text:
Cultural Encounters/Clothing

INTRODUCTION
In this section we will discuss the fashion differences and what they represent in various European countries. We will be focusing on Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia. During our research, it became evident that the perception of formality differs from country to country. This can be observed in certain situations, such as going to the university, to work, attending a job interview, partying, visiting friends or family. In order to support our research, we have taken the following theories into consideration: Hofstede’s theory of power distance (2010), theory of individualism versus collectivism (2010), and also Byram’s model of Intercultural Communicative Competence (Hartmann, A., & Dirtfurth, M., 2004). The latter has allowed us to use our skills of interpreting and relating i.e. “interpreting things from other cultures, comparing them to own culture, and developing new perspectives through comparison and contrast. Following Byram’s theory, we were able to use our "knowledge of self and others" and raise "awareness of the relationship of the individual to society" (Hartmann, A., & Dirtfurth, M., 2004). Our results are divided by the topics mentioned above, which include sub-topics in order to cover more specific sections of our respective societies and to facilitate their understanding.

EDUCATION
There is no established dress-code for universities in Ireland. Each student is free to wear clothes that best express his or her personality. However, some common fashion styles can be distinguished when "assessing" the students in Irish universities. First of all, let us present the situation as regards male Irish students. Tracksuit bottoms (also called sweatpants) are definitely one of the most popular fashion choices for Irish students at the moment. They can be seen in lecture theatres, as well as all around the campus. This does not pose a problem to the majority of teachers, although this may depend on their own perceptions and what they associate with this type of "sporty" attire. As in every other country, the topic of fashion and clothes is quite problematic in Ireland. Other styles can also be found among the male student population in Ireland, such as: shirts, hoodies (jumpers) and jeans. Regarding the female students in Ireland, we are also confronted with many varieties of styles. While walking through any Irish university campus, it is possible to discern girls wearing summer dresses, flat shoes and quite often a light jacket. However, it is equally easy to notice students wearing jeans, sweaters, coats and boots. Tracksuits are also quite common. Another style which is becoming more and more popular in Ireland is wearing denim shorts, tights, and a top or a t-shirt. As has been mentioned above, it is impossible to generalise and list all of the fashion styles present in a given country or a society; however this information is aimed at people who want a “sneak-peek” into the Irish fashion in the student world in order to be able to build upon it in the future. University oral exams in Ireland are not considered to be exceptional events. Therefore, no formal clothing is required. Generally students dress casually for this occasion, although a little bit more care is usually put into their choice of clothes. This means that instead of wearing jeans and any t-shirt, students would pick a more elegant one. However, this is a personal choice and students aren’t obliged to change their style just for the duration of the exam.

GERMANY
As there is no dress code at German universities, students in Germany are allowed to wear whatever they feel expresses their personality best. This goes hand in hand with Germany being an individualistic country with a "strong belief in the ideal of self-actualization" as Holfstede Centre (2011) asserts. In general, students tend to wear what is considered casual clothes when going to university. In contrast to Ireland and Croatia, it is seen as completely inappropriate for male students to wear tracksuits. Some years ago it was also considered inappropriate for female students to show their bellies but this has changed due to cropped shirts being quite in fashion at the moment. However, a different dress code seems to apply in terms of important oral exams. When comparing the different cultures, it was rather surprising to find out that in Germany, oral exams play a much more important role in students’ academic careers. One reason for this might be the fact that, according to Holfstede Centre (2011), Germany is considered a rather masculine country, i.e. being built on a society that is "driven by competition, achievement and success". For this reason, it is not surprising that students undertaking important oral exams dress the same way they would when applying for a job (cf. "Formal Situations").

CROATIA
Based on Croatia’s score on Hofstede’s theory of individualism (2011), we could conclude that Croatia is a collectivistic society and therefore Croats do not like to stand out. The relatively low score on Hofstede’s scale points out that it would not be wrong to apply a generalised opinion concerning the clothes students wear when attending lessons. It is quite common for men to wear jeans combined with a T-shirt during warm seasons, whereas hoodies and sweaters are preferred when it is colder. Tracksuits are also common pretty much throughout the year. A greater variety of styles can be observed in the way women dress for going to class. Some of them really dress up for the lessons, so they wear skirts, blouses and blazers. Other women vprefer to wear something more casual,just like their male colleagues. In conclusion, students tend to dress casually. Students in Croatia generally do not have a strict dress code for oral exams with a possible exception of students of the law, who usually do wear formal clothes. On a large scale it depends from faculty to faculty, but generally students can wear whatever they have planned to wear that day. Anyhow, something too casual or revealing should be avoided.

