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Action/Reaction Theory

Action/Reaction Theory
An attempt to explain the development of matter from the beginning of the universe.

Note from the Author
Additional Pages:

If the Action/Reaction Theory [ART] brings up some questions, and there will be many, then please use the /ART-Questions/ page and if there is already an answer then I will tell you. If you would like to discuss different opinions, POV or compare other theories then please use the /ART-Discussion/ page.

If you have made your own research relevant to the ART then please tell me and others on the /ART-Research/ page.

And if any of the above is relevant to but not in the theory yet then I will, with your consent, include it into the theory.

New Ideas?

If the ART sparked any new idea which you would like to follow then please feel free to refer to the ART as you see fit.

Inprovement through collaboration!

Since I am new to the internet, wikiversity and also seem to speak my own version of english it seem to be the best when I have another copy of the ART to give collaboration a chance. It is on the /ART-Action/Reaction_Theory/ page.

Introduction
The Action/Reaction Theory [ART] is a theory which is constantly build up and therefore never finished. Like any other theories. The difference is that it is build up through happenings which can be readily observed and, if no such relevant action can be found, is left open ended and is not speculated on. Which basicaly makes sure that there is an answer before it is accepted (build into the theory). That such a relevant action can be found today is garanteed by the observation that everything is build up (adapted) from something which has been there before and that nothing is a ‘new’ creation. With other words the meaning of ‘action-reaction’ is that this happening feeds itself and it is only left to explain how it can evolve from something very simple to something very complicated. The “Natural Principles” section tries to explain how observations made today can help to understand the past and even the future.

The idea of the ART is worked out in the "Growing through movement" section. It is not an extention to other theories (but might have many similarities). In fact how atoms became into being has only been hinted on trough what might have happened before. This also gives the ART the possibilities that it reveals something which contradicts other ‘knowledge’. Therefore, to make sense of what the Newton Cradle offers and what is described in "Step 1" to "Step 6", is it the best not to try to compare it to what is 'known' - basically start new. The ART uses the natural action/reaction happening, which the Newton Cradle performs, to explain a natural build up of bigger and bigger matter systems which are created through evolution. And therefore is a possible explanation how the stage of evolution, as of today, evolved.

The "Extension of definition of the terms used" section, serves to adapt natural phenomenon which are also present and therefore described in other theories, to the ART. Since they usually have the same meaning is it the best to also use the same words to refer to them but it needs to be kept in mind that sometimes they might point out more and sometime even contradict. What the differences will be can only be determined when the ART is fully worked out.

For this the A/R theory needs to be dragged into the lab. If different matter sizes can be set up like a Newton Cradle and the energies which are send in and come out are made visible then certain tests and conclusions can be made. The ART can speed up to explain the changes which happen because it opens a possibility which could be looked into. If the changes can be connected to what the ART suggest, different changes with different placement of the matters, then it could be called an energy-signature. (A relevant action is observed through the spectrometer which reveals that different atoms leave their marks in the light spectrum according to their size and its relevant natural frequency. Which is also used to analyse the build up of stars.) Until this is done everything is in limbo - it is still only a theory. Therefore any attempt to nail anything down is only an attempt to predict what it could be and serves only to satisfy the need to force answers with a fantasy (even if it has been proven with mathematics). The ART is therefore a theory of reality. Which means that what happens naturally has to be real. Or, if something does not exist physically than it cannot be used. Even the ‘fantasy’ used by nature is always build on real existence. Human have developed such a high level language that anything can be given any meaning with words. Unfortunately every meaning stored in the brain is real for the brain and if there was no specific notion that it relates to a fictional matter it will be recalled and used like any other real meaning. Therefore after a while, when used without this differentiation, all meanings are accepted as real. Therefore, for humans, what can be and what cannot be natural is lost because reality is mingled with fiction. This is what the ART tries to avoid by only ‘storing’ real happenings. Some of the examples are: Wave form movement:

A wave cannot be performed from a single matter (here it is only a graphical display). Unless there are a string of matters, ‘physically’ connected, there will be no wave. Passing on of energy: Small space: Big energies cannot be passed on by small matter unless it is able to move at a very high speed. But for this it needs a big empty space. But a big empty space prohibits solid (filled) matter. Big space: Energy cannot be passed on unless there is a medium (matter) to be passed on to (filled space). Therefore if a space is empty (devoid of matter) then there cannot be any passing on of energy (radiation is not a passing of energy). Reduction of size: If matter is a filled mass which occupies a specific space, which cannot be occupied at the same time with another mass, then, realistically, it cannot be reduced to a space much smaller than this mass.

