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Comparative law and justice/Cameroon

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
With an area slightly larger than California currently at 475,440 km2 when combining water and land, Cameroon (Cameroun in French) is located in Central Africa. Bordering the Bight of Biafra, Chad, Gabon, the Central Africa Republic, and the Republic of Congo. The land is often referred to as the hinge of Africa, that is largely in part due to several thermal springs found in the area which suggest the continuance of volcanic activity in the region. Cameroon is home to Mount Cameroon; an active volcano which is also the largest Mountain in Sub-Saharan Central Africa. Cameroon's climate is diverse and varies with terrain, one can find ideal tropical conditions about the coast as well as hot and densely vegetated areas with minimum amounts of yearly rain fall in the Northern areas of Cameroon.

In 2003 The population of Cameroon was estimated by the United Nations at 16,018,000, which placed it as number 59 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In that year approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 43% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 99 males for every 100 females in the country in 2003. According to the UN the annual population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 1.83%, with a projected population for the year 2015 at 18,860,000. Though Cameroon has well documented natural hazards, most have been identified in the form of volcanic eruption and periodic gas release into the air which have caused the death of approximately 1700 people. On the other hand, Cameroon has proven very resourceful, specially when compared to sister African nations. The country has rich natural resources which include but are not limited to petroleum, bauxite, iron, timber as well as hydropower.

Like many other African nations Cameroon has been no stranger to the devastating effects of HIV/AIDS epidemic. The United Nations estimated that 11.8% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. Formerly known as the French Cameroun and the British Cameroons, the two lastly merged in 1961 to form the present country.

Currently there are 286 individual languages listed for Cameroon. Of those, 278 are living languages, 3 are second languages without mother-tongue speakers, and 5 have no known speakers. Though the vast number of languages and dialects is nothing less than impressive for an area of such size, the official languages of the Republic of Cameroon are English and French.

Religion: Categorized by 3 dominant groups; Indigenous Beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%.

Life expectancy: Total Population: 54.39 years male: 53.52 years, female: 55.28 years (2011 est.)

Ethnic Groups: Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%. "

Literacy: Definition: age 15 and over can read and write. Total Population: 67.9% Male: 77% Female: 59.8% (2001 est.)

Brief History
During the late 1500's the Portuguese arrived on Cameroon's coast, malaria prevented significant European settlement and conquest of the interior until the late 1870s, when large supplies of the malaria suppressant, quinine, became available. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of slaves. The slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-19th century. Christian missions established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in Cameroonian life. Beginning in 1884, all of present-day Cameroon and parts of several of its neighbors became the German colony of Kamerun, with a capital first at Buea and later at Yaounde. After World War I, this colony was partitioned between Britain and France under a June 28, 1919 League of Nations mandate. In 1955, the outlawed Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC), based largely among the Bamileke and Bassa ethnic groups, began an armed struggle for independence in French Cameroon. This rebellion continued, with diminishing intensity, even after independence. Estimates of death from this conflict vary from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands. French Cameroon achieved independence in 1960 as the Republic of Cameroon. The following year the largely Muslim northern two-thirds of British Cameroon voted to join Nigeria; the largely Christian southern third voted to join with the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The formerly French and British regions each maintained substantial autonomy.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Cameroon has the best commodity economy in sub-Sahara Africa, mainly due to its oil resources and favorable agriculture conditions. Unfortunately it currently faces many of the same problems which plague other underdeveloped nations, such as stagnant per capita income, a relatively inequitable distribution of income, a top-heavy civil service, endemic corruption, and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Cameroon has indeed made valiant efforts to improve its efficiency in the fields of agriculture, trade, as well as the rehabilitation of Domestic Banks. Cameroon is currently involved in reform programs with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in an attempt to stabilize the current financial situation of the country.

Cameroon economy factors
GDP (purchasing power parity): 44.65 billion GDP - per capita (PPP): $2,300 GDP - composition by sector:   agriculture: 20%, industry: 30.9%, services: 49.1%

Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.3% highest 10%: 35.4%

Unemployment rate: 30% Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber Industries: petroleum production and refining, aluminum production, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber, ship repair Industrial production growth rate: 4%.

All the above are product of (2010 est).

Governance
Constitution de 1972 http://www.prc.cm/instit/consti.htm

Mainly fabricated modeling colonization, the Republic of Cameroon is governed by a democratic multi-party, much like the French. The leader of the (CDPM) Cameroon's Democratic Movement is President Paul Biya who is only the second and current ruler of Cameroon. Image:Biya behind podium.jpgthe Legislative (National Assembly), Executive and Judicial branch as well as the Prime Ministry, and the senate all report and conduct their activities from the Yaounde which is recognized as the political capital of Cameroon. The CPDM is the strongest political party of the land, it controls majority of the parliaments and ministerial positions.

The Head of State is Directly elected in general elections. (absolute majority with 2nd round if necessary)

The Head of Government is Appointed.

Electoral System (Chamber 1) Parallel (Segmented) (PR Lists and Majoritarian constituencies)

The President is elected by popular vote to serve a 7-year term. There are 180 members in the National Assembly, they are elected through direct popular vote to serve a 7-year term. Only the president can lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature. Of the 180 members, 25 are women.

Elections
The requirements for voting are as follows:

Voters must be a minimum of 20 years of age, have Cameroonian citizenship and be able to read and write English or French. Qualified Electors must meet the same criteria with the exception of age which currently stipulates 23 years. Both groups; voters and eligible Electors are subject to ineligibility if it is determined that allegiance to a foreign state is determined.

Judicial Review
Constitutional review in Cameroon is categorized a process known as FRANCOPHONE AFRICA which is mainly influenced by the French model of 1958 (Conseil Constitutionnel - Constitutional Council), such review operates under the jurisdiction of special constitutional chambers of the Supreme Court. the implementation of Constitutional review was enacted in September 1, 1961 it established the Federal Court (Article 33) which was "empowered only to decide on jurisdictional disputes between State bodies, but not to decide cases concerning the constitutional review of statutes".

LEGAL SYSTEM

"The legal system of Cameroon is based on the French civil law system, with English common law influence; however, the legal system includes both national law and customary law, and many cases can be tried using either". This makes Cameroon one of the few examples of such a dual legal system in the world.

Newly introduced laws may can be found in Government Gazzette they are published in both English and French, both judges and ministry have legal access to the law Gazzette. though the practice helps maintain an organized record of laws introduced it plays a minimal role in the everyday lives of common Cameroonians the majority of the population abide by and live based on deeply rooted custom, tribal laws and society norms.

"The Constitution provides for a fair public hearing in which the defendant is presumed innocent, there is no jury system. Because appointed attorneys received little compensation, the quality of legal representation for indigent persons often is poor. The Bar Association and some voluntary organizations, such as the Cameroonian Association of Female Jurists, offer free assistance in some cases. Trials normally were public, except in cases with political overtones judged disruptive of social peace".

