text:
Talk:Linux/Reading the Linux Kernel Sources

This course/page is an ongoing collaboration by members of the SVLUG (Silicon Valley Linux Users Group). We're currently engaged in a weekly "Kernel Sources Study Group" (Tuesdays, 7PM at the Google campus, building 43 --- see the SVLUG events page for details).

The purpose of this page is for participants in the study group, and the users of Wikiversity at large, to propose topics for study, comment on existing comments, link to relevant materials and general teach aspiring systems programmers how to read the Linux kernel source code, and how to apply that knowlege to their own experimentation, customizations and perhaps, even inspire some to become productive kernel developers.

Naturally all contributions to these pages should respect the Wikiversity terms of service and content guidelines!

Other than that: Edit Boldly!
 * JimD 08:03, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Edit boldly might take some work if you don't understand the editing codes. I always feel a bit lost in a new interface.  Here's a good syntax reference example page on mediawiki markup which I found after a little bit of chasing around.
 * Heather Stern 20:45 PST, 20 November 2007

Administrivia
This discussion page can also be used as a forum for handling administrative details of the SVLUG study group. Other Linux users' groups are, of course, welcome to form their own lucky study groups and to collaborate with us to answer the questions:

 * What are the best parts of the kernel to study?
 * Where should one start reading the kernel?
 * What are the pre-requisites to studying the kernel by reading its sources?
 * What are some techniques, and exercises we can perform on the kernel sources to enhance our practical understanding of what we're reading?

Next Meeting's Agenda
At the end of this last meeting some people asked for "homework" and for ideas about what we'd cover next. Given that I (User:JimD) already explained that I have no experience in teaching a class on this topic, and that I hadn't thought quite that far ahead ... I wasn't sure. So I just made something up. So far I've suggested we should look at:

 * entry.S (the assembly that forms the entry point into system calls on the x86 arch)
 * Int 0x80h handler (ultimately how Linux system calls are dispatched from user space)
 * The system call table (list of all the system calls in a given version of the kernel)
 * scheduler (one of the primarily operations of the kernel)
 * clock tick (system timer interrupt handler) (used by the scheduler, and for things like "jiffies"

As for exercises: I suggested adding a couple of printk statements to selected parts of the kernel, init/main.c in particular; compiling the kernel with these patches, installing it and booting it. Then looking for our personal "Killroy was here" message in dmesg or the system logs. I neglected to discuss the matter of "earlyprintk" which might make this task more challenging than it sounds at first. I also suggested that a truly ambitious student might try to add a custom system call (again, just to perform a printk) and then write a small user space C program to call their new system call and verify that their custom message appears in the kernel.

These are both "hello world" class exercises (which is appropriate for this group at this juncture). I know that there are online recipies which describe how to do this step-by-step. I woudn't consider it "cheating" to link to those from here. These are not supposed to be programming challenges but rather are to be done in the spirit of "hello world"

In the future I'm sure we'll also follow some of the recipes for creating a loadable "hello world" module, creating some sort of "echo" character device driver (perhaps one that takes each line of input written to it, perhaps truncates it, stores it in it's local state, takes a "debug" option to relay a printk and allows one to read back the most recently written intput (the globally saved state). Other exercises would include creating /proc and/or /sysfs nodes. All of these are things which must be routine to kernel programmers and thus should be among the most elementary exercises we can propose for better understanding how to do real work.

Meanwhile my plan for the next meeting is:

 * review of the previous session (perhaps with some slides to cover the major points --- and to accommodate the video capture)
 * brief exploration of panic, shutdown and kexec (we started at "the beginning" so giving a preview of "the end" seems like a stylistic "imperative"; besides these functions are among the easiest to read).
 * reading the source to printk; discussion of the rare cases in which it cannot be used; discussion of other debugging and logging facilities in the kernel like relayfs?
 * review of the homework/exercises: were people able to complete the simple printk stuff in init/main.c? could they see it?  did anyone find info on the earlyprink stuff?  Did anyone get into the system call stuff?  How did they get their userspace program working?
 * new material:
 * system calls, the assembly and the C code (add a printk into the C side of this???)
 * scheduler/timer IRQ handler
 * Note that the scheduler is a complex topic --- point to various higher level discussions about it and just glance at kernel/sched.c 2100 lines in my copy of SuSE 9 2.4.21-280).
 * timer: kernel/timer.c (about 1000 lines, including the definition and maintenance of jiffies).

I suspect that's about all we'll have time for.

Understanding the Linux Kernel ToC
Just a passing comment before I head off elsewhere :-), I'm pretty sure that putting the ToC of that "Understanding the Linux Kernel" book here is a copyright violation - can you instead put a link out? This looks like a great project though - don't let me rain on the parade. :-) Cormaggio talk 13:11, 29 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Here's a link to the same content. -- ProveIt 18:09, 29 November 2007 (UTC)


text:
Portal talk:Cornish

AS said below, the spelling system used will be the KK , any problems , please post below. Thanks, --TheElvenLord 12:58, 14 November 2007 (UTC) Head of Cornish

I have added your courses to the School of Language and Literature resource catalog--if you create any more courses, please list them there! Thanks! --Trinity507 03:40, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Portal talk:Cornish


text:
User:Axon Carver

My name is Axon Carver. I am a high school physics teacher licensed in the state of Virginia. I also teach first and second semester physics part time at a local community college. I am new to Wikiversity and look forward to editing the high school physics course.

title: User:Axon Carver


text: Deutsch/Übung/conjunctions

title: Deutsch/Übung/conjunctions


text:
User talk:Axon Carver

Welcome
Hello Axon Carver, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( talk ?, wiki blog ) 19:04, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Axon Carver


text:
User talk:Pmpstudent

Welcome
Hello Pmpstudent, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( talk ?, wiki blog ) 21:13, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pmpstudent


text:
User:MSK

I am so excited about learning how to do wiki.

title: User:MSK


text:
User talk:MSK

MSK 04:56, 15 November 2007 (UTC)mike

title: User talk:MSK


text:
User:Cestillo

Hey, I Would Love To Help Anyone Intrested In Learning Arabic, I'm An Arabic Native Speaker, And Ofcourse I Speak It Fluently, Any One Needs Help, Don't Hesitate To E-mail Me: Lara.i.h@hotmail.com

God Bless All,
 * Email ? Why can't this coordination be done here ? So also people afterwards can see what was talked about. BTW: did you have a look at Topic:Arabic already ? Would you perhaps help also there ? Then more people (in the future) could profit from this. Erkan Yilmaz ( talk ?, wiki blog ) 16:40, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Cestillo


text:
Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/diogenes instruction2

Diogenes Instruction Set
(Minimalistic Instruction Set Architecture)

Διογένησ

Diogenes is a 32 Bit reduced RISC with 16 Bit wide instructions. It uses 16 general purpose registers, each 32 Bit wide.

There are several Types of Instructions:
 * Arithmetic and Logic (3 Registers)
 * Load Immediate (1 Register, 8Bit Immediate)
 * Compare (3 Registers)
 * Branch (1 Register condition, 8Bit signed Offset)
 * Add/shift (1 Register, 6Bit Immediate)
 * unconditional Jump (2 Registers: jump address and saved PC for calls)
 * Move (2 Registers)
 * Load/store (2 Registers, and
 * select (special instructions for selecting (sign-extended) bytes or halfwords of a 32-Bit word)

Registers

 * The 16 registers of diogenes are named l0 to l7 and h0 to h7.

Two registers with the same number (e.g. l3 and h3) are called "brother-registers".
 * Most instructions may use all registers arbitrary as destination- and source-registers.

Some instructions may only use the first source-register or its corresponding brother-register as the result-register (e.g. "adi r1, r1, 1", and "adi r1, h1, 5" are allowed while "adi r1, r2, 1" is not possible).

Detailed Instruction Set and Bit encoding
The most significant bits of the instruction word define the instruction category.

Load Immediate Instructions

These 8-Bit instructions can be used to load immediate values. For example to load the 32 Bit Value 0x87654321 to r1, the following instructions can be executed:

 * ldi r1, 0x87
 * shi r1, 0x65
 * shi r1, 0x43
 * shi r1, 0x21

Our assembler supports a pseudo instruction to load 32-Bit values and uses these instructions internally.

Compare Instructions

Compare instructions compare the values of the registers ra and rb (that might be any of the 16 general purpose registers) and writes 0 or zero to the chosen register rd. The compare operations available are ra < rb for both signed and unsigned numbers. The semantic of >, <= or >= can be modeled with the branch instructions and/or exchanging ra and rb.

In this category, two instructions are still undefined, and might be used for future extensions like like multiplication.

Branch Instructions

Branch instructions are PC-relative (Program Counter) and have an 8 Bit signed offset. The check the contents of an register an branch either on a zero or non-zero value of this register. In the decode-stage (stage 2) the branch gets active and thus has one delayslot.

shift/add 6Bit Immediate Instructions

These instructions are used to add or shift the value of a register with a 6Bit signed Immediate value. The result is stored in rd while the source-register may either be rd or the brother-register of rd.

Special Instructions

 * The jump instruction unconditionally jumps to the address stored in ra with one delay slot (note that rd is ignored by this instruction and should be 0 to enable future extensions).
 * The call instruction is exactly the same as jump, except that the value of PC is stored to rd before the jump.
 * The move instruction simply moves the contents of ra to rd
 * The ld/ldio instructions load a value from address ra to rd (from internal memory resp. I/O).
 * The st/stio instructions store the value of rd to a location at address ra (in internal memory resp. I/O). Note that this instruction does not use rd as destination-register.