Fundamentals of physics
When it was discovered that the atom is not a solid matter but build of other particles then the question of how the atom is constructed needed to be answered. There were two models which were in consideration. The 'plum pudding' and the 'nuclear' model. Short a space filled with matter and a mostly empty space. To get the answer, in 1911 Ratherford made a test. He shot alpha particles into a very thin gold plate and concluded his answer from the effect it had. Most alpha particles went right through and only some where deflected in different direction. He figured that since most went through the atom must be empty and the one which were deflected struck the nucleus. Or so he and other people thought. Apparently he had not seen a Newton Cradle in action. Otherwise he might have needed to consider that the alpha particles passed on a characteristic energy to the gold plate, which was passed through and catapulted like particles out on the other side. Which would have been another possibility and the test could not have been answered. Since the passed on energy can also be diverted in different direction the reflections could have been explained. ('Fundamentals Of Chemistry', ISBN 0-673-07876-0).

The Newton Cradle [NC]
What the Newton Cradle demonstrates is that an energy can be passed or being transformed through moving or stationary matter. Since the type of action, which is performed on one end, is decisive on what kind of reaction is evoked the conclusion can be made that the energy, travelling through the matters, also carries some information. Which leads to the possibility that any energy, passed on or transformed can be overloaded with energy inherent in the matter through which it travels. Which gives it the possibility to be used as a form of communication – passing on information. A communication which only needs forms of matter to send or receive. A possibility which the ART tries to exploit.

Sample and possible prove:

Since the matter, which form the Newton cradle, are not made of one single mass it is almost certain that there are energies active within this matter which hold the matter physically together. Therefore what could be assumed is that the energy which is passed through might have picked up other ‘energy’ information on its way through the matters. Energies, which might reveal the natural frequencies the matters in the line have, according to their size and build up. And if this natural frequencies are already known then it might also reveal the position of that matter in the line. The ART uses this relevant action to explain how the world could have been built with passing energies from matter to matter.

Natural Principles
In order to find out how something works is to observe it while it is working. When we look out of the window then we see a very diverse, and surly complicated moving environment created by nature. To figure out all the details within a lifespan of a human seem to be impossible. But what a human can do is to find some repetitions, which happen during the time he is observing, which give him some indications on what principles this world is based on. And the first surprise would be: there are not many! The first obvious principle is that nothing would happen if there is no movement. When movements are analysed then it seems that there are no purposes to any. Things might happen because something else has happened. What is happening is defined by what has happened, on what it has happened and the circumstances in which it has happened. And the next thing to happen is because of what has just been described has happened. If some lifeless matter falls toward the earth then it does not know where it will fall to and what will happen after it made contact. Another fact, which seem to need to be present so that something can happen, is that the parts which come together as a result of an action (happening) have to be in a state of opposition. Physically that means that if something warm comes in contact with a cold part then there will be an exchange of temperature. If something moving encounters a stationary object then a form of exchange of movement will take place to equal the state of movement according to the physical properties of the parts. If the minds of living creatures are in an opposite state when they encounter each other then there will be some form of war. And even that there are many different things which are happening, they all seem to be highly repetitious. Meaning that alike actions always provoke the same reactions if it happens in the same environment (conditions). Changes (adaptations) are only happening if the environment has changed. This observed principles can be connected to form some regularity:
 * Opposition creates movement.
 * Movement creates chance.
 * Chance creates repetition.
 * Repetition guaranties an ongoing evolution.

But there is one trend which seem to overlay all this happenings. Any change usually destroys something so that something can be build. Which is usually a bigger adapted version of something already working. With other words the trend is from small to big. This are very important observations because they show very significant facts about nature. Nature has no goals, it could be termed 'physical happenings by chance'. It has no goal in its mind what it is supposed to create. It has no mathematics to calculate if something will work or not. It is also under no time pressure. And, most of all, it cannot say: "this did not work, lets start over". It seems to run on 'chemical reactions' which are guided by the physical properties of matter. Physical properties are all what is available to build every small or big physical part to be found in this universe. And that should be all what is needed to explain what is happening. But there must be more to guarantee an evolution like the one which we can observe. If you want to build something new from something old then you must have a memory of that something old. If you want to adapt it to changes which have occurred, then you must know how the new facts differ from the old ones. With other words, if something should be changed then there must be something which can be changed. And there must be some possibility to compare. Since there is no known overall control over the evolutionary happenings then there must be some basic intelligence build in the system, which enables what seem to be an endless chain reaction of the same principles.

Survival Tricks
Living creatures are a product of the working principals of nature. But principals alone cannot make a living creature successful. Nature has long before humans discovered that if you want to run a machinery in top condition over time than you have to replace its parts, as needed, regularly with new ones. Nature has discovered how to reproduce, repeat, compare, select and discard. And many other things. With other words everything humans or other living creatures use to survive - nature has already used. Otherwise living creatures could not have adopted it to their needs. Which reveals that any question on how this world (universe) works and why can be answered through nature and its working. There are always relevant actions to this question somewhere in action.