"''Customary law is based upon the traditions of the ethnic group predominant in the region and is adjudicated by traditional authorities of that group. Accordingly, particular points of customary law differ depending upon the region and the ethnic group where a case is being tried. In some areas, traditional courts reportedly have tried persons accused of some offenses, such as practicing witchcraft, by subjecting them to an ordeal, such as drinking poison. Customary courts may exercise jurisdiction only with the consent of both parties to a case; either party has the right to have any case heard by a national rather than a customary court, and customary law is supposed to be valid only when it is not "repugnant to natural justice, equity, and good conscience." However, many citizens in rural areas remain unaware of their rights under civil law and have been taught since birth that customary laws form the rules by which they must abide. Consequently, traditional courts remain important in rural areas and serve as an alternative for settling disputes. Their authority varies by region and ethnic group, but they often are the arbiters of property and domestic disputes and may serve a probate function as well. Most traditional courts permit appeal of their decisions to traditional authorities of higher rank''".

Courts and Criminal Law
The court system includes the Supreme Court, a Court of Appeals in each of the 10 provinces, and courts of first instance in each of the country's 58 divisions. Military tribunals may exercise jurisdiction over civilians not only when the President declares martial law, but also in cases involving civil unrest or organized armed violence.

Punishment
The death penalty is observed for crimes such as: treason, first degree murder, conspiracy and accomplice to murder, violence or assaults against government employees, and in cases of aggravated theft.

Persons 18 year old or younger are not subject to the death penalty, although prison sentences can range from 2 to 10 years depending on the gravity of the crime.

Traffic in toxic or dangerous wastes was made a capital offence by Act No. 89/027 of December 29, 1989.

Pregnant women cannot be executed until after childbirth (Criminal Code, art. 2.3).

All death sentences are subject to mercy petition to the president, who exercises discretionary power based on merit. No capital punisment is ever carried out without the president's review and rejection of the petition for clemency.

Legal Personnel
The Ministry of Justice directs, coordinates and supervises Government policy with regard to the administration of justice as well as oversees and supervises its key actors. The latter are made up of persons who dispense or demand justice, such as judges of the bench and prosecuting judges and the auxiliaries of justice who ensure the smooth operation of the administration of justice by either assisting the judge, for instance Court Registrars and judicial police officers. The judges who preside over Traditional Law Courts are usually appointed by the Minister of Justice from notables and other persons knowledgeable in the customs and traditions of the area to be served. Other judges are appointed from persons with at least a master's degree in law who have undergone a two- year training at the National School of Administration and Magistracy (ENAM) in Yaoundé. Entry into the school is by competitive examination, and on graduation, the intending judge may be appointed either to the bench or to the prosecution department. As a career profession, a judge's progress depends on seniority and the ability to impress senior judges, although increasingly, political loyalty and reliability is beginning to count. "An intending advocate must be a Cameroonian with a law degree who has obtained a certificate of proficiency to practice. This certificate is issued only after two years of pupilage followed by passing a qualifying examination. All advocates are members of the Cameroon Bar Association".

Law Enforcement
Information regarding the recruiting and the process of training potential law enforcement personnel in Cameroon is very vague and misleading. although base on prior literature of countries with similar judicial and governmental structures such practices would likely be categorized as centralized type structures which abide to a single set of laws throughout an entire country. On the same token there is the fact that Cameroon also operates under customary law which begs the question of whether this multi system government actually fall under any of the recognized families of law, which are well described in the fifth edition publication by Philip L. Reichel "Comparative Ciminal Justice Systems."

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Crime is a particular ascending problem in Cameroon, crimes against personal property are common and often involve severe violece. Car jackings, burglaries, assaults, robberies and armed banditry are all specially growing problems throughtout all regions in Cameroon. Public transportation is also a real threat, drivers often play roles in robbing, raping and assaulting customers. Though Cameroon still operates as a third world state, criminals have been able to incorporate cyber crime into society. Cameroon. The crimes includes but are not limited to "adoptions, insurance claims, dating, real estate, the provision of domestic services (such as nannies and household help), agricultural products, antiques, and exotic and domesticated animals".

Trafficking in persons has been categorized as a major occurrence, "Cameroon serves as source, transit, and destination country for women and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation". Often the victims of traffickers are children, they are moved both in and out of the county and forced to into clandestine industries which include sex, vending, planting and intense laboring. "Cameroon is a transit country for children trafficked between Gabon and Nigeria, and from Nigeria to Saudi Arabia; it is a source country for women transported by sex-trafficking rings to Europe"

"Trends in the reported rate of crime in Cameroon since 1995 have been upward in all areas of crime. Murder increased from 1995 to 1998 from 0.23 to 0.38 per 100,000 population; sex offenses from 0.23 to 1.37; rape from 0.17 to 0.45; serious assault from 0.05 to 1.17; theft (all kinds) from 4.69 to 31.73; aggravated theft from 1.89 to 6.79; auto theft from 0.22 to 5.05; other thefts from 2.58 to 19.89; and total offenses from 13.45 to 78.17. The robbery rate of 0.39 and the breaking and entering rate of 1.50 were reported for 1995 but not 1998. While the rise in reported crime between 1995 and 1998 was, on average, five-fold, much of this huge increase may be the result of better recording and reporting practices".

Drug use and trafficking are also a common type of crime in Cameroon, both males and females engage in the use of Cannabis, Emphatamines, pharmaceuticals and traditional hallucinants. indigent children also engage in drug offenses, the drug of choice for this group is solvents- they are readily available and cheap.

Family Law
While the minimum legal age for a woman to marry is 15, many families facilitated the marriage of young girls by the age of 12. Early marriage was prevalent in the northern regions of Adamaoua, North, and particularly the remote Far North Region, where many girls as young as nine faced severe health risks from pregnancies. There were no statistics on the prevalence of child marriage.

Cameroon is a Country which is still very much influenced by Customary law also known as native law. Customary law is often unwriten and it covers areas including all aspects of marriage, farming,forestry, hunting, inheritance and probate issues. this customs are rooted deep in believe and culture of the land and often work adjacent to written or conventional legislature.

Social Inequality
In relation to marriage if a husband does not approve his wife's employment the law allows for him to oppose and force termination of the same, likewise if he wants to end his wife's commercial activities he may do so by notifying the commerce authority and based on the argument for familial interest. Cameroon laws also do not specifically outlaw domestic violence, eventhoug assault is still prohibited and punishable by imprisonment. The law also does not recognize rape to occur between married couples. Social inequality Among the Fulani, Grassfielders, Bamiléké, and Bamoun the traditional social organization included hierarchical relations between members of groups with different status (royalty, nobility, commoners, and slaves). Other ethnic groups have a more egalitarian social organization in which age and gender are the major factors in social stratification. New forms of social inequality based on access to political power and level of formal education coexist with indigenous forms of stratification. Although a cosmopolitan lifestyle has developed among the wealthy and the intelligentsia, markers of cultural distinctiveness and obligation to kin and ethnic compatriots remain. Regional differences in wealth also exist: the far northern and eastern areas have less access to wealth and infrastructure.

