text:
Exercise and metabolic disease/Activity 3

You have created the core material for your resource in Activity 2, now its time to improve it.

Task
Using the resource you created in Activity 2, it's time to enhance its worth. Think about how you can present the site to allow for improved information, alternative formats of information, ease of understanding.

You may like to find
 * Have tables or figures been used to quickly and easily present information?
 * Are there informative videos and podcasts that offer information in a different way?
 * Can the user of the resource follow up further information on something you have included?
 * Will parts of the wiki automatically update themselves?

When creating the resource also consider that as well as the online resource, practioners may at times want to print the resource when online access is not immediate. So bear in mind what the PDF version of the site will look like (click the down arrow next to the Page tab above to see what this page looks like). For example, videos will not appear on a PDF version of the wiki page, but you may still want to make the reader aware that the resource exists, so how would you overcome that?

You will be assessed according to the assessment overview. In this activity, you may want to pay particular attention to:
 * logical flow of information
 * presentation of data is effective
 * innovative use of other media (e.g. use of multi-media and/or social media)
 * the resource remains easy to follow

Timeline
The resource will be used in class in week 13 explained in the reflection activity, so this task must be complete by the end of week 12.

Resources

 * Using the internet for learning and research
 * Reflective blog on educational technology tools
 * Hints and tips on presenting information (tables and graphs)
 * Presenting information, from UMich
 * Presenting information (useful information mainly between pages 27 and 35)
 * Jessica E. Zimmer " Teaching Effectively with Multimedia," //Visionlearning// Vol. HELP-1 (9), 2003.
 * 40 useful and creative infographics
 * Example: Diabetes education video found on Youtube, part of a diabetes education channel
 * Example: Diabetes Diagnostic test found on slideshare


text:
Exercise and metabolic disease/Reflection Activity

The resource created will be used in a mock case study during class time. This will provide an opportunity to reflect on the resource and further develop it.

Task

 * 1) Each groups created resource will be passed on to a different group. Using the resource, the group will perform a mock case study in a role play during class.
 * 2) After the role play, each group will reflect on the use of the resource using the questions below. Individuals within the group should submit their critical reflections on to the discussion page of the wiki for the resource they were allocated in the case study.

The assessment of this activity will be based on the assessment overview. The reflection has been set-up so that you can practice constructively improving scholarly work as well as think critically about the resource and the information contained in it.

Timeline
Reflections should be submitted to the discussion page of the wiki by the end of week 14.

Reflection Questions

 * 1) What parts of the resource were most useful in working with the "client" and why?
 * 2) Can you suggest improvements to the practical use of the resource? Rationalise any improvements and provide examples where possible.
 * 3) Was the resource factually accurate? Use references to support your response.
 * 4) What are your thoughts on the layout of the resource? Describe what changes you might make to improve ease of understanding of the resource. If you are aware of anything that may improve the resource (e.g. a video, reference to further reading etc) include them here.
 * 5) Describe any personal experiences you have had, or anticipate, in professional life and how such a resource might be used in practice.

Role play
You will be provided with details about the role play in class.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Benrattray/Pedagogy

This page describes the education principles behind the assessment task and activities to meet the requirements of my assignment within Education Technology which I am enrolled in through Central Queensland University. Within the unit we were asked to design a learning activity for students and to reflect on their participation. Unfortunately I am not able to quite meet this requirement, as I don't have a current student cohort, and so have designed the activities and reflected on the design process itself.

The central theme to the design of the activities has been to incorporate two principles often encouraged within the Education Technology field: Kearsley and Shneiderman (1998) Engagement Theory and Oliver’s (1999) ICT learning design framework (see image). Co-learner and educator Richard Hu summarized that the ICT framework: “It is made up of three components of learning tasks, learning resources and learning supports, with assessment as the core in the middle where the three components overlap.”

http://benrattray.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/oliverlearningdesignmodel.gif

The activities aim to address the design framework directly by including clear sub-headings of tasks, timeline and resources. The sub-headings aim to provide direct support to the students in the learning activities. Support will also include activities during class time as well as contact with the unit convernor in a blended learning approach shown to be effective in a related field.

Another co-learner and educator Jess Parker offered the following for the engagement theory which I thought was quite nice:
 * ‘Engagement Theory’ which provides a framework for technology based teaching and learning. This theory requires three key elements to ensure learner engagement;
 * 1. Emphasis on a collaborative effort
 * 2. Project based assignments
 * 3. Non Academic Focus
 * If these three elements are combined in a learning task, it will result in creative, authentic & meaningful learning experiences. Students will be intrinsically motivated to learn which is required for ACTIVE self directed learning.

An emphasis on collaborative writing is focused in activity 2 and 3 through the construction of the resource on a wiki. Wikis are capable of improving writing skills into a public place but caution must be taken as collaborative writing can become limited due to student's reluctance to edit each others' work. This issue will be discussed in class ahead of time in order to limit this reluctance and agreed terms on editing may become evident. Similar appraoches to collaborative student learning projects on a wiki have been used previously. It will be interesting to see how this unfolds.

Jess's summary of engagement theory also uses the term [|active learning], which in itself is supported by educational research. Active participation in activities encourages learning as suggested by the proverb often ascribed to the Chinese :
 * I hear, and I forget;
 * I see, and I remember;
 * I do, and I understand.

The collaborative construction of the resource requires the "doing" and is significantly removed from the traditional lecture format where knowledge was "passed on". The activities have also been assigned as they will assist in the learning of situations that students are likely to encounter in their later professional life. This authentic nature of the task must also be communicated to the students to ensure they see worth in the activities. Students engaging in the wiki process will also develop e-technology skills, increasingly be considered as a generic skill of university graduates, in preparation for their professional life. The principles behind the resource goes further than this however through the construction of a type of open educational resource. Students have the opportunity to generate and contribute to a public resource (DONATE) which, in turn, has the opportunity to be continually edited and kept up to date over time, unlike traditional resources.

Further planning to engage active learning has led to the use of role plays in Activity 3. Role plays create an environment that simulates reality, enabling students to enhance understanding of the situation or event being re-enacted. Students thus have the opportunity to gain deeper understanding in a context that also assists to develop their practical skills for professional practice. Although not exemplified here, it is clear from the literature that the guidance provided for the role play should be well developed in order to promote learning. Deeper learning will be further encouraged through reflective practice after the role play, a skill that is encouraged in the workplace, incuding the Exercise Physiology profession.

Student and teacher feedback after the initial cohort will further develop the courework and is due in mid-2011.

=References=

title: User:Benrattray/Pedagogy


text:
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title: User talk:Papillion~enwikiversity


text: Category:ACR

title: Category:ACR


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Sport research/What is research

Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using a scientific method. It's all about addressing an issue or asking and answering a question or solving a problem. Research requires you to conduct a study and provide evidence for how you address the issue or answer a question. The methods that you apply to provide this evidence must be transparent, so that anyone who looks at your research could replicate it if desired. In sport we generally consider two types of research:
 * Quantitative - involves analysis of numerical data (e.g., website hits, blood lactate levels, jump height)
 * Qualitative - involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact)

Approaching research
Hopkins[1] provides some useful steps for the initial process of research.
 * 1) Identify an issue, question, or problem and talk with people who want or need your study.
 * 2) Find out what's already known about it. Talk with experts and/or read their reviews and the original research on the topic.

As you find out more you will identify gaps in the knowledge of a certain area and it is these gaps that will help form your research question. Generically, research questions often take the form:
 * What is the nature of the relationship between a and b?
 * What is the difference between f and g?
 * What is the effect of x on y?

Forming a research question
Examples of research questions in exercise and sport
 * Does possession in rugby lead to a winning performance?
 * Is family or school leadership more effective in the healthy weight control of primary school children?
 * Does beta-alanine supplementation lead to improved 400m sprinting performance?
 * Is marketing a university based student football game more effective through facebook or twitter?
 * Are step classes or body pump classes more effective in combating osteoporosis in post menopausal women?