Evolution - growing naturally
Naturally, in this case, means that whatever happens is purely physical. There are no immediate or long term predefined purposes which guide what is happening, only the possibilities that a physical action can happen. And there are absolute no restrictions on what can happen. The facts, that the evolution of matter goes from small to big, and that there is no knowing change of principles, makes the 'reconstruction' of the development which has happened in the universe, as known today, possible. Therefore we start out with an endless space which is filled with an infinite amount of the smallest matter (mass) possible - the UrParticle [UP]. But this is enough. Matter, no matter how small, seem to have the possibility to bind with another matter to form something bigger. And to figure out how this is possible we need to combine what we have learned from the Newton Cradle and what else nature teaches us. The universe is big enough so that we can use quite a big part to explain nature, without reaching its borders. Therefore for our purpose there is no exchange with any matter from outside of the universe. Which means we deal with a fixed amount of matter even if the universe is, for our feeling of size, endless. But we also always have to have in mind that, since there are no predefined purposes, there are no 'mistakes'. Everything is right, no matter what is the outcome. There is also never a 'starting over' - once it started it just goes on. Therefore whatever are the principals today were the principles at the assumed start and will be in the future.

Step 1: growth by size - 3 dimensional
If matter is moving then there is the possibility that it collides (make physical contact) with another one. And there is the possibility that after a collision they stay together and grow (build) into a new form of matter. This is possible if the movements of the matters are in harmony, which means that their frequencies, directions, strength and phase match. They can be added without that they move the UPs apart. Since there is no pulling force active between the UPs at this stage it needs pressure of the environment to keep the UPs together. But probably both UPs had their movements changed since an exchange of movement (adaptation) took place. If they actually stay together then they now move in unison in a new combined form of movement. When there is enough empty space available in the environment then this movement can be a straight one with the appropriate direction and speed. But if the environment restricts or even prohibits free movement then the physical movement takes on an appropriate form or stops in which case the physical movement has to be passed on as a potential movement (potential energy). If none of the UPs can pass this potential movement on to the environment then it is passed on between the UPs which have collided and these may start to oscillate the potential movement between them. Since, in this case, this passing on of potential movement is directed toward each other it gives the impression that the UPs are drawn to each other. They physically stay together now on their own (no pressure needed). This rises the energy level of the now physically joint matter which can be termed that they are exited or charged or have a higher temperature. Therefore what is otherwise a one time happening, can become continuous while the two, now joint UPs, exchange a potential movement between each other. Specifically if energy is constantly supplied from the environment which restricts their movement and applies pressure on them. Now, the new form of matter does not physically move and actually occupies the smallest space it can. Since the physical movement before the collision needed lots of space, room is now left into which the environment (pressure) can bring other UPs from outside. Which, under the right conditions, could join into the energy exchange and therefore grow the matter again. E.g. into a ring like formation where the potential movement is passed on in a circle. With the possibility that this ring formations can grow into any size. If any matter in the ring is not physically touching the matter to which it is passing the energy then the passing on is interrupted (resistance). Therefore, on the next pass of energy (cycle), the inertia of the UP which has physical space available will transform the potential movement into a physical move, directed toward the next matter in line, until it touches the next matter and then pass on the remaining potential movement. Opening space in the ring will be closed consecutively by movements of matter, with the additional effect of a shift in the phase, until no space is left. This passing on of energy in ring form provides the possibilities that any matter in this ring can be a member of more rings which pass energy through it. The amount of energies which can be passed through an UP in different directions at the same time is probably limited because at some point this energies will cancel each other out or add up to a form which is impossible to pass on. But the possibility is there. And if rings join then the matter can grow in different directions into matter which is build of interconnecting rings. In multi-ring formations energy is passed on in different direction which might impose some physical regulations on the form which can be build. This would include of where rings can be joint, how many rings can be interconnected and in which direction energy can be passed before the form falls apart again. Which means that the many passed on energies within the form must sum up to an equilibrium of energies which is characteristic for this form - an energy signature [ES]. Which means that if an energy is passed on to this formation it could be imprinted with a specific sequence of energies which are active within when it is passed through. Or the reaction will be specific to this sequence if it is acted on regarding to changes, redirection or split up (functionality). But this also provides the possibility that stable forms of matter can be build which react with always the same specific functions when the circumstances are the same (provides a specific feedback). Once an ES is reached through the building and arranging of rings then the growth of size of this form ends. The urparticles [UP] of matter have grown into an element matter [EM].

Step 2: growth by repetition - 1 dimensional
The possibilities to grow does not end with the EM. In the overall shape of an EM there might be spots which enable to grow out rings which might not change the ES of the EM but provide the possibility to pass on energies or ES with some added control. Which might enable to grow another form there in consequence of the sequence of energy which is passed (ES). If EM connect direct together the physical selection is limited. Both sides need to be connected to a place in their surface which is able to pass on the same kind of energy (movement). If they do not have that condition provided then they cannot hook up. And of course there has to be a chance that the EMs can come close enough and are right posi-tioned to each other. Another possibility is that EMs have developed which can act as connecting centers which pass all sorts of energies in different directions without overloading them with its own. Since ESs are in essence a sequence of passed on energies they can be taken in at different connections (maybe one energy at a time), compared or handled otherwise and send out again in maybe one or more directions. Which would increase the intelligence level of the manipulation of passed on energies or ESs. Which would provide the possibilities to handle EMs in symbolic form like a word. Forms of EM can be duplicated, complimented or compared without the need to now how it is physically build up. This has been translated into a sequence of energies. That this functionality is used by nature is shown through the C-atom in the amino group of an amino-acid (molecule) which can connect to four EMs. Which also shows the possibilities such connecting EMs [CEM] provide. E.g. the immense amount of functionalities or data, which systems of EMs provide, which can be placed in any sequence to provide unlimited possibilities. This can be seen as the beginning of the development of segmented systems and the basis of functionalities which are developed to a much higher level and applied in a brain.