Read more: Culture of Cameroon - traditional, history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Cameroon.html#ixzz1LHV1djhF "Customary law is far more discriminatory against women, since in many regions a woman traditionally was regarded as the property of her husband".

Human Rights
Time and again the government of the Republic of Cameroon has been accused as poor human rights advocates; governmental security forces have been linked with committing numerous unlawful killings, engaging in torture, beatings, and particularly the brutal treatment of detainees and prisoners. Though much controversy on such disparities of government have been largely publicized Cameroon does have in its legislature a written set of fundamental rights which were stablished with the purpose to protect and aid the people of this vast land.

RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

Section 1: Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:

a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life

b. Disappearance The constitution and law prohibit such practices;

c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishmen The constitution and law prohibit such practices.

d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention.

Arrest and Detention The law requires police to obtain an arrest warrant except when a person is caught in the act of committing a crime.

e. Denial of Fair Public Trial The constitution and law provide for an independent judiciary.

Trial Procedures The law provides for a fair public hearing in which the defendant is presumed innocent.

f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence The constitution and law prohibit such actions.

Section 2: Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:

a. Freedom of Speech and Press The law provides for freedom of speech and of the press.

b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association

Freedom of Assembly The law provides for freedom of assembly however, the government restricted this right in practice.

Freedom of Association The law provides for freedom of association, but the government limited this right in practice.

c. Freedom of Religion The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, there were a few exceptions. Religious groups must be approved and registered with the Ministry of Territorial Administration and Decentralization to function legally.

d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons

Protection of Refugees The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the government has established a system of providing protection to refugees.

Section 3: Respect for Political Rights. The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government, The law provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefullY.

Government Corruption and Transparency The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption.

Section 4: Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights.

Section 5: Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons. The law does not explicitly forbid discrimination based on race, language, or social status, but does prohibit discrimination based on gender and mandates that "everyone has equal rights and obligations."

Women The law prohibits rape.

Children The law provides for a child's right to education.

Trafficking in Persons The law does not prohibit all forms of trafficking in persons.

Persons with Disabilities The law provides certain rights to persons with disabilities, including access to public buildings, medical treatment, and education, and the government was obliged to provide part of the educational expense of persons with disabilities, to employ them where possible, and to provide them with public assistance when necessary. Access to public secondary education is free for persons with disabilities and children born of poor parents with disabilities.

Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination Homosexual activity is illegal, with a possible prison sentence of six months to five years and a possible fine ranging from approximately $40 to $400 (20,000 to 200,000 CFA francs).

Section 6: Worker Rights

a. The Right of Association The law allows workers to form and join trade unions.

b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively The constitution and law provide for collective bargaining between workers and management as well as between labor federations and business associations in each sector of the economy.

c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor The constitution and law prohibit forced or compulsory labor, including by children.

d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment The law generally protects children from exploitation in the workplace and specifies penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment for infringement.

e. Acceptable Conditions of Work.

Though legislation clearly exists, it appears to serve in a minimum capacity the people of Cameroon. Reports of abuse and inequality are vast and usually involve law officials, politicians and governmental staff. among the most affected are women, children the encarcerated, homosexuals and most of those belonging to the lower class. Poverty of urban refugees force them to accommodate themselves in the shanty areas of Yaoundé and Douala, where they live in very precarious situations and are exposed to numerous health hazards. They leave everything behind and do not have essential domestic items at their disposal and their vulnerability situation in Cameroon does not enable them to procure such items.

title: Comparative law and justice/Cameroon


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Comparative law and justice/Yemen

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Dmccarthy 8039 22:50, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

Basic Information

Demographic Characteristics- (Information from 2010)

Population- 23,495,361

Age Structure of Citizens-

 * 0-14 years: 43.9% (male 5,108,423/female 4,925,523)
 * 15-64 years: 53.5% (male 6,215,999/female 6,013,334)
 * 65 years and older: 2.6% (male  285,752/ female   309,207)

Median Age-

 * Male: 17.9 years
 * Female:18 years

Population Growth Rate- 2.713%

Great Migration Rate- 0/1,000 people

Urbanization- 31% of population

Geographical Information

Coordinates- 15.00 North, 48.00 East

Region- Middle East

Continent- Asia

Total Landmass- 527,968 sq.km.
 * 0 sq. km. water
 * Compares to twice the size of Wyoming (U.S.)

Land Bordering Other Countries- 1,906km.

Neighboring Countries-
 * Oman to the East
 * Saudi Arabia to the North

Neighboring Seas-
 * Arabian Sea to the South
 * Gulf of Aden to the South
 * Red Sea to the West

Climate- Yemen has a hot, desert like atmosphere throughout much of the region, especially in the east. There is humidity along the west coast, bordering the Red Sea, and seasonal monsoons occur in the mountains.

Terrain- The country has many different types of landscapes and landforms. There are coastal plains in the west, and southwest, which carry a climate from hot in lower elevations, and cool in higher elevations. Agriculture is cultivated in the Coastal Plain Region. There is the Yemen Mountain Massif, where western and southern sides recieve more rainfall than the east. The Eastern Plateau Region is generally hot and receives little rainfall. The Ramlat as Sabatayn sand desert is in between the Eastern Plateau and the Yemen Mountain Massif, and the Rub Al Khali desert is in the north, reaching into Saudi Arabia. There are also many islands that belong to Yemen, one of the most popular is the Island of Socotra.

Large Cities-
 * Capital: Sanea- Population 1,937,451
 * Al Hudayda-Population 617,871
 * Ta'izz-Population 615,222

About the People- The main ethnic groups of Yemen include mostly Arab, Afro-Arab, South Asians, and Europeans. The official language is Arabic, and although there is no official religion, the most popular are Muslim, including Shia and Sunni, Judaism, Christianity, and Hinduism.

Economics- 70% of government money comes from petroleum products from within the country's oil reserves. The GDP, according to the World Bank was 26,365,250 million dollars in 2009. With a 35% unemployment rate, and around 45.2% poverty level, the Yemeni economy is suffering. With oil prices rising, however, the country may see a positive increase in money flow, but for how long?

Health and Education

Birth Rate- 37.37 births/1,000 people

Death Rate- 7.24 deaths/1,000 people

Life Expectancy-

 * Total Population: 63.36
 * Male: 61.35
 * Female: 65.47

Birthrate- 4.81 children born/woman

Literacy Rates-
 * Total Population:50.2%
 * Male:70.5%
 * Female:30.5%

Educational Attendance-
 * Total: 9 Years
 * Male:11 Years
 * Female:7 Years

Brief History

Yemen is a small country located in the Middle Eastern region of Asia. The territory is the home of rich culture and history dating back to the 10th Century B.C. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Republic of Yemen was founded when the Yemen Arab Republic, or northern Yemen merged with the "Marxist-dominated Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen," in 1990. The territory of what is now Yemen, however, is a land that has been caught in an enormous amount of violence. In 1994, civil war broke out between the people of the north and south, and as a result, the northern Yemen Republic won, keeping Yemen unified.