Select Instructions (currently not implemented)

Select instructions are used to mask out a signed or unsigned, word or halfword from a 32 bit register. They can be used to "emulate" unaligned memory access (which is not supported by ld/st instructions) and to sign/zero extend byte and halfword values.

 * the seh and seb instructions use the lower bits of register ra to determin which byte or halfword should be selected. They treat values as unsigned.
 * the seixx intructions select the byte/halfword specified by imm and are available in signed and unsigned versions.
 * these instructions are not implemented in our current processor design (and might be removed).


text:
Portal talk:Brythonic Celtic Languages Division/Staff

No self-appointments
Wikiversity has What Wikiversity is not. As you can see, Wikiversity is not a place to confer titles. "Staff" is a term to be used carefully at Wikiversity. At Wikiversity we have a support staff that is not self-appointed. All Wikiversity participants who are not on the "support staff" are just "participants" and they do not have titles. You can describe what your interests are and you plans for developing Wikiversity learning resources, but do not give yourself titles. "Administrators" has a special meaning within Wikimedia Foundation wiki projects: it is one of the terms used for those wiki participants who have the ability to delete wiki webpages (at Wikiversity we use the term "custodian"). Please do not call yourself an administrator. Wikiversity does not allow self-appointments to positions such as "head of department". Wikiversity departments are content development projects where participants collaborate to create, organize and develop learning resources in a particular topic area. Wikiversity does allow "participant lists" where editors who share common interests can describe their editing goals. "Applications": in general, Wikiversity allows everyone to participate in the editing of any page. If you want to experiment with restrictions on who can edit a few Wikiversity pages, please take a look at Page protection templates. For any page where you want to restrict editing, please find a way of making a clear statement of why you are trying to restrict editing. --JWS 13:44, 15 November 2007 (UTC)


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User:Luzmael~enwikiversity

Brezhoneg 'zo dreist !--Luzmael 13:57, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

fr:Utilisateur:Luzmael

title: User:Luzmael~enwikiversity


text: File:Diogenes Ariths.gif

title: File:Diogenes Ariths.gif


text: File:Diogenes Branches.gif

title: File:Diogenes Branches.gif


text: File:Diogenes Compares.gif

title: File:Diogenes Compares.gif


text: File:Diogenes Ldimms.gif

title: File:Diogenes Ldimms.gif


text: File:Diogenes Selects.gif

title: File:Diogenes Selects.gif


text: File:Diogenes Shaddimm.gif

title: File:Diogenes Shaddimm.gif


text: File:Diogenes Specials.gif

title: File:Diogenes Specials.gif


text:
Art History/Assignments/30 November 2007

In this project each group will construct a museum based on a theme of your own choosing. The museum will house a collection reflecting the selected theme.

Project Documents: These are the tangible things you must have as evidence of your project research.

1. Introductory thesis that provides a rationale for your theme

2. Fifteen to twenty-five images that articulate your theme

3. Explanatory statements providing content relevant to each work and how the work relates to the overall theme

4. Title/author page

5. Bibliography

6. Dedication page

Artifacts: A catalog of the collection in the form of a hand-bound book(using Japanese stab binding). A podcast recorded to CD for inclusion with the catalog.

Format for Artifacts:

Page size: 8.5 * 11; vertical orientation

Layout: see handout given in class

Editions: Two master copies per group Podcast: Select five of your images and use content to record rationale and background for including work.

Timeline:

11/19 By the end of the school day submit an e-mail to Ms. Davis containing a list of final images with thesis statement.

11/30 All catalog pages completed, printed, and sequenced.

12/13 Catalog bound and podcast completed

12/14 Book signing


text:
User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity

Archive

 * User talk:Luzmael/Archive

Thanks So much again for your work, and i look forward to the first breton lesson :D --TheElvenLord 12:02, 17 November 2007 (UTC)

Right, I got interrupted and need to go back to the translation work soon (today ?). In the mean time, I have added the first breton lesson ... thanks for any feedback. I might need help for phonetic indications ... I am not fluent in IPA notation ;-) Link : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet  .--Luzmael 13:42, 17 November 2007 (UTC)

Work in progress

 * User talk:Luzmael/Sandbox
 * User talk:Luzmael/Brezhoneg Unan
 * User talk:Luzmael/Pronunciation
 * User talk:Luzmael/Sandbox2

Topic talk:Quechua
could you have a look there please ? Also same with this and that. thx, Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 23:28, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Breton
I have come back and have seen your breton course, very good, i love it.

I am in the process of remaking my Cornish course - but better.

Thanks TEL

 * Good news ! Chans vat dit !--AC'hM 20:27, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Luzmael. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Luzmael~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:14, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Ducky~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Ducky, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWS 17:24, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ducky. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ducky~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:06, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ducky~enwikiversity


text:
Portal:Breton

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color:inherit; margin:auto;" Kevrenn ar Brezhoneg The Department of Breton Donemat e kevrenn ar Yezhoù Predenek war Wikiversity • Rann ar greizenn evit deskiñ yezhoù estren e Skol ar Yezhoù hag al Lennegezh Welcome to the Breton Language Department at Wikiversity • Part of the Center for Foreign Language Learning of the School of Universal Language and Literature
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|

Brezhoneg The Breton Language
Ar brezhoneg zo ur yezh predenek eus skourr ar yezhoù keltiek komzet en darn vrasañ eus Enez Vreizh abaoe an Henamzer betek an aloubadegoù saoz. Tost-tre eo d'ar c'herneveureg (Cornwall:Kernow) ha d'ar c'hembraeg (Wales:Cymru) ha nebeutoc'h d'ar yezhoù keltiek all a zo bev c'hoazh, da lavaret eo ar skourr gouezelek : skoseg, gouezeleg ha manaveg (Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man).

Breton is a Brythonic language belonging to the branch of Celtic spoken over most of Britain from prehistoric times until the Saxon invasions. It is closely related to Cornish (Cornwall:Kernow) and Welsh (Wales:Cymru) and more distantly to the other surviving Celtic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic (Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man) (The Goidelic group). Diaes eo lavarout da vat pegoulz e voe ganet ar brezhoneg. Ken abred hag ar VIvet kantved e oa diazezet da vat ar vroadelezh nevez a Vreizh Vihan, hogen e-pad meur a gantved c'hoazh e chomas he yezh peuzheñvel ouzh hini Breizh-Veur - peurheñvel, zoken, ouzh ar rannyezh a gendalc'hed da gomz er Mervent. An VIIIvet kantved eo ar maen-bonn a verk ganedigezh ar brezhoneg, ar c'herneveureg hag ar c'hembraeg evel yezhoù distag.

Bet eo komzet ar brezhoneg gant pennoù-bras Stad Breizh betek an XIIvet kantved ha da c'houde ez eo bet dilezet ganto. Deuet eo tamm-ha-tamm da vezañ yezh Goueled Breizh hag ar bobl vunut p'eo bet dilezet d'e dro gant an noblañs hag ar vourc'hizien aet war ar galleg.

Tamm-ha-tamm ez eo bet strishaet implij ar brezhoneg da Vreizh-Izel (er c'hornôg d'ul linenn hag a ya dre vras hiziv an deiz eus Plouha da c'hourenez Rewiz).

Kroget ez eus bet da zeskiñ galleg d'an holl dud e Bro-C'hall ha da waskañ war un dro an holl yezhoù all a veze graet patois anezho en un doare dismegañsus. E Breizh peurgetket, a-drugarez da zoareoù kriz ez eus bet lakaet mezh war bugale er skolioù-Stad pe gatolik. Dalc'het e voe d'ar politikerezh-se da lazhañ ar brezhoneg betek ar bloavezhioù 1960, da lavaret eo betek ar mare ma voe echuet well-wazh gant ar skolioù da zegemer bugale dic'hallek desavet e brezhoneg gant o zud. Hiziv an deiz ha pa gendalc'hfe ar politikerezh gall da lakaat galleg dre-holl abalamour m'eo "yezh ar Republik" e vez komzet brezhoneg gant e-tro 300 000 a dud c'hoazh, e-skoaz 1 300 000 er bloaz 1930.

Ar brezhoneg eo ar yezh keltiek nemeti hep tamm statud ofisiel ebet.

It is difficult to tell precisely when the Breton language was born. As early as the sixth century the new country was established and known as "Lesser Britain", but for many centuries its language remained close to the one of Great Britain - very close even to the dialect spoken in the South West. The eighth century is the milestone where Breton, Cornish and Welsh are considered as different languages.

The Breton language remained spoken by the heads of the Breton state until the twelfth century when they abandoned it. Little by little, it became the language of the west-end of Brittany and of the low class of the society as noble and "bourgeois" people left it in favor of the French language.

Progressively, its usage was restricted to the part of Brittany which is now called Breizh-Izel (Low Brittany) (to the west of a line running from Plouha in the north down to the Rhuys Peninsula in the south).

It was then decided to start teaching the French language to all people in France in order to get rid of all other pre-existing languages - dubbed scornfully patois. This was very successful in Brittany, thanks to a method designed to shame children speaking breton at school (state or catholic). This action to kill the Breton language continued until the year 1960 when the schools no more received children speaking only Breton.

Today, as the French linguistic position is still to only put forward the french language considered as the language of the Republic, the Breton language remains spoken by circa 300,000 persons (to be compared with the 1,300,000 persons in 1930). This number will probably drop under 100,000 because the largest part of its speakers are of an older generation.

The Breton language is the only Celtic language without official recognition. {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width:99%; background-color:inherit; margin: auto;"
 * }
 * style="background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; border-radius:8px; height:60px;" colspan="2"|
 * style="background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; border-radius:8px; height:60px;" colspan="2"|

Brythonic Staff
Here is the List of Staff members in the Brythonic Celtic Languages Division.