The research question you come up with should be:
 * 1) needed, i.e. you will need to find literature to support your argument for coming up with the research question you have
 * 2) testable, i.e. can you conduct a study that will directly address the question you have? This will relate to your research design

Delimitations and limitations
As you examine more evidence and research that exists in your research area you are likely to find that the questions you ask becomes more and more specific. In well researched areas this will need to be the case in order to make an original contribution (i.e. research that has not been conducted before, that seeks to reach new findings). As the research becomes more specific, you are effectively adding delimitations. Delimitations and limitations are important in the interpretation of your research findings and generally should be acknowledged in your discussion.

 * Limitations - are generally considered to be conditions that restrict the scope of the study or may affect the outcome and cannot be controlled by the researcher. Often limitations reflect methodological issues that the researcher would have preferred to change if possible (e.g. access to subjects only at certain times or reliance on data collection that is not considered to be the gold standard way of collecting that type of data - see Validity and Reliability)
 * Delimitations - are generally considered to be the restrictions or boundaries that researchers impose prior to the inception of the study to narrow the scope of a study. This means that whatever results are found, they should only be interpreted within the scope of the delimitations (e.g. research conducted specifically on adult females should not be generalised to all adults).

Activity
Activities are mini-tasks that will give you some practice with the concepts of each section. Activities should appear here soon, if not, feel free to add some open access ones yourself.

Task
Think about, find out about, and document your answer to these questions.
 * 1) what is your research question?
 * 2) how did you come to the research question?
 * 3) how can you test the question?
 * 4) what limitations are there? and which ones can you control? how?
 * 5) what delimitations apply to your study?

Resources

 * 1) Will Hopkin's "what is research?" is a powerpoint slideshow on what is research in the context of sport.
 * 2) Choosing a research project by Paul Doughty at ANU
 * 3) Research Questions & Hypotheses (wilderdom.com)\
 * 4) Research Limitations (psychology and society.com)

How to write a PhD thesis by S. Joseph Levine - a great source of info even though you aren't doing a PhD

How to do a research project: related web links offers a host of information on all aspects of research which you can explore.

UNSW's Learning Centre has established a delcious resource with lots of links to study and research resources and links.

The University of Washington has a good open resource: Research 101 - an interactive online tutorial for students wanting an introduction to research skills. The tutorial covers the basics, including how to select a topic and develop research questions, as well as how to select, search for, find, and evaluate information source.

The UK's Higher Education Academy has an excellent resource for students in the Research Gateway. An online resource to support student research project work in Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism.

Will Hopkin's offers more information about finding out what's known, a critique of different sources of information and evaluating them.

title: Sport research/What is research


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Sport research/Research design

Your research question will largely determine how you will go about conducting the research. The broad methodology you adopt to answer the question you have is often referred to your research design. Initially you need to determine if you want to answer a question relating to a single case (a case study) or if you want to know what happens in general (i.e. you study a sample which relates to a larger popultion). Most reported research in exercise and sport is in the form of a sample and that's what will be considered here.

The type of research you conduct can be grouped into
 * Descriptive research
 * Experimental and Quasi experimental
 * Meta analyses

Hopkin's refers to this as modes of enquiry. Descriptive and experimental research are the two most common types of research that we deal with.

As part of your research design, it will also be important to consider the validity and reliability of data that you are collecting. This may have implications on parts of your research design. Your research design will also determine what kind of data analysis you can do. You should know what data analysis you are going to do before you collect your data.

Descriptive research
Descriptive research occurs when data is collected in a natural setting (i.e. the researcher has not manipulated the environment in any way). The natural setting doesn't mean a green forest, it just means the researcher does not interfere. So videoing and coding a game of rugby, then going on and describing what happens would be referred to as a descriptive, or observational, study. Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.

Descriptive, or observational research can be used to describe a single point in time, or changes over time (longitudinal - e.g. changes in strength over weeks, changes in blood glucose during a single exercise bout, the evolving role of a sports manager over the decades). Observational research also often incorporates correlations, where different observations are correlated against each other to see if they are associated.

Hopkin's[1] describes the types of observational study with a sample, weak to strong:
 * Case series, e.g. 20 gold medallists.
 * Cross-sectional (correlational), e.g. a sample of 1000 athletes.
 * Case-control (retrospective), e.g. 200 Olympians and 800 non-Olympians.
 * Cohort (prospective or longitudinal), e.g. measure characteristics of 1000 athletes then determine incidence of Olympic medals after 10 years.

Experimental and Quasi experimental
In an experimental research design, you almost always gather information before and after an intervention (where you, the experimenter, do something to effect the natural world) and then look for changes. The ways in which interventions can be incorporated into a study have been described by Hopkin's[1], from weak to strong (in terms of study design):
 * No control group (time series), e.g. measure performance in 10 athletes before and after a training intervention.
 * Crossover, e.g. give 5 athletes a drug and another 5 athletes a placebo, measure performance; wait a while to wash out the treatments, then cross over the treatments and measure again.
 * Controlled trial, e.g. measure performance of 20 athletes before and after a drug and another 20 before and after a placebo.
 * You need up to 4x as many subjects as in a crossover.

In experimental research, it is also important to limit the bias associated with your measures. Bias[1] is less likely if…
 * Subjects are randomly assigned to treatments. (in research where subjects are not randomly assigned, the research is termed quasi-experimental design)
 * Assignment is balanced in respect of any characteristics that might affect the outcome.
 * In other words, you want treatment groups to be similar.

 * Subjects and researchers are blind to the identity of the active and control (placebo) treatments.
 * Single blind = subjects don't know which is which.
 * Double blind = the researchers administering the treatments and doing the measurements and analysis don't know either.

If you have a controlled trial, then here is a useful decision tree for Controlled Trials

RCTs
If you are doing a randomised controlled trial (an RCT) you should consider the CONSORT statement. The CONSORT statements provide established guidelines on reporting (and by extension designing) a randomised controlled trial - one of the highest levels of designs in terms of evidence that it creates). The statement will ask you to report things like how participants were recruited, how random allocation to groups occurred, how participants and researchers were blinded to interventions... all those kinds of things that need to be considered when designing and reporting on a well-controlled study. Improved reporting of interventions, to allow their replication, is also the aim of the TIDieR checklist and guide. Specific guidelines to determine the quality of evidence (and thus what you should think about in your own research design) of a study include GRADE and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. Student projects often end up with small participants numbers, often underpowered - for these studies it is worth considering the CONSORT pilot and feasibility trials extension. This research is well placed after all to help inform larger subsequent trials, as is often the target of grant applications. You may as well design these experiments well, make sure they really are suitable to inform later trials. So for any pilot or feasibility study (often including student projects) consider designing your study with these guidelines.

Exercise Research
Exercise research also now has a reporting template, in the form of a 16-item internationally endorsed Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template (CERT). Similar to other statements like PRISMA, CONSORT, CERT aims to provide guidance on standardised and complete reporting (and design) of research that incorporates exercise interventions. Although only developed in 2016, CERT will provide a strong guide to authors (and reviewers) in the future. The actual template is here.

Pre-registration
Prompted by findings in social psychology in particular, in which only about half the findings in the field could be reproduced in replication studies (the replication crisis), a growing part of the scientific community has discussed how scientific research can be improved. One belief, is that along with the traditional ideas around what constitutes "gold standard" experimental research - randomized controlled trial, double-blinding type ideas - research should also be preregistered. Preregistration can occur in different ways - registration of clinical trials, publication of study protocols, or even publishers having a process by which study protocols are presubmitted to journals, and results of the study (regardless of what they are) being pre-accepted for publication. This process could potentially reduce publication bias (where significant results appear to get priority), inappropriate manipulation of data or statistical analysis, and improve study design. Some critics of this approach believe this may stifle creativity, but this approach does not have to eliminate extra exploratory analysis, nor valid design. No doubt this area will influence and shape scientific research and publication for a few years to come.

Meta analyses
A meta-analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses. In its simplest form, this is normally by identification of a common measure of effect size, for which a weighted average might be the output of a meta-analyses. Here the weighting might be related to sample sizes within the individual studies. More generally there are other differences between the studies that need to be allowed for, but the general aim of a meta-analysis is to more powerfully estimate the true "effect size" as opposed to a smaller "effect size" derived in a single study under a given single set of assumptions and conditions.

Meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a systematic review procedure. Here it is convenient to follow the terminology used by the Cochrane Collaboration, and use "meta-analysis" to refer to statistical methods of combining evidence, leaving other aspects of 'research synthesis' or 'evidence synthesis', such as combining information from qualitative studies, for the more general context of systematic reviews. The PRISMA guidelines are an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses also worth consulting during the design and write-up of any meta-analysis.