Governance

The Republic of Yemen’s legal system was established at the foundation of the country in May of 1990. Since then, President Marshal Ali Abdullah Saleh has been a primary leader the country, along with a constitution, until the present day. The Republic of Yemen practices Islamic Shari’ah Law, a substantive based law system. Citizens of the country vote for members of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, along with individual local officials. Although there may be three branches of the government, the Yemeni government differs greatly from governmental structures of the west.

According to the Constitution of the Republic of Yemen, the executive entity is made up of three branches. The first branch is the President, who has specific powers as one of the most prominent members of the government. Some of the powers include declaring a state of emergency, naming members of the national defense council, and approving capital punishments. To be eligible to run for Presidential office, candidates need to be at least 40 years of age, a descendant of Yemeni parents, practicing political and civil rights, and to be of good Islamic character; not having any prior arrests or past discrepancies. There is also a Vice President, by the name of Abd Al-Rab Mansur Hadi, who must temporarily hold office if the Presidential spot were to become vacant. The Vice President would remain as President until a new election had occurred, and would soon be replaced. The second branch of the executive entity of government is the Council of Ministers. Within the council lies the Prime Minister, who is currently Ali Muhammad Mujawwar. The Prime Minister’s duty is to be the head of the government, whereas the President’s position is to be the head of the state. The President selects the Prime Minister, and in order to be eligible, the person must have many of the same qualifications as the President. The cabinet of the Prime Minister is known as the Council of Ministers, and according to Article 127 of the Constitution, “All state administrative agencies, corporations, without exception, are under the directives of the Council of Ministers.” The third branch of the executive system would be the local bodies of authority. The local bodies are responsible for sub-areas of the country. Governors and local authorities are all elected by the people.

The legislative body of government is essentially bi-cameral. The 301 members of the House of Representatives are responsible for holding Shari’ah Islam as the source for all laws. The House meets in the capital, Sana’a, where they, “shall enact laws, sanction general state policy and the socio-economic plan, and approve government budgets and final accounts. It shall also direct and monitor the activities of the Executive Authority as stipulated in this constitution.” The Legislative authority evidently performs a system of checks upon the executive branch, showing that the two bodies of government have important relations with one another. In order to be eligible to run for the House of Representatives, the person must be a citizen, must be at least 25 years old, needs to be literate, and of decent Islamic character. There is also an appointed Shura Council, which shares the power with the House of Representatives. The Council was appointed by the President for the first time in February of 2001. The Judicial Branch is seemed to be a separate entity within the Constitution. Specifically, the Republic of Yemen Constitution calls for an,“autonomous authority,” or, self governing power. The courts are responsible for both criminal and civil disputes that are risen. The Supreme Court of the Republic is the highest judicial power, being able to perform judicial review upon laws and cases that are unconstitutional. The Supreme Court can also oust important members such as the President, the Vice President, and the Prime Minister.

In the Republic of Yemen, their criminal law would fall under the Shari'a code of law. That type of law has three categories of crime. The Hudud crimes are the most serious, for they are specifically mentioned in the Qur'an, where they are thought to be offenses directly involving God. Crimes such as adultery, use of alcohol, theft, and apostasy are all mentioned in the Islamic holy book as the most serious offenses. Qisas are serious crimes, but are not considered to be as serious as Hudud Crimes. Qisas crimes involve other individuals, which include crimes of murder and assault. Tazir crimes are much less serious offenses, which may include social violations, such as improper dress, or eating pork.

Elections
Elections are conducted by different entities of the government. The people elect the President of the Republic by popular vote, who then appoints the Vice President and the Prime Minister. The President, however, needs to be endorsed by at least two members of the Parliament. In 2001, the Presidential terms were moved up to seven years, and the Parliament up to six years. The Prime Minister chooses his cabinet, and does so under the eye of the House of Representatives. Local authorities are elected by the people in their individual bordered areas.

Courts and Criminal Law
In the Republic of Yemen, the judicial system upholds the Shari’ah law of the country. In its Islamic nature, the Yemeni Court system is much different than what is known to the West. The basic structures of the courts include first instance, appeals, and the Supreme Courts. There are no separate courts for criminal and civil disputes; however, there are designated sections under the first instance courts for criminal, civil, commercial, and personal status cases. First instance court is where initial disputes go to be heard and settled by an inquisitorial system. If people are displeased with the outcome of the case, and they feel that they have been violated, they can appeal to the Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals are in each of the 18 provinces, which have three bench judges. The Supreme Court, located in the capital of San’a, is the court with greatest responsibility. The Supreme Court can handle a final appeal from the Appeals Court and form a ruling. The Supreme Court can also inspect the constitutionality of laws legislators form, and rulings lower courts make. The highest court handles much of administrative business of the judiciary system and can examine election disputes as well as jurisdiction problems between other courts. The court also has the power to try important officials such as the President, Vice President, and Prime Minister. The country’s only military section is among the eight divisions of the Supreme Court, along with Administrative, Commercial, Scrutiny, Family, Constitutional, Appeals. Overall, the Supreme Court carries a large responsibility within the government. As in many Islamic Law countries, the Republic of Yemen follows a niyaba system of prosecution for criminal courts. The niyaba prosecution system enables Yemeni prosecutors to, “possess both investigatory and prosecutorial powers.” The cases weigh heavily upon confessions and witnesses, and the role of the family who has been victimized is important. Lawyers do not have a great role in Shari’ah Law, where citizens are allowed to have a lawyer, but many are expected to, “represent oneself in criminal matters.” There are no juries, but only judges who are believed to uphold the interests of the Qur’an.

Punishment
The Yemeni punishment system is somewhat discrete in many ways. It is difficult to find official information about specific crimes and their punishments. There are, however, controversial issues that arise in their justice system. The Yemeni government, like many other Arab nations, imposes capital and corporal punishments for crimes. Even though there are many legal documents protecting citizens from torture and cruel treatment, corporal punishment still exists as a punishment for a crime. The corporal punishments the world often hears about through the media are usually for hadd offenses. The offenses are specifically laid out in the Qur’an and include acts of unlawful intercourse, drinking alcohol, and highway robbery. Once the defendant is considered guilty, criminals are subject to flogging, stoning, execution, exile, and amputation. Most often, however, people who are convicted of hadd offenses receive milder sentences. Qisa punishments are given to citizens who have committed a wrong against another human, not the Qur’an. Although sources are limited concerning the direct actions of a qisa crime, sanctions such as imprisonment, and other forms of corporal or capital punishment are likely. Corporal punishment is prohibited for children, or those who are under 18 years of age. Problems arise, however, when the official age of a juvenile offender cannot be determined, for Yemen has problems with birth registration. Once a problem occurs, an expert must be summoned to try and determine the offender’s age through unexplained tactics, for they lack many forensic science tactics. Capital punishment is also a punishment in the Yemen, a common feature throughout the Middle East, and many other parts of the world. According to a capital punishment organization in the UK, they claim 19 executions were carried out by firing squad, the most commonly used way to execute an offender in the country. Execution can also be done by stoning, where a person is usually buried up to their waist and the community throws stones at them until they are dead. Capital and corporal punishments, however, are most often sanctions when some of the most serious crimes are committed. With limited statistical information regarding imprisonment rates, it is difficult to draw conclusions about Yemen’s prisons. In 1998, there were 14,000 people in government prisons, either already sentenced, or awaiting trial. According to the World Prison Population List, the prison population rate per 100,000 people was 83. That number does not include those who were imprisoned in private jails in the more rural, tribal areas. By American standards, Yemen would be considered to have a low imprisonment rate, for the United States’ rate is 738 per 100,000. In more rural parts of Yemen, many victims of crime will rely on a sheikh, or a tribal elder, in order to settle disputes. Often times, a tribal leader will own a private prison, enabling him to perform acts prohibited by the Constitution. In many of the private prisons, health and treatment conditions are considered inhumane, however, there are not many governmental officials around to enforce the Constitutional laws prohibiting unfair treatments. The Yemen system of punishment is based off of Sharia Law, which ultimately possesses the means for revenge. Often times, in tribal communities, citizens will rely on sheikhs, who are religiously trained individuals, to settle disputes. There are often forms of retribution for those who have been victims to a crime. Either the victim, or the victims family will be paid in order for the harm done. In Middle Eastern culture, there is also a lot of shame that comes with committing an offense that is punishable by law. Those who commit crimes are seen as sinful, and then looked down upon by the community. Without sufficient evidence, one may assume that offenders could not want to commit offenses again, with fears of harsh punishments, and sharp looks from fellow community members.