Teaching
If you want to teach, please sign up at the Breton stream and contact the Head of Breton.

Department news
{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width:99%; background-color:inherit; margin:auto;"
 * November 15th, 2007 - Breton Department Founded
 * November 25th, 2007 - Lesson [Brezhoneg Daou completed
 * December 11th, 2007 - Lesson Brezhoneg Tri completed
 * May 12th, 2008 - Lessons Brezhoneg Pevar and Brezhoneg Pemp completed
 * May 21st, 2008 - Lesson Brezhoneg C'hwec'h completed
 * April-May 2009 - Lesson Brezhoneg Unan reviewed
 * December 13th, 2009 - Added TPR tool to Lesson Brezhoneg Unan
 * December 17th, 2009 - Added TPR tool to Lesson 2 in Brezhoneg Daoù
 * }
 * style="background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; border-radius:8px; height:60px;" colspan="2"|
 * style="background-color:#ffffe0; border:1px solid #777; border-radius:8px; height:60px;" colspan="2"|

Learning
To show your interest in the Breton Language, sign up at the Breton stream. This will provide a record of who is learning Breton, so you can see who else out there speaks Breton and can speak to them.

Resources

 * Breton - English dictionary
 * Breton dictionaries & grammars (mostly in French & some in English)
 * Wiktionary in Breton
 * Wikiquote in Breton
 * Wikipedia in Breton
 * Extensive wiki grammar of breton, (written in French) developped at the IKER research center of the CNRS

It is helpful if the student is familiar with basic grammatical terms; should you need some clues, please follow these links to Wikipedia:
 * Noun - Verb - Adjective - Adverb
 * Subject of a sentence
 * Object of a sentence

Gwelout ivez / See also

 * Nonkilling Linguistics

Current lessons

 * Introduction to Breton
 * Brezhoneg Unan / First lesson
 * Brezhoneg Daou / Second lesson
 * Brezhoneg Tri / Third lesson
 * Brezhoneg Pevar / Fourth lesson
 * Brezhoneg Pemp / Fifth lesson
 * Brezhoneg C'hwec'h / Sixth lesson

Planned lessons

 * Brezhoneg Seizh / Seventhlesson
 * }

title: Portal:Breton


text:
Memory (biological)

Welcome to the Wikiversity learning project for biological memory. The project allows participants to explore how animal brains store and use memories with special emphasis on health related issues involving human memory.

Introduction
This project explores questions such as
 * 1) are there foods, dietary supplements, drugs or exercises that help human memory?
 * 2) are there drugs and other medical treatments that damage memory?
 * 3) is there evidence of genetic differences in human memory abilities?
 * 4) is memory loss a normal aspect of aging?
 * 5) how can laboratory animals be used to help produce an understanding of human memory?
 * 6) can knowledge of human memory physiology be used to produce new types of memory systems for artificial intelligence research?

Types of memory
You can be consciously aware of some of the memories stored by your brain, but introspection is not a very useful tool for learning about the details of how brains store and use memories. It is important to realize that many of your memories are not available to you by way of conscious recall. Biologists make a distinction between memories that you can be aware of and memories that influence your behavior by acting outside of your conscious awareness.

The discovery and study of the many different human brain memory systems is an active area of neurobiology research. Many different terms have been used to refer to different types of human memory and it is not clear that neuroscience yet has the equivalent of a table of the elements of memory. General terms used for discussion of consciously recalled memories are "explicit memory" and "declarative memory". General terms for unconscious memories are "implicit memory", "nondeclarative memory" and "procedural memory". Declarative memory is the basis of our "conscious knowledge about facts and events". The next section, below, explores evidence from studies of human patients indicating that declarative memory storage is made possible by several specific parts of the brain. Diseases that damage those brain areas can cause patients to lose their normal ability to store new declarative memories.

Examples. If you can remember a phone number or a zip code then those are good examples of explicit memories. Your explicit memories include memories of your past experiences. In general, anything from your past that you can consciously remember, think about and talk about is an explicit memory. What is meant by memories that we cannot consciously recall and describe? Many human behaviors involve skills that we have learned. Our brains allow us to learn many behavioral skills and remember how to perform many tasks but we are not consciously aware of the memories that allow us to do many common tasks such as walk, write or ride a bike.

Anatomical brain regions involved in memory storage
Parts of the temporal lobe and the diencephalon are particularly important for the storage of new declarative memories. The importance of these specific brain regions for memory storage was first revealed by studies of human patients who had suffered damage to these parts of the brain. Damage to specific parts of the brain can be caused by strokes or some types of brain infections. Also, the temporal lobes are the center of abnormal neuronal activity in some patients with epilepsy and in some cases surgical removal of the temporal lobes has been performed.

The most famous case of a patient with brain damage resulting in disruption of formation of new declarative memories is "H.M." who suffered from severe temporal lobe epilepsy. In an attempt to treat the epilepsy, Scoville and Milner removed brain tissue from both sides of the patient's brain. The removed brain tissue was at the inner side of the temporal lobe. The operation resulted in a specific memory defect. H.M. could still form new procedural memories and short-term declarative memories, but long-lasting declarative memories could no longer be demonstrated.

The distinction between short-term memory and Long-term memory was evident in H.M.'s behavior after his surgery. H.M. retained an ability to recall facts and experiences from the past few minutes, but was no longer able to recall new experiences from one day to the next.

Read and discuss
Clinical Cases That Reveal the Anatomical Substrate for Declarative Memories - Three short case descriptions from the online textbook Neuroscience (Second Edition) by Dale Purves et al (2001).

Drugs and memory
Alzheimer disease is a neurodegenerative disease and the most common cause of dementia. Reduced declarative memory formation is often an early indicator of Alzheimer disease. A recent study concluded that atrophy of the hippocampus measured by magnetic resonance imaging can predict dementia

Cholinergic hypothesis
The cholinergic hypothesis of Alzheimer disease is the idea that cholinergic neurotransmission has a special role brain regions that are important in attention and memory. For example, it may be that frontal cortex activity needs to be coupled to temporal lobe activity in order to allow efficient function of the hippocampus for memory formation. Cholinesterase inhibitors are used clinically as a part of Alzheimer disease treatment.

There has been interest in the idea that the earliest indications of decline in memory function might be an indication of neurodegeneration that involves reduced cholinergic neurotransmission.

 * tacrine (Cognex®), approved in 1993
 * donepezil (Aricept®), approved in 1996
 * rivastigmine (Exelon®), approved in 2000
 * galantamine (Reminyl®), approved in 2001

NMDA receptor antagonists
Glutamate is one of the major excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain, including brain regions like the hippocampus where NMDA receptors have been implicated in LTP, a form of long-lasting synaptic change associated with memory storage. It has been suggested that inhibitors of excitatory receptors like NMDA receptors might reduce potential glutamatergic excitotoxicity. "Pathologically-activated therapeutics for neuroprotection: mechanism of NMDA receptor block by memantine and S-nitrosylation" by S. A. Lipton in Curr Drug Targets (2007) May;8(5):621-32.

Memantine is an NMDA receptor antagonist that is approved for treatment of Alzheimer disease

Lipid hypothesis
There are inherited genetic risk factors for Alzheimer disease. The most important genetic risk factor for Alzheimer disease is one common variant of the Apolipoprotein E gene. The link between Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease is not clear, but this association has stimulated research into the role of lipid metabolism in Alzheimer disease. Some data from human subjects suggest that human use of a subclass of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors can reduce the incidence of Alzheimer disease.

Ginkgo biloba
It has been suggested that herbal supplements such as Ginkgo biloba might have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other actions that could limit neurodegenerative cell damage in Alzheimer disease.

A recent review of herbal medicines called for better studies to compare Ginkgo biloba and other herbal remedies to currently used treatments such as cholinesterase inhibitors

Long-term
A peptide that blocks N-cadherin function disrupts long-term memory formation.

Beta-catenin has also been shown to play a role in synaptic function.

NMDA receptors (NMDAR) are important neurotransmitter receptors involved in synaptic plasticity and memory. It has been shown that NMDAR activity is coupled to control of N-cadherin and beta-catenin levels in synapses

Related resources

 * Learning and Memory
 * Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Memory - at Wikibooks
 * Human Physiology/Memory and Learning - at Wikibooks
 * Animal Behavior/Memory - at Wikibooks

External resources

 * National Institutes of Health

title: Memory (biological)


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Template talk:WikiversityLang

Wikibooks links
Some of the languages link to Wikibooks. Are these valid in the sense they link to active projects? Does Wikibooks want them? My understanding of Swedish and Japanese is quite poor. : ) --Remi 19:08, 15 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I tried to copy over the current list from the multilingual Wikiversity hub, but I do not think my computer can deal with the strange character sets. --JWSchmidt 19:46, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Template talk:WikiversityLang


text: Computer Architecture Lab/WS2007/diogenes instruction example


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Talk:Learning mathematics

Can we be a little more specific in the suggested course ordering here?

For example, what is pre-calculus- trigonometry or something more/less?

I know of a program (albeit for gifted kids) that teaches higher math concepts right from the begining, such as set theory in kindergarten. I think that most kids should have this opportunuity, much less the adults so paralized by math anxiety they want to start from the abolute begining. Geometry and proofs are not semester long courses but concepts necessary for mastery at many levels.

Unfortunately I don't know enough to set up an ideal system for math from the ground up, or I'd do it myself.

There is so much needless confusion when switching from arithmitic to algebra to calculus and beyond. For example couldn't complex numbers introduced much earlier than traditionally, so as to prevent but this goes against everything else I've already learned symdrone?

