emotions occur as an innate physiological response to the environment. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model states that there are distinct biochemical phases associated with stress (Selye, 1976).
 * The first phase - alarm; when a stressor is recognised and sympathetic nervous system activation occurs. The body is alert and responsive to the stressful event.
 * The second phase - resistance; where the body works to retain homeostasis, and physical resources are utilised. This corresponds with the breakdown of the immune system.
 * The final phase - exhaustion; where functioning is impaired, and results in burnout.

This model stipulates that you can avoid the exhaustion phase if the stress response is removed in a preceding phase.

Seyle (1976) broadened his definition of stress to contain two subcategories, eustress and distress. Eustress is the mode of stress that enhances an individual’s ability to function. This is achieved by utilising the physiological resources of sympathetic activation for enthusiasm, creativity, and motivation (Bansal & Yadav, 2010). An example of this is using your pre-exam nerves to stay awake longer and study. Conversely, distress is marked by feelings of discomfort and irritability.

Eustress may seem like the optimal response, however research shows that both eustress and distress responses exhaust physical resources over time, resulting in depression and tension (Boswell, Olson-Buchanan, & LePine, 2004). These findings are consistent with the biological explanations of emotions.

The James-Lange Theory purports that emotions are an expression of changes to bodily homeostasis on the cortex, acting as survival mechanisms (Fehr & Stern, 1970).

In this view, emotions act as a perceptive cue for an individual to notice an event (Fehr & Stern, 1970). This has been explained as an adaptive function, using bottom-up processing. In the public speaking scenario, standing out the front of the class elicits a fight/flight response, followed by an emotional experience of fear. Subsequently, you perceive the situation as aversive and something that you should avoid. This approach supported by studies that have found unique patterns of neurological activity for many basic emotions (Schwartz, Weinberger & Singer, 1981).

How are these explanations of stress and emotions limited?

Consider the research on laughter and well-being. One study examined the effect of watching humorous videos on hormonal secretions. A relationship was found between laughter, positive affect, and decreased cortisol levels (Bertini et. al., 2010). This contradicts the biological principle that emotions are simply the expression of bodily changes. Furthermore, this indicates that a stress response can be influenced through an inverted process, such as cognitive processing.

Cognitive perspective

The cognitive appraisal model of stress and emotions was developed by Lazarus, 1966. The model assumes that an individual’s cognitive appraisal of an event leads to the subsequent stress and emotional experience (Lazarus, 1999). Typically, appraisal is an individual's evaluation of their personal resources, against the demands of the situation. The model proposes that there are two outcomes of a stressful event; challenge or threat. A challenge evaluation is when an individual assesses their own capabilities as equal or more, than the situational demands. A threat response is encountered when their abilities are evaluated as less than the situational demands. This is relevant in a crises event, where a person perceives the situation as out of their control (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004). Cognitive appraisal is an example of top-down processing. The cognitive appraisal model is supported by research that has found that mere experience of an emotion or cognitive appraisal can elicit a physiological response (Denson, Spanoivc, & Miller, 2009).

Consider the following: Initially, you were nervous about giving a speech to the class. Last semester you received a low mark for a presentation due to poor performance. Your adrenal levels were high and you felt scared, which left you giving a very shaking performance. You now believe that you are not capable of giving a calm, controlled speech. Simply thinking about giving an upcoming presentation makes your heart race, sweat at the palms, and you feeling fearful.

This is an example of a threat evaluation - you believe your skills are inferior to the situational demands, and elicit the stress response of performing. Although the cognitive appraisal model applies to many real life scenarios, is this model alone enough?

Contemporary approach

Modern psychology generally acknowledges stress and emotion as a combined model of the biological and cognitive approaches. The integrated specificity model states that distinct emotions generate specific psychological responses, mediated by cognitive appraisal (Weiner, 1992) (see figure 5). It assumes that bodily changes influence emotion, and cognitive appraisal arbitrates the effect of emotion on physiological outcomes. This dynamic process is an evolutionary function of the HPA axis (Bertini et.al, 2010).

It could be argued that our social need for affiliation is supported by this process. It allows us to interpret a stressful situation on a cognitive level, for example; ‘I am annoyed my son drew on the wall – he is too young to know any better, so I will not get angry’.

Often we cannot control for the stressful events that we encounter in our lives. However, the integrated specificity model allows us to influence our emotional experience of stress, based on our physiological response and cognitive appraisals.

Exercise
Changing our physiological state

Aerobic exercise is often prescribed to individuals suffering from mental health conditions, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety (Guszkowska, 2004). Exercise alters our emotions by increasing circulation of blood flow to the brain. Furthermore, it directly influences activity on the HPA axis. Exercise adjusts the messages between the HPA axis and other regions that are central the physiological expression of stress. These include the limbic system, amygdala, and hippocampus (Sharma, Madaan, & Petty, 2006). This results in reduced physiological discomfort of stress, by readjusting the body to homeostasis. Simultaneously, aerobic exercise can increase positive affect. This process enables an individual to retain resources that would usually be absorbed under stress. Theory suggests that a person will be more likely to evaluate them self as able to meet situational demands with greater resources and enhanced positive affect. This demonstrates the benefits of using exercise to control emotions and better handle high stress situations.

Emotion control
Changing our cognitive appraisal

Emotional regulation is better understood when comparing coping mechanisms. Many people adopt suppressive strategies to regulate their emotions, by pushing their thoughts out of consciousness. Research has shown that when a person masks or ignores their subjective emotional experiences, they encounter emotional dissonance (Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos, 1993). Emotional dissonance may initially reduce negative feelings, but produces a rebound of negative long-term effects. These include anxiety, depression, and burn out.