Legal Personnel
In order to become a lawyer, one must attend a four year university and graduate with a law degree. The High Judicial Institute has a three year mandatory course for one who wishes to become a judge. Students must have a law degree, so they can undergo advanced training and focus on resources for general judge training. The Supreme Judicial Council plays a role in who gets hired for many of the lower courts, while the President appoints people to senior judiciary positions. The Supreme Judicial Council has a significant authority over the judiciary, which is headed by the President, and two other members of the executive branch. The council is responsible for drafting a budget for the Judicial System of the lower courts, and the Supreme Court has its own budget formed by the President. There are also no Constitutional limits for the members of the council. The people of Yemen have recently been criticizing the President’s powers over the government. Although the Constitution claims that judges are independent and not subjected to any authority except the law, the President plays a huge role within the judiciary system.

Law Enforcement
Yemen’s police structure is somewhat ambiguous to a foreign researcher. The country appears to have a Centralized Multiple Uncoordinated System which has three departments. The State security force is referred to as the Political Security Organization, or the PSO. The independent agency reports directly to the President, and has no supervision from the judicial system. The force has jurisdiction over the entire country. The Criminal Investigative Department, or the CID, directly reports to the Ministry of Interior. The CID is responsible for the criminal investigations and everyday arrests. The Central Security Organization, or CSO, also works directly for the Ministry of Interior. The force can be qualified as paramilitary, having a force that is militarized, but not officially part of the country’s national combative services. What makes the security forces Central Multiple Uncoordinated, is that the federal government in charge of all three police structures. Three agencies indicates that there are multiple policing bodies, and each coordinates their own agenda according to their supervising agency of the central government. Each organization, however, has been accused of corruption, and according to the Interpol Organization, the country rates as one of the highest corrupted countries. The police, especially, are considered to be the most corrupt agencies in Yemen. In a survey taken by the Yemen Polling Center, 59% of the responders claimed that security forces were the most corrupt of all public agencies. In the U.S. Embassy’s report on Yemeni corruption, the text claims, “Law enforcement and investigations are believed to be weak, ineffective and sporadic due to corruption; a lack of training, capacity and resources; and a slim government presence in and control over many rural areas.) The PSO is said to be one of the most corrupt security agencies, for they do not adhere to any judiciary review.  The CID is said to accept small bribes, as a result from low pay, and the CSO, a paramilitary security force, has been widely accused of human rights abuse.  Reports claim that political opposition leaders, journalists, and religious scholars have been the ones most targeted by the Political Security Organization.  In some cases, the PSO have forced closure on media and public agencies independent of the government, as a result from restrictions of expression.  In another survey conducted by the Yemen Human Rights Board, women have reported being raped if not present with a male of their family. Raping of women would ultimately keep females from walking the streets without a male family member, fearing for their safety. The troubling report, however, is that the security and armed forces were involved in the raping of women. The Republic of Yemen has not conducted any corruption investigations, and not much is known about the problems within the police agencies. Some high ranking judges, however, have attempted to make changes, but do not have the power to do so; for they are independent from the executive branch. With a lack of evidence, it is tough to say whether or not Yemeni police are highly educated. The average amount of years a male goes to school, however, is said to be approximately 11 years, therefore, the education for policing cannot be too extensive. The Central Security Organization is said to be the closest form of a public military unit. With lack of supporting evidence, it is difficult to make assumptions about what the members do for security. One problem Yemen police have had, however is terrorism, and terrorist organizations seeking refuge in the country. With a large desert and terrain criminals can easily hide in, terrorists have fled from countries cracking down on terrorism, and have hid in Yemen. President Salih has promised to become more strict on the criminals, and according to the Council on Foreign Relations, “In February 2009, Saudi authorities released a list of eighty-five most wanted terrorism suspects, of which twenty-six were believed to be in Yemen. The Republic of Yemen continues to deal with the problem of terrorism, but have also run into protests from their own citizens in early 2011. Citizens are not happy with the way President Salih has governed the country for 30 years, and want change. In the midst of the protests, protester’s families have reported to the Human Rights Watch Organization that members of their families have been arrested, detained, and not heard from in weeks. The President has promised to decentralize the power of the country in the near future, however, many citizens are not happy with the government, as well as the police.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Although difficult to Yemen’s research statistics, the country has been trying to keep records regarding crime rates within their Central Statistical Office. Like any society, crime is common in the country, however, sources claim that Yemen’s crime rates are lower than industrialized countries. Those lower crime rates included crimes of murder, forcible rape, robbery, larceny, burglary, and motor vehicle theft. In 2003, the Central Statistical Office reported crime statistics from some of the main cities that include Sana’a, Aden, and Taiz, numbering 20 cities in total. The most frequent crime that occurred were accounts of Crimes Against Individuals, which numbered 10,269 occurrences in total. Crimes that occurred second most often were Assault Crimes against Private and Personal, with 6,773 occurrences. Crimes against Public Security were also high in number in comparison to the others, which Yemen is currently strict on in the present day times of rebellion. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the homicide rate in Yemen was ranked at a 4.0 out of 100,000 people in 2008, compared to a level of 5.2 in the United States, and 60.9 in Honduras. Narcotics rates also remain low, according to Yemen’s statistics, with only 59 instances dealing with drugs in 2003. In major assault cases, a 2000 statistic showed Yemen with a level of 5.8, and the United States with a 323.62, out of 100,000. Specific crimes in Yemen such as car theft and sexual assaults are left off of statistic reports from the U.N. and other reputable international research centers, making it more difficult to locate solid information regarding crime and public opinion about crime. It is also extremely difficult to police tribal areas in Yemen, for the government does not have the resources or the funds in order to monitor what crimes happen within tribal communities.