Perhaps a detailed curriculum could be hashed out- that would be the ultimate resource!

I wrote this page quickly one night, when I was astonished by the apparent fact that the Wikiversity "school of mathematics" page did not exist. However, after I wrote it I found this page:. That seems to be the real Wikiversity "school of mathematics" page. Now I think that this page I wrote should probably just be deleted. --Singularitarian 20:30, 15 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Maybe this page could be re-named to something like Learning mathematics. --JWSchmidt 21:34, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

I agree with Singularitarian the referenced School:Mathematics is in good order and well constructed. Please delete his reference. --seancmcd 09:30, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

I wrote this page quickly one night, when I was astonished by the apparent fact that the Wikiversity "school of mathematics" page did not exist. However, after I wrote it I found this page: [1]. That seems to be the real Wikiversity "school of mathematics" page. Now I think that this page I wrote should probably just be deleted. --Singularitarian 20:30, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Redirect?
I'm thinking set up a redirect from this page to School:Mathematics.

title: Talk:Learning mathematics


text:
User:Karrollea

I'm a new user so please help me out with praise or ctiticism, as appropriate.

title: User:Karrollea


text:
User talk:Karrollea

Welcome
Hello Karrollea, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Remi 20:08, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Karrollea


text:
Ivan Illich: Deschooling Society/Phenomenology of School

Brief chapter, approximately 8 pages, where Illich sets out to try to define 'school'. He defines school as the "age-specific, teacher-related process requiring full-time attendance at an obligatory curriculum." Then goes on to unpack the individual elements of his definition.

Age
This section of the chapter mostly questions the assumptions that schooling and society makes of what constitutes "children" and "childhood". Illich briefly outlines how the definition of childhood, as distinct from infancy, adolesence or youth is essentially a construct of the 'bourgeoisie'. He claims that up until the 20th century, 'children' were "made at home with the help of preceptors and private schools." Industrial society provides the means to mass produce 'childhood' and create schools for the masses. The modern phenomenon of school is then seen to produce childhood. Illich points out how in rural areas away from industrial cities that most people do not "experience childhood."

See also: Childhood

Teachers and Pupils
"School is an institution built on the axiom that learning is the result of teaching. And institutional wisdom continues to accept this axiom, despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary."

Most learning in life takes place outside of the school system. Illich claims that research shows that most of what children learn in school comes from "peer groups, from comics, from chance observations, and above all from mere participation in the ritual of school...", rather than from teachers. (It should be noted that he does not reference or cite this research.)


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Applied linear operators and spectral methods/Differentiating distributions 2

Differentiation of distributions with severe discontinuities
Now we will consider the case of differentiation of some locally continuous integrable functions whose discontinuities are more severe than simple jumps.

Example 1
Let us first look at the distribution defined by the locally integrable function

f(x) = H(x)~\log x $$ where $$H(x)$$ is the Heaviside function.

Then

\left\langle f,\phi \right\rangle = \int_0^{\infty} \phi(x)~\log(x)~\text{d}x $$ By definition

\left\langle f',\phi \right\rangle = -\left\langle f, \phi' \right\rangle = -\int_0^{\infty} \phi'(x)~\log(x)~\text{d}x $$ Since the right hand side is a convergent integral, we can write

\left\langle f', \phi \right\rangle = - \lim_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0} \int_{\epsilon}^{\infty} \phi'(x)~\log x~\text{d}x $$ Integrating by parts,

\left\langle f', \phi \right\rangle = - \lim_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0} \left[ \int_{\epsilon}^{\infty} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~\text{d}x + \phi(\epsilon)~\log(\epsilon)\right] $$ Now, as $$\epsilon \rightarrow 0$$ we have $$\phi(\epsilon) \approx \phi(0)$$ and therefore
 * $$ \text{(1)} \qquad

\left\langle f', \phi \right\rangle \approx - \lim_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0} \left[ \int_{\epsilon}^{\infty} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~\text{d}x + \phi(0)~\log(\epsilon)\right] $$ The right hand side of (1) gives a meaning to (i.e., regularizes) the divergent integral

\int_{0}^{\infty} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~\text{d}x ~. $$ We write

{ \left\langle f', \phi \right\rangle = \left\langle \text{pf} \left[\cfrac{H(x)}{x}\right], \phi\right\rangle } $$ where $$\text{pf}[\bullet]$$ is the  pseudofunction which is defined by the right hand side of (1).

In this sense, if

f(x) = H(x)~\log x $$ then

{ f'(x) = \text{pf}\left[\cfrac{H(x)}{x}\right] ~. } $$

Example 2
Next let the function to be differentiated be

f(x) = \log |x| $$ We can write this function as

f(x) = H(x)~\log x + H(-x)~\log(-x) ~. $$ Then

{ f'(x) = \text{pf}\left[\cfrac{H(x)}{x}\right] + \text{pf}\left[\cfrac{H(-x)}{x}\right] = \text{pf}\left[\cfrac{1}{x}\right] } $$ where the pseudofunction $$1/x$$ is defined as the distribution

{ \left\langle \text{pf} \left[\cfrac{1}{x}\right], \phi\right\rangle = \lim_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0} \left[ \int_{\epsilon}^{\infty} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~\text{d}x + \int_{-\infty}^{\epsilon} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~\text{d}x \right] } $$ The individual terms diverge at $$\epsilon \rightarrow 0$$ but the sum does not.

In this way we have assigned a value to the usually divergent integral

\int_{\infty}^{\infty} \cfrac{\phi(x)}{x}~dx ~. $$ This value is more commonly known as the  Cauchy Principal Value.


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Applied linear operators and spectral methods/Greens functions 2

Green's functions for linear differential operators
Consider the one-dimensional heat equation given by

- \cfrac{d^2 u}{d x^2} = f(x) \qquad x \in (0,1),u(0) = 0, u(1) = 0 ~. $$ This equation has Green's function $$g(x,y)$$ which satisfies

- \frac{\partial^2 g}{\partial x^2} = \delta(x-y) \qquad x,y \in (0,1) $$ The Green's function is given by

g(x,y) = \begin{cases} (1-y)~x & 0 \le x < y \\ (1-x)~y & y < x \le 1 \end{cases} $$ or,

g(x,y) = (1-y)~x + (y-x)~H(x-y) ~. $$ Therefore,

g_x(x,y) = (1-y) - H(x-y) + (y-x)\frac{\partial }{\partial x}[H(x-y)] = (1-y) - H(x-y) + (y-x)\delta(x-y) $$ Now,

\left\langle x~\delta(x), \phi \right\rangle = \left\langle \delta(x), x~\phi \right\rangle = (x~\phi)(0) = 0 $$ Hence,

g_x(x,y) = (1-y) - H(x-y) $$ And,

g_{xx}(x,y) = - \delta(x-y) $$ Note that the second derivative of $$g$$ is a delta function.

We can use this observation to arrive at a more general description of the Green's function for a particular differential equation. That is, for a $$n$$th order linear differential operator we would want the $$n$$th derivative of $$g(x,y)$$ to be like a delta function. Thus the $$(n-1)$$th derivative of $$g(x,y)$$ should be like a Heaviside function and all lower derivatives should be continuous.

In particular, consider the operator $$\mathcal{L}$$ acting on $$g$$ such that

\mathcal{L}~g = \delta(x-y) $$ with

\mathcal{L} = a_n(x)~\cfrac{d^n}{dx^n} + a_{n-1}(x)~\cfrac{d^{(n-1)}}{dx^{(n-1)}} + \dots a_0(x) $$ where $$a_i(x) \in C^{\infty}$$. If we integrate this equation across the point $$x = y$$ from $$x = y^{-1}$$ to $$x = y^{+}$$ we get

\left.a_n(x) \cfrac{d^{n-1}g}{dx^{n-1}} \right|_{x = y^{-}}^{x = y^{+}} = \int_{y^{-1}}^{y^{+}} \delta(x)~\text{d}x = 1 $$ This condition is called a  Jump condition.

This suggests that the Green's function $$g(x,y)$$ satisfying

\mathcal{L}_x g(x,y) = \delta(x-y) $$ in the sense of distributions has the properties that

 * 1) $$\mathcal{L}_x g(x,y) = 0$$ for all $$x \ne y$$.
 * 2) $$\cfrac{d^k g(x,y)}{d x^k}$$ is continuous at $$x = y$$ for $$k = 0, 1, \dots, n-2$$.
 * 3) $$ \left.\cfrac{d^{n-1}g(x,y)}{dx^{n-1}} \right|_{x = y^{-}}^{x = y^{+}} = \cfrac{1}{a_n(y)}$$.
 * 4) $$g(x,y)$$ must satisfy all appropriate  homogeneous boundary conditions.

If the Green's function exists then

u(x) = \int_a^b g(x,y)~f(y)~\text{d}y ~. $$

Example
Let us consider a second order differentiable linear operator, i.e., $$n = 2$$ on $$[a,b]$$ with  separated boundary conditions,

\begin{align} \alpha_1~u(a) + \beta_1~u'(a) & = 0 \qquad \implies \mathcal{B}_1[u(a)] = 0 \\ \alpha_2~u(b) + \beta_2~u'(b) & = 0 \qquad \implies \mathcal{B}_2[u(b)] = 0 \end{align} $$ where $$\mathcal{B}_1$$ and $$\mathcal{B}_2$$ are  boundary operators.