Step 3: growth by repetition - 2 dimensional
If growth has produced a chain of EMs and if they are connected by CEMs, then there is the possibility that the CEMs which form links to the CEMs of another chain. Or they can ‘grow’ a duplicate of the systems of EM, which they connect, out of the vacant connections. Which would form a blanket of chains or a 2 dimensional memory.

Step 4: growth by building 3 dimensional systems
If 1 or 2 dimensional shapes are physically moved (or only partially) by pressure of the environment than there are the possibilities that they could form any kind of 3 dimensional shapes. Some with functionality others with none.

Step 5: growth by physical adaptation
When EMs have grown into shapes which constitute a 3 dimensional physical shape then this physical shape can provide a condition which has to be met before its energy-function can be performed. Like a EM-blanket forms a tube through which matter, charged with a specific energy, has to pass to get to the place where it triggers a specific reaction. This adapts the movement of the EM to the physical shape of the environment which in turn could change the shape or functionality of the travelling EM. A form of feedback from the environment which adds conditions to the action. A higher level of intelligence.

Step 6: growth by teaching
When EMs have grown into a shape which is able to control the movement of other EMs then it has the possibility to control the growth of this matter. E.g. if a tube of EMs guide the movement of an EM along its path then it can make it connect to certain EMs which are part of the tube and imprint some parts of the ES on the passing EM. Which would create an EM system with a predefined set of functionality. Which means that the possibilities to react are now placed besides the possibilities to act and, with a constant source of energies, can keep on going to act/react to fulfil a predefined function. Which also means that the evolution is not any more a function of chance but now happens with a purpose. A next level of intelligence.

Step 1 to nnn:
There are many steps which lead to the growing which nature has reached today and are most likely not specific at all. With a lot of fantasy many can be envisioned. But the ART is not a theory of fantasy. Therefore the basics of the ‘Growth by movement’ has to be worked out first and then the steps of growth will either become obvious or have to be worked out individual as well.

The dynamics of the natural change (evolution)
When matters meet then they are more likely charged with different energies (movement). If these energies constitute an opposition (frequency and phase match but the direction or strength differ) then there will be some exchange (levelling) of energy and therefore some change in the charge of each matter. Since every change is memorized then there are no goals or mistakes. It is naturally that the changed matter lead to new changes since same conditions have same reactions. If there are only UP involved then this does not lead to much. Only the vast space of the universe ensures that different conditions can exist at different places. But if matter has grown into complicated EM then the change involves whole systems of UPs. Since the growing does not stop there, since equivalent EM can have different changes and since all changes are ‘kept’ then the possibilities that matter grows into very different ‘systems’ from the same basics are unlimited. Which systems are put together to form an even bigger system depends on the circumstances (action, environment, feedback, conditions) in which this changes take place. Basically growing means that something has to be there which can be grown (adapted) according to the circumstances. Which also means that nothing is new, only changed.

Evolution and intelligence
The growing of matter, controlled by feedback, in different stages constitutes an intelligence (learning, memorizing, reusing) on its own. Since matter grows more and more complicated the intelligence, which is a functionality of matter, also ‘grows’. But, since the environment also needs to be considered, which provides the feedback and which is in the early stages where mostly everything is based on chance, the evolutionary processes are unique. Therefore, to establish the exact functionality of each ‘intelligence level’ the different stages (conditions) have to be physically performed.

To prove the Action/Reaction Theory
The prove of the A/R theory lies in the existence of an energy-signature in small matter. Which could be the equivalent of the spectrum which a spectrometer reveals for stars. Even if it proves that the special size of matter exists because its natural frequency is blacked out because of absorbance. If this ESs can be proven to exist then it can be assimilated to a language of nature. A language (communication) which enables all kind of changes within matter of any size. What sparked this theory also provides the possibility to prove its reality by using natures own way (evolving and adapting). This is a gadget called the ‘Newton Cradle’. It provided the realistic way on how energy is passed on between matter. This opens the possibility that if this passing of energy could be defined then it would also explain how it could be used as a communication (control) when there is nothing else then matter and its movement present. When the Newton cradle is developed further into a higher technology then it should be possible to prove this. E.g. if a speaker cone is touching a series of identical glasses filled to different levels with water then it should be possible to get each glass individually to respond if the speaker transmits a frequency equivalent to its natural frequency. If the other end of the line is connected to a microphone cone and further to a microscope then maybe it can pick up changes in the wave-form which might be now more then just one sound and which could reveal the natural oscillation frequencies of each glass (energy signature). If it also reveals the position of the glasses in the sequence then this should be different if the sequence of the glasses is changed. If this could be accomplished then it should be possible to transfer this technic into the nano-meter range. Where it would solve many mysteries. Which are only mysteries because of the lack of explanation, but since they exist there must be a physical possibility for it. Like: how can a virus adapt to medication; how can specific cells be destroyed without harming others; how can microbes select specific molecules, split them into their basic parts and use this parts to clone them-selves; or how can a river-shell, which has never ‘seen’ a fish, grow out of its shell the exact duplicate of a fish to attract bigger fish.