Hopkin's also has an introduction to meta-analysis worth reading.

Power and subject numbers
Bland M (2009) Sample size calculations should be based on the width of a confidence interval, not power (BMJ article)

http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/relyappl.html#samplesize

Hopkins WG (2006) Estimating Sample Size for Magnitude-Based Inferences Sportscience 10, 63-70.

Online effect size calculator from University of Colorado academic.

Random allocation of subjects
Hopkins WG (2010) Assigning Subjects to Groups in a Controlled Trial. Sportscience 14, 7-12.

Activity
Activities are mini-tasks that will give you some practice with the concepts of each section. Activities should appear here soon, if not, feel free to add some open access ones yourself.

Task

 * 1) What type of research are you conducting?
 * 2) Explain why you have answered as you have to Q1.
 * 3) Could you do a different type of research on the same thing? What would you need to change?
 * 4) Explain how the type of research you are conducting limits you or allows you to make inferences about causality

Resources
In "research designs" Will Hopkin's provides a powerpoint overview of different research designs often used in sports research. This is an excellent resource.

For quantitive research design, Hopkins has another useful resource that will help you thinak about all apects of your research design.

title: Sport research/Research design


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Sport research/Finding research

Useful types of research
Generally other peer reviewed and published research in scientific journals offer the most compelling arguments for justifying your research question or explaining the results that you have found in your research. This type of research / literature is the most common and the focus of this section. Other evidence may also be important to your research however and you should use what is best to make the particular point you are trying to make. Opinions or common practices by coaches for instance often provide strong reasoning for research which may be found in interviews, blogs or magazines. Importantly, wherever you find evidence, you should reference it appropriately.

Finding stuff
Universities often spend a lot of money on subscriptions to journals and associated databases, so it's not suprising that they tend to teach these methods. And they are effective, but I personally don't use them, and find google scholar, my own online network, google seaches and the lists of citations and references from the articles I am interested in as being much more powerful than library databases. But it is (probably) important to understand and be able to use both. The library one's tend to relate to The University of Canberra library, which is where I work at the time of writing this.

Library Databases
Most libraries tend to run their own workshops on finding research, so get yourself on one. The University of Canberra library runs online workshops on information literacy and finding journal articles (fairly general). The UC library databases and other online resources can be accessed by anyone, although the content of journal articles may not be.

Real world approach
1. Search google scholar. Here's a short video tutorial to google scholar by albertsonslibrary, 5:17. Become familiar with at least these options in google scholar
 * Scholar preferences - Library links and Bibliographic Manager
 * Advanced Scholar Search - Find articles options (and note the short-cut expressions when you get the results), Author and Date options.
 * Cited by link

2. Have your online network tell you about it
 * See Using the internet for learning and research

3. Try a normal google search 4. Use the references and citations of good articles you have found 5. And don't forget to do simple things like directly ask your supervisor, other researchers, teachers and colleagues.

Keeping up to date

 * 1) Re-do the searches
 * 2) Keep checking the citations of the really key articles you have found
 * 3) Have a good network
 * 4) Subscribe to RSS feeds

Task

 * 1) Find a minimum of 10 peer reviewed original research (i.e. not reviews) articles using google scholar.
 * 2) Get a copy of each article. If the articles are not open access, or you or your institution does not have a subscription to the journal, see if your supervisor(s) can help you out.
 * 3) Check the articles and see if there are other key articles to your area that those articles are referencing.
 * 4) Once you have those extra key articles, find all of them again on google scholar and check to see if they have been cited by others. Check through those citations for other, more recent, key articles.
 * 5) You may want to enter these into a bibliographic manager (see Bibliographic tools), if using RefWorks or Endnote then google scholar can assist this with one click.

Resources
Using the internet for learning and research for lots of tips on searching and networks.

A list of open access journals in the Sport Science field as well as another shorter list.

The University of Toronto has an excellent resource on critical reading and researching

title: Sport research/Finding research


text:
Sport research/Critiquing the literature

Just because it's in black and white, doesn't mean it's true. And just because it's published in a peer review (even an A-star ERA journal) doesn't mean it's good either. You, the reader, have to make a judgement and be able to defend that judgement. Here are some tips to help you do that.

Reading the article
Here are some tips for going about reading a scientific article. You may find you prefer a different way, but here's a start in case you're a bit lost.

 * 1) Read the Abstract. It consists of a brief summary of the research questions and methods. It should also state the findings. Because it is short and often (poorly) written in dense jargon, you may need to read it a couple of times. Try to restate the abstract in your own non-technical language.
 * 2) Read the Introduction. This is the beginning of the article, appearing first after the Abstract. This contains information about the authors' interest in the research, why they chose the topic, their hypothesis, and methods. This part also sets out the operational definitions of variables.
 * 3) Read the Discussion section. Skip over the Methods section for the time being. The Discussion section will explain the main findings in great detail and should discuss any methodological problems or flaws that the researchers discovered.
 * 4) Read the Methods section. Now that you know the results and what the researchers claim the results mean, you are prepared to read about the Methods. This section explains the type of research and the techniques and methods used.
 * 5) Read the Results section. This is the most technically challenging part of a research report. But you already know the findings (from reading about them in the Discussion section). This section explains the statistical analyses that led the authors to their conclusions. It will test your knowledge of statistics, as well as research terms such as correlation coefficient, dependent and independent variables, subject variables, main effect, interaction, and inter-rater reliability, to name a few.
 * 6) Read the Conclusion. The last section of the report summarizes the findings, but, more importantly it sets out what the researchers think is the value of their research for real-life application. This section often contains suggestions for future research, including issues that the researchers became aware of in the course of the study.

Critiquing the article
There are lots of ways you can critique an article. Unless you are an expert in the field however, critiquing is hard. How do you know what is good or bad? Better critiquing comes with experience, but there are ways to try and accelerate your ability to critique in a certain area. Firstly, be systematic with your approach (check out the checklist section below), or look at how quality of evidence is often rated (again, just below), and try to apply it to what you are reading. But in terms of the specific content knowledge - the best tip is perhaps talking to researchers in the area, and read, read read. But don't just read, take note of particular sections of existing publications. Introductions will often point out limitations in the literature (and what they intend to do about it) - this will give you some ideas about critiquing specific content. But also pay attention to how methodologies are justified (there will be critique useful information here) and of course how limitations are discussed within papers (this of course is all about critiquing and applicability of findings). The more you read, and the more broadly you read, and attempt to pay attention to these areas, the better you will also be able to critique an individual paper (a scientific critic).

Here is a section by section checklist that will help you ask questions that will help you evaluate what to think about the article. When specifically trying to rate the quality of evidence from a research article, consider tools such as GRADE and the PEDro scale (more about this in Research Design).

 * Is the article up to date? Old and irrelevant? Timeless?
 * Is the article original research? Supporting previous findings? A review of the literature?

Title
 * Does the title give you insight as to what the article is about?
 * Does the title tell you what, whom and how?
 * Does the title entice you to read further?

Abstract
 * Does the abstract contain a brief statement about the purpose, method, results, conclusion and clinical relevance?
 * After reading the abstract did you learn the essence of the article without the details?

Introduction
 * Is the problem clearly stated?
 * Is the literature complete, current and appropriate and is the review objective?
 * Are alternative views acknowledged?
 * Are statements appropriately supported?
 * Are there unsupported assumptions (especially contributing to the articles research question)?
 * Did the author identify a “gap”?
 * Is the purpose clearly stated?
 * Is there a hypothesis or research question?

Method
 * Consider the level of evidence that the research design is able to offer (see: Methods for establishing levels of evidence?)
 * Consider sub-design principles (randomisation, cross-over designs, blinding etc) and how that may effect the level of evidence (consider the information presented in the Research Design section of this wiki)
 * Are subjects well-described?
 * How was the sample selected?
 * How large was the sample?
 * Was a control group used?
 * Is the instrumentation well-described? Calibrated?
 * Is the procedure laid out in detail?
 * Could someone replicate the study?
 * Is there internal validity?
 * Is the data analysis well-described? Appropriate?
 * What p-value was set as the criteria? (or how were the stats presented?)