The differential equation

\mathcal{L}_x g(x,y) = 0 $$ and its required continuity conditions are satisfied is

g(x,y) = \begin{cases} A_1~u_1(x)~u_2(y) & a \le y < x \\ A_2~u_2(x)~u_1(y) & y < x \le b          \end{cases} $$ The first two terms above are to satisfy the boundary conditions while the third terms gives us continuity.

The jump condition is that

\left.\cfrac{dg(x,y)}{dx} \right|_{x = y^{-}}^{x = y^{+}} = \cfrac{1}{a_2(y)} = A [u_2'(y)~u_1(y) - u_1'(y)~u_2(y)] = A~W(y) $$ where $$W(y)$$ is the  Wronskian.

Therefore,

A = \cfrac{1}{a_2(y)~W(y)}, W(y) \ne 0 $$

For the heat equation

\mathcal{L} u = - u'' $$ we can take

u_1(x) = x,u_2(x) = (1-x),\text{and} W(y) = -1 $$ That gives us $$A = 1$$ and we recover the same $$g(x,y)$$ as before.

In the general case, the solution is

u(x) = \int_a^x \cfrac{u_2(x)~u_1(y)~f(y)}{a_2(y)~W(y)}~\text{d}y + \int_x^b \cfrac{u_1(x)~u_2(y)~f(y)}{a_2(y)~W(y)}~\text{d}y $$


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User talk:Mokgen

Welcome
Hello Mokgen, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 06:54, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

Hello
I have started studying Linux and hope I can make some edits to improve readability Mokgen (discuss • contribs) 10:40, 23 January 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mokgen


text:
User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Sandbox

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"
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Personal form & impersonal form
The Present Tense and the Continuous Tense have two forms : the personal form and the impersonal form.

These two forms allow to insist upon either the subject (impersonal form) or the complement, the attribute, the object (personal form).

For example :

The english sentence "I am wise" may be translated in two ways :

 * Me a zo fur (impersonal form) to insist upon the subject (Me). Since the subject already gives the notion of person, it is useless to give a personal form to the verb. Therefore the verb is invariant (here : a zo) and this form is called the impersonal form.

 * Fur ez on (personal form) to insist upon the attribute (Fur). Here the verb varies according to the person since the notion of person is not present otherwise.

Continuous Tense
The Continuous Tense is used for repetitive or continued actions.

If we take the same example :

 * Fur ez vezan means "I am usually wise".

When translating from Breton to English allow your native language instinct to sort out in which case the simple present (I speak Breton) or the present continuous (I am speaking Breton) is more appropriate and idiomatic.

Situation Tense
The Situation Tense is used to indicate the place (in space or time) where the subject is or, in a wider meaning, its position (social, etc.).

Example :

 * Er skol emaon means "I am at school".

Progressive Form
To create the progressive form, add the continuous particle o (H!). Careful it causes hard mutation: (H!) Hard Mutation Following letters are affected: B    becomes	P D    becomes	T G    becomes	K Here are some verbal nouns: kaozeal             speak/ing komz             chat/ting, speak/ing skrivañ              write/ing ober               work/ing chom               dwell/ing gwerzhañ             sell/ing mond                 go/ing kemer             take/ing degemer           receive/ing deskiñ               learn/ing kas;daveiñ              send/ing

Now all you need to do is put them together following this pattern: {present of bezañ} + {o (H!)} + {verbal noun}

ez on o kaozeal Brezhoneg. I speak Breton./I am speaking Breton. ez on o skriva ul lizer. You (sg.) write a letter./You are writing a letter. emañ eñ o teskiñ Kembraeg. He learns Welsh./He is learning Welsh.

Negations
Since you want to be able to make negative statements as well as ask questions, here’s what you need to do: Take the long present tense of bezañ (to be) and replace the particle ez with ne (or ned or n' before a vowel) and add ket after the verb in order to make a negative statement: The 3rd person singular in negative statements has two special verb forms:
 * ez on 		       I am
 * ned on ket 		I am not
 * or n'on ket
 * n'out ket 		you (sg.) are not

 * n'eus ket ...		there is not ...
 * n'eo ket ... 	       he (she) is not ...
 * ar c'hi n'eo ket ... 	the dog is not ...
 * ar vugale n'int ket ... the children are not ...

Now put the sentences together according to the template given above:
 * n'omp ket 	we are not
 * n'oc'h ket 	“you (pl.) are not
 * n'int ket 		they are not

N'on ket o komz Brezhoneg. I don’t speak Breton./I am not speaking Breton. N'out ket o skrivañ ul lizer. You (sg.) don’t write a letter./You are not writing a letter. N'eo ket o teskiñ Kembraeg. He does not learn Welsh./He is not learning Welsh. To formulate a question simply drop the negative particle nyns:

esof vy?		am I? esos jy? 		are you (sg.)? '''eus? '		is there?'' usy ev? 		is he? usy hi? 		is she? usy an ki? 	is the dog? usy an flehes? 	are the children? eson ni? 		are we? esowgh whi? 	are you (pl.)? usons i? 		are they?

Esov vy ow komz Brezhoneg? Do I speak Breton?/Am I speaking Breton? Esos jy ow skrivañ lezer? Do you write a letter?/Are you writing a letter? Usy ev ow tesky Kembrek? Does he learn Welsh?/ Is he learning Welsh? To ask a negative question use the question particle a before nyns: A nyns esov vy ow komz Brezhoneg? Don’t I speak Breton?/Am I not speaking Breton? A nyns esos jy ow skrivañ lezer? Don’t you write a letter?/Are you not writing a letter? A nyns usy ev ow tesky Kembrek? Doesn’t he learn Welsh?/ Is he not learning Welsh?

The Past Tense
To talk about something that happened in the past, you have several options, from which you can chose.

In a positive statement you can either use the simple past. The grammar books refer to this tense as the preterite. Most Breton verbs take the past tense ending -as, some take -ys while others are irregular and don’t conform to this pattern.

Take the verbal noun gweles see/ing. It is made up of its root gwel- and one of the many (unfortunately) verbal noun endings, here -es.

To form the 3rd person singular of gweles replace the verbal noun ending -es with the past ending -as.

vb.n.							  past gwel-es gwel- 	+ -as	  gwelas In a positive statement this is the only form you need. The structure is:

{subject (noun or pronoun)} + {relative particle a (S!)} + gwelas

The subject can be any noun, like singular ki dog, cath cat, maw boy, benyn woman, or it can be a plural noun like an flehes the children, an dus the people, or it can be a personal pronoun.

Here’s a list of the personal pronouns when they occur at the beginning of the sentence:

I	       my you (sg.)	ty; chy (Late Breton pronunciation) he         ev she		hi we		ni you (pl.)	whi they	i; ji or anji (Late Breton forms) Careful, the relative particle a causes soft mutation (S!). Soft Mutation: *P		becomes	  B *T		becomes	  D *C, K becomes  G *Qw	becomes	  Gw *B 	becomes	  V *D		becomes	  Dh *Gi, Gy, Ge becomes  i, y, e *Ga	becomes	  a *Go, Gu	becomes	  Wo, Wu *Gw	becomes	  W *Ch	becomes	  J *M		becomes	  V

So, I saw or I have seen can be expressed by: 		my a welas Here are the other forms:

my a welas		I saw, I have seen ty a welas		you (sg.) saw, you have seen ev a welas		he saw, he has seen Jowan a welas	       John saw, John has seen hi a welas		she saw, she has seen Maria a welas		Mary saw, Mary has seen an den a welas	       the man saw, the man has seen an venyn a welas	       the woman saw, the woman has seen ni a welas		we saw, we have seen whi a welas		you (pl.) saw, you have seen i a welas		       they saw, they have seen an flehes a welas	       the children saw, the children have seen Here are the verbal nouns mentioned above with their past tense forms:

kaozeal; kewsel 	speak/ing 		cowsas; kewsys	spoke komz		chat/ting, speak/ing komzs		spoke skrivañ 		write/ing		skrivañs		wrote ober 		work/ing		oberas		worked chom 		dwell/ing		choms		dwelt gwerzhañ 	       sell/ing		gwerzhañs		sold kemer	       take/ing		kemeras		took degemer 	receive/ing		degemeras		received desky 		learn/ing		deskys; deskas   learnt kas 		send/ing		kasas		sent the verb mond go/ing has an irregular past form:

mond 		go/ing			aet		went

Exercises/Ober
Now, you have seen how its done.

Take the verbs from Brezhoneg Daoù/Lesson 1 and write them down if you havent already.

Now change them into their Present tense.

Now into their past tense..

Now underneath, make some sentences up , for each verb. EG. Me a zesk kembraeg er skol (I learn welsh in school).

Now move on to Brezhoneg Daoù/Lesson 4

title: User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Sandbox


text: File:Breizh.png

title: File:Breizh.png


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User:Awardk

Awardk (real name: Alan Ward) teaches Computer Science and Electronics.

Current interests include: computer programming, open source programming, Land Rover driving and East Asia studies.

title: User:Awardk


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User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Brezhoneg Unan

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Basic Grammar rules
English is a adjective-noun-language. This means the Adjective (Describing Word) comes before the Noun (Subject) and the Noun, before the verb (doing)

Eg.

The big  man   went  to Brittany. (adj.) (noun) (verb)

Breton on the other hand is a noun-adjective-language, which means that the noun comes before the adjective.

Eg.

An      den       bras      a zo aet  da Vreizh. (article) (noun)  (adjective)  (verb)    da Vreizh.

Literally: The man big went to Brittany.

Exercises
Write the following sentences with the correct grammar.

The man is big.

(Words : an (the), a zo (is), den (man), braz (big))

The new church is beautiful.

(Words : an, a zo, iliz (church), nevez (new), brav (beautiful)

The big man went into the church, thereafter, to the old town hall.