SLOVENIA
Student wear in Slovenia ranges from formal to casual and even sporty depending on the type of the faculty a certain student attends. It is not that uncommon for a law student to dress in a formal and elegant manner.The same goes for clothes and accesories. Students of language, literature and art, on the contrary, favor casual or unique fashion styles, with little restrictions regarding make-up, accessories and haircuts. We could deduce that the level of diversity with regard to the choice of clothing largely depends on the social environment of each faculty. Hofstede’s model of national culture (2011) places Slovenia under the category of feminine societies, which show little tolerance towards the individuals wishing to rebel or "stand out from the crowd". Each student will therefore strive to adjust to the general fashion tastes of their faculty. As a result, an art student will rarely be seen wearing formal clothing and a law student will never consider the choice of a tomahawk as an acceptable hair cut. While Slovenian students may not be pressured into dressing formally when attending oral exams, the general rule dictates that sporty outfits suitable for attending lectures be replaced by slightly more formal yet still comfortable casual wear. It is interesting to note the restrictions posed on female students; short skirts, cleavages, high heels, excessive make-up and accessories are not an option since they may leave a bad impression on the examiners as they may stand out. Equal restrictions apply to those students whose dressing preferences are considered extreme i.e.: designed to overtly express the wearer’s affiliation with a certain sub-culture. The unwritten rules of unobtrusive dressing can be attributed to the fact that Slovenia, according to Hofstede’s model of national culture (2011) is a feminine society and any attempt of "standing out from the crowd is not admirable".

PORTUGAL
According to Hofstede Centre (2011), Portugal is considered a collectivist society where people follow the desires of the community more than their own. This justifies a visible majority when it comes to the general everyday and going-to-school style. The university wear therefore is composed of what is considered casual wear, such as jeans, t-shirts, sneakers or elegant shoes with low heels for women. Although oral examination occurs rarely at Portuguese universities, some areas of studies do require students to take part in those examinations. In such cases the examinees are expected to follow a more formal dress code (cf. "Job Interview").

SCHOOL

In Ireland, school uniforms are compulsory in all primary and secondary schools. Contrary to common belief, they do not represent wealth or a higher social status. In order to better understand this Irish phenomenon, we could refer to Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions (2011). The power distance in a given country can be measured by "the degree to which the less powerful members of the society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally" (2011). This means that the lower the power distance, the fairer the power distribution (exhibition) in a country. Ireland is a prime example of a low power distance country, which can be demonstrated with an example of uniforms used throughout the Irish education system. Uniforms, as the name suggest, ensure "uniformity" which is a synonym of "homogeneity" or "regularity". As for the theory of individualism versus collectivism, Hofstede Centre (2011) considers Ireland to be an individualistic country, scoring a high 70 (out of 100). According to Hofstede Centre (2011), members of an individualistic society are "supposed to look after themselves and their direct family only". Relating all of this research back to the issue of clothing, it becomes clear that the Irish society strives to bring people closer together by means of uniforms.

Slovenian, Croatian, German and Portuguese primary and secondary public school systems pose no regulations regarding a uniform dress code. Even in private educational institutions pupils are not required to wear school uniforms. This dismissal of school uniforms can be examined in the light of two dimensions of the national culture model provided by Hofstede Centre (2011): power distance and individualism versus collectivism. Since power relations in social interactions such as teacher-pupil interaction are strictly maintained there is no need to enforce order and discipline with the help of school uniforms. Hofstede Centre (2011) places Slovenia, Croatia, and Portugal under collectivist societies and states that in these countries "loyalty and collectivist culture is very important. The introduction of school uniforms as a tool of establishing a more collectivist atmosphere in educational institutions is therefore redundant as the collectivist values already constitute a part of the mental frame of each pupil. Germany, however, does not belong to this framework. Germans are individualistic and as such are an exception to the rule.

IRELAND
Visiting friends for a chat and a cup of tea is still a popular activity in Ireland, even among young people. This does not require any specific clothing, which means that the majority of Irish people would wear casual, comfortable clothes. Men would normally opt for jeans or tracksuit bottoms and a t-shirt, while women opt for jeans or leggings and a top. However, the fashion rules undergo a slight modification when we are invited to a house party, especially if clubbing afterwards is likely. In such circumstances, the usual choice for men does not differ greatly from an ordinary visit. However, when attending a house party/going to a nightclub, girls would normally wear short skirts/dresses, high heels (not always at house parties) and accessories such as ear-rings, bracelets and necklaces.

GERMANY
As visiting friends is not considered a special occasion in Germany and therefore an event that allows people to be themselves rather than acting according to competitive conventions existing within their society (Hofstede, 2011) Germans would usually wear casual or comfortable clothes, for example jeans and a top or a shirt. When invited to a house party or going out to a night club, some female Germans would still wear jeans, a nice shirt and rather light make-up whereas others would be dressed slightly more elegantly or provocatively wearing a skirt or a dress, make-up, jewellery and high heels. This, however, is always a matter of personal taste and cannot be generalised. Again, this underlines the importance of individualism in German society.

CROATIA
Clothing is not an important issue when visiting friends comes to play. In such situations Croats tend to wear something as comfortable as possible. When going out or to a party, women can usually be seen in dresses and high heels, while men would be wearing jeans or pants combined with shirts or nice T-shirts. Clubbing clothing actually depends on which music you listen and where you go out, but generally people do dress up. Women usually wear skirts, dresses, blazers, nice tops, high heels, etc. while men prefer, again, jeans or pants combined with nice T-shirts or shirts.