Results
 * Are the measured data summarised?
 * Are results statistically significant?
 * Are results clinically/practically significant?

Discussion
 * Was the hypothesis accepted? Rejected?
 * Does the author identify weakness/limitations of the experiment? Are there any that are not acknowledged?
 * Are statements appropriately supported?
 * Is further literature cited to address the findings? Are alternative views acknowledged?
 * Are the results applied clinically/practically?
 * Are suggestions for further research indicated?

Conclusion
 * Are the results briefly restated?
 * Do conclusions follow from the results?

Formatting and clarity
 * Is the article clear? Is it formatted appropriately?
 * Are the main points arranged in logical sequence?
 * Do you have difficulty following the argument? Is the case made?

Referencing
 * Are all references precise and clear?

About the Author
 * Is the article (or authors work in general) well cited (cite lists of central articles are generally very important to your research, Google scholar has a good function for keeping up to date this way)?
 * Where is it published? Consider the quality of the journal, if it is pay to publish)
 * Is the author well established in the field?

Potential conflicts of interest
 * Are there Sponsors (funders) of the research (often a statement near the end of the article)? Could there be a financial or other conflict of interest?
 * Employer of the research team (e.g. brand/product based research)?
 * Publisher of the research (e.g. ASCM publishes MSSE, NSCA publishes J Strength Conditioning Research)?

Context of the findings
 * Are the results on a specific population? Can it be generalized to others? Think geographically as well as the descriptors of the participant cohort.

Annotated bibliography
A good way to start critiquing the articles you have found is by creating an annotated bibliography. Janiesantoy provides a useful short video on Writing an Annotated Bibliography. 6:22 minutes.

When I do an annotated bibliography I tend to do it all in the notes section of Endnote as this allows it to be searchable (within Endnote). I also tend to make dot points as opposed to full sentences and try to use key terms across a number of articles to assist the search function. In creating an annotated biobliography (for my own purposes, not something that I necessarily publish), I would tend to:
 * makes notes to summarise findings that are purposeful for what I am looking at. For instance, some times I may only be interested in the method used in a study, not the outcome(s) of the research.
 * use key words to help search for things later (e.g. in the example above I might use the term "methods" as well as something about why the methods are important to me).
 * make comments on the good and bad points of the study as I see it. Essentially I make a dot point version of the critique.

Bibliographic tools
Often its a good idea to use an electronic bibliographic tool/reference manager to keep your references and annotations. Examples include Endnote and Refworks. If you annotate directly into a tool such as this it is often easy to search for certain words and quickly format your references in a document. But this doesnt apply to formatting online documents (at present at least) and is not ideal for sharing annotations when it comes to creating the resource in Activity 2. So you may also want to consider using tools such as delicious, webcite, an electronic document, a wiki or even pen and paper. A free online version with increasing functionality (little to distinguish from commercially available systems now, except it's perhaps more powerful) is Zotero.

Activity
Activities are mini-tasks that will give you some practice with the concepts of each section. Activities should appear here soon, if not, feel free to add some open access ones yourself.

Task

 * 1) Create an annotated bibliography with 10 key references to your research topic
 * 2) Share the annotated bibliography with the research group

Resources
Will Hopkin's offers more information about finding out what's known, a critique of different sources of information and evaluating them.

See Ben Rattray's bookmarks for website resources around annotated bibliographies


text:
Sport research/Validity and reliability of data

Your data will only be useful if it is (or you have a concept of how it is) valid and reliable.

Validity
Validity refers to the agreement between the value of a measurement and its true value. You quantify validity by comparing your measurements with values that are as close to the true values as possible, often referred to as a "gold standard".

If you don't measure these things yourself, you should at the very least make a case for how valid the measures that you are taking generally are from evidence presented in the literature.

Reliability
Reliability refers to the reproducibility of a measure if you were to repreat the measure. It's like asking: If I took the measure again, without doing anything that is likely to change the measure (e.g. give them a drink when assessing hydration status, waiting a year to measure body mass), what is the likelihood that I would get the same result? It is obviously important that repeat measures are fairly close. Of course the results aren't exactly the same, there is error associated with the measurement. The error can come from biological error (e.g. the body is constantly changing and providing different results) or technical error (e.g. error associated with the instruments you use to take a measure and the skills of the researcher in taking the measure). It is the technical error in particular that we aim to minimse, but it is important to have an idea of the total error associated with a particular measurement. The amount of error will ultimately influence whether or not we observe differences between groups, or if the differences are too small to distinguish from the typical error (or noise) that we record.

If you don't measure these things yourself, you should at the very least make a case for how reliable the measures that you are taking generally are from evidence presented in the literature.

There are different type of reliability, but the most common is retest reliability - the reproducibility of values of a variable when you measure the same subjects twice or more.

Components of retest reliability
 * change in the mean
 * typical error
 * retest correlation

Other measures of reliability
 * kappa coefficient - relibility on nominal variables often used in performance analysis of sport
 * alpha reliability - a reliability variable used for questionnaires often used in sport psychology

There is a lot that can be said about reliability and it's an important concept too. Hopkin's covers the topic extensively, you are best starting your reading off here http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/precision.html

Activity
Activities are mini-tasks that will give you some practice with the concepts of each section. Activities should appear here soon, if not, feel free to add some open access ones yourself.

Task

 * 1) Prepare a 3 slides in 3 minute presentation on "how validity and reliability applies to your research and how it influences your study".

Resources

 * Will Hopkin's covers the issues of validity and reliability in the precision of measurement section of his website.
 * Reliability, a Crucial Issue for Clinicians and Researchers (slideshow) was a presentation delivered by Hopkins as part a mini-symposium entitled at the 2001 annual meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine. It covers the essentials of reliability and some of its uses (assessing individuals, estimating sample sizes, estimating individual responses).
 * The International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport released a special issue on reliability worth looking at, particularly if this is your field.


text:
Fluid Mechanics for MAP/Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

>back to Chapters of Fluid Mechanics for MAP

>back to Chapters of Microfluid Mechanics

Differential relations for a fluid particle
We are interested in the distribution of field properties at each point in space. Therefore, we analyze an infinitesimal region of a flow by applying the RTT to an infinitesimal control volume, or, to a infinitesimal fluid system.

Conservation of mass

The conservation of mass according to RTT

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\int_{CV}\rho\ dV + \int_{CS}\rho\;\vec{U}\cdot\vec{n}\ dA = 0 $$

or in tensor form

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\int_{CV}\rho\ dV + \int_{CS}\rho\;U_i n_i\ dA = 0 $$

The differential volume is selected to be so small that density $$ \displaystyle (\rho)$$ can be accepted to be uniform within this volume. Thus the first integral in 1 is:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\int_{CV}\rho\ dV\approx\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3}= \frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}dV $$

The flux term (second integral term) in the equation of conservation of mass can be analyzed in groups:

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS}\rho U_i n_i\ dA = \int_{CS\,x_{1}} \rho U_i n_i\;dA + \int_{CS\,x_{2}} \rho U_i n_i\;dA + \int_{CS\,x_{3}} \rho U_i n_i\;dA $$

Let's look to the surfaces perpendicular to $$ \displaystyle x_1-axis $$

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\, x_{1}}\rho U_i n_i\ dA = -\rho U_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3} + \left[\rho U_{1} + \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{1}\right)}{\partial x_{1}}dx_{1}\right] dx_{2}dx_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle = \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{1}\right)}{\partial x_{1}}dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3}= \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{1}\right)}{\partial x_{1}}dV $$

Similarly, the flux integrals through surfaces perpendicular to $$ \displaystyle x_2-axis $$ and $$ \displaystyle x_3-\textrm{axis}$$ are

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\,x_{2}}\rho U_i n_i\ dA = \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{2}\right)}{\partial x_{2}}dV,$$

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\,x_{3}}\rho U_i n_i\ dA = \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{3}\right)}{\partial x_{3}}dV.$$

Hence the flux integral reads;

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS}\rho U_i n_i\ dA = \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{i}\right)}{\partial x_{i}}dV$$

The conservation of mass equation becomes:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}dV + \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{i}\right)}{\partial x_{i}}dV = 0$$

Droping the $$ \displaystyle dV$$, we reach to the final form of the conservation of mass:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{i}\right)}{\partial x_{i}} = 0 $$

This equation is also called continuity equation. It can be written in vector form as:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla\cdot\left(\rho\vec{U}\right) = 0 \ \ \text{where} \ \ \nabla=\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{1}}\vec{e_{1}} + \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{2}}\vec{e_{2}} + \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{3}}\vec{e_{3}}\ \ \text{gradient operator} $$

For a steady flow, continuity equation becomes:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{i}\right)}{\partial x_{i}} = 0$$.