An alternative approach is cognitive reappraisal (CRA). CRA is when a person alters their evaluation of a situation on a cognitive level, changing the subsequent trajectory emotional experience (Heilman, Crisan, Houser, Miclea, & Mui, 2010). This can be achieved through self-reflection exercises or focusing on the positive elements of a situation. CRA is an antecedent-focused emotional regulation strategy, which means that it is implemented early in the stress-emotion process. Early implementation reduces the absorption of physical and cognitive resources associated with a stress response. In the context of the integrated specificity model, cognitive appraisal occurs prior to a specific emotional response. The antecedent characteristic of CRA supports the integrated specificity model.

Neuroimaging has shown that CRA responses are expressed on the prefrontal region and amygdala activation (Ray, et al., 2005). These areas are central to cognitive processing and emotional reactivity. This accounts for the relationship between CRA and reduced negative emotions. Studies have shown that high appraisers report less negative emotion, particularly anger, and greater positive emotion (Mauss, Cook, Cheng, & Gross, 2007). In situations of high stress, high appraiser women show less depressive symptoms than low appraiser women (Troy, Wilhelm, Shallcross, & Mauss, 2010). Finally, one study that focused on CRA with HIV patients. The results found that positive reframing strategies were related to greater positive affect and better mental health outcomes (Moskowitz, Hult, Bussolari, & Acree, 2009).

Relaxation techniques
Alternative approaches

Relaxation and mindfulness techniques influence our response to stress and emotional experience. progressive muscle exercises and meditation are linked to decreased levels of cortisol, and better control of the autonomic nervous system (Mohan, Sharma, & Bijlani, 2011). These therapies use deep-breathing strategies that induce a relaxation response. This response can also enhance a person’s cognitive processing function.

Mindfulness-based therapies (MFBT) aim to bring a person into the immediate context of experience. This is achieved by raising their level of awareness (Goldin & Gross, 2010). MFBT incorporates emotional regulation principles, such as physiological relaxation and cognitive appraisal. Studies have shown that the practice of mindfulness is associated with decreased negative emotions and amygdala activity. In addition, MFBT can reduce the symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. When emotional regulation is contrasted with stress, it is apparent that the physiological and cognitive features of stress and emotional experience are related.

Life stress test
Social Readjustment Scale

Summary
Stress can be defined as a response to events that disrupt bodily homeostasis. Emotions are affective, short term experiences that are moderated by internal and environmental cues. Aversive stress can result in psychological dysfunction, physical illness, and reduced quality of life. Stress and emotion are complex systems that are influenced by physiological changes and cognitive appraisal. Modern psychology accepts that both stress and emotion have a biological and cognitive basis. The integrated specificity model states that cognitive appraisal mediates the effect of emotions on physiological arousal. This means that we can alter the way stressful events affect our emotional experience. Furthermore, it gives us an opportunity to foster personal growth. Recommended treatments to control emotions in stressful situations include; exercise, cognitive reappraisal, and alternative emotional regulation techniques.


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I doubt you can claim this file as fair use, because it is replaceable with a table containing the information, cited to the source. Please see the exemption doctrine policy, our policy on fair use images. I would suggest that you replace the image in your resource with a table, and I'll then delete the file. Thanks. -- Simone 13:02, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

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Relational Databases/Design

Introduction
There are a number of means by which a simple relational database can be built. Some of those processes are particularly complex, but ideal for formal situations where the designer requires both a rigourous and efficient database designed to handle large numbers of records well. However, sometimes designers can use simpler processes which produce a good database that will handle their needs, but without necessarily focusing on the complexities of relational algebra and the more esoteric forms of database normalization. Thus this lesson is focused on creating quick, simple and effective databases which meet the needs of the end users, but without getting too caught up in database theory.

Note that this lesson presumes that the reader understands the material covered in Introduction to Relational Databases.

Where to start
Curiously, when people look at where to start with database design, the answer is to look at the end of the process, not the beginning. There is a tendency to focus on what data can be collected, but focusing on this can lead to some problems:

 * It is easy for designers to miss data that they did not expect to need, but that suddenly becomes important at the end of the process.
 * In some jurisdictions, there are legal restrictions on what data can be collected. In general, all personal data collected in a database should be required, rather than just collected "because you can".
 * From a user's perspective, database systems which ask for a minimal amount of data are generally easier and quicker to use than those which ask for a lot.
 * The less data you collect, the less room that there is for errors.

Thus the first thing a good database designer does is look to the reports: what does the database have to output at the end? Because if the purpose of a database is to provide access to information, the driving consideration should be to ask what information the end user needs to access, so that the designer can make sure that it is allowed for.

Initial fields
An organization, let's call them U Walk Tours, runs short walking tours around a city. They have five current tours on their books:

 * a Ghost Tour, run at night taking tourists and locals around the various haunted establishments in the area
 * Historic Buildings, which tours and talks about the architecture of the region
 * Chocolate Hunt, in which people are taken to the various chocolate sellers and cafes in the local area
 * Gourmet Market Tour, where interested parties are taken through the local markets and shown where to buy the best food
 * Art in the City, showing the various public art sites that are on display, and visiting some of the more noteworthy galleries

In the head office, the people running the show need to be able to find out who has been assigned to each tour, when the next tours are on, how many people have booked for the tour, how many people can book for the tour (especially with "Art in the City", as there is a limit to how many people can be taken through the galleries), if they have paid, and an emergency contact in case something goes wrong. For each guide they need to know the guide's address, home and mobile phone numbers, and an emergency contact. They would also like to have a postal address for each client who takes a tour so they can send special offers in the mail, but because they are polite, they only send offers to those who have opted in, so they need to know if each client has opted to receive them. For the same reason they would like an email address for each client – they have found that offers in the mail are better received, but they would like the option of reaching the client with email in the future.