SLOVENIA
The majority of Slovenians wear informal casual and sportswear when they are visiting friends, which is indicative of a feminine society that "fosters strong relationships", as Hofstede Centre instigates (2011). These relationships create a friendly and relaxed environment for the visitor, which is reflected in their choice of more relaxed clothing styles. There are, of course, some deviations from the general rule. Your clothing style depends on the company you keep and the social circles you revolve around. House parties belong to the same category and people attending such events dress more or less casually. Pubs and clubs are the places where people feel more comfortable with expressing their multilayered individualities and cultural identities. Since Hofstede Centre (2011) shows that Slovenianan society is not otherwise supportive of individuals who set themselves apart from the rest, club parties are an excellent opportunity for those individuals to "create a particular cultural identity card" and "communicate" their distinctive cultural identity to the people around them (Holliday, Hyde, & Kullman, 2006). One way to achieve this is through the choice of clothing, which on such occasions can be as striking as possible and encompasses everything from short skirts and high heels, distinctive and heavy make-up, torn t-shirts and jeans to sub-culture specific wear (e.g. heavy-metal music fans, Goths, etc.) with body decoration in the form of tattoos and body piercing.

PORTUGAL
In social meetings with friends the usual dress code is casual, comfortable clothes, much like those you would wear at universitiy. It is interesting to point out that, in Portuguese culture, the closer the individuals become to others emotionally the more comfortable they feel around each other. People can take their shoes off at a friend's house and even borrow a more comfortable piece of clothing from their hosts, depending entirely on the proximity between them.

Despite being a collectivist society and clearly showing a predominant style in every dress code, Portugal stands out in this category since the winning majority of Portuguese seems to veer away from those traditional rules. For the last couple of years there has been a big change on this sort of attire resulting in a new and more provocative style where tight clothes, big cleavages and short skirts are preferred to pieces that would cover up the body. According to Hofstede's work (2011), the Portuguese people can be identified as a short term orientation culture, which means they generally exhibit great respect for traditions. This puts a certain amount of stress on the population because they are torn between tradition and a newer, innovative and individualistic style of dressing.

IRELAND
When visiting family during the week, casual clothes are the most popular choice in Ireland, for men as well as for women. This might change depending on the occasion and the purpose of the visit. For example, women might wear an elegant dress for a Sunday lunch or dinner, while men might even opt for a suit and tie, although a shirt and jeans would be sufficient.

GERMANY
Similar to the Irish, Germans tend to be dressed casually when visiting their family. Depending on the purpose of their visit, however, i.e. if it is a special occasion, women might consider wearing an elegant skirt or dress (e.g. when attending a birthday party or anniversary), whereas men might even choose to wear a suit or a tie. What becomes obvious again is that in Germany, there is a strong tendency of individualism but also the awareness of certain conventions that have to be fulfilled within more formal situations, as Hofstede Centre asserts (2011).

CROATIA

Croatia scored 33% on Hofestede's scale of individualism (2010) which means that generally family plays an important part in their lives. According to this notion, namely putting such an emphasis on family, we might assume that Croats would prefer formal clothes when visiting their families so as to show respect. However, this is not the case. When visiting familiy, Croats wear casual clothes due to their tendency to favorize comfort as much as possible. Therefore, Croats wear elegant clothing only on special occasions, like holidays and birthday celebrations.

SLOVENIA
As already stressed in the previous entry, the relaxed environment forged by the strong relationships within the Slovenian society enables those individuals who visit their family members dress in comfortable, sporty or casual clothes. Slight restrictions apply only in the case of attending formal events within a family circle such as Sunday lunch or wedding parties where the visitors are required to dress more elegantly. We must, however, mention a slight deviation from the general rule. Older generations tend to put greater importance on appearance when visiting family members.

PORTUGAL
Much like during social encounters with friends, Portuguese people usually wear everyday clothing unless it is a very special occasion. Important traditional family events such as weddings, baptisms, birthdays and marriage anniversaries will most likely take place in a private house instead of a rented venue, but people are expected to respect the importance of the occasion and to dress in accordance with the formality of the situation even though they are still in the comfort of their homes.

IRELAND
Job interviews are taken very seriously in the Irish society. Education about the required clothing for such an interview starts as early as in secondary school. The general requirement is very formal clothing which includes black trousers/skirt, an elegant shirt and a blazer for women, and suit and tie for men.

GERMANY
As Hofstede Centre (2011) instigates that the relationship between employer and employee in Germany is defined by "loyalty, [….] a sense of duty and responsibility", Germans are expected to dress in a smart and formal way during job interviews. Women would wear a blazer and a top matching their trousers or their skirt that is long enough to allow them to sit down comfortably. Men would wear a rather dark suit. Based on the job they apply for, female applicants would sometimes be expected to wear a suit and shoes with heels, whereas men would have to wear a tie. This way, the applicants point out they are able to meet the expectations held by a rather masculine society. But once again, this cannot be generalised since the way applicants are expected to dress during the job interview is dependent on the company itself.

CROATIA
Job interviews are taken seriously in Croatia and wearing formal clothes is expected. Men usually wear suits (with or without ties) or pants and shirts. Women wear suits as well, but they are most commonly seen wearing skirts or pants combined with blouses or shirts.