(Words : an (the), da (to), ebarzh (into), goude se (after that, thereafter), kozh (old), nevez (new), den (man), braz (big), Ti-Ker (Town Hall), a zo aet (went))

Answer pages

Brezhoneg Unan Breton

Or Go back to Lesson 2


text:
Deutsch/Übung/fragen

Questions can be asked in one of two ways in German:
 * 1) By inverting the order of the subject and verb.
 * 2) *Du lernst Deutsch. becomes Lernst du Deutsch?
 * 3) By using a question word from the list on the right.
 * 4) *Warum lernst du Deutsch?

Match the following questions to their corresponding answers.

 * Wann kommen sie im Hauptbahnhof an?
 * Warum gehst du in die Stadt?
 * Was machen wir morgen?
 * Welcher Zug fährt nach Brüssel?
 * Wer hat ihr die neuen Ohrringe geschenkt?
 * Wie kann ich Ihnen helfen?

 * Der auf Gleis 5.
 * Es war ihr Onkel. Er hat sie für ihren Geburtstag gekauft.
 * Ich gehe einkaufen.
 * Ich suche das Buch, Katz und Maus.
 * Um 18 Uhr sind sie da.
 * Wir fahren aufs Land.

title: Deutsch/Übung/fragen


text:
Wikiversity talk:Census

Category 3
Questions to Wikimedia editors (max 2 short questions)
 * Does this mean questions for people who have never come to Wikiversity?
 * This will be asked to them and will allow you to find out a bit more about the perception of Wikiversity among the general community thanks for q's: User:Symode09

title: Wikiversity talk:Census


text:
User:Samthetechie~enwikiversity

Samuel Carlisle

I am a second year general engineering student at Durham University.

My website:Sam the Techie

title: User:Samthetechie~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Samthetechie~enwikiversity

Welcome
Hello Samthetechie, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 02:44, 17 November 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Samthetechie. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Samthetechie~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Samthetechie~enwikiversity


text:
Tips for journalistic writing

Tips for writing
Qualities that most news stories must possess:
 * Topicality (is the subject interesting?; is it current?)
 * Completeness (document the who, what, where, when, how; and if possible, why)
 * Accuracy (use at least two distinct sources for each fact you report)
 * Impartiality (interview all sides)
 * Verifiability (name sources where possible)

Skills
 * research
 * interviews
 * going under cover
 * documentation
 * short-hand
 * background reading
 * composition/recording
 * publishing

Seven tips on better writing
In the 1946 book, Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays, author George Orwell devised 6 easy tips to make anyone a better writer. To paraphrase him, they are:
 * 1) Never use the passive voice when you can use the active voice.
 * 2) Shorter is better in sentences and paragraphs. If it is possible to remove a word from a sentence, cut it.
 * 3) Shorter is better in word choice. Never use a long word when a short word will do.
 * 4) Do not confuse your reader with uncommon words. Never use foreign phrases, scientific jargon or high-tech "buzzwords" if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
 * 5) Never use cliché metaphors, similes or other figures of speech that you are used to seeing in print. Be original.
 * 6) Be polite — even when you disagree. Break any of the above rules before you write anything offensive or outrageous. Avoid personal attacks, do not exaggerate the situation, and do not use sarcasm or hyperbole. Otherwise, you risk losing credibility in the eye of the reader.
 * 7) It is important to capture the most important facts in a new article before divulging into the details. Some readers will only have time to check the first paragraph or so of a news article (Inverted pyramid style).

title: Tips for journalistic writing


text:
Talk:Islam/Sufism and Islamic Mysticism

please expand - muzammil

title: Talk:Islam/Sufism and Islamic Mysticism


text:
User talk:VanishedUser1

Welcome
Hello Muzammilpalla, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 08:51, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:VanishedUser1


text:
Brezhoneg Unan

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width:99%; background-color:inherit; margin:auto;"
 * style="background-color:#eed153; border: 1px solid #777; border-radius:8px;" colspan="2"|

Kastell Brest / Brest Castle

Brezhoneg Unan "Brezhoneg Unan" is a course in the Breton Department. In this Beginner's course, students are introduced to simple vocabulary, how to structure a Breton sentence and some basic phrases for a simple conversation. Breizh Brittany (Breton: Breizh) is one of the six Celtic nations. It is located in Western Europe at the Northwestern corner of France, where it is split into two French regions. Breizh was an independent state before being annexed by France in 1532. Breton is spoken since the 5th century.
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#fffff0; border:1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#fffff0; border:1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|
 * rowspan="2" style="width:40%; background-color:#efefff; border:1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#eed153; border: 1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|
 * style="width:60%; background-color:#eed153; border: 1px solid #777; vertical-align:top; border-radius:8px;"|

Lessons

 * Kentel gentañ :  Basic Words
 * Eilvet kentel : Simple Conversation
 * Teirvet kentel : Simple Grammar Rules
 * Pedervet kentel : Mutations (Simplified)
 * Pempvet kentel : Pronunciation (Simplified)
 * }

title: Brezhoneg Unan


text:
Brezhoneg Unan/Lesson 1

{|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin:auto; width:99%; background-color:inherit;"
 * style="border:1px solid #999; background-color:#eed153; border-radius:8px;"|
 * style="border:1px solid #999; background-color:#eed153; border-radius:8px;"|

You will learn ... / Deskiñ a reot...

 * Simple sentences (Who are you? What are you doing?...)
 * Simple vocabulary
 * Simple conversation (Greetings, 'How are you' etc.)
 * How to talk about yourself and others
 * How to ask questions

Breton pronunciation
For help in pronouncing Breton words: Breton pronunciation

Simple actions
Using TPR tools, we introduce a few actions (verbs). Listen to the file several times while acting as shown BEFORE you listen to the following file:
 * • First part:
 * • Then:

Simple vocabulary

 * First part: Getting started → Go to the Quiz
 * Second part: On the table → Go to the Quiz
 * Third part: Greetings → Go to the Quiz
 * Fourth part: Questions → Go to the Quiz
 * Fifth part: Describing yourself → Go to the Quiz
 * Sixth part: Other words → Go to the Quiz

Ex. 1: Quiz
Go to the overall quiz.

Ex. 2: Memory training
Write out the Breton words, section by section as follows: If you want to add words to this page, please make sure you put them into a sentence in Lesson 2 wherever you can.
 * Have 2 columns, clearly separated, and write Breton and English.
 * Then cover up one column (eg. English) with paper and write the corresponding words on the paper.
 * Then try it the other way round, cover up the Breton, and write out the words using the English as cues. This will be a little bit more difficult.
 * Repeat all this after an interval, the more you do it the easier you will remember the words.
 * }

title: Brezhoneg Unan/Lesson 1


text: Template:Memory (Wikipedia)

title: Template:Memory (Wikipedia)


text:
User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Archive

Welcome
Hello Luzmael, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; for it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 15:33, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Breton
Hello I am head of Cornish and the creator of the Brythonic Celtic Languages Division and its divisions. I have reason to believe that you changed the text into breton. I greatly appreciate that as i have been waiting a while for someone to do that as i have no knowledge of breton.

I see that you are advanced in your breton, i am offering you the chance to be in the Breton Department staff. I f so, you will surly be accepted and most chances that you will be made a head aswell as a teacher. As said here Brythonic Staff Teachers will be assigned a course by a head and will make a lesson for it. For example, just today we had a new teacher in the Cornish department. I assigned him Kernewek Dew/Lesson 3 and he will make that. As Head of Breton you will assign yourself courses at your will.

I am willing to make the BReton Department homepage if you come along and translate the texts. As admin of Breton, the job is to make all the pages , while the Teachers come along and Write , unless they can make a decent page themselves.

Well, thanks for reading.

Nos da Kernow Bys Vykken Breizh da virviken --TheElvenLord 17:32, 15 November 2007 (UTC) Head of Cornish

Hi,

Thanks for your proposal. I will be more than happy to help.--Luzmael 08:47, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

On the Breton Topic (Topic:Breton) i hve made a series of markings, Things that are in Blue , but in English , or eg. (History of Breton) needs to be written. If you could give a short account of the breton langauge, starting from celtic , and end with a small piece about modern breton , where its used ect. Look at (Topic:Cornish)To see what i mean. Thanks. Also, could you please put your name down and an explanation at Brythonic Staff Under "The breton department". Thanks vry much --TheElvenLord 17:29, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

Hello again. Thanks very much for the translations on the page. I was wandering whether this :

Diaes eo lavarout da vat pegoulz e voe ganet ar brezhoneg. Ken abred hag ar VIvet kantved e oa diazezet da vat ar vroadelezh nevez a Vreizh Vihan, hogen epad meur a gantved c'hoazh e chomas he yezh peuzheñvel ouzh hini Breizh Veur - peurheñvel, zoken, ouzh ar rannyezh a gendalc'hed da gomz er Merwent. An VIIIvet kantved eo ar maen bonn a verk ganedigezh ar brezhoneg, ar c'herneveg hag ar c'hembraeg evel yezhoù distag.

Bet eo komzet ar brezhoneg gant pennoù bras Stad Breizh betek an XIIvet kantved ha, da c'houde eo bet dilezet ganto. Deuet eo tamm-ha-tamm da vezañ yezh Goueled Breizh hag ar bobl vunut p'eo bet dilezet d'e dro gant an noblañs hag ar vourc'hizien zo aet war ar galleg.

Tamm-ha-tamm eo bet strishaet e implij da Vreizh-Izel (er c'hornôg d'ul linenn hag a ya dre vras hiziv an deiz eus Plouha da Wened).