Before each tour, the tour guide needs to be given a list of everyone who has booked for that tour. The list needs to include the person's name, age, and mobile phone number. The tour guide will not collect payments, so the list will only include people who have paid for the tour. (It is a rough city, and carrying around lots of money may not be wise).

From this, it can be assumed that for each tour the database will need to keep track of:

 * Tour name
 * Tour date
 * Tour time
 * Maximum people who can go on the tour
 * Number of people booked for the tour
 * Name of the tour guide
 * The tour guide's contact details
 * Street
 * Suburb
 * City
 * Country
 * Postcode
 * Home phone
 * Mobile phone
 * Emergency contact details for the tour guide
 * Name
 * Relationship
 * Contact phone number
 * Name of each person booked for the tour
 * Address of each person booked for the tour
 * Street
 * Suburb
 * City
 * Country
 * Postcode
 * Mobile phone number for each person who has booked
 * Emergency contact details for each person who has booked
 * Name
 * Relationship
 * Contact phone number
 * Age of each person
 * Email for each person
 * Whether or not the person has opted to receive special offers
 * Whether or not the person has paid

It is a lot of data when written down like that, but such is the way of databases.

Derived fields
Not all data needs to be stored. Some data can be derived from other data. This is generally a good thing – every time you store data you increase the risk of error, so calculating it on demand tends to be safer (on the grounds that if your method of calculating it is sound, it should always work).

There are a couple of fields in the example above which might be better changed to be derived rather than stored. In particular, there is the number of people booked for a tour. There are two ways you could get that data:

 * 1) Update it every time someone is added or removed from the tour
 * 2) Count the number of bookings

The first of these works, but what if there is ever a mistake? For example, what would happen if 6 was stored in the field, but 8 people had booked? If that was the case it might be that more people would show up for the tour than were supposed to, causing problems. Or worse yet, what if it said 0 when 7 people had booked? The guide wouldn't bother showing up, and the company would have seven angry people demanding their money back.

The second option might seem annoying, because it would be bothersome to have to count all the bookings for each trip, but there is a trick: the computer (or, to be more exact, the database management system) can do the counting for you. Computers are very good at counting. Thus, generally speaking, it would be better to go with the second option over the first.

The second field that may be better derived is the client's age. At the moment that is stored, and there is no other field that could provide it. However, age is something that is difficult to keep accurate. For example, what if someone booked six months in advance, and had a birthday in between? Or what if six years later they came back for another tour, but their age was still shown as it was six years ago? The solution is not to store their age, but instead to store their date of birth, and use that to derive their age on demand.

First normal form
A database is said to be in First Normal Form (1NF) if it meets two basic criteria: it is an adequate representation of a relation, and it has no repeating groups.

That sounds cool, but the focus here is on practical application. So, using the data fields listed above, is there anything that is repeating? Do any fields represent more than one thing? The answer is yes: there are a number of fields relating to the people who have booked for the tour, and as there is (hopefully) more than one person, these represent a "repeating group". From a practical perspective, it makes sense to pull these out: the database can't represent multiple people in a single field, so either the database needs to have "person 1", "person 2" and so on, or the clients need their own table.

As a simple example of not meeting 1NF, a simple version might be:

Given that the database also needs to include address details, phone numbers, if they have paid, and a variety of extra fields for each person, that will rapidly become a very ugly and unmanageable database. The alternative is just as bad:

How do we know which email address goes with which person? Again, this fails 1NF, and would be almost unmanageable.

Thus the data should be broken up into at least two tables, with repeating fields pulled out of the main one:

Each record in Clients will represent one, and only one, person, with the Tour only having fields that contain a single value. This is not enough, of course – relations need to be added, primary keys identified, and the database further refined, but it is a good start.

Identifying primary keys
There are formal approaches to identifying candidate and primary keys for relational databases. If interested, it is worth reading the candidate key article on Wikipedia, as it gives an overview of the process. However, it is also viable to use simpler rules of thumb when working at this scale.

A primary key has to be a unique value which can be used to identify an individual instance of a record. Thus in the above model, a primary key is needed for the Tour and Client tables, so that each unique record can be referred to. For example, if just "name" was used to distinguish between different clients in the Client table, there would be problems if two people with the same name were to register for tours (and this is a genuine possibility, so it is something to be concerned about). Names just aren't unique enough.

So the first question, using the Client table as an example, is whether or not any single field is sufficient to distinguish between different clients. The answer is no. More than one person can be born on the same day, or have the same name, or live at the same address. Mobile numbers might generally be unique to a person, but not everyone has one, and email is in the same boat. So in the end, there is no single field which is sufficient.

Thus the next question is if there is a combination of fields that could be sufficient when combined. For example, name and date of birth? Once again, the answer is (mostly) no. The odds of two people with the same name, both born on the same day, registering for tours in with the same company, are admittedly incredibly small. But it might happen.

Thus the easiest solution there is to create a primary key. Sometimes it is the best way forward, and, after all it is what most institutions do for clients. Thus a new field needs to be added to Clients: ID. To make things easier, the ID is typically numeric and sequential. Thus the first client is number 1, the second client is number 2, the third client is number 3, and so on. If a client is ever removed, though, it doesn't matter - at worst you have a missing number in the sequence, and as the number only matters at the database level, the fact that it isn't a perfect sequence does no harm.

The Tours table, on the other hand, is a tad different. There is still no one field that would do (there can be more than one tour run with the same name, more than one tour run on the same day, and more than one tour run at the same time). However, we can safely assume that one person will not run more than one tour at the same time and date. If they could that person wouldn't be a tour guide so much as an ongoing physics experiment. So for now, the proposal is to have a combined key consisting of four fields: name of tour guide, tour name, tour date and tour time. The combination of four fields creates a unique key which clearly distinguishes any tour from all others.