SLOVENIA
The research of Hofstede Centre (2010) shows that Slovenians treat "employer/employee relationships in moral terms (like a family link)" and "hiring (…) decisions take account of the employee’s in-group". The employers will therefore pay a great amount of attention to the qualities of the potential candidate with whom they will eventually form a strong bond. One of the elements that an employer will immediately take in consideration is the display of the candidate’s taste of clothing style, which has to be in accordance with the style predominant in that particular working place. An office worker or somebody applying for a position within a public relations sector will be required to dress formally for a job interview, while those applying for the position of a fashion designer have to display the desired level of creativity through the choice of more unique and personally customised wear. What is considered normal slightly differs from company to company.

PORTUGAL
Regardless of the job position an individual is applying for, they are expected to look and do their best. The employers expect the new candidates to be dressed orderly and in clean clothes. Both experienced workers and those entering the job market for the first time follow the same dress code and that is formal working attire, such as suits for men and elegant dresses or suits for women. Hofstede's study on the Portuguese culture (2010) reveals that "employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms" in Portugal, meaning that entering a work place is much like joining a family and so it is only natural that employers consider only those applicants who would present themselves as ideal candidates.

IRELAND

After St. Patrick’s Day, Halloween is the most popular holiday/festival in Ireland. The main attraction of Halloween is the tradition of dressing up in scary costumes, which is practiced by children as well as adults. However, this has been changing over the years and ordinary costumes such as fairies; comic book heroes etc. are becoming more and more popular among the Irish population.

For St. Patrick’s Day, which takes place the 17th of March every year, people dress in national Irish colours which are green, white and orange. Green hats with leprechaun beard, wigs with green hair, green dresses etc. are the most common accessories used on that day. Creativity knows no limits, therefore the most extravagant and original outfits are encouraged.

GERMANY
As far as festivities in the different countries presented in this section are concerned, it was quite interesting to discover that in contrast to the Irish, German people wear exclusively scary costumes for Halloween. In other words, it would be considered inappropriate to dress up as a fairy, comic hero, an animal, etc., in Germany unless it is done by women in a rather provocative way. This, however, is different during Karneval, a festive season in February where people are encouraged to wear tremendously creative and extravagant costumes. Similar to St. Patrick’s Day in Ireland, Karneval in Germany has a long tradition and mirrors the short term orientation of German culture, i.e. a truly authentic respect for tradition.

CROATIA
Poklade (Shrove Tuesday) is a festive season which occurs immediately before Lent. There are public celebrations in many towns and people wear various costumes. During this time, a certain tradition is nurtured according to which children wearing costumes go from door to door singing songs. Halloween is becoming more and more popular, so many Croats wear scary costumes and usually go clubbing. Croatian national costume or Croatian dress is the traditional clothing worn by Croats during special events and celebrations, e.g. ethnic festivals, weddings, and religious holidays. National costumes are not worn on a daily basis due to the fact that Croats generally wear Western-style clothing. Depending on cultural and geographical regions, national costumes differ in many ways.

SLOVENIA
In Slovenia, Halloween is considered an imported celebration and is closely connected to the consumerist American culture. The fact that the festival is detached from its American traditions means that no restrictions are applied when it comes to the choice of costumes. Those who celebrate can choose from a variety of costumes; from scary ghost and skeleton to provocative and funny cat and bunny outfits. In the last few years, the festival has gained on importance and is quite popular among the younger generations. Pust (Shrove Tuesday) resembles Halloween in the choice of costumes, but because this festivity is deeply rooted in Slovene tradition, it also sports traditional historical outfits, such as kurent. These outfits are usually worn by the participants of city festivals that take place during "pust". A lot of parades have floats featuring satirical representations of various politicians and recent scandals. Another imported holiday that has gained on importance, is Saint Patrick's day. It is not uncommon to see people dressed in all shades of green and sporting various kinds of hats. The hat is almost seen as a symbol of excellence in drinking and you can hear people bragging about the amount of alcohol they had to consume to get it. As far as the traditional festivities are concerned, we must mention the traditional Slovenian national costume, which slightly differs from region and region and is generally worn on festivals, holidays and on various celebrations. It is meant to preserve and promote traditional Slovenian culture. ]

PORTUGAL
Unlike Germany and Ireland, Portugal is still new to the Halloween commemorations and does not possess much tradition in that area. However, Carnival (or Carnaval as it is called in Portuguese) is widely celebrated throughout the country and people are expected to dress up in all kinds of different costumes, depending entirely on personal preference. There are slight differences with regards to where the celebrations take place. In Lisbon, for example, although adults and teenagers still like to be a part of it, this is a holiday directed especially towards children - all kindergartens and elementary schools as well as the parents will support and motivate the little ones to be a part of the national masquerade ball. In other regions, on the other hand, Carnaval is celebrated by all age groups. The costumes worn for Carnaval are usually very pompous, flashy, colourful and, generally speaking, extravagant. Especially in Madeira, people also like to dress up as famous (former or active) politicians.

CONCLUSION
During our research we came to the conclusion that our perceptions of formal and informal clothes differ from country to country and individual to individual. Therefore, we could only establish some basic prevailing dressing habits for a country in certain situations. Because of the intertwining of cultural and personal preferences, these habits cannot be applied too strictly. Clothing styles may not be as strongly associated with national culture as such, but rather with each person's individual preferences and social surroundings. Based on our research, clothing choices generally do overlap in the five countries we have been interested in. This may be associated with the omnipresent phenomenon of globalization. With the development of technology, much more easier and cheaper travel arrangements, and the accessibility of information people around the world are just more aware of each other. The impact of multinational corporations is immense as well, so very similar clothing styles are actually something to be expected for. We can exemplify this easily: a person can get a pair of Nike sneakers basically anywhere in the world.