For incompresible flow, i.e. $$ \displaystyle \rho=\text{constant} $$:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{i}} = 0 \ \ \text{i.e.} \ \ \frac{\partial U_{1}}{\partial x_{1}} + \frac{\partial U_{2}}{\partial x_{2}} + \frac{\partial U_{3}}{\partial x_{3}}=0 $$

Example
For a two dimensional, steady and incompressible flow in $$ \displaystyle x_1 x_2 $$ plane given by:

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle U_1=A x_1$$

Find how many possible $$ \displaystyle U_2$$ can exist.

For incompressible steady flow:

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{i}} = 0$$

in two diemnsions

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial U_{1}}{\partial x_{1}} + \frac{\partial U_{2}}{\partial x_{2}} =0 \ \ \rightarrow \ \ \frac{\partial U_{2}}{\partial x_{2}}=-\frac{\partial U_{1}}{\partial x_{1}} $$

Thus,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial U_{2}}{\partial x_{2}}=-A $$

This is an expression for the rate of change of $$ \displaystyle U_2$$ velocity while keeping

$$ \displaystyle x_1$$ constant. Therefore the integral of this equation reads

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle U_2=-Ax_2+f(x_1)$$

Thus, any function $$ \displaystyle f(x_1)$$ is allowable.

Example

Consider one-dimensional flow in the piston. The piston suddenly moves with the velocity $$ \displaystyle V_p$$. Assume uniform $$ \displaystyle \rho(t)$$ in the piston and a linear change of velocity $$ \displaystyle U_1$$ such that $$ \displaystyle U_1=0$$ at the bottom ($$ \displaystyle x_1=0$$) and $$ \displaystyle U_1=V_p$$ on the piston ($$ \displaystyle x_1=L$$), i.e.

$$ \displaystyle U_1=\frac{x_1}{L}V_p$$

Obtain a function for the density as a function of time.

The conservation of mass equation is:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial\left(\rho U_{i}\right)}{\partial x_{i}} = 0$$

For one-dimensional flow and uniform $$ \displaystyle \rho$$, this equaiton simplifies to

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \rho\frac{\partial U_{1}}{\partial x_{1}} = 0$$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}=-\rho\frac{\partial U_{1}}{\partial x_{1}} = -\rho \frac{V_p}{L}$$

$$ \displaystyle \displaystyle L=L_0+V_p t$$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}=\frac{d\rho}{dt} = -\rho \frac{V_p}{L_0+V_p t}$$

$$ \displaystyle \int^{\rho}_{\rho_0}\frac{d\rho}{\rho} =\int^{t}_{0}-\frac{V_p}{L_0+V_pt}dt $$

$$ \displaystyle ln\left(\frac{\rho}{\rho_0}\right) =ln\left(\frac{L_0}{L_0+V_pt}\right) $$

$$ \displaystyle \rho(t)=\rho_0 \left(\frac{L_0}{L_0+V_pt}\right) $$

The same problem can be solved by using the integral approach with a deforming control volume.

The differential equation of linear momentum

The integral equation for the momentum conservation is

$$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i} = \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\int_{CV} \rho\;U_{i}\;dV + \int_{CS}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}dA $$

For the first integral we assume $$ \displaystyle \rho$$ and $$ \displaystyle U_{i}$$ are uniform within dV, and dV is so small that:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\int_{CV}\rho\;U_{i}\;dV \approx\ \frac{\partial}{\partial t}(\rho\;U_{i})dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3}$$

Analyze the flux of the $$\displaystyle \rho U_i$$ momentum terms through the faces perpendicular to the axis:

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA = \int_{CS\,x_{1}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA\ + \int_{CS\,x_{2}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA\  + \int_{CS\,x_{3}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA$$

First consider the flux of $$ \displaystyle \rho\;U_{i}$$ (momentum per unit volume in i-direction) through the surfaces perpendicular to $$ \displaystyle x_{1}$$ axis:

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\,x_{1}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA = -\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{1}\;dx_{2}dx_{3}\; + \left[\rho\ U_{i}\ U_{1}\ dx_{2}\ dx_{3} + \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{1}}(\rho\ U_{i}\ U_{1})\ dx_{1}\right]dx_{2}\ dx_{3}$$

$$ \displaystyle = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{1}}(\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{1})dV $$

Similarly, the momentum flux through the surfaces in other directions read $$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\,x_{2}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{2}}(\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{2})dV$$,

$$ \displaystyle \int_{CS\,x_{3}}\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{j}\;n_{j}\;dA = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{3}}(\rho\;U_{i}\;U_{3})dV$$.

Rearranging the equation for $$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i}$$ we obtain:

$$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i} = \left[\frac{\partial}{\partial t}(\rho\ U_{i}) + \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}(\rho\ U_{i}\ U_{j})\right]dV$$

We can simplify further:

$$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i} = \left[U_{i}\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \rho\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial t} + U_{i} \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}(\rho\;U_{j}) + \rho\;U_{j}\;\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}\right]dV$$

$$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i}= U_{i}\underbrace{\left[\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}\;+ \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}(\rho\;U_{j})\right]}_{continuity\ equation=0}dV\;+ \rho\underbrace{\left[\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial t}\;+ U_{j}\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}\right]}_{\frac{D U_{i}}{D t};subtantial\ derivative\ of\ U_i}dV$$

Hence

$$ \displaystyle \sum F_{i} = \rho\frac{D U_{i}}{D t} dV$$

Let's look to the forces on the exposed on the diffrential control volume:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{dP_{i}}{dt} = \sum F_{i} = dF_{body\;i} + dF_{surface\;i} = \rho \frac{dU_{i}}{dt}dV $$

Here, only gravitational force is considered as a body force. Thus,

$$ \displaystyle dF_{body\;i} = \rho\;dV\;g_{i}$$

Surface forces are the stresses acting on the control surfaces. $$ \displaystyle F_{s}$$ can be resolved into three components. $$ \displaystyle dF_{n}$$ is normal to dA. $$ \displaystyle dF_{t}$$ are tangent to dA:

$$ \displaystyle \sigma_{n} = \lim_{d A\rightarrow 0} \frac{d F_{n}}{d A}   $$

$$ \displaystyle \sigma_{t} = \lim_{d A\rightarrow 0} \frac{d F_{t}}{d A} $$

$$ \displaystyle \sigma_{n}$$ is a normal stress whereas $$ \displaystyle \sigma_{t}$$ is a shear stress. The shear stresses are also designated by $$ \displaystyle \tau$$.

Thus, the surface forces are due to stresses on the surfaces of the control surface.

$$ \displaystyle \sigma_{ij}=\left[ \begin{matrix} \sigma_{11} & \sigma_{12} & \sigma_{13} \\ \sigma_{21} & \sigma_{22} & \sigma_{23} \\ \sigma_{31} & \sigma_{32} & \sigma_{33} \end{matrix} \right] $$

We define the positive direction for the stress as the positive coordinate direction on the surfaces (e.g. on ABCD) for which the outwards normal is in the positive coordinate direction. If the outward normal represents the negative direction (A'B'C'D'), then the stresses are considered positive if directed in the negative coordinate directions.

The stresses on the surface $$ \displaystyle (\sigma_{ij})$$ are the sum of pressure plus the viscous stresses which arise from motion with velocity gradients:

$$ \displaystyle \sigma_{ij}=\left[ \begin{matrix} -P & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -P & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & -P \end{matrix} \right] + \left[ \begin{matrix} \tau_{11} & \tau_{12} & \tau_{13} \\ \tau_{21} & \tau_{22} & \tau_{23} \\ \tau_{31} & \tau_{32} & \tau_{33} \end{matrix} \right]= \left[ \begin{matrix} -P+\tau_{11} & \tau_{12} & \tau_{13} \\ \tau_{21} & -P+\tau_{22} & \tau_{23} \\ \tau_{31} & \tau_{32} & -P+\tau_{33} \end{matrix} \right] $$

$$ \displaystyle p$$ has a minus sign since the force due to pressure acts opposite to the surface normal.