Terrorism is considered an international crime that has ravaged and continues to hurt countries all over the world. The loose tribal areas in Yemen have been a safe haven for terrorists who operate many times without notice. When the USS Cole was struck by two suicide bombers on a boat while refueling in Aden, Yemen on October 12, 2000, the country was soon in the spotlight for containing sects of violent radical Muslims, like Al-Quida. Since then, the United States and the Yemeni President have teamed up and taken steps to rid the country of terrorists intending to harm others. Public opinion on terrorism is very much like that of the western countries. The people of Yemen do not like extremists resorting to violent ways, for it gives the Muslim faith a poor repudiation. Not much research can be found on public opinion on crime, but many feel they are taken advantage of in the criminal justice system. Citizens know that police and other government officials are corrupt, and accept bribes. The citizens also have mistrust for the Political Security Organization, which works directly for the executive branch, and has been accused of raping women. The PSO are not subject to review by the judiciary, so they only answer to the President. The Republic of Yemen practices a law system that has a strong Muslim presence, but is also integrated with systems of common law, civil law, and customary law. The state religion is Islam, and much of the judiciary system is based off of Islamic Law instated by the Koran. Customary law is a system that has been established long before, so many parts of the old way of life are current in the criminal justice system. Civil law is found within code of the Constitution, and parts of Common Law can be seen as well.

Family Law
Family law in Yemen is different from the traditional family law that would be found in the west. In Yemen, family law is based upon Sharia, or Islamic Law, and is mainly focused on patriarchic system. The Constitutional age for marriage that applies to males and females is 15 years old; however, Yemen has come under great scrutiny from people around the world. In many of the tribal areas, where law enforcement is difficult, girls are married off by their families at a very young age. In the past, girls were considered to be ready for marriage after their first menstruation cycle, however, the law has tried to avoid those young ages. BBC News reported on a story of a girl as young as nine, who was married off to a man well over her age in return for about 2,000 dollars in U.S. Currency. He reportedly sexually abused her before she could get a divorce. Traditionally, marriages were set up by male members of the female’s family, although not always the case in present day. The husband must pay his wife a dowry of equal status, which is required by law. Technically, the judge can overrule a marriage if he thinks that it is unjust for a spouse. Women are expected to be subservient to their husbands, and are allowed to work outside the home as long as her marriage duties are completed, and she has permission from her husband. Polygamy is allowed in cases where men can afford to support, provide, and care for his families. That practice is mainly in rural areas. (Men are allowed to have up to four wives by Islamic Law.) A termination of the marriage union is permitted on the grounds of defect, and inequality of social status. In first instance court, a wife can ask for dissolution if the husband cannot provide for her, if the husband has disappeared for more than a year, if he is sentenced to prison for three years, if the pair are incompatible, and if the husband is addicted to alcohol or drugs. Men can divorce women without asking their consent, raising concern for many Yemeni women. If a man decides to divorce his wife without a just cause, the judge can impose a sanction which provides compensation to his ex-wife for a year. What many men do, however, is marry a second wife before divorcing their first. That allows a man to only have to pay three months compensation to his ex-wife. Women are considered to have custody over children until a certain age, in which they go to their father if he is fit to raise children from the judge’s standards. Custody ends at age nine for boys and age twelve for girls, where the children can then choose who they want to live with. In a household, males are the dominant figures, where females are expected to do chores, and help raise the children. In Yemen, a woman does not have many of the same rights as men. These issues are both social, and of legal binding. In the case of inheritance, women are allowed to receive money from her father, mother, husband, or children, however, she generally receives only half the amount her brother would inherit. Males in the family get more compensation then women do. In rural areas, many do not know the law, and therefore, women are deprived of inheritance. Women, by law, can access land, however, they cannot own the land, and accessing it is more difficult due to poverty and illiteracy. Adoption in Yemen is comparable to other countries which follow Islamic Law. In many cases, adoption is allowed but with strict sanctions. Children must grow up knowing and accepting their biological parents and kin. The child’s biological name is never changed, and the adoptive parents take the place of a foster parent.

Human Rights
Human rights in the Republic of Yemen have come under the international spectacle since protests in Sana’a, on March 18th, 2011. In the modern world, people place a huge value on the fundamental rights of humans, and heavily criticize those who exploit others. The reason for the protests in Yemen is the direct result of citizens being denied the rights they demand. In Yemen’s Constitution, Part II is specifically designated for the “Basic Rights and Duties of Citizens.” Within Part II,  several rights drawn, but many of them are violated by the government itself, as well as numerous tribal areas and villages. Under Article 47-b., the Constitution claims torture, cruel and inhumane, or degrading treatment or punishment is prohibited. According to the U.S. State Department, however, there have been reports that authorities tortured and abused people while being detained. The Yemeni government recognized that torture had occurred, and did not condone it. It is difficult to prosecute government employees because of the immunity they are protected by. The immunity includes public employees who committed crime on duty, but not off duty. Therefore, it is a struggle for those who seek justice for being tortured. The law also prohibits arbitrary arrest or detention under Article 47-b. There have been violations of the right, for there have been reports of Special Forces arresting people without seeing them commit an illegal act, or without a summons. Prison conditions also are not up to an international standard. Many are being housed in unsanitary conditions, where bribes and corruption determine how well one is treated. In women prisons, male guards often sexually harass inmates. Unauthorized prisons also remain to be a problem, for they are not well regulated by the government. The issue of a fair trial is also a highly disputed aspect of Yemeni law. The Constitution calls for an independent judiciary system and judges, but many are deemed corrupt, and poorly educated. According to the U.S. State Department, President Saleh attempted to bring about a better judicial system, and the executive branch fired 22  judges for corruption. The judges have also remained bias to the state in many cases, for they are too closely related with the executive branch. The government’s respect for Civil Liberties include, Freedom of Speech and Press, but it is hard for average citizens to practice them. The government owns the only radio and media stations in the country, and controls nearly all the printing presses. Journalists have even reported being harassed and threatened when criticizing the government in their writings. Freedom of religion is important to the country that is primarily Islamic because of their national religion. For those who are not Muslim, however, have some restrictions on their freedoms. The Yemeni people also have the Constitutional right to a freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and the right to change their government. What is difficult for the Yemeni people in the present day, however, is that the Constitution enables the people to change the government only through Parliament, where the legislative branch is not as powerful as the executive branch. It has been since February, 2011, that protesters have had their rights heavily violated. While calling for reform in Sana’a, on March 18, 2011, 52 protesters were shot and killed by government supporting snipers. It is believed that the orchestrated shooting were carried out by government authorities. In the shooting, more than 200 people were wounded. The Yemeni people, however, have not compromised when President Saleh said he would reform the government, and step down slightly early from his term. The citizens insist on ousting the president, along with the corruption that has plagued the country for years. It has been reported that since February, 94 protesters have been killed, and Amnesty International claims the government is not doing enough to protect the protesters. Discrimination against women has also been a problem in the country. The Constitution states, in Article 40, that, “Citizens are all equal in rights and duties.” Although women are considered citizens, they have been subject to lower standards of living, and often abused in the home. Domestic abuse and marital rape are not criminal in the country, where girls are forced to get married at a very young age. A law has recently been signed in order for a the minimum age of marriage for a girl to be 15 years old. Many tribal areas do not follow the code of law, however, and are not subject to any authority. It is almost impossible for the government to police the tribal areas, where women are not treated with respect. In conclusion, human rights are formed in the government, but the Republic of Yemen is experiencing problems with the government following the provisions. Rights have therefore been diminishing, and protests want to implement significant changes, but continue to be abused by pro government armed men, who often shoot into peaceful protesting crowds. Talks of negotiation are hindered by such attacks, and have been condemned by other countries.