Don't enter data twice
This next step involves a combination of second normal form and third normal form, but is couched in different terms.

There is a bit of a theme to database design – do everything you can to limit the risk of errors. Errors are bad. Unfortunately, there are some errors which are difficult to prevent, and the worst of those are data entry errors. There is not a lot to be done to prevent the end user making a mistake when typing in data. But it is possible to reduce the risk.

One method of reducing the risk is to lessen the number of times that they enter data. If we can't stop people from making mistakes, maybe we can reduce the opportunities that they have to do so. Thus looking at the above tables, the question is: what fields will have to be entered often, but with the same values each time? In the clients table the main issue is the address, but the risk is small. If a number of people from the same address all register (and this is likely to happen, especially if you consider the odds that a family will all sign up for a tour), that address will have to be entered more than once. This is a risk, but, on the plus side, it is not a huge risk, so for now it will be ignored. Mostly because the Tours table is a much bigger problem.

Using the existing tables, every time a tour is run (noting that the same tour might even be run three or four times a day), it needs to be entered into the database. And to do so, the person entering the data must enter:

 * The name of the tour
 * The date and time
 * The tour guide's name
 * The tour guide's contact details
 * The tour guide's emergency contact details

Focusing on the biggest problem, there is a big risk that something will go wrong entering all of those tour guide details. But what if you didn't have to do that every time? What if, instead of entering those details, the user simply referred to the details in another table? That would make things wonderfully simple in comparison.

Thus the first step is to pull out the tour guide's details and keep them separate.

(There is now an ID for the guide because there needs to be a primary key).

This helps in two different ways. The first, as mentioned, is that the end user only needs to enter the data once. The second is that memory usage is much reduced. For example, imagine that all that data took, say, 1kb of memory. (It won't, but this is just an example). If a given a tour guide runs 1000 tours, and the old model was used, that guide's data would have been entered 1000 times, using up 1000kb of memory. But now, with the new model, the data only has to be entered once, with only the ID needing to be entered 1000 times. The ID still takes up some memory, but nothing like what the full tour guide record uses.

The next option for data that might be better treated in a separate table is the tour name. As mentioned at the start, five different tours are run. At the moment, every time an individual tour is created, the name of the tour has to be entered. But what if someone makes an mistake? While it probably won't do too much damage, it will make reports difficult. For example, it might report that there were 300 people on the "Ghost tour", and 12 people on the "Gost tour".

Along with the tour name, there are another three fields (or combinations of fields) that could be similarly treated:

 * Country
 * Suburb/postcode
 * Relationship

Addresses, emergency details.

Relations
Now that the tables exist, we need to show how the relationships between the tables work.

Representing relationships

One of the difficulties faced in database design is that there are a lot of different standards for representing relationships. The diagram at the right shows six different methods for representing the same one-to-many relationship, and it is not an exhaustive list. In each case, though the same relationship is being represented: a given person is born at one, and only one location, but a given location may have had zero, one or more people born at it. To make things simple, we'll be using the "crows foot" notation, but any for those would be a viable option, although if interested, there is a good discussion of the different models at Entity-relationship model on Wikipedia.

title: Relational Databases/Design


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Music and emotion

Overview

Think back to a time when you were strongly emotionally swayed by a piece of music. What was so emotionally stimulating about that tune? Apart from any meaningful lyrics, why do you think it caused you to feel so strongly? Firstly there are a variety of questions that need to be considered in order to address how music influences emotion: does music create emotional reactions, and if so how does this happen? Why do we listen to music, and have humans always been interested in music and its uses? And lastly, how can we use this knowledge?

Does music really influence us emotionally, and how?
There are a variety of influences that cause emotion in music. Some of these reactions are perceived differently between individuals. These include musical components and physiological reactions. There are also cognitive aspects to evoking and recognising types of emotion in music. The main focus of this article is on the musical components and accompanying physiological reactions, although cognitive aspects are discussed.

Why do we listen to music?
Music is a leisure activity that occupies somewhere between an estimated two and a half to five hours a day for the average Western teenager (Strasburger & Wilson, 2002), and is a favourite and enduring past time (Chamorrow-Premuzic, Fagan & Furnham, 2010). It seems we choose to listen to music primarily to evoke our emotional experiences (Panksepp, 1995). This modification of emotion is at an ends a rewarding and pleasurable experience for the listener, and this seems to be the greatest reason for listening to music (Salimpoor et al., 2009). Furthermore, those who are not emotionally influenced by music are less likely to enjoy and listen frequently to it, while those who find music highly emotionally evocative will more likely find music most rewarding (Salimpoor et al., 2009).

History
Evidence of musical instruments has been found to date back as far as 40,000 years (Fitch, 2006). Historically, philosophers believed that music was an imitation of human nature and mind, and that once heard it would be imitated by the listener (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003). In fact, Plato was suspicious that music was able to take hold of the soul (Harris, 2004).

Ancient Greeks were more embracing of the evocative nature of music and applied music therapeutically, using it to enhance disharmonised states to drive them from the body (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003). Music therapy is documented as far back as 531 BC, where Pythagoreans used music to energise in the morning and relax and reduce worry in the evening (Bidelman & Krishnan, 2009). These applications are still used in musical therapy (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003).

What will this chapter cover?
This chapter will cover:
 * how music affects the body physiologically
 * what musical components create these physiological reactions
 * the effects of individual differences on music and emotion
 * the learning and cognitive aspects of music and affective states
 * and finally to cover applications, such as therapeutic uses and promoting desired emotional states.