Let us look to the differential surface force in the $$ \displaystyle x_1$$ direction:

$$ \displaystyle dF_{surface\ 1} = \frac{\partial\sigma_{11}}{\partial x_{1}}\;dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{21}}{\partial x_{2}}\;dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3} + \frac{\partial\sigma_{31}}{\partial x_{3}}\;dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3}$$

Noting that $$ \displaystyle dV=dx_{1}dx_{2}dx_{3}$$ and $$ \displaystyle \sigma_{ij}=-p\delta_{ij}+\tau_{ij}$$        (4),

$$ \displaystyle dF_{surface\ 1} = \left(-\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{1}} + \frac{\partial\tau_{11}}{\partial x_{1}} + \frac{\partial\tau_{21}}{\partial x_{2}} + \frac{\partial\tau_{31}}{\partial x_{3}}\right)dV$$

Thus in tensor form the differential surface forces in $$ \displaystyle i$$'th direction can be written as

$$ \displaystyle dF_{surface\ i} = \left(-\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\partial\tau_{ji}}{\partial x_{j}}\right)dV$$

Note that $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$ is a symmetric tensor, i.e.

$$ \displaystyle \tau_{ji}=\tau_{ij}$$

Hence, the diffential surface forces reads:

$$ \displaystyle dF_{surface\ i} = \left(-\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\partial\tau_{ij}}{\partial x_{j}}\right)dV$$

Inserting $$ \displaystyle dF_{body\ i}$$ and $$ \displaystyle dF_{surface\ i}$$ into (2),

$$ \displaystyle \rho \frac{DU_{i}}{Dt}dV = \rho\ g_{i}\ dV + \left(-\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\tau_{ij}}{\partial x_{j}}\right)\;dV$$ and canceling $$ \displaystyle dV$$ we obtain

$$ \displaystyle \rho \frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho\;g_{i} -\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\partial \tau_{ij}}{\partial x_{j}}. $$

Expanding the substatial derivative at the left hand side,

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial t} + \rho U_{j}\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}} = \rho g_{i} -\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\partial \tau_{ij}}{\partial x_{j}} $$

We obtain the the most general form of momentum equation which is valid for any fluid (Newtonian, Non-newtonian, Compressible, etc.). It is non-linear due to the $$ \displaystyle 2^{nd}$$ term at the LHS. Efect of Newtonian and Non-newtonian properties appears in the formulation of the viscous stresses $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$. $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$ will introduce also non-linearity when the fluid is non-Newtonian.

It should be noted that these formulations are based on stress conception which was thought to exist in fluids in motion. However it is known that $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$ can be expressed as momentum transfer per unit area and time. Thus it can be considered as molecular momentum transport term. Derivations based on this concept requires a molecular approach (which is lengthy). The students should be aware that $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$ causes momentum transport when there is a gradient of velocity.

Linear momentum equation for Newtonian Fluid: "Navier-Stokes Equation"
For a Newtonian fluid, the viscous stresses are defined as:

$$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij} = \mu\left[\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}} + \frac{\partial U_{j}}{\partial x_{i}}\right] - \frac{2}{3}\delta_{ij}\mu\frac{\partial U_{k}}{\partial x_{k}}$$

Note that derivation of this relation is beyond the scaope of this course.

Thus, the momentum equation (6) becomes

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho g_{i} - \frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}\left[\mu \left(\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}} + \frac{\partial U_{j}}{\partial x_{i}}\right) - \frac{2}{3}\mu\ \delta_{ij}\ \frac{\partial U_{k}}{\partial x_{k}}\right]$$

For a flow with constant viscosity ($$ \displaystyle \mu=\textrm{constant}$$):

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho g_{i} - \frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \mu \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}\left[\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}} + \frac{\partial U_{j}}{\partial x_{i}} - \frac{2}{3}\delta_{ij}\ \frac{\partial U_{k}}{\partial x_{k}}\right]$$

since,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial^{2}U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}\partial x_{i}} = \frac{\partial^{2}U_{i}}{\partial x_{i}\partial x_{j}} = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}\left(\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{i}}\right) = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_{i}}\left(\frac{\partial U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}\right)$$

then,

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho\ g_{i} -\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \mu \frac{\partial^{2} U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}x_{j}} + \mu\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{i}}\left(\frac{\partial U_{j}}{\partial x_{j}}\right) - \frac{2}{3}\delta_{ij}\mu\frac{\partial}{\partial x_j}\left(\frac{\partial U_{k}}{\partial x_{k}}\right)$$

For an incompressible flow

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial U_{k}}{\partial x_{k}} = \frac{\partial U_{j}}{\partial x_{j}} = 0$$

hence assuming that the viscosity is constant, it can be easily shown that the momentum equation reduces to

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho\ g_{i} -\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}} + \mu\frac{\partial^{2}U_{i}}{\partial x_{j}^{2}} $$

Euler's equation: Inviscid flow
When the velocity gradients in the flow is negligible and/or the Reynolds number takes very high values, the viscous stresses can be neglected: $$ \displaystyle \displaystyle \tau_{ij} = 0$$

Since, the viscous stresses are proportional to viscosity: $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij} \propto \mu$$ for flows, where $$ \displaystyle \tau_{ij}$$ is neglected, the flow is called frictionless or inviscid, although there is a finite viscosity of the flow. Accordingly, the linear momentum equation reduces to

$$ \displaystyle \rho\frac{DU_{i}}{Dt} = \rho g_{i} -\frac{\partial P}{\partial x_{i}}. $$

Euler's equation in streamline coordinates

Euler's equation take a special form along and normal to a streamline with which one can see the dependency between the pressure, velocity and curvature of the streamline.

To obtain Euler's equation in s-direction, apply Newton's second law in s-direction in the absence of viscous forces.

$$ \displaystyle \rho dV \left[\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t} + U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}\right]= -\frac{\partial P}{\partial s}dV -\rho\ gsin\beta dV $$

Omitting $$ \displaystyle dV$$ would deliver

$$ \displaystyle \frac{DU_{s}}{Dt}= -\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} - gsin\beta $$

Since

$$ \displaystyle sin\beta \approx \frac{d x_{2}}{d s}=\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial s}$$

then the Equler's equation along a streamline reads

$$ \displaystyle \frac{DU_{s}}{Dt}= -\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} - g\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial s}\ \ \ (8)$$

For a steady flow and by neglecting body forces,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} = -U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}$$

it can be seen that decrease in velocity means increase in pressure as is indicated by the Bernoulli equation.

To obtain Euler's equation in n direction, apply Newton's second law in the absence of viscous forces and for a steady flow.

$$ \displaystyle \rho dV\frac{DU_{n}}{Dt}= \left(P-\frac{\partial P}{\partial n}\frac{dn}{2}\right)ds\ dx_{3} - \left(P + \frac{\partial P}{\partial n}\frac{dn}{2}\right)ds\ dx_{3} - \rho g dV cos\beta $$

$$ \displaystyle \rho\ \frac{DU_{n}}{Dt}=\left(-\frac{\partial P}{\partial n} - \rho\ g\ cos\beta\right)$$

Since,

$$ \displaystyle cos\beta \approx \frac{d x_{2}}{d n}=\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial n}$$

Then,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{DU_{n}}{Dt}=-\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial n} - g\ \frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial n} $$

For a steady flow, the normal acceleration of the fluid is towards the center of curvature of the streamline:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{DU_{n}}{Dt} = -\frac{U_{s}^{2}}{R}$$

Hence,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{U_{s}^{2}}{R}=\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial n} + g\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial n} $$

For an unsteady flow,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{DU_{n}}{Dt} = -\frac{U_{s}^{2}}{R} + \frac{\partial U_{n}}{\partial t}$$

For steady flow neglecting body forces, the Euler's equation normal to the streamline is

$$ \displaystyle \frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial n} = \frac{U_{s}^{2}}{R}$$

which indicates that pressure increases in a direction outwards from the center of the curvature of the streamlines. In other words, pressure drops towards the center of curvature, which, consequently creates a potential difference in terms of pressure and forces the fluid to change its direction. For a straight streamline $$ \displaystyle R\rightarrow \infty$$, there is no pressure variation normal to the streamline.