Clothing styles change quickly and are under constant influence of the multiple factors. This is why we would like to invite you to contribute to this research.

title: Cultural Encounters/Clothing


text:
Cultural Encounters/Bon appetit

INTRODUCTION
According to the Edward T. Hall's (1976) iceberg theory of culture, food is one of the aspects of culture that belongs to the upper part of the iceberg and can be perceived as a manifestation of the system of beliefs and values of a given society. In other words, by observing the ways in which the members of different societies live this aspect of their respective cultures, it is possible to gain an insight into their core values since the surface is indicative of what is beneath. In this section, the differences and similarities between the food cultures of Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal, and Slovenia will be analysed. Focus will be put on the staple foods, the effects that the process of globalisation has had on different cultures, student food, and eating habits and etiquette.

STAPLE FOODS
This section will approach what every country usually eats during their breakfast and also their traditional dishes, including desserts and even snacks. In this section it will be shown that despite the fact that many modern events have changed our lifestyles and habits, traditional food is still an important symbol of national and regional identity. It will also be explained how the essentialist view of culture can be applied to this specific case (Holliday, Hyde & Kullman, 2004). This essentialist view states that culture is a homogenous and exclusive phenomenon and that each society is simple. This fact leads to clear differences in between cultures in almost every aspect, including food. Throughout this section it will be explained that traditional dishes and sweets can be a part of a national identity just like any other aspect of a culture, such as religion, habits and greetings.

CROATIA
BREAKFAST:

There is no typical breakfast in Croatia. It is often a simple meal, cereals or fruit, but sometimes breakfast can be a larger meal, usually fried or scrambled eggs with bacon. As for the drinks, Croatians often drink coffee as well, sometimes even tea.

TRADITIONAL DISHES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY:

Croatian dishes vary from region to region. In the eastern part of Croatia, Slavonija and Baranja, most traditional dishes are usually made in a big pot for a large number of people and that can last for a couple of days. Some of these foods are: sarma (a savory dish made out of cabbage, rolled around a filling of minced meat), which is mostly eaten during winter; fiš paprikaš (fish stew) and čobanac (veal stew), which are made for special occasions like birthdays and celebrations; kiflice (baked dough filled usually with ham and cheese, but they can be filled with jam as well, and then they are sprinkled with sugar) and dishes made entirely out of meat like different kinds of sausages, bacon and hams. Hladetina (meat jelly) and krvavica (blood sausage) are also some of the traditional dishes, usually made of pork. Purica s mlincima (turkey with homemade thin dried flatbread) is a main dish, eaten traditionally on Christmas.

The mountainous regions and the Northern Croatian coastal zone supply people with kalapajsani kalamper (hashbrowns with onion and paprika). The Northern region of Croatia has different varieties of seafood and fish such as gilt-head bream for instance, served with cale and boiled potato or black rissoto, as well as lots of pasta dishes with seafood and desserts like paprenjaci (pepper cookies), smokvenjak (fig cookies), krošule (deep fryed dough) and fritule (pastry containing raisins topped with powdered sugar).Typical desserts in central Croatia are bučnica (pumpkin cake) and krafne (empty dough later filled with some kind of jam or Nutella).

The most famous seasoning made, produced and used in Croatia is vegeta, a salty mixture of spices and chopped dried vegetables. It is known and sold all over the world. In addition, burek (a pastry filled with cheese, minced meat or vegetables) and čevapi (grilled minced meat) have been taken from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

GERMANY
BREAKFAST:

In Germany, cereal, bread and simple sandwiches are usually eaten during weekdays. On the weekends, it is common to cook more elaborate meals such as eggs and bacon. Furthermore, a lot of people would buy rolls from the bakery on Saturday and eat them with different sorts of cold meat like salami and liver sausage. Coffee is also popular and it is often mixed with milk.

TRADITIONAL DISHES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY:

German people usually eat a warm meal for lunch and a cold meal for dinner. For lunch there is a wide variety of meals from foreign dishes to more traditional ones, such as maultaschen, which is sausages, bread, minced meat with onions. This happens because Germany’s food differs from region to region and it is also greatly influenced by the country’s multiculturalism. For instance, it is common to eat fish in Hamburg while in Munich the white sausage is more common. Food in the Western region also used to be very heavy and Eastern Germany was and is still influenced by its communist history.

Germany’s favorite fast food is the döner kebap, a beef filled bread combined with vegetables and a yoghurt sauce. The döner kepab was created in Berlin during the 1970’s to answer the need of a faster and busier city life and it actually has Turkish influences, but it is now deeply sunk in Germany’s eating habits. There is also Currywurst, a Bratwurst made out of pork which is generally served with curry ketchup, mayonnaise and French fries, however, recipes also vary according to the city.

As already mentioned, Germany’s delicacies vary from region to region. In Bavaria, the most known dishes are the white sausage and pickled pork knuckle. The most inhabited part of Germany is located in the West, especially in the Ruhr Area, an industrial region. In this region, simple meals like Frankfurters with potato salad are served along with mustard and ketchup. Traditional dishes from Northern Germany are based on fish due to the sea in the vicinity and are often served with vegetables that are also common in Eastern Germany.