Mathematic as prove!
Mathematic is a science of repetition. Which means something has to work repeatedly so that a formula can be constructed to define this action. Its weakness lies in the fact that it lends itself to the possibility to explain something physically where there is no physical repetition (like a theory). Simply by introducing parameters which might not even exist physically (like time) or by leaving vital parameters out which might prove a certain POV but also changes the original limitations which it provided (like 4th and higher dimensions). Which, with the human ingenuity, can easily be ignored.

The Future
The ART might be able to reconstruct what has happened from the time we can think back of till today. But if that is possible then it will reveal that the natural evolution is an ongoing process without goal. Therefore it is never finished. But if human can learn the communication which made the evolution possible then he can, as intelligent species which are able to analyse and form goals, partner with nature. E.g. to make it evolve ‘now’, by setting the conditions, what would naturally need hundreds or even millions of years to develop. E.g. to extend its principle of replacing, to the parts of a living body which cause aging, but has not been evolved yet.

Extention of definition of the terms used
Chance A chance is there if matter has some abilities to change but needs another matter to change. But it cannot control the circumstances which would bring the right other matter close enough to perform the change. Therefore It depends on its environment to have the right action or sequences of action to deliver the necessary matter into the necessary position. Chances improve according to how well the matter is adapted to its environment and therefore can somehow control its connection to the environment. Single matter (UP) has no such a control but as it grows into different forms with different functionalities then its ability to control its relationship to the environment, which by now also consists of EM with different functionalities, grows. Charge When matter holds no energy then it is not 'charged'. When matter is 'charged' with energy then this is termed different (temperature, electricity, magnetism etc.) depending which instrument is used to measure it. But the only way matter can reveal energy (charge) is through movement. Therefore different instruments are measuring different forms of movements. Like senses are tuned to different 'frequencies' (repetition) of movement. Circumstances action, environment, feedback, conditions or all of it Comparison The same effect which makes a reproduction possible provides also the possibility of comparison. The sequence of energies. If they come from different sources but are the same then the sources must be alike. Electrical properties If it is assumed that 'energy rings' have actually two ends, (where energy is entered and where it leaves), then ‘direction’ has a meaning. The effect which the direction has on passed through energy could be compared with electrical properties (charge, current, resistance). But can be applied to any form of energy (movement). This means that energy rings can also have different effects on any passed through energy depending on how they are located within the shape. This also applies if the ring does not go through an EM but also if it goes through the environment where it might form a force-field. Energy The effect of movement of matter but because of a lack of specific explanation is treated in the ART equal to movement. Elemental Matter [EM] If masses keep on growing than it can be envisioned that certain formations hold better together than others. If e.g. energy exchange rings are closely interwoven in different directions in the same formation and their energies form a harmonious self sustained energy-system. They might have the property of a very solid structure, like a crystal. This kind of formation will last for a long time and is not likely to fall apart or can be reshaped through simple collisions with other smaller forms. This kind of formation will also always again and again be reached and therefore, with the other long lasting survivors, can become the foundation of a next stage of growth. They can become the building blocks of other bigger, more versatile creations. Just like atoms. What will change if matter has grown into EM is the way it needs to connect to other EM. One feature, which might make this formation so successful is that it is not any more available to any kind of attachments. Its closeness demands probably that a certain amount of energy must be present in order to hook into the close knit formation. Another could be that the energy passing part must have a certain shape to be able to pass the right amount or form of energy. All this suggest that, since energy must be exchanged, this connection have ring like properties but might have been adapted to a specific task. All demands which could be provided by a system which is simply following what is physically possible. Energy rings That an energy can be passed on between seemingly stationary masses can be proven with the gadget called Newton Cradle. But I don’t know of any gadget which directs the passed on energy back to itself. It could be envisioned that if the Newton cradle would have been build in a ring-formation it could pass energy continuously along the ring. And, since potential energy (potential movement) is transformed into physical movement by inertia, as soon as physical space is available, their possible physical movement (which closes the gap) keeps them together. Further 'rings' (energy paths) could be grown out of any of this so joint matter and form a three dimensional matter which is constantly virtually moving (oscillating) by passing on energy in different direction around different rings within the matter. Even if this 'ring formations' are shapes which are quite solid already on their own and will not likely ‘rearrange’ their rings it seems to be always possible to make connections by forming an energy ring between them. Energy Signature [ES] If UPs have grown into forms which are build of energy rings then they must have energies flown through them which are in harmony otherwise an interruption of energy-flow will occur. Which might lead to that all energies within the EM are somewhat in harmony. Therefore they can add to an energy system which is the sum of all energies active in all rings – called an energy signature. If this is not the case then the build up must be adapted to make this possible. This can be achieved by changing directions of the energy-flow, adapting frequencies by adding or subtracting UP within the rings or discarding one ring and build another one somewhere else. When this ES is achieved then it makes the EM react in different ways to passed on energy depending if it is harmonic to the ES, as a sum of all energies in the EM, or not. One is that, if the EM is passed on an inharmonious energy, that the EM reacts as a whole matter. It will try to separate itself from the source of the inharmonious energy – as under pressure. The other is that, if the EM is passed on an harmonic energy, than this energy will be able to penetrate into the EM and will be passed through. On the way through the passing energies might be either be overloaded with inherited energies or the same energies might change the passed through energies by separating (selecting) the sequence of energies and steering them to different outputs where they can perform a specific action. This can be interpreted as feedback or reaction. If the applied energy is passed through then it will be passed through as a sequence of energies if it is made