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Why is this a sad song?
 Radiohead - "Pyramid Song" (5.04 min., video) In this chapter, the influences of how this song communicates a sense of sadness is explored. As an overview: note the minor key and slow tempo, the rhythm lacks a sense of predictability, and the instruments do not have a clarified, distinct or clear sound - called dissonance. These elements are all explored in the Musical components and Physiology sections of this chapter. Even ignoring the lyrics and video, this piece of music may have a strong emotional influence due to these factors.
 * }

Emotions experienced from listening to music
There has been great variation in the amount of emotions speculated to be evoked by music (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003). Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008) attempt to narrow down these emotions to ten factors, as seen in Figure 1.

Musical components
There are key cues within music structure that are likely to initiate emotional reactions. A fast tempo with a major key will create a positive, happy tune, while a slow tempo with a minor key will induce more negative, sad emotions (Hunter, Schellenberg & Schimmack, 2010). Furthermore the clarity of the tone effects the emotional interpretation.

In a review by Krumhansl (1991) the level of refinement in the music and tone is also an important influence on emotion. Timbre ‘colour’ is another emotional influence (Krout, 2007). The timbre is often dependent on the instrument used; in research by Hailstone, Omar and Henley (2009) the musical instrument used to play a melody affected the emotional interpretation.

Consonance and dissonance are aspects of sound that vary in their clarity. Consonant music is clear and well-defined, while dissonant music is less precisely executed (Dellacherie, Roy, Hugueville, Peretz & Samson, 2011). A tune with more dissonance is more likely to produce unpleasant feelings and induce stronger physiological reactions (Dellacherie et al., 2011; Krumhansl, 1991). The clear and smooth nature of consonant music tends to please a listener, while dissonant tone and music can be aggravating (Dellacherie et al., 2011). This is further explained by how coarse or refined the music is. The greater the coarseness, the more ambiguity and distress is perceived in the tune (Zentner et al., 2008).

Music can also create mixed emotions. Using a combination of both positive and negative stimuli (For example; a fast tempo for positive mood, combined with a minor key for negative mood). Mixed emotions involving both positive and negative emotions simultaneously may occur for a listener (Hunter, Schellenberg & Schimmack, 2010).

Juslin and Västfjäll (2008) conclude from their review that the brain is alerted to a potentially urgent event by certain aspects of music. The arousal of unpleasant feelings or negative emotions appears to be created by musical elements such as dissonance, and sudden and loud sounds. Effectively, the brain is interpreting the music on a basis of important environmental sound which could potentially be dangerous (Juslin & Västjäll, 2008). Further inspections of physiological impact can be made on the emotional influence of music.

Types of physiological reactions
Musical structure can also have a strong impact physiologically (Koelsch, 2010). Effects include heart rate and blood pressure, respiration, electrodermal activity, and body temperature changes (Salimpoor et al., 2009). For further discussion, see Measures of emotional reactions

Central nervous system and heart rate changes
Neural activity may increase and decrease in various emotive areas of the brain, depending on the type of music listened to. "Chills" or “shivers down the spine” are an intense physiological reaction usually experienced at peak emotional points in a music composition (Salimpoor et al., 2009).

Chills may also be experienced on exposure to new dynamic harmonies with changes which the listener was unprepared for (Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez & Altenmuller, 2007). Experience of musical chills leads to cerebral blood flow changes in many brain areas associated with rewarding or motivational stimuli (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Peretz & Zatorre 2005) that are also associated with reward centres for drugs and food (Small et al., 2001). Heart rate is greater during negative emotive stimulation from music (Coutinho & Cangelosi 2011), possibly due to negative emotive stimulation weighing in as more significant to an individual than positive emotions (Dellacherie et al., 2011).

Hormones and neurotransmitters
Dopamine is released if music progression meets certain expectations, especially at peak emotional points in a piece of music (Samilpoor et al., 2011). These emotional expectations are further explained in Cognitive and learning aspects. Music may also vary the levels of cortisol, epinephrine, opiods, and receptiveness to gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). Additional information on these hormonal and neurotransmitter changes are discussed in the Applications section of this chapter.

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Measures of emotional reactions
There are several ways of measuring the emotional impact of music, including
 * self-reports (Riganello, 2010)
 * skin conductance (Coutinho & Cangelosi 2011)
 * muscular activity (Electromyography or EMG) (Dellacherie et al., 2011)
 * heart rate variability and blood pressure (Coutinho & Cangelosi 2011; Dellacherie et al., 2011)
 * chills as a measure of intense emotional reaction, usually of pleasure (Salimpoor et al., 2009), and
 * lesion studies and neuroimaging techniques (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005).

While self-reports are useful to gain a wide variety of qualitative input, or direct emotion-naming, the physiological measures are useful for purposes such as monitoring emotions in people who may be unable to communicate their emotions verbally (Ringanello, 2010), and to measure levels of intensity through objective measurable means (Grewe, Kopiez & Altenmüller, 2009).

Did you know? Ringanello, Candelieri, Quintieri and Dolce (2010) discovered that otherwise unresponsive people with traumatic brain injuries, and those in a vegetated state, still showed what appeared to be emotional reactivity to music through a measure of heart rate variability.

 * }

Individual differences
''Why do one’s musical preferences differ from another's? Furthermore, does everyone experience emotion from music in the same way? Personality, age and emotional intellect are possible influences on these differences.''

Personality is an important moderator of emotional perception and influence in music. According to research by Vouskoski (2011), Extroverts are more likely to be sensitive and attuned to "happy" music, while those scoring high on Neuroticism are more likely to be strongly emotionally affected by ‘sad’ music.

Researchers Chamorrow-Premuzic, Fagan & Furnham (2010) also note that Extroverts more commonly use upbeat music as a background to other activities, in line with a need for more environmental arousal. Lastly they point to a link in the personality trait of Openness to Experience, with a high score corresponding with a taste for complex music.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is also a predictor of how an individual uses music, and how perceptive they are to emotions expressed within the music. However, EI is not as strong a predictor to emotional perception and influence as Extroversion and Neuroticism (Chamorrow-Premuzic et al., 2010). This research is however limited with the use of self-report measures, and could be replicated with physiological measures for further support.