Kroget ez eus bet da zeskiñ galleg d'an holl dud e Bro-C'hall da waskañ war un dro an holl yezhoù all a veze graet patois anezho en un doare dismegañsus. E Breizh peurgetket, a-drugarez ha zoareoù kriz da lakaat mezh war bugale er skolioù Stad pe gatolik. Dalc'het e voe d'ar politikerezh-se da lazhañ ar brezhoneg betek ar bloavezhioù 1960, da lavaret eo betek ar mare ma voe echuet well-wazh gant ar skolioù da zegemer bugale dic'hallek desavet e brezhoneg gant o zud.

Hiziv an deiz ha pa gendalc'hfe ar politikerezh gall da lakaat galleg dre holl abalamour m'eo "yezh ar Republik" e vez komzet brezhoneg gant e-tro 300 000 a dud c'hoazh (e-skoaz 1 300 000 er bloaz 1930).

Ar brezhoneg a zo ar yezh keltiek nemeti hep statud ofisiel ebet.

Translated into English is :

It is difficult to tell precisely when the Breton language was born. As soon as the VIth century the new country was established as "Lesser Britain", but for many centuries its language remained close to the one of grat Britain - very close even to the dialect spoken in the South West. The VIIIth century is the milestone where Breton, Cornish and Welsch are considered as different languages.

The Breton language remained spoken by the head of the Breton state until the XIIth century when they abandoned it.

It seems like a lot of breton words to an english word. I would like to know about the history of the breton language, but i cannot speak breton , only cornish , and can only make out a few words , could you please give the full translation of the breton please. I realise, by looking at the texts , that you may have run out of time , as i can see thst the first paragraph is completed , aswell as a bit of the first. So, thats absolutly fine.--TheElvenLord

title: User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Archive


text:
User:Lo que pasa~enwikiversity

Useful links
Frases en español

Wikiversity en español

title: User:Lo que pasa~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Luzmael~enwikiversity/Pronunciation

(last lesson)←Lesson 1: Pronunciation→(next lesson)

Introduction: this is Lesson 1. It should teach students how to pronounce Breton and how to write Breton. It is not difficult, so try to study by listening and repeating after the recordings. Near the end of this lecture, you will find a dictionary and place for global discussions.

Original text
1) listen to this text:

Titl

Testenn

''Original text taken from ... Full text available via: http://''

2) now print the text, listen to it once more and underline the differences in pronounciation: Printable version available here: Text.

3) work with a teacher via skype:

Pronunciation
Pronounciation rules

A simplified notation of the International Phonetic Alphabet is used, accordingly to the one chosen in "Grammaire bretonne" from Roparz Hemon (Al Liamm - 1984).

Here write down your own explanation of the pronunciation if you feel it different from thatone up:

3) Work with a teacher via skype:

Stress
1) Study this text:

The stress in Breton is usually on the second syllable from the and or first syllable from the end (=last syllable). But sometimes it could be on another syllable counted from the and. So, how to recognize, where is the stress? In fact non native speakers can recognize the stress, just in the written language due to roles below. From oral language in new words it is for non native speakers difficult, because it is not even to be possible to hear it from native speaker speach.

1. Stress on the first syllable from the end is: when the word ends on consonants (except N or S) or it is marked by accent. See example:
 * Madrid - this word ends on a consonant
 * profesor - this word ends on a consonant
 * Alcalá - this word ends on a vowel, but accent is marked on the last syllable
 * José - the same case
 * León - this word ends on N, but accent is marked on the last syllable.

2. Stress on the second syllable from the end is: when the word ends on vowel and/or N or S or it is marked by accent. See example:
 * Sevilla - this word ends on a vowel
 * Paco - this word ends on a vowel
 * Carmen - this word ends on N
 * chicos - this word ends on S
 * Cádiz - this word ends on a consonant, but the accent is marked.

3. Stress on any other syllable is: when it is marked. See example:
 * Cáceres - stress is marked on the third syllable from the end
 * América - stress is marked on the third syllable from the end

Double accent
Note that in Breton exist words, usually they are proverbs with -mente ending having two accents. See example:
 * rápidamente

2) try to write down more Breton words and bold in stress:

3) write down orange words and bold a stress in them:

4) work with a teacher via skype:

Syllables
How I can part the word for syllables? Well, it is quite difficult for the beginners, so it is better to have a look into monolingual dictionary.

More exercises
1) circle articles in the printed text:
 * Breton definite articles are: el - los, la - las

2) Write down words you find similar to English and try to translate them:

3) find out more pictures related to the words below and upload them in here:

4) work with a teacher via skype:

Dictionary
Note: Breton = English.

 * casa = home, house
 * Costa Rica-country in Central America
 * cultura = culture
 * cinco = five
 * cena = dinner, supper
 * chino = Chinese language, Chinese
 * chupar = suck
 * Madrid-the capital city of Spain
 * Gerona-city in the northeast of Spain
 * gitana = gipsy (lady)
 * gazpacho-cold Breton soup
 * gorila = gorila
 * laguna = lagune
 * Honduras-country in Central America
 * hola = hi
 * húmedo = wet
 * Juan = John
 * jamón = ham
 * Gijón-city in the north of Spain
 * llamarse = to call one's self
 * me llamo = I call me
 * llorar = (to) cry
 * llanura = flat-land
 * niño = child (male)
 * niña = child (female)
 * año = year
 * ¿qué? = what?
 * Quetzacoatl-Aztecan God
 * quemar = burn
 * Quique-Breton given name
 * quinto = fifth
 * perro = dog
 * tranvía = tram
 * zapato = shoe
 * Zurbán
 * zócalo-"Plaza Mayor"-main square in Latin American understanding

Discussion
(last lesson)←Lesson 1: Pronunciation→(next lesson)


text: Deutsch/Übung/adjectives

title: Deutsch/Übung/adjectives


text:
Program orientation

Foundation.
The World Commission on Environment and Development drew attention to the common challenges of population growth, the need for strategies for sustaining food security and the need to conserve natural resources. Agenda 21, the plan of action for implementing sustainable development elaborated further. It states :

"Major adjustments are needed in agricultural, environmental and macroeconomic policy, at both national and international levels, in developed as well as developing countries, to create the conditions for sustainable agriculture and rural development. The major objective of sustainable agriculture and rural development is to increase food production in a sustainable way and enhance food security. This will involve education initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the development of appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies of nutritionally adequate food, access to those supplies by vulnerable groups, and production for markets; employment and income generation to alleviate poverty; and natural resource management and environmental protection." (Agenda 21, 1992).

Definitions of sustainable agriculture are generally concerned with the need for agricultural practices to be economically viable, to meet human needs for food, to be environmentally positive, and to be concerned with quality of life. Since these objectives can be achieved in a number of different ways, sustainable agriculture is not linked to any particular technological practice. Nor is sustainable agriculture the exclusive domain of organic farming. Rather, sustainable agriculture is thought of in terms of its adaptability and flexibility over time to respond to the demands for food and fiber (both high and low), its demands on natural resources for production, and its ability to protect the soil and the resources. This goal requires an efficient use of technology in a manner conducive to sustainability. Finally, because agriculture is affected by changes in market and resource decisions in other sectors and regions, it is important that these changes do not provide a rationale for depleting the agricultural resource base locally. (Wilson and Tyrchniewicz. Agriculture and sustainable development: policy analysis on the Great Plains. 1995)

Agriculture and Aquaculture will remain a major contributor to the economies of several developing countries such as Vietnam, particularly in the Mekong Delta regions. However, its share of the GDP will progressively decline. The agricultural and aquacultural sector is undergoing rapid changes as a consequence of both technological progress and economic forces which call for an increased market focus, competitiveness and higher productivity.

Employment opportunities in the off-farm sector are expected to increase at a faster rate than in agriculture and aquaculture. This will further emphasize the present employment shift of agricultural/aquacultural graduates to related sectors, requiring a revision of existing curricula to better address educational needs. Furthermore, agricultural /aquacultural education curricula need to be redirected to more specifically address national and regional (local) problems. This reorientation should incorporate both the new role of market-oriented agriculture/aquaculture as well as issues of direct relevance to the improvement of subsistence agriculture/aquaculture and rural poverty.

The challenge from now is to move:

•	From immediate needs to long-term sustainability;

•	From disciplinary to interdisciplinary teaching and practices;

•	From agricultural colleges to colleges for rural development.

Topic:Sustainable_Rural_Development

title: Program orientation


text:
Aquaculture/Tasks

A technologist (‘Applied agrologist or aquaculturist’) from Rural Development College Level Program will mainly work as an operator and manager of an agriculture or aquaculture business farm. He/she has to:

1.	Understand the work functions and tasks associated with rural development, and the rural community.

2.	Organise and communicate information related to an agriculture or aquaculture business farm and its environment.

3.	Act safely in the workplace for him/herself and also for the environment.

4.	Handle and use chemical and biological agents safely.

5.	Operate and apply minor adjustments and maintenance of farm vehicles and equipment.

6.	Build and maintain farm buildings and structures.

7.	Understand the dynamics of the agriculture or aquaculture business sector.

8.	Understand and use the relationships between anatomical and physiological characteristics of various species, their cultivation and breeding.

9.	Prepare and use the soil and land for agriculture and/or aquaculture production.

10.	Apply and manage soil fertilisation and usage program in a sustainable development approach.

11.	Control and operate a plant production program including crops, trees and vegetables.

12.	Detect and manage pests and diseases of plants, fish and animals.

13.	Apply and manage a nutrition program.

14.	Apply and manage a health program.

15.	Apply and manage a water resource program for agriculture or aquaculture.

16.	Apply and manage a land resource program for agriculture or aquaculture.

17.	Apply and implement basic breeding and genetic improvement techniques.

18.	Control and operate an animal production program including swine, cattle and poultry.

19.	Control and operate an aquaculture production program including shellfish, finfish and aquatic plants to increase productivity, industry growth and promotion.