up of such. But then it becomes important through which energy-rings it is passed. Which also form a sequence of energies. This sequence could also be different if the passed on energy enters the EM in different locations or is applied from different directions. Therefore the outcome depends on the entry point and angle. Here is where the most useful natural selections occur since this type of selection also works in reverse. If only a specific frequency, or signature, makes this specific shape (or combination of shapes) to respond to or pass energy then this specific shape can be selected out of many in this environment through its reactions (feedback). The Environment The accumulation of matter (universe) form an environment which is the home of natural happenings. Any change in the physical constitution of the environment is an action. This action is naturally passed on to the physically neighbouring parts, which are normally also part of the environment, which react to equalize oppositional states which the action has created. Whatever happens (action) evokes a reaction (the equalisation of opposite states). Since this reaction occurs within the environment it constitutes a change in the environment and is therefore again an action – a feedback. Whatever the reactions or the changes within the environments are depends purely on the physical constitution of the environment. Evolution Evolution is a process which is a functionality of all the possibilities described to grow system like formations out of available elementary forms by pure chance (naturally). Feedback Since the reaction defines the change of the environment which has happened also defines, since it is now an action, what the next reaction will be. This can also be seen as a feedback which defines the next action. This feedback can be supportive or restrictive. Therefore whatever can happen depends only on the possibilities this physical environment provides and the chances that this possibilities are met through the constant action/reaction chain reaction. The more sophis-ticated the parts become through natural growth, which build the environment, the more restrictive and diverse the feedback will be. Force fields Force fields are usually explained with the phenomenon’s a magnetic field provides. A magnetic field is obviously produced by an abundance of energy on one side of a matter and the lack of it on the opposite end of the matter. Following the explanation of the ART the environment of matter provides a media (return path) through which the abundant energy can be send back to the place where it is missing – the equalisation of the energy levels is possible. That such energy passing rings have been formed is shown by the rearrangements metallic particles perform when placed into a magnetic field. If the rings are connected through a media which is already packed as tight as it can get, like air, then no physical movement will take place. But if the tight media is replaced by some bigger matter which can pass magnetic energy but has no restriction in movement then the potential energy, which is passed to it, is transformed into physical movement. Since this movement is directed toward the next passing matter in the ring it gives the impression that this matter is ‘pulled in’. The force field supplies the energy for the movement which can be explained with inertia but it cannot explain any pulling of the matter. The earth is a big storage of a wide range of potential movements. And the universe, if filled with UP, is an environment which can pass a wide range of energies. Therefore it can be expected that there are many types of force fields created by the earth using the universe as return paths. Frequency Since the frequency (repetition) at which something can happen ranges from 0 to infinite, an infinite amount of selections can be made. One use of this is the selection which the natural oscillation of matter provides (inertia). A single elementary matter (UP) has a specific mass which has a specific frequency in which it will oscillate if forced to move in a restricted space. When single element matter stay together after a collision, then they might become a new elementary mass in relationship to the environment. This new formed element mass has now its own natural frequency in which it oscillates. It also responds according to it to any outside energy which is being passed to it. Since the new mass is bigger then the mass of an UP its natural frequency in which it will oscillate is lower then the one of the UP. Functions When an action (energy change) occurs on a matter then it evokes a reaction (equalization of the levels) in the matter. If matter is just a single UP then this is usually just a simple single adjustment (movement). But as matter grows into formations with different placements of energy-rings then the action can start a reaction which is a sequence of movements depending what kind of rings it encounters as the energy is passed through the form. Collectively this is a function. If individual rings are also connected to other forms (environment) then its reaction, as part of the function, is applied to the connecting form. With other words the function of a form is to either pass the received action as a whole or dissect it into different harmonic energies (reactions). This individual reactions can then be used according to the build up and connections of the form which receives the reaction as a feedback. Functions of a form can differ, even if the action is the same, according to the place on the form or the direction in which the action is effective. This is specifically true with bigger forms. Gravity The pulling force of matter? What mass cannot produce on its own is a pulling force. If the UP, which we use to start life, should be as small as possible, e.g. that they cannot be divided any more, then it would be impossible to physically explain how it could produce such a force. Since this would mean that it is already build out of something which is able to produce some pulling force and is therefore not at its smallest possible state or pure. Therefore the phenomenon of gravity, the provoked movement of one mass toward another mass, has to be explained otherwise. What mass can create is an empty space (vacuum, through movement) into which environmental pressure can push matter – like a water pump. Which has the same effect as if it was pulled in. Growing - The Nature of When matter is expected to grow by action (collision) then it cannot be assumed that matter can be divided indefinitely. Since if its size is 0 then its mass is also 0. Therefore there is no inertia an there cannot be an energy to pass on which is necessary to keep matter moving and therefore together. When matter moves and collide then there can be a change. When everything is at its smallest possible shape then only growing (adding of shapes) can take place. If more and more matter grows into bigger shapes then the possibility that a collision separates grown matter grows too. This depends now on more facts which have changed through the growing from the smallest size. One of this is dependent on the form it has achieved and the circumstances through which this form is attacked through the collision. Like strength, direction and duration. If an energy ring is hit at 90° to its energy passing direction then it might easier brake apart then when it is hit in the direction of it. It might easier connect if the colliding takes place on a ring which has the right frequency passing on then with another one in the form. And of course it varies with the strength of the collision. All this possibilities grow if the matter is bigger and more complicated. With other words the