Age may also have an effect on emotional perception. Older adults generally do not recognise negative emotions as sensitively as younger adults, and further do not perceive as much intensity (Laukka & Juslin, 2007). Lima and Castro (2011) speculate that people become less sensitive to music as they age, and reveal through their research that people generally also find music less scary in later years. Recognition and receptiveness of positive music on the other hand remains the same throughout the adult lifespan (Laukka & Juslin, 2007; Lima & Castro, 2011). These studies however leave out the emotional perception in music of children.

Cognitive and learning aspects
Emotions created from listening to music are likely to also have cognitive and learning causes. In their review of literature Juslin and Västfjäll (2008) support a cognitive perspective of influences on emotional perception from music, and propose four areas in which cognition and learning in relation to music may create emotional reactions.

Emotional contagion
Emotional contagion refers to emotional mimicking of music by listeners, similar to the way in which people empathise with other people’s emotive gestures by copying them, and ultimately experiencing the same emotion (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). Emotional contagion maintains that the individual cognitively recognises the emotional message of the music, then once interpreted mimics that emotion back and subsequently experiences the emotion (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003).

Evaluative conditioning
Evaluative conditioning or pairing is where a musical piece is repeatedly paired with a particular emotional event, and comes to create that same emotion upon listening to the music again. This is demonstrated by the fictional film and novel  A Clockwork Orange , in which the main character is purposely conditioned to associate any kind of violent action with an extreme feeling of unease and nausea, and incidentally becomes conditioned with the same response to the music that was playing at the point of conditioning. A clip from the movie portraying this association can be seen here. Outside of this extreme example in the popular media, this association may still be present in everyday living. For example, you may reflect back on the fun you had at final year dance at primary school when you hear a song that was played there.

Visual imagery
More controversially, according to Juslin and Västfjäll (2008), a listener may create visual imagery whilst listening to music, triggering emotional reactions not from the music but from the imagery itself. An example is listening to serene music, and visualising a beautiful landscape, generating an emotion of relaxation. Furthermore, bodily imagery may be imagined, such as a floating sensation. Visual imagery is a less accepted cognitive theory on the emotional influence of music (Kolers, 1983).

Expectancy
Expectancy refers to the degree to which musical progression confirms, violates or delays a listener’s expectations (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). Although there are strong physical consequences when music meets a listener’s expectancies, these expectations are argued to be monitored cognitively along lines of grammatical and syntax rules and learned compositional progressions by Juslin and Västfjäll (2008). They also argue that these expectations are not due to cognitive appraisal, where a piece of music may be more rewarding when it turns out better than expected.

Therapeutic uses
Koelsch (2010) suggests improved knowledge of the neurological impact of music may aid the treatment of emotional disorders by using music for treatment. There are many therapeutic uses of music. Some examples include:
 * Krout (2007) suggests the use of music to compete with and distract from pain, from a Gate Control Theory perspective.
 * Results from a meta-analysis by Gold, Voracek & Wigram (2004) find that music therapy is useful for children and adolescents with mental illnesses, particularly in the treatment of behavioural and developmental disorders, and those who are unable to express emotional distress verbally.
 * de Niet, Tiemens, Achterberg and Hutschemaekers (2011) discovered that music can be used effectively in care settings to reduce anxiety, increase relaxation and improve sleep, in place of sedatives.
 * A review by Sherratt, Thornton and Hatton (2004) suggests that music therapy be used in place of pharmacological treatment for problematic behaviours in those with dementia.
 * Neumann and Heng (2011) found that weight-lifters were able to lift more in experimental conditions with exposure to music, than without. They suggest further research into the use of music and enhancing exercise, and appropriate emotion, motivation and state of mind. Furthermore Sugiharto (2009) notes through their research that the reduced levels of cortisol and increased endorphins experienced during music exposure make high-intensity exercise training less stressful.
 * Thaut et al. (2009) found that music therapy assisted with the recovery of cognitive functioning and assisted in emotional regulation of those who have experienced traumatic brain injuries.

There still may be many other possible uses for music therapy. There are also applications that everyone can apply in their own everyday living. Music may also be useful for relaxation purposes.

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The drug-like effect of music - try me
Music can be used to promote and maintain general well-being (Krout 2007). Rather than just applying it for use in treatment of stress related illness, the researcher suggests music can be utilised to promote relaxation and combat everyday stresses. According to Krout (2007), listening to relaxing music achieves this through several physiological means:
 * it can reduce levels of the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine
 * opoids and morphines are created from the release of peptide hormones with relaxing music, enhancing relaxation
 * endorphin production is stimulated, modulating pain and reducing stress, along with creating pleasurable and calm feelings
 * brain cells become more receptive to GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid), slowing down neuronal activity - in the same way barbiturates act to decrease anxiety and create a sense of euphoria.

Krout (2007) defines relaxing music as a tune with a slow and stable tempo, low volume level and soft dynamics, consistent texture (combination of sounds and instruments), with simple harmonic progressions, gentle timbre, connected melodies (known as legato), and an absence of percussion or accented melody. Try listening to find out if these drug-like effects happen to you. Here is a website where you can try this out
 * }

Critique of current theories and research
A wide variety of research on music and emotion exists. There are endless and exciting possibilities for the exploration of this topic, and the current research presented also indicates a lot of these findings may be very beneficial; for use in everyday life, in enhancing performances or states of mind, and in treatment for mental health illnesses. There are however a few limitations to much of the current literature presented. Many studies reviewed had low samples sizes, and there are few meta-analyses in the area (Gold et al., 2004). A reason for this may be that research techniques do not involve consistent measure of emotion; these varied from self-reports, with inconsistent areas of emotional focus among them, and physiological ratings from heart rate variability and skin conductance.