20.	Plan, operate and manage farm buildings, equipment, courtyard, land and soil for production including integrated farming.

21.	Apply and monitor the biological, chemical and physical interactions within the environment.

22.	Apply modern technologies in farming operations in respect to the environment, food safety and hygiene.

23.	Participate in conservation and wildlife protection, as relates to agriculture and aquaculture activities.

24.	Plan and manage the daily operations and production resources for human, material and product resources.

25.	Budget basic farming operations.

26.	Plan and manage the daily operations for agriculture or aquaculture business enterprise development and for market development.

27.	Market the products including basic knowledge of regional and international market trends.

28.	Maintain, harvest and implement post harvest techniques for agriculture or aquaculture products.

29.	Apply and manage quality control and assurance program.

30.	Understand legislations, codes of practice and standards for agriculture and aquaculture food quality and production.

31.	Maintain relations with the agriculture or aquaculture business sector including farmers, government agencies, international agencies, cooperatives and agriculture / aquaculture business enterprises.

32.	Participate in promotion and extension events for agriculture or aquaculture.

33.	Provide advise and extension services to farmers on main farming operations, such as usage of chemical, pesticide, biological agents, pests, diseases, cultivation, breeding, protection of environment, sustainable development, food safety and hygiene.

Topic:Sustainable_Rural_Development

title: Aquaculture/Tasks


text:
Research methods in psychology

Research methods in psychology is about how different types of scientific research methods can be utilised in psychological research.

Overview

Psychology is a science. Psychological research uses the scientific method to systematically investigate and understand human experience and behaviour (Willig, 2019). The scientific method is a systematic refinement of everyday thinking (Einstein, 1936).

A useful distinction is made between research which is:
 * quantitative (using numerical data) and
 * qualitative (using non-numerical data) research.

The approaches represent two sides of the same coin. Or, as Karl Marx wrote: "Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes. - Karl Marx “Capital: An abridged edition”, 1999, p. 322, OUP Oxford"

Though predating the term "qualitative research", early pioneers such as Freud, Jung, and Piaget utilised such methods in their early work (e.g., case studies) and, by doing so, provided the foundation for modern psychology (del Rio Carral & Tseliou, 2019).

Since the first experimental psychology laboratory was established in 1879 by Wundt, psychological research become highly quantitative during the 20th century. During the 21st century, the methods and foci of psychological research have expanded and diversified (Nelson, 2015).

Each research method has strengths and weaknesses, so the selection of which method(s) to use should depend on the aims and nature of the research question.

List of psychological research methods
Many different research methods are used in psychological research, including:

 * Action research
 * Case study in psychology
 * Content analysis
 * Correlational research
 * Delphi method
 * Discourse analysis
 * Ethnography
 * Experiment
 * Exploratory research
 * Grounded theory
 * Indigenous research
 * Meta-analysis
 * Observation
 * Participatory research
 * Qualitative research
 * Quantitative research
 * Quasi-experiment
 * Randomised experiment
 * Secondary research (Wikipedia)
 * Survey research - Survey research and design in psychology

title: Research methods in psychology


text:
User:Adabow

Please see my main page at Wikipedia here

title: User:Adabow


text:
File:Michael Coughlan Seduced by the dark side.pdf

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to format a movie script


text:
Friis Transmission Equation

Friis Transmission Equation
Friis Transmission Formula can be used to study RF communication links. The formula can be used in situations where the distance between two antennas are known and a suitable antenna needs to be found. Using Friis transmission equation, one can solve for the antenna gains needed at either the transmitter or receiver in order to meet certain design specifications.

$$ \frac{P_{receiver}}{P_{transmitter}} = G_t G_r\left(\frac{\lambda}{4\pi\R}\right )^2 $$

Where Preceiver is the recieved power in Watts (W), Ptransmitter is the transmitted power, Gt is the transmitting antenna's gain, Gr is the receiving antenna's gain, $$\lambda$$ is the wavelength of the transmitted and received signal in meters, and R is the distance between the antennas in meters. The gain of the antennas is not in decibels. To convert to the gain back to a power ratio use: $$ G = 10^\frac{G_{dB}}{10}$$.

Example 1
An engineer is designing a communications link at 3 GHz where the receiver sensitivity is such that $$1\mu W$$ of power is needed to overcome receiver noise. The receiving antenna gain is 8dB, the transmitter antenna gain is 10dB, the transmitting power level is 25 Watts, and the distance between the two antennas is 1km. Will the communications link work?

Solution

The problem is solved by first converting the frequency of 3 GHz to a wavelength $$\lambda$$, and converting the antenna gains from decibels to a power ratio.

$$\lambda=\frac{c}{f}$$ where c is the speed of light in meters per second, and f is the frequency in Hz. We will use a c of 300 million m/s. This means that lambda is 0.1 meters. Using the conversion formula given above, the transmitter antenna gain Gt is 10, and the receiver antenna gain is 6.3.

Using Friis Equation we have the following relation $$ P_{receiver} = P_{transmitter}G_tG_r\left(\frac{\lambda}{4\pi R}\right)^2$$ where the transmitted power is 25 Watts, and the distance R is 1000 meters. Using the given values Preceiver is $$ 99.88\cdot10^{-9}$$ or 99.88 nanowatts (nW) which is much less than the needed 1 microwatts needed to overcome receiver noise.

Answer The communication link will not work unless the antenna gains or the transmitter power levels are dramatically increased.

Example 2
If an engineer is designing a communications link with a receiver antenna gain of 10dB and transmitter antenna gain of 12dB at a frequency of 10GHz, how much power will be received at the receiver if the transmitter is transmitting with a power of 25 watts across a distance of 1 kilometer.

ans: -46.4623721 dBm

Resources
Friis Transmission Equation

title: Friis Transmission Equation


text:
User:Neurondev

I am a student at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs studying for my bachelors degree of science in electrical engineering. My area of interest is RF circuit design. A webpage documenting my involvement in the design and construction of a 3GHz frequency synthesizer can be found at Neurondev.com

title: User:Neurondev


text:
User:Phussey

My Page on Wiki

title: User:Phussey


text:
User talk:Bookinvestor~enwikiversity

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title: User talk:Bookinvestor~enwikiversity


text:
Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War

"The absence of romance in my history will, I fear, detract somewhat from its interest; but if it be judged useful by those inquirers who desire an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the future, which in the course of human things must resemble if it does not reflect it, I shall be content. In fine, I have written my work, not as an essay which is to win the applause of the moment, but as a possession for all time." — Thucydides I,22.

A Reading Group
A reading group for discussion of Thucydides History of The Peloponnesian War (431 - 404 BC). If you are interested in this text, please add your name to the list of participants and put this page on your watchlist.

News
2008-03-24: We have finished the first two books - in 12 chat sessions (logs available) - international collaboration with Italian, German Wikiversity/Wikibooks.

Structure

The Peloponnesian War is arranged in the following books:

 * {| class="prettytable"

!author !book !time (BC) !status
 * Thucydides
 * Book 1
 * [[Image:Green tick.svg|10px]]
 * Book 2
 * 431 - 429/428
 * [[Image:Green tick.svg|10px]]
 * Book 3
 * 428 - 426/425
 * discussion
 * Book 4
 * Book 5
 * Book 6
 * Book 7
 * Book 8
 * Xenophon (book: Hellenica)
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 5
 * Book 6
 * Book 7
 * Book 8
 * Xenophon (book: Hellenica)
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 6
 * Book 7
 * Book 8
 * Xenophon (book: Hellenica)
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 8
 * Xenophon (book: Hellenica)
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Xenophon (book: Hellenica)
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 1
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 2
 * }
 * Book 2
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The Text
The Peloponnesian War by Thucydides

 * different translations
 * Richard Crawley: The History of the Peloponnesian War
 * Thomas Hobbes
 * Benjamin Jowett

Next meeting

 * date: postponed untill after the northern spring or southern autumn/fall.
 * time:

 * topic: Book 3, aphorism 50-75
 * (Even if you can not read all aphorisms before, we can give you a short intro -> My history teacher always told: history is better in one aspect than e.g. mathematics because you can join at any time.)
 * place: IRC chat, we will join at #thucydides (don't forget to also look in #wikiversity-en)

 * add yourself here, if you want to join:
 * Erkan Yilmaz
 * Daanschr
 * Pietrodn
 * Enlil Ninlil
 * you ?

Themes for next meeting

 * topic: ...

 * organization:
 * experimenting with an audio session ?
 * using/creating a mailing list (e.g. open or closed) ? you can get info about meeting times, ... by mail

What was done so far ?

 * past meetings

Proposals
(Propositions of Daan)
 * (Some typical questions a historian should ask): What is the purpose of the text of Thucydides? (Does he have a political aim? Is he honest with his facts?) What story is being told? Do we miss some information? What can we know about the Greek society thanks to the text?
 * In what way can we improve the Wikipedia articles related to the Peloponnesian Wars and Thucydides? There is a big chance that the wikipedia articles have not been created by people who had the original sources or high quality secondary literature at hand, so improvement could be easy. For more information, see Wikipedia:WikiProject critical source examination.
 * The reading groups are a new phenomenon. How can we make them more fun in order to atract a base of people who want to stay? One way is to have an active social bonding of something, but it should be linked to the activity, the reading and discussing of books.

title: Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War