title: Comparative law and justice/Yemen


text:
Comparative law and justice/Northern Ireland

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
In 1999, the Scottish parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the Northern Ireland were established. Due to Wrangling over the peace process, the latter was suspended until May 2007, but in March 2010, devotion was fully completed. Northern Ireland neighbors are the Republic of Ireland, Great Britain which lies across the Irish Sea. 50.1 percent of its resident claimed themselves protestant and 38.4 Roman Catholic in 1991. .

Ethnicity
The key ethnic groups of North Ireland are: (a) White(99.15%), Northern Ireland born: 91.0%, Other UK or Republic of Ireland born 7.2%,Irish Traveller 0.10%. (b) Asian: Chinese 0.25%,Indian 0.09%,Pakistani 0.04%, Bangladeshi 0.01%,Other Asian 0.01%. (c)Black: Black African 0.03%,Black Caribbean 0.02%,Other Black 0.02%, (d) Other ethnic groups0.08%, (e)Mixed 0.20%. . These ethnic groups came from different parts of the world. as the other groups, they primarily came from Eastern Europe. The Blacks and African Caribbeans migrated to Northern Ireland; there were two great people amongst them that came out of the circle of just a resident. They were named George Thompson and Louis Scott. The Chinese were the first to arrive in huge number; the Chinese made the Cantonese Chinese to be the second most spoke first language in the region after English.They arrived in the 1960s. The Mixed group population is spread all around Northern Ireland, and there is no specific place to point to as the only area where they reside. In Newry and Armagh the largest group of Irish Travellers reside there, while majority of the groups lived in West Tyrone, Mid Ulster, Belfast West and Foyle. . The Indians mostly live in Belfast South and Foyle. The Indians opened business in these areas and operated a textiles industries. The Pakistanis and the rest of the other groups operated in retailing of clothes. The Pakistanis ended up in Northern before the 1960.Some of them came as doctors and as refugees from World war 2. Presently,the poverty rate amongst the British Pakistanis are very high. The Indians in Northern Ireland ended up there in search of jobs and a program which send lots of Indian students all around the globe to study. .

Languages
There are different kinds of languages spoken in Northern Ireland. they are: English, almost 100% pf the population in Northern Ireland speaks this language. Therefore it is the official language spoken; Sign language, the British Sign language is the most commonly used amongst the deaf and dumb in Northern Ireland;other languages, Eastern Europeans language which is the Polish language is becoming common;Ulster Scots,2 % speak it;Irish language is the native language of the entire land. Surprisingly, only 4.7% of the entire population speaks Irish. Therefore, the English language is more predominant, than the Irish language in Northern Ireland.

Demographic characteristics
Beginning in the month of July 2010, North Ireland had a population of about 62,348,447 people residing in it. As of 2010, the female population in Northern Ireland was 308,456,03, while the male population was 302,676,02.

Geographical Information
Northern Ireland is known to have a total land mass of 243,610 sq km, and world region in Europe. The climate currently is moderate that is followed by predominant wind southwest winds that go over the North Atlantic Current. It is located between the North Sea and Northwest of France.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Northern Ireland has a large economy growth in both social and welfare programs and in trading on the lane of economy development. With minimal labor force, it is known for producing more and more food. Large coal, natural gas, and oil resources are know to be situated on its foundation. .In 2005, the UK became a net importer of energy but unfortunately, there was a huge decline in its oil and natural gas reserves. . The UK,as any other country Britain was greatly affected when the global financial crisis hit the economy hard in 2008.As the result of this, the global economic slowdown compounded Britain's economic worries, such as: sharply declining home price, and high consumer debt. In the later half of 2007, the economic later experienced a recession. The financial market was later stabilized following a number of measure to stimulate the economy which was implemented by the Brown government. Measures that were taken into action were: nationalizing parts of the banking system, cutting taxes, suspending public sector borrowing rules, and moving forward public spending on capital projects. . In 2010,for the entire UK,The GDP (purchasing power parity)was estimated to be $2.189 trillion dollars. .$2.259 trillion dollars was estimated as their GDP (official exchange rate.Pertaining to the issue of comparing the growth of UK to the rest of the world, it came as 163 in 2010. Northern Ireland has a labor force of about 31.45 million. Interestingly, the unemployment rate for the year of 2010 was 7.9%.

Relating to the issue of health, UK has a death rate of about 9.33 deaths/1,000 population in the month of July 2010 as recorded by the CIA fact book. The average life expectancy in UK is 77.84 years for males and 82.11 years for females. The infant mortality rate in 4.69 deaths for every 1,000 births. This makes Northern Ireland 191 in the world for its infant mortality rate.In general,the UK nations are relatively healthy countries. Lastly, UK has an estimate of 0.2 % of its' people who are living with HIV/AIDS.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Since the Good Friday Agreement,Crimes have been uncommon in Northern Ireland. In the earliest days,Northern Ireland was not known of having petty crimes but since the Good Friday Agreement, petty crimes have been the majority crimes being committed in Northern Ireland. in the whole of Western Europe, statistics have shown that Northern Ireland has the lowest level of crime. . The typical crimes are: robbery, murder,racketeering, disorder, burglary, joyriding, terrorism and assault. . The reported homicide rate in Northern Ireland in 2005 has been estimated to be 1.5;the reported rates of other key crimes, like theft, sexual assault, etc is known to be 1,407.50 in 2005 and 2006. It isn't clear if there is any problem with Northern Ireland or the United Kingdom that there is a reporting problem in recording crimes. . My data was collected from multiple sources, which include: Wikipedia, United Nations Office on Drugs and crimes, and a Pdf doc about reporting of crimes.

public opinion on crime
In Northern Ireland,public opinion on crime, punishment, and the criminal justice system is very welcoming. Research shows that residents of Northern Ireland are free to take surveys on issues about crimes that interest them. A television survey conducted in November 2009 showed that 70% of the people favored restoring the death penalty for at least certain crimes: armed robbery, rape, paedophilia, terrorism, adult murder, child murder, child rape, treason, child abuse, or kidnapping. 51% of the people of Northern Ireland chose capital punishment for only adult murderers.