sophistication of the reactions of the matter has grown with the size and sophistication of the form. It also varies with the characteristics of the environment in which the grown matter resides. If it is a busy environment in which a lot of growing happens then the forms and sizes are versatile and collisions have many more kinds of reactions. What does not change are the principles which make the growing possible. These are the needs to store somehow the action and reactions which take place and also the environment which enabled the reaction to this action. And to limit the reaction to only one for a specific action and environment. If this is achieved then the growing takes on an intelligent level. If intelligence is described as the following of a specific reaction to a specific action in an specific environment then nature is reaching an always higher and higher intelligent level through the growing of forms. When matter grows into a specific form after a specific action has taken place in an specific environment then this form is the prove that this action has taken place and is a memory of what has happened because it is only able to perform it again when the specific action takes place in the same specific circumstances. On the other hand, if a certain action is performed on an unknown form in controlled circumstances then the reaction it makes can reveal its build up. Harmony The possibility that if two matters collide that they can change each others energy states. If they are not in harmony then their movement (energies) will move them apart (applies pressure) before an energy exchange can happen. To make an exchange possible the properties of the movements of the matters need to be in a special relationship to each other. Like the frequency, phase and direction have to be either the same or a specific fraction of each other, like the harmonic tunes of music. Inertia The property of mass which transfers movement into energy. And is the only force available at the start. Matter We are not able yet to know how small the smallest part of matter is. We can only imagine that, by using our fantasy, we can get to it by cutting matter in half, and keep cutting it, until we cannot cut it any more or realistically it cannot be any smaller. This size is so small, even for us, that we have not been able to place a distance on it. But we can see that any matter is always build out of smaller matter. What is important is that no matter how big matter can grow, the system, which holds it together, has to be the same. But what we need to assume is that there is always enough matter to build anything as big as we can see. For this we cannot assume that the space, we are looking at, is empty because we do not have the ability to 'feel' or 'see' anything in this space. And, if we want to keep to the facts, then anything what is able to move through this space, but is not matter, needs to have a media (matter) which enables its movement - passing it on. What we know about matter is that it has mass, which places it alone in the space it occupies and this mass has inertia. Which means that mass always strives to keep its state of movement. Which is also the reason for the phenomenon which we call energy. When matter moves then, if it collides with another matter, applies pressure on this matter and, by moving it away, does some work. Since the part which was moved is also matter, its inertia had to be overcome and some of the energy which was applied by the moving matter has now been passed to the now also moving matter. Moving matter claims more space then stationary one. E.g. it pushes other matter out of this space. And when energy is passed on from matter to matter by creating movement and vice versa then the space, which is claimed by the more and more moving matter, increases. When this happens within a restricted space, which is filled with masses, then it creates an overall pressure. Memory Since every mass/shape has its own set of reactions, which it can perform to a specific suitable action performed onto it, it can be said that it has now its own memory of what kind of reaction it can perform and when. It is also like a very low level of intelligence which reacts to certain actions with a pre-learned set of reactions. At the start stage only urmasses constitute the environment and each has the same memory. But as the masses evolve (grow, change) so does the memory, intelligence and the environment. One form of memorizing is provided when ring forms or EMs are connected in sequence. This would make it possible to find them, compare or duplicate them or even change them through applied energy signatures. Which can be grown or adapted to its environment until the feedback agrees. Again, there is no goal involved in this and is happening by pure chance! Movement The physical explanation of energy. As the first principle tells us, we need movement otherwise nothing will happen. We cannot know how this movement started but, since it is not relevant to explain what happens through movement, there is no need to guess or assume how movement started. When matters are moving then the movement can take on different forms (frequency, direction, strength, phase) which would depend on the environment. This movement it translated through inertia to a specific energy (charge). Opposition If movements are in harmony (frequency, direction and phase match) then an exchange of energy can take place. Opposition referrers only to the value of the properties of the movement. If the direction or timing is the same (or within limits) but the value is different (+/-) then an adjustment will happen. In a natural change the change always tries to establish the opposite of what has been. It could also be stated that if energies (movements) are able to change each other then they must be ‘opposites’. If the ‘oppositions’ are equal in every property then the energies (movements) cancel each other to 0. Passing of energy The physical passing of energy through mass is the only realistic way energy can be used to provoke changes and growing when nothing else is present than smallest possible masses. Physical properties Size, mass, speed of mass, direction of the movement, frequency of the movement, duration and phase of movement Pressure Pressure is the effect which colliding masses have on each other if they cannot bind with each other after the collision. They force each other apart according to their physical properties and available empty space. This enlarges the space masses occupy under pressure. Pressure, which is explained by movement (energy), has many effects in the universe. The most important is that it brings matter together through movement which would otherwise never have met. With other words it keeps the evolution going by keeping up the movement. Radiation When a matter, charged with energy (movement), travels through an empty space and collides with another matter than it might pass on this charge to the other matter. In this case the energy was not passed on from matter to matter to traverse the distance but had only one carrier. Relevant Action An action which performs something related to what raised a question and therefore reveals the answer. Reproduction If an energy is send though an energy ring into an EM and then collected on another one, then there is the possibility, that a sequence of energies was overloaded onto the passing energy by the energy rings through which it was passed on. Which could be used as a blueprint to reproduce the same build up of rings. Vacuum A vacuum, termed as a space without pressure (or void of moving matter), is produced by a moving matter which leaves an empty space behind every time it moves into a vacant space.