Bernoulli equation: Integration of Euler's equation along a streamline for a steady flow
For a steady flow, Euler's equation along a streamline reads,

$$ \displaystyle \frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} + g\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial s} = -U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}$$

If a fluid particle moves a distance ds, along a streamline, since every variable becomes a function of $$ \displaystyle s$$:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial P}{\partial s}ds = d P \text{:Change in pressure along s,} $$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial s}ds = dx_{2}\ \text{:Change in elevation along s,} $$

$$ \displaystyle \frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}ds = dU_{s}\ \text{:Change in velocity along s.} $$

Integration of the Euler equation between two locations, 1 and 2, along $$ \displaystyle s$$ reads $$ \displaystyle \int_{1}^{2} \left({\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} + g\frac{\partial x_{2}}{\partial s}+U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}}\right)ds=0$$

For incompressible flow $$ \displaystyle \rho = \textrm{constant}$$ and after changing the notation as: $$ \displaystyle U=U_{s}$$ and $$ \displaystyle z=x_{2}$$, the integration results in $$ \displaystyle \frac{P_2-P_1}{\rho} + g(z_2-z_1) + \frac{U_2^{2}-U_1^{2}}{2} = 0 \textrm{\ along\ s} $$ or in its most beloved form: $$ \displaystyle \frac{P_1}{\rho} + g z_1 + \frac{U_1^{2}}{2} = \frac{P_2}{\rho} + gz_2 + \frac{U_2^{2}}{2} $$

In other words along a streamline:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{P}{\rho} + gz + \frac{U^{2}}{2} = \textrm{constant} $$

Note that due to the assumptions made during the derivation, the following restrictions applies to this equation: The flow should be steady, incompressible, frictionless and the equation is valid only along a streamline.

Different forms of Bernoulli equation
The common forms of Bernoulli equation are as follows:

Energy form (per unit mass)

$$ \displaystyle \underbrace{\frac{U^{2}}{2}}_{\text{kinetic energy}} + \underbrace{\frac{P}{\rho}}_{\text{pressure energy}} + \underbrace{gz}_{\text{potential energy}} = \zeta $$

Pressure form

$$ \displaystyle \underbrace{\rho\frac{U^{2}}{2}}_{\text{dynamic pressure}} + \underbrace{P}_{\text{static pressure}} + \underbrace{\rho gz}_{\text{geodesic pressure}} = K $$

Head form

$$ \displaystyle \underbrace{\frac{U^{2}}{2g}}_{\text{velocity head}} + \underbrace{\frac{P}{\rho g}}_{\text{pressure head}} + \underbrace{z}_{\text{geodesic head}} = k $$

Static, stagnation and dynamic pressures
'''How do we measure pressure? When the streamlines are parallel to the wall we can use pressure taps.'''

If we know the pressure difference $$ \displaystyle P_{0} - P_{1}$$, we can calculate the $$ \displaystyle U_{1}$$ velocity.

$$ \displaystyle U_{1} = \sqrt{\frac{2\left(P_{0}-P_{1}\right)}{\rho}}$$

The stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe that faces directly upstream flow.

Such a probe is called a stagnation pressure probe or Pitot tube. Thus, using a pressure tap and a Pitot tube one can measure local velocity:

$$ \displaystyle P_{0} = P_{A} + \rho\frac{U_{A}}{2}$$

$$ \displaystyle P_{0} - P_{A} = \left(P_{A} + \rho\frac{U^{2}_{A}}{2}\right) - (P_{A}) = \rho\frac{U^{2}_{A}}{2}$$

Thus, measuring $$ \displaystyle P_{0} - P_{A}$$ one can determine $$ \displaystyle U_A$$.

Unsteady Bernoulli equation
The Euler's equation along a streamline is:

$$ \displaystyle -\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s} - g\frac{\partial z}{\partial s} = \frac{DU_{s}}{Dt} = U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s} + \frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}$$

along ds,

$$ \displaystyle -\frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial s}ds - g\frac{\partial z}{\partial s}ds = U_{s}\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial s}ds + \frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}ds$$

hence,

$$ \displaystyle -\frac{1}{\rho}dP - gdz = U_{s}dU_{s} + \frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}ds.$$

Integration between two points along a streamline is:

$$ \displaystyle -\int^{2}_{1}{\frac{dP}{\rho}} - \int^{2}_{1}{g}dz = \int^{2}_{1}{U_{s}dU_{s}} + \int^{2}_{1}{\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}}ds$$

For incompressible flow, $$ \displaystyle \rho = \textrm{constant}$$, thus the integral reads

$$ \displaystyle \frac{P_{1}-P_{2}}{\rho} + g(z_{1}- z_{2}) = \frac{U^{2}_{2}-U^{2}_{1}}{2} + \int^{2}_{1}{\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}ds}$$

The unsetady Bernoulli equation involves the integration of the time gradient of the velocity between two points.:

$$ \displaystyle \frac{P_{1}}{\rho} + gz_{1} + \frac{U^{2}_{1}}{2} = \frac{P_{2}}{\rho} + gz_{2} + \frac{U^{2}_{2}}{2} + \int^{2}_{1}{\frac{\partial U_{s}}{\partial t}ds} $$


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User talk:Divya M N

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User talk:Raghuv9246

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User talk:Gold21

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User talk:Anjila428

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User talk:Eunjuoh

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User:Sainsf

I'm Sainsf! I'm currently a new user, and need guidance. I'll try my best to contribute and upgrade this wiki.

title: User:Sainsf


text:
Help:Abaqus/Deformable Rolls

I am doing a 2d simulation of rolling process using ABAQUS/CAE. I have done the simulations with for rigid rolls for my geometry. Now I want to do with deformable rolls.I start with a deformable part option. The problem is that to give angular velocity to the rolls at their fixed positions, I am constraining the rolls with center of roll as reference point using rigid constraint option. But then this again makes the rolls rigid. Can anybody tell me how to model the deformable roll and give it an angular velocity with using rigid constraints? Thanks a lot.

title: Help:Abaqus/Deformable Rolls


text:
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User talk:Singh.manjesh

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text: File:2010 10 08 17 07 22.pdf

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User:Tgokey

My name is Thomas Gokey and I am a visual artist. You can see the kind of artwork I do on my portfolio website.

One of my artworks is to help organize the creation of A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook. The goal is to create a better educational resource than the standard textbook. Our supplement will engage students in the actual research and writing of their own history. It will create a more interesting read, and it will be more faithful to the actual facts of our history. America could have turned out much differently than it did. Our democracy can be thought of as a giant artwork that, if it is a true democracy, we are all able to create together. This is also how I think of our Supplement. In this sense, the Supplement is a form of direct democracy and social sculpture.

I am not a professional historian but I do have some training in historical research. As a student at Bethel University in Saint Paul Minnesota I majored in Art history (in addition to my primary major which I designed myself, it combined studio art and Christian theology). I also spent one academic year as a research assistant to the art historian Wayne Roosa who was conducting research into contemporary artists who engage biblical themes. Beyond this experience I have an amateur interest in history, especially art history and the history of non-violent social movements like the civil rights movement.

I currently teach studio art at Syracuse University.

thomasgokey [at] gmail [dot] com

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User talk:Tgokey

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User talk:Pooja929

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text:
Performance analysis in sport

These pages are under construction and should be finished by Feb 2011.

This unit is the fourth in a sequence aimed at developing the coaching abilities of students. The primary focus is on the assessment and evaluation of sporting performance. During the majority of semester, classes will be centred on providing the skills needed to conduct two significant notational / performance analysis projects. This will include discussion on the philosophy of performance analysis, as well as the use of technology in this new and exciting sports science discipline. The latter part of semester focuses on preparation for the competency based interview, which forms an integral part of the assessment.

Learning objectives

 * 1) have a knowledge of notational / performance analysis
 * 2) be able to conduct a thorough notational analyses of their chosen sport
 * 3) have a working knowledge of each of the sports science disciplines
 * 4) have an understanding how each is used in integrated athletic preparation

Prerequisites

 * Advanced coaching studies

Research proposal
This assignment represents 20% of the final grade. The length of the research proposal must not exceed 1500 words (excluding the reference list).