IRELAND
BREAKFAST:

During the weekends, when the Irish usually have more time to prepare meals, breakfast is quite similar to British and Welsh breakfast. It is often fried made up of sausages, rashers (bacon), eggs, tomatoes, beans and black and white pudding. On work days, the Irish prefer to eat a quick meal such as cereal, toast and fruit. Tea and coffee are the chosen drinks to accompany both types of breakfasts.

TRADITIONAL DISHES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY:

As an island nation, Ireland used to be very influenced by fishing and its potato farming. Irish eating habits eventually changed due to cultural influences and the development of globalization. Irish food is simple and includes gravy, meat (lamb in particular) and potatoes. Fish is usually eaten in the regions closer to the sea. Yet, in the South East the citizens tend to eat other kinds of food such as seaweed or crubeens (pigs' feet).

As already mentioned, potatoes are a huge part of almost every traditional dish. For instance, the Irish love colcannon, which is a soup made of potatoes along with kale. Their eating habits were greatly influenced by the British cuisine, which is why the Irish also eat a lot of fried food. However the most widely known dish is bacon and cabbage. Dairy products are also a result of their farming industry due to the major countryside. As a matter of fact, more cows live in Ireland than people and as a consequence, beef and dairy products influence their dishes as well.

PORTUGAL
BREAKFAST:

Cereal, toast, yogurt and fruit are often part of the Portuguese breakfast. Toast is usually accompanied by ham, cheese and/or butter. There are also other types of bread, marmalade and baked cakes. Coffee (commonly known as bica), milk, latte, tea and juice are the most popular drinks for breakfast.

TRADITIONAL DISHES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY:

Portugal's history and geography are present in its culinary. The Portuguese were, for a long time, a people of seamen and farmers and so, heavy meals (depending on the region, one could find either fish or meat as the main ingredient) were a crucial part of a worker's daily routine. Nowadays, due to globalisation, Portuguese people often have a wide variety of choices but it is still a country quite connected to its traditional food.

Portugal is known as one of the biggest fish consumers in the world thanks to its long coastline. In the north of Portugal, where the temperature is usually colder, there are typical dishes such as cozido à portuguesa (Portuguese stew, which consists of different kinds of meat, potatoes, cabbages and other vegetables), feijoada à transmontana (baked red beans with typical Portuguese sausages, meat and cabbage),dobrada (baked beans with carrots, fish and typical Portuguese sausages), bifanas (beef sandwiches) and caldo verde (“green” soup, made out of potatoes and kale). There also vineyards in the Douro valley that produce vinho do Porto (Port wine), which is not only a traditional drink but is also exported to many countries such as England, USA, South Africa and Argentina. Furthermore, the city of Porto has francesinhas (beef sandwiches with cheese, ham, bacon and fried eggs) which are a fundamental part of one's visit to the city, as well as the acclaimed wine which takes its name after the region. However, in the more central cities it can be found another kind of cuisine which differs from the northern dishes in terms of variety which is due to a larger exposure to the sea as well as a great tradition of rice cultures (mostly due to the Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 a.d.). One can find the much appreciated sardines (a typical Portuguese fish), but also arroz de pato (duck rice), canja de galinha (chicken soup), and arroz doce (sweet rice). In the national capital Lisbon, people love their sweets and pastéis de nata (custard pasteries) which can either be served as a dessert or as a practical snack alongside some coffee.

In the Alentejo region, which is situated between central and southern Portugal, people usually eat a lot of bread and smoked ham. Some traditional dishes are sopas de tomate (tomato soup), migas (which consists essentially of bread and is mostly used as a side dish with fried fish or pork), and carne de porco à portuguesa (Portuguese pork meat). Additionally, the touristic southern area of the Algarve provides all different kinds of fish which are a big hit among visitors in the Summer. Fish such as the aforementioned sardines and also tuna can be used in a great variety of dishes, such as salads, or alongside potatoes and vegetables. Other fish commonly present in Portuguese dishes are dourada (golden sea bream), robalo (sea bass) and bacalhau (codfish), this last one being the main ingredient in bacalhau com natas (codfish cooked with cream and milk) and bacalhau à brás (codfish with fried chips and parsley) are. The undeniable relevance of fish in Portuguese dishes is closely related to the country's coast line and to its fishing tradition. If on the one hand Portuguese culinary shows a wide range of variation in between regions, there is a common factor to all of them: soup. It can be served as a first dish, as a main dish (if it is a heavier soup, such as sopa da Pedra, which consists of meat, typical Portuguese sausages, vegetables and its broth) or as a sort of dessert, at the end of the meal. It does not matter if it is summer or winter, spring or autumn, if one is invited for lunch or for dinner to a Portuguese home, one will certainly be offered soup. Last but not least, the Portuguese also have a strong tradition when it comes to bread, such as Broa de mel (a sort of Sugarcane syrup Bread) that is part of Madeira’s traditional cuisine and bolo do caco (sweet bread) from the Azores.