There are further discrepancies and issues limiting generalisability among the presented literature. The types of music used in experimental conditions varies widely. What was considered as a pleasurable song by researchers was determined by differing factors and musical components.

Among the literature there is a lack of cross-cultural comparison of emotions perceived and experienced emotions in music, and a presumption of global validity from Western samples. Furthermore, all researchers focused their experimental studies in laboratory settings, ignoring the impact of music on affective states in everyday situations, such as its use for individual needs or in social circumstances. The terms mood and emotion were used interchangeably in the same context throughout literature, rather than addressing them as separate phenomena. It is possible that important differences between the two are not well understood in terms of musical exposure. A stronger understanding and a consistent use of descriptive measures is needed before a better idea of the effect of music on emotion can be explained confidently.

Conclusion
Music is primarily used to evoke and enhance emotive states. These emotive states are created by a variety of musical components, subsequent physiological reactions, and cognitive factors. Music can also be used effectively in a variety of circumstances therapeutically and to enhance certain states. Further knowledge and research is needed to better understand what components of music best amplify various emotional states. This research needs to be conducted through consistent and clear means. This chapter mainly focused on the physiological influences, further exploration into cognitive perspectives would be beneficial to the understanding of the emotional influence of music.

Areas in which to expand this article

 * Dance, music and Emotion - the biological explanations and social motivations
 * Mathematical patterns in music - wavelengths and cord synchronicity
 * Non-human animals and musical preference
 * Music and learning


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User talk:DEEPIKA J

Welcome
Hi! Welcome to Wikiversity. :) I noticed your query about poster presentations, but it seemed to be in the wrong location, as that discussion was in regard to a request of custodianship, so I removed it from there. I presume it was related to a course you are doing? If you can let me know what course if instructor, I may be able to help if it is on Wikiversity. - Bilby 11:35, 22 September 2011 (UTC)

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User:Anisha

Good morning,my name is Anisha. I'm a sikh ,born in Thailand.I have graduated from Thai Sikh International School. After my highscool, I've decided to join Mahidol University because this univeristy is one of the well-known university. I am doing Bio-Medical in Mahidol University. I have always been interested in gaining knowledge about Biology. I am already in third year, wishing to graduate as soon as possible so that I can continue with my master degree in this feild. My hobbies are reading books and playing piano. I like to balance both fun as well as studies. I like meeting new people and exchange different ideas with them. I have been using computers for a quite long period of time. I've just got a very basic idea about computers. I usually prefer laptop over desktop because it is portable.I am not an expert in using computers.So,I've decided to join computer essential and I look forward to gain more knowledge from this class.

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User:Vago

My Homewiki on AzWiki

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User talk:Zainkhattak~enwikiversity

PTI A ray of hope for Pakistani Nation.
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PTI A ray of hope for Pakistani Nation.
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User talk:Anisha

 Hello Anisha, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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User:Npsweet/enes100

Fall engineering HCC 2011

Link to Rubberband Gun team page[]

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User talk:Bmart14/enes100/escher

Make sure to document all the different sketches you are drawing in your notebook and if you could send it to me then that would be great. and i will begin to build the bottom floor of the endless waterfall(Inmookchung27 16:44, 22 September 2011 (UTC))

10/10/0 ... looks like a late start .. 1sfoerster 19:59, 26 September 2011 (UTC)

Well alex is out of the group now so we have to split up the work between us. lets get together this weekend and you can look at the basic structure of the waterfall. and after i can take a look at the drawings you have done on autodesk. (Inmookchung27 (Inmookchung27 16:04, 29 September 2011 (UTC))

10/10/10 .. for more push points, post screen shots of your drawings, upload them to commons.wikimedia, put in general engineering category .. link to them, otherwise good job ... looking forward to reading your learning curve of 123D in the notebook 1sfoerster 17:47, 3 October 2011 (UTC)

10/0/0 ... don't see any actual work, just using wikiversity as a reporting tool, what went wrong with 123D? You could spend the entire project just documenting the transition from your schools software to 123D rather than traveling to your old school to draw, don't see any comments on your team mates discuss pages, don't see any commitments over the weekend 1sfoerster 13:33, 11 October 2011 (UTC)

10/10/0 ... just a report of "doing" with nothing to contribute .. nothing to link to ... could upload the drawings you are making to google docs and link to them and get lots of points ... this is more important than doing the drawings .. this is why the uploading and documentation is so important .. how can I show off and brag about what you are doing with just this report? 1sfoerster 13:17, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bmart14/enes100/escher


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User talk:Inmookchung27/enes100/escher

Your plan to tell the other teammate Alex what he missed today would be a major help to him. I will try to get you the blueprints as soon as possible so you can start looking them over and attempting to build the Perpetual Motion Waterfall. (Bmart14 16:44, 22 September 2011 (UTC))

10/10/0 ... looks like a late start .. 1sfoerster 19:58, 26 September 2011 (UTC)

week 2 I agree. Even though he left I think we are still on track and are picking up his slack very nicely. After you finish up building and gluing the project together, we can initiate testing and connecting motors

10/10/10 ... if your team mate sends you an autocad drawing, take a screen shot of it, link and post to it on the web, if you are gathering wood, list the materials and cost, take photos and link ... this would earn you more electronic points .. right now you are just writing reports to me here 1sfoerster 17:45, 3 October 2011 (UTC)

10/0/10 ... you built something, but no design document, no pictures, just using wikiversity to make a report to me ... this does not push the project forward ... no commitment to work over the weekend, no comments on your team mates pages 1sfoerster 13:30, 11 October 2011 (UTC)

Week 4 The waterfall seems to be comming along nicely and hope to get the final dimensions of all of the peices of the waterfall so that I can finalize all of the dimensions on autodesk and hopefully get the drawings done by the end of the week.