Conduct an independent research project that uses performance analysis to examine a team sport (this will be presented in the research poster) and the research proposal will outline how the research project will be completed, and why it is important to undertake such research.

 * Assessment of the research proposal assignment looks for:
 * A critical review of the scientific and coaching literature surrounding an area of interest in the performance analysis of team sports.
 * It is important that the research proposal formulates a research project that can then be used to form the basis for the research poster.
 * A title and blind title page: the title page of the research proposal must include the manuscript title, brief running head, author’s identification and full contact details. A second title page should be included that contains only the manuscript title (blind title page).
 * An introduction: the Introduction must develop the aims and objectives of the study, identifying a gap in the research through a review of the literature. Subheadings can be used in the Introduction.
 * Methods section: the following subheadings are required in the following order:
 * Subjects, where the author explains the teams and participants to be sampled.
 * Study Design, where the methods used must be presented with the concept of replication of the study kept in mind. Focus on the studies that support the aims and objectives of the research proposal, giving the proper context to the problem being studied. After reading this section another investigator should be able to replicate your study. The variables must be defined in this section. Provide a realistic timeline to completion in a Gant chart format that identifies milestones and weekly research tasks. Also include an example of a coding sheet that is intended for use during data collection.
 * Statistical Analysis, clearly state your statistical approach to the analysis of the data set(s). It is important that you include your alpha level for significance (e.g., p < 0.05).

 * References: All references must be alphabetised by surname of first author and numbered (Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research style). References are cited in the text by numbers [e.g., (4,9)] and all references listed must be cited in the manuscript and referred to by number therein. Limit the number of references to fewer than 40 but include both scientific and coaching articles to demonstrate breadth of research. Appendices are unnecessary and material submitted as an appendix will not be assessed.

Research poster
This assignment represents 65% of the final grade. It should identify a gap in the research and conduct an independent research project that uses performance analysis to examine a team sport. The findings of this research must be presented in an abstract and poster format that is of conference quality.

 * Submit an abstract and research poster on separate sheets.

The abstract is limited to 250 words, followed by 3 – 6 key words not used in the title, and should have sentences (no headings) related to the purpose of the study, brief methods, results, conclusions. Do not end with statements such as "will be discussed."

The research poster is designed for A0 sized paper (approx. 841mm × 1189mm) and coloured printing, but the submission for assessment will be printed in A4. The poster will contain:
 * An introduction that briefly summarises the necessary background that led to the work and clearly identifies the aims and specific objectives of the study.
 * A Methods section that provides sufficient detail of the experimental design and outline the subjects, test design and statistical analysis (sub-headings in the Methods section are not required in the poster).
 * A Results section that highlights the important findings of the study and use tables, figures or illustrations to support the written text.
 * A conclusions section that interprets findings, giving context to an applied sport setting.
 * A References section.
 * Include a preface for the research poster that includes the title of the project, the author’s name and email address as well as the sponsoring institution's logos in the right and left top corners.

After receiving a mark and feedback for your research poster, please make any necessary changes ready for printing the poster in A0 size. The final poster will be displayed at a conference day for the Unit.

Laboratory Manual
The mark for this assessment item will constitute 15% of the final grade.

Attend laboratory classes and complete the respective learning outcomes and tasks listed in the /laboratory manual/. Tasks included in the laboratory manual are:
 * coding and analysis,
 * data collection,
 * research progress reports,
 * interview portfolio and
 * poster presentation at the conference day.

The research progress reports requires attendance to laboratory classes, and provision of written evidence outlining the progression of your research project, including discussion of any problems encountered as well as future directions. This evidence of research progression will be reviewed during the allocated laboratory class time.

Complete an interview portfolio as part of the laboratory manual. The length of the interview portfolio must not exceed 8 single-sided A4 pages. The interview portfolio will consist of a cover letter, curriculum vitae (maximum 3 pages) and job application (maximum 4 pages) relevant to the sport industry. A selection of job descriptions relevant to the sport industry will be provided.

Resources

 * Text: Hughes, M., and Franks, I. M. (2008). The essentials of performance analysis: an introduction. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 9780415423809

Analysis techniques

 * Analysis methods

Sport systems

 * Technical coding

Reliability and validity

 * Reliability coding

Coding systems

 * Interview Tamara Kefford
 * Time-motion coding

Monitoring training

 * Interview Matt Ford
 * Tactical coding

Analysis of officials

 * Interview Mark Snow
 * Research progression

Pattern recognition

 * Interview Keith Lyons
 * Coaching analysis

Brumbies and Raiders analysis

 * Coach assessment

Indian Premier League (IPL) analysis

 * Interview Mohsin Sheikh
 * Modelling the future

Interview preparation

 * Interview Yvonne Soper
 * Conference and poster day

Workload
The amount of time you will need to spend on study in this unit will depend on a number of factors including your prior knowledge, learning skill level and learning style. Nevertheless, in planning your time commitments you should note that for a 3cp unit such as this, the total notional workload over a 15 week semester or term is assumed to be 150 hours. These hours include time spent in classes.

Feedback
Please provide feedback on this Unit in the discussion page for this Unit.

title: Performance analysis in sport


text:
User:Social Alterations

Social Alterations (SA) is an interdisciplinary service-based learning organization, delivering key insights into the social, cultural, environmental and economic impact (both positive and/or negative) of fashion products and systems. Working to develop educational tools and resources that facilitate transformative learning, research and writing, SA strives to internationalize responsible fashion education. A transdisciplinary approach toward learning promotes holistic understandings in areas such as fashion/textile/apparel design, manufacturing and marketing, supply chain evaluation, and impact assessment, supporting systems for life-cycle analysis.(Social Alterations 22:43, 13 October 2010 (UTC))

title: User:Social Alterations


text:
User talk:Social Alterations

The Social Alterations education lab stays where it is: at www.SocialAlterations.com. So why are we here on Wikiversity? Yes, we have been working to develop our own key resources for fashion/textile/apparel design educators, but we understand that interdisciplinary problems call for interdisciplinary solutions. We need your help! Social Alterations was always designed to work as an open-source project. Here, on Wikiversity, we can link you to our lessons, but also invite, encourage and support you to upload your own resources to share within the community of responsible design. (Social Alterations 23:58, 13 October 2010 (UTC))

Together we will transform this industry.

Socially responsible fashion design education has the potential to transform not only the ways in which we view and understand the nature of our garments, but the entire fashion industry. We want to bridge the gap between theory and practice within existing perceptions of socially responsible fashion design education, and create systems for lasting change.

We have developed our resources with fashion and textile design educators in mind. With this wiki site we strive to:

i. create a platform for design educators to benchmark themselves against other educators not only within their own field, but across various design disciplines;

ii. crowdsource content from with the responsible fashion community.

In order to create real lasting change, academics/researchers/designers/scientists (etc.) of all disciplines must work together to foster transformation.

Our hope is that design educators will take the information they have learned here, and incorporate it into their design curriculum, to share not only with their students, but with other design faculty and instructors within their department and/or educational institution. (Social Alterations 22:43, 13 October 2010 (UTC))

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title: User talk:Social Alterations


text:
User:Social Alterations/Social Alterations

Social Alterations (SA) is an interdisciplinary service-based learning organization, delivering key insights into the social, cultural, environmental and economic impact (both positive and/or negative) of fashion products and systems.

Socially responsible fashion design education has the potential to transform not only the ways in which we view and understand the nature of our garments, but the entire fashion industry. We want to bridge the gap between theory and practice within existing perceptions of socially responsible fashion design education, and create systems for lasting change.

We have developed our resources with fashion and textile design educators in mind. With this wiki site we strive to:

i. create a platform for design educators to benchmark themselves against other educators not only within their own field, but across various design disciplines;

ii. crowdsource content from with the responsible fashion community.

In order to create real lasting change, academics/researchers/designers/scientists (etc.) of all disciplines must work together to foster transformation.

Our hope is that design educators will take the information they have learned here, and incorporate it into their design curriculum, to share not only with their students, but with other design faculty and instructors within their department and/or educational institution. (Social Alterations 22:49, 13 October 2010 (UTC))