SLOVENIA
BREAKFAST:

In Slovenia breakfast often includes cereal, sandwiches and bread with marmalade, honey or nutella. Bacon and eggs are also common. They often drink coffee, tea, milk and cocoa.

TRADITIONAL DISHES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY:

As far as the traditional food goes, certain ingredients prevail over specific parts of Slovenia. The food from the northern parts mostly consists of buckwheat, potatoes, cabbage, turnip and pork. Some of the most popular dishes are žganci (buckwheat cooked in boiled water), govnač or presnek (stew made of cabbage and potatoes mashed together with cracklings) and krvavice or blood sausage (pork meat and pot barley cooked in blood).

The south-western parts of Slovenia have quite a different traditional cuisine. It is mainly based on sea food since it lies along the coast, but it also includes corn, pork and Mediterranean vegetables like egg-plants. The climate plays an important role in the production of food, since egg-plants can only grow in warmer areas. Similarly, pršut or prosciutto (dried pork) can only be made in the Karst region because of the wind.

The eastern parts of Slovenia include the Panonian Plain and it is common in their cuisine to eat a lot of turnip, soups and also goose meat. Part of the population eats goose meat with mlinci (homemade thin dried flatbread) as a side dish, especially during holidays, for example the Slovenian holiday in honor of St. Martin. Soups are also quite common in the eastern parts and they have many varieties ranging from meat to vegetarian soups. The Prekmurje region is also known for its pumpkin oil.

Unlike many other European countries, almost no one in Slovenia eats lamb. Sheep were mainly bred for wool and not for meat; therefore, people are not used to eating this type of meat, therefore it is not included in the traditional cuisine. However, people in the past used to eat dormice in the central part of Slovenia although they are nowadays rarely eaten, they continue to be a specialty.

Foreign cuisine has also become very popular in Slovenia, e.g. Chinese and Mexican food. However, the immigrants from Bosnia and Serbia were the ones that have made the biggest impact on the country’s cuisine by introducing dishes like burek (phyllo dough filled with meat or cheese) and čevapčiči (baked minced pork and beef). Kebab is also one of the dishes that are very popular in Slovenia, but originate from Turkey.

GLOBALISATION
Globalisation has been defined as "a compression of time and space, an intensification of social economic, cultural and political relations, [and] a series of global linkages" (Pennycook, 2007, p. 114). This ongoing process has had a significant influence over the ethnic structures of these countries, as it has worldwide. The movement of people implies the movement and encounter of different cultures. Each one brings with them the pieces of their own, negotiating and adjusting, but keeping their essence. Being yet another of the numerous manifestations of a system of beliefs and values of a given culture, food is sometimes used as a means to establish cultural identities. Different foods are associated to different countries, each having its specific staple food, as has been presented in the previous section. But during the process of negotiation, food, as any other aspect of a given culture, is often adapted to the target culture. The essence is kept, but certain features are always adapted so as to achieve successful intercultural communication. This necessity of compromising by creating the third, hybrid culture has also been stressed by Kramsch (1993).

The ethnic diversity in which migration has resulted varies from country to country, depending on the level of immigration in each. And to observe the ways in which intercultural encounters come about when it comes to food, one must be acquainted with the ethnic structure of a given society. For instance, whereas Croatia and Slovenia are still mostly ethnically homogeneous societies, Ireland, Portugal, and Germany are populated by numerous ethnic minorities and therefore, experience intercultural encounters more often. This is due to the numerous pull factors (Lee, 1966), such as employment opportunities, pleasant climate, political stability, but also the ways in which a given government conducts its immigration policy. Despite the varying immigration level, each of these countries has encountered different types of foods specific to different cultures such as Italian, Mexican and Chinese. When it comes to food, members of these cultures interact readily and successfully. Being an easily adaptable aspect of a culture, food serves as a good medium when it comes to intercultural understanding.

The impact of globalisation in the aforementioned countries can be exemplified by McDonald's. If one analyses the spread of this particular food chain around the world, one will find that there is no stopping to this phenomenon due to the adaptability to each market. When looking at the figures, this statistic shows the amount of restaurants in each country: Slovenia: 16 Croatia: 20 Ireland: 84 Portugal: 138 Germany: 1,468. (List of countries with McDonald's restaurants)

In spite of the surprising amount of restaurants in Germany, it should be taken into account that it is the biggest and most populated one, with an amount of 54,000 inhabitants per McDonald's. This figure is similar for Ireland even though it has far less restaurants and is also smaller in size and population. No matter how big or how small the numbers are, it is a fact that these countries do have something in common when it comes to food. If in the past, food was a symbol of each culture, it is now also one of the signs of how globalisation is a phenomenon that touches each culture in its own way.

STUDENT FOOD
In Slovenia most students do not live at home. They reside in student dormitories or rented flats. In order for them to live and eat healthy, a number of precautions were introduced. Regarding food, the student organisation developed a system where every student is entitled to one subsidized meal every working day. They can, however, use two subventions in a day, but they have to be between 8:00 AM and 8:00 PM, four hours apart and they only get a certain amount per month. The amount the government subsidizes is 2.63€, which can make a big difference for the students and allows them to acquire hot meals sometimes for free. It is possible to try anything, from international cuisine (Indian and Mexican, for example), fast food to a proper Slovenian meal. It is commonly believed that because of the past socialist regime in Slovenia and the values it promoted, Slovenians expect the government to provide certain subventions and regulations that would not be customary in other countries.