10/0/0 ... this is not a report summary of what you have done, in your individual pages you document the details .. no pictures, no material lists, no video, no costs, this is not engineering 1sfoerster 13:18, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Inmookchung27/enes100/escher


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User:Inmookchung27/escher

Give instructor top 3 project choice list
escher

Coanda

Wind tunnel

Write problem statement
Look through the existing problem statements. Find something not yet done on the project. Create a problem statement for it. Think of a new subsystem that needs to be built for the project. The goal is something simple, possible, for zero dollars.

Assign Task1
Tasks are typically done over the weekend. They are documented during the week, presented during the week and the next weekends work is negotiated during the week. Week 0 is the week that task 1 is negotiated. Record your individual task here. Plan on working on it during the weekend between week0 and week1.

Compare actual work done to Task1
Rationalize differences

Week1 Narrative
The problem was how we are going to pump the water up from the bottom level of the escher recreation of the endless waterfall to the top level.

Week1 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:32, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task2
i will move the team forward by informing my teammate that was not here what we are doing. I am gathering the material needed to build the endless waterfall, start building the waterfall and bryan martinelli is drawing the sketch of it out on autodesk

Compare actual work done to Task2
My partner bryan martinelli started to draw out the design on autodesk over the weekend, and he has sent me a copy of it so i started to build the Escher waterfall out of wood and other materials.

Week2 Narrative
I edited the team page and also bought the material to build the escher waterfall. I started to make the measurements.

Week2 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:32, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task3
Finish measuring out the material, and start putting together the pieces in order to create the waterfall. I will upload pictures on wikidoc with my partner bryan martinelli

Compare actual work done to Task3
I built the first floor and second floor, still have some more pictures to upload

Week3 Narrative
Upload photos to wikimedia. Upload video to youtube. Convert all spreadsheets, documents, and presentations to wiki format and create wiki subpage of your page for each of them. Link to them here in a narrative that tells a story. High light the problems (engineering problems) you had and how you solved them. Some of the problems i had was deciding which glue to use to hold the wood together.

Week3 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Compare actual work done to Task4
Over the weekend I put together the last level of the waterfall, and actually started to pour water on the waterfall just to see how it would hold up

Week4 Narrative
Upload photos to wikimedia. Upload video to youtube. Convert all spreadsheets, documents, and presentations to wiki format and create wiki subpage of your page for each of them. Link to them here in a narrative that tells a story. High light the problems (engineering problems) you had and how you solved them.

Week4 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

title: User:Inmookchung27/escher


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Category:User th

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Users in this category indicate they have skill level 1 for language Thai.

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Category:User kn

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Category:User kn-1

Users in this category indicate they have skill level 1 for language Kannada.

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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination/2011

Hey! I just saw your topic on how to beat procrastination. Procrastination is an issue for all university students, I am sure most of us do it on a daily basis!! I can see you are still drafting out your final version, so I look forward to seeing the information you come up with. Maybe in the future, with determination, I may find a way to "beat" procrastination :) Good luck! SKM1501 03:04, 02 November 2011 (UTC)

Good start! Jackson997 07:48, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

Im interested in reading more about how to beat procrastination, as i am currently procrastinating right now and really need to do an assignment. Looking forward to seeing how i can better motivate myself in the future:-) EamesA 04:21, 19 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi, My group oral in learning was on procrastination and my specific part of the speach, talked about "why people procrastinate" (related to - driven by rewards. so if ya interested I can pass on some Info/References ;) let me know Lucas K 01:14, 27 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi, I suffer with procrastination on a daily basis I look forward to your finished product, hopefully you will have some good tips for beating the big 'P' :) Jemmasanderson 00:10, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

I look forward to reading more about your chapter! The Procrastination chapter from last year is really detailed and in depth... it could be could to draw ideas from once you have your draft :) A-bryant 06:10, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

This topic has great potential in the 'real life examples' part of the assessment. I'd be interested to see if you can find some research that focuses on uni students - it would be very interesting! Good luck Danielle.d 00:55, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Comment by Magnolia - very interesting topic and excellent presentation

Rfoster 05:33, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:07, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


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User:Jsbelk

Welcome to Jsbelks Page!! Jsbelk 12:29, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User:Jsbelk


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User:Wayshowtostopsnoring

The Brings about On Why Men and women Snore And A few of the Efficient Approaches On The best way to Stop Snoring

Stop Snoring-Some Important Information That can Help In Figuring out The Exact Treatment

The Widespread Causes Why Men and women Snore Along with the Efficient And Proper Snoring Cures Known Today

The Snoring Remedies Obtainable Right now And Its Corresponding Function In Healing Different Triggers Of Snoring Problems

Featuring The Snoring Mouthpiece As well as other Gadgets And Treatments

Appropriate Snoring Solutions And a few House Remedies For Mild To Large Snorers

Blue Sea Snore Stopper-A Handy And Cost-effective Way to Stop Snoring

title: User:Wayshowtostopsnoring


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User talk:Wayshowtostopsnoring

 Hello Wayshowtostopsnoring, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You have been indefinitely blocked for using Wikiversity for promotional reasons. You will not be unblocked unless you can convince the community that any future resources you create will be educational and not just advertising. Thanks. --S Larctia 13:46, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wayshowtostopsnoring


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User talk:Jsbelk

 Hello Jsbelk, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

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 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 12:35, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jsbelk


text: User:Babel AutoCreate

title: User:Babel AutoCreate