Family of Law
Looking at The University of Ottawa World Legal Systems Research Group’s map of national legal systems, i found it so fascinating that the rest of the countries of which Northern Ireland and few other Europeans countries are neighbors of, are all Civil law countries,whereas Northern Ireland is one of the few country that is a common law country.

Elections
Under the administrative division of UK, Northern Ireland is known to have a monarchy government which is hereditary; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of the majority coalition usually is the prime minister. The House of Lords consist of bicameral Parliament(741 seats; consisting of approximately 625 life peers, 91 hereditary peers, and 25 clergy - as of 15 December 2010) and House of Commons. (650 seats since 2010 elections; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms unless the House is dissolved earlier) elections: House of Lords - no elections (note - in 1999, as provided by the House of Lords Act, elections were held in the House of Lords to determine the 92 hereditary peers who would remain there; elections are held only as vacancies in the hereditary peerage arise); election results: House of Commons - percent of vote by party - Conservative thirty-six point one percent, Labor twenty-nine percent, Liberal Democrats twenty-three percent, and eleven point nine percent for others; seats by party Labor 258, Liberal Democrat 57, Conservative 305, and other 30.

Judicial Review
The Human Rights Act of 1998,has nonbinding judicial review Acts of Parliament,based on common law tradition with early Roman and modern continental influences.

Courts and Criminal Law
In the Government of Ireland Act 1920,with the creation of the Northern Ireland home rule region,the requisition for a separate parliament building for Northern Ireland emerged. . The parliament met in the nearby Presbyterian Church in Ireland's Assembly's College and also in in Belfast City Hall awaiting the construction of the new building. In the east of Belfest in 1922, preparatory work on the chosen site began. Housing for all three branches of government which included the legislative, executive and judicial was the original plans for a huge domed building with two subsidiary side buildings.It contributed to the plural in the official title still used today. Alongside the parliament and "Ministerial Building" the site would have been host to the Northern Ireland High Court. Supreme Court of the UK, Senior Courts of England and Wales comprises of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice,Crown Courts and also Court of Judiciary (Northern Ireland).

Punishment
The most severe punishment one could think about for committing a crime is being whipped. The damage that whipping does to the skin is something terrible that one would never wish to experience. Northern Ireland over the centuries still retain whipping as the corporal punishment for certain criminals.In Northern Ireland, under the Prison Act (N.I.), 1953, s.14, the maximum punishment is determine on the person's age rather then the crime they commit. . No such power has ever existed in Scotland, and England dispensed with it under the Criminal Justice Act, 1948, s.54; Whereas, In Northern Ireland, it may have been noticed,to retain power to inflict corporal punishment for disciplinary offenses in its one male Borstal institution. It will be useless to stress the severity of the amount of whipping a Northern Ireland prisoner received. Explaining in view of the remarkable fact that Belfast Prison which is the only prison for male prisoner is all the more difficult.

Legal Personnel
Northern Personnel are lawyers. The aim of it being established by climant lawyers was to represent the interest of personal injury victims. Currently, both in abroad and in the U.K, it has around 5,000 members. The interest of its members whose membership includes white collars professionals who is predominantly on behalf of injured claimants.

Law Enforcement
The military system of UK allows teenagers and young adults between the ages of 16-24 with parental consent to volunteer in the service. Women are excluded from ground combat positions and some naval postings, however they serve in military services. inorder to be in the milkitary, one has to a citizen of the UK, Commonwealth, or Northern Ireland it self. To join the law enforcement,reservists serve a minimum of 3 years, to age 45 or 55.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
The issue with drug and fraud offenses are not only severe here in the United States, but also in Northern Ireland and most part of Europe. Data viewed from the Belfact Telegraph crime rate map shows that "Crime in Northern Ireland: 2008 Summary.In 2008 there were 108,468 total offenses throughout the province, that's around 61 offenses per 1,000 people. This year the biggest fall from the previous year was in ‘Fraud & Forgery’, (-37.8%) while the biggest rise in offenses occurred in ‘Other Offenses - drug offenses’,  (+12.8%) " The 2008 trend and statistic of the crime rate in Northern Ireland show that violent crimes are the most amongst all of the different crimes committed in 2008. Although the punishment for committing any crime is horrible and mean but criminals are not backing down. In Northern Ireland public opinion is very important and polls are not taken for granted. An example of this was the peace poll which was conducted after the election was carried out in Northern Ireland, which included a second poll being conducted in March and published in April 1997 to help set a context for an invigorated Talks process after the May Parliamentary elections in the UK. Some general problems were dealt with as well as procedural questions about decommissioning and the participation of parties with paramilitary associations. In general, the electorate wanted All Party Talks with a minimum of preconditions. Sinn Féin were subsequently allowed into the Talks by the new Labour government after the May elections.

Family Law
The administartion of Northern Ireland,is a common law administaration. There are some important differences in the laws and procedures between Northern Ireland and England and Wales; although its common law is similar to English common law and partially derives from the same sources. The present statute law of Northern Ireland constitute those Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament, that apply to Northern Ireland; as well as Statutory Instruments made by departments of the Northern Ireland Executive and the British Government. . In Northern Ireland between 1921 and 1972, the the statute books are Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland passed. Before the Act of Union 1800, the Irish parliament establishes certain Acts. Under Poyning's Law between 1494 and 1782; this also included the extention to Northern Ireland, the British and English parliament.

Social Inequality
In 1998, there was an argeement which would bring about harmony and the growth for everybody, which is known as the God Friday Agreement. There was a new document which revealed that poverty was something which affected both Catholic and Protestant in the United Kingdom. . there is proof of health inequalities in Northern Ireland as reveal by research. This proof is striking, and underlines the need for plans of action which deals with the social processes of health disparities. . Between the rich and the poor, there are two and a half difference in the rate of life expectency. As the result of these social problems, in low income areas of Northern Ireland the health situation are generally worse.(Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety [DHSSPS]2004a). . The deprived areas in Northern Ireland is exoerienceing a continous health gap, despite some major developments.In the potential years of lives lost, infant mortality rates, teenage births,admission rates to hospital and cancer incidence, these are most evidence (DHSSPS 2007). .

Human Rights
The Human Rights Act 1998 is an Act of the Westminster Parliament which makes the European Convention on Human Rights part of the law of all parts of the UK. It is being said that The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission works tirelessly and independently to ensure that the human rights of everyone in Northern Ireland are fully and completely protected in law, policy and practice. .This ended the measures of law, policy and practice in Northern Ireland against internationally accepted rules and principles for the protection of human rights. An interesting question was being asked if there a need for a Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland? The Bill of Right is very essential and it would be a very good way that citizens would be sure that in the end of anything they do, they have a right to certain things. Unlike the United States, they have the right to education!


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User talk:Dmccarthy 8039

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 21:43, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dmccarthy 8039


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User talk:Breyden85

 Hello Breyden85, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 21:43, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Breyden85


text:
User talk:Drakeowens1989

 Hello Drakeowens1989, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 21:43, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Drakeowens1989


text:
User talk:Vinthasanh

 Hello Vinthasanh, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 21:43, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vinthasanh