Similarly, the student food in Croatia is also subsidised because of the very similar political past. The system, however, is a bit different. They also use student cards for identification, but the amount of subvention provided used to be higher: 75%, but because of the recession, the subvention was lowered to 50%. The amount is subtracted from a virtual account, where a certain amount of money per month is stored and differs from student to student according to their living status. While in Slovenia students can choose a student menu in many restaurants all over the country, in Croatia they have separate canteens for student, where hot meals are provided. In addition to that, the student card and the virtual money on it can also be used to buy some groceries (milk, spreads, jams, and so on) in certain shops covered by the student's canteen, but the articles and amounts are regulated daily.

In Portugal, on the other hand, meals are not subsidized directly. There are, however, separate canteens for students canteens which only students, providing proof of their status, can attend. Hot meals are provided for the amount of 2.5 € and students can choose among other menus. Presently, packed lunches are an option for a lot of students and in order to help them, Universities have begun providing microwaves.

Similarly, they seem to have such canteens in Germany, but everyone can eat there (even non-students), but they have to pay the full price. Hot meals for the students are subsidized, but the amount varies between 10 and 20%. Some students bring lunch from home or buy snacks in cafés, but that is not very common. The aforementioned goes for Essen, but it is thought that the case in similar at other universities.

The situation is also similar in Ireland, where hot meals are provided for about 5€, but the canteens are not restricted for non-students. Approximately half of the students go to the canteen and the other half buys sandwiches at a local supermarket. Some of the students bring a packed lunch from home.

EATING HABITS AND ETIQUETTE
Each country has their own cultural norms which dictate how people are expected to act normally in society. This process of normalization (Holliday, Hyde & Kullman, 2004) explains why social norms may differ from culture to culture. The aim of this section is to identify the social norms regarding the eating habits and etiquette of the five countries: Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia and to raise awareness about the possible problems that may arise during intercultural communication based on these differences.

When in the context of the summer school, the students were asked to give information about their own experiences, in order to evaluate the eating habits and etiquette of the aforementioned countries. The participants formed a small homogenous group, therefore the results are not considered to be representative of their respective societies. However, based on the results, conclusions can be drawn about the possible cultural specific traits as regards the eating habits of these countries.

EATING HABITS

All of the aforementioned countries eat breakfast at similar times between six and nine am and often later on the weekends. Participants from Croatia and Slovenia stated that breakfast is considered to be the most important meal of the day. Clear differences can be seen in what certain countries consider to be the biggest meal of the day. In general, Slovenians deem lunch to be the largest meal of the day. In contrast, the Irish have a light meal for lunch which is eaten around one pm and a large hot meal for dinner which is normally eaten at six pm. The Portuguese put an equal emphasis on the importance of both lunch and dinner as they consume two hot meals at one pm for lunch and usually eight pm for dinner.

ETIQUETTE

Cultural norms are reflected in simple everyday activities such as table etiquette. This section aims to evaluate the social norms regarding commenting on and complimenting meals, and the cultural norms about politeness.

The Croatians, Irish and Slovenians value giving positive feedback about a meal. They consider it normal to compliment the chef in order to show appreciation. They often do this even when they may not mean it. The Irish tend not to give criticism as this would be deemed negative, whereas Slovenians would see criticism as something positive and constructive. In contrast, the Portuguese and Germans have different attitudes towards commenting on a meal. The Portuguese are more inclined to give an honest opinion when they are eating with their family. As discussed by the students, it is acceptable to point out if the food is too spicy or if it could do with some salt. This is not considered to be rude, whereas it could be considered to be so in Ireland.

The participants were asked about how they would request for someone to pass them an item when eating with family or friends. The results give an indication about different attitudes towards politeness. The Slovenians, Irish, Croatians and Portuguese request an item in a similar way. They tend to ask a question such as ‘could you pass me the salt, please?’ It is also normal to say please and thank you, however, this is sometimes omitted. Germans have a different idea of politeness. They are more inclined to use a more direct request such as “give me the salt” or it may be sufficient to point at an item. It is vital to note that none of the cultures are any more of less polite, they are simply different.

These differences are important in terms of intercultural communication as the preferences for directness or indirectness differ among the cultures. Therefore, speakers can interpret each other as impolite in intercultural encounters. It has been suggested that Anglo cultures (Wierzbicka, 2003), in general, pose restrictions on the use of imperative mood. However, this may not be the case in other European nations or languages. One of the best ways to avoid being perceived as impolite is to become aware of intercultural differences in simple everyday activities such as table manners.

CONCLUSION
Based on the above analysis it is clear that food reveals a lot about the cultures of Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia. Firstly, it has been proven that the national identity of these countries is strongly linked with their traditional foods. Secondly, the study of globalisation suggests that all of the countries are open to trying new foods. Finally, the observations of the varying cultural norms regarding etiquette and student food revealed interesting and useful insights into the differences that exist between some of the countries. Awareness of these differences is useful as regards successful intercultural communication. Although every country has its own traditions and customs in relation to eating habits, food is not restricted to borders or language barriers. Food is an international language which unites us closer together.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cultural Encounters/Bon appetit