title: Action/Reaction Theory


text:
Multilevel caching

Caching

Caching has been successfully deployed to improve Web performance for static content, caching proxies keep local copies of frequently requested resources, allowing large organizations significantly reduce their upstream bandwidth usage and cost, while significantly increasing performance and there by reduces the Load or traffic in the internet. it would 'cache' the first request from the remote web server for later use, and make everything as fast as possible.

MULTILEVEL CACHING Multilevel cache is using more than one level of cache implementation in order to make the speed of cache access almost equal to the speed of the CPU and to hold a large number of cache objects. Based on the content provided in the both the level of the cache it can be classified into two major categories.

 * Mutual Inclusion
 * Mutual exclusion

Mutual inclusion

Multilevel Inclusion is a technique which contains data that are common to both the levels, i.e that some data is present in both the most recent data cache level 1 and recently used data at level 0. Normally level 0 cache size is made smaller when compared to that of the level 1 cache.

The main disadvantage of this implementation is that it suggests and uses the two different location for the same data which results in waste of memory space. This concept of multilevel caching already exists and used by AMD in their microprocessor chips. The main problem with this type of caching is that for the same data we need two different levels of cache and also it is a waste of memory. This will also result in removal of any cache results in updating of both levels which is a tedious job to perform.

Mutual Exclusion

Multilevel Exclusion is a technique where only the data which is not in the level 1 are present in the smaller cache of level 0. This has a greater advantage of having less associativity between the two level cache. Such a concept is successfully used in all recent Pentium processors. It has an advantage of using smaller memory consumption and easy cache updating policy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Multilevel caching


text:
Mr. Brown & Mr. Danoff's Halloween Lesson 1

Lesson written and done with Mr. Brown.

Plan

 * 1) What do you know about Halloween?
 * 2) Stu's Halloween Powerpoint
 * 3) Teach them How to Carve a Pumpkin
 * 4) Thriller Video or Mummy Wrap Game or Competitive Hangman w/halloween words

23 Oct 2009 Lesson 1 Week in Review

 * It really engaged the kids.
 * Even though it was a “fun” lesson, they spoke more English than they did in most other lessons.
 * something to be learned from that
 * it's OK to ham it up a little with the kids .. at least, with the 7th graders
 * mike jackson video ethics??
 * me singing?
 * the kids in multiple classes did want to stay after class was finished to watch the videos


text:
User:Gajah/E-portfolio

Week 1: Introduction
I am an undergraduate student at the University of Canberra (UC) studying psychology, welcome to my electronic journal. The e-journal is an assessment task for the Unit Motivation and Emotion in Semester 2, 2010. In addition to the assessment, the e-journal is an informal record of my learning journey for the unit which will be populated week by week. It is also a vehicle for sharing my personal experiences throughout the semester with my fellow students at UC and other wikiversity users. The prescribed text for the unit is John Reeve's (2009) Understanding Motivation and Emotion. With regard to the content of the e-journal, my intent is to provide readers with a snap shot of the prescribed text and summation of the lectures combined with my personal insight. As such the posts will be written in the first person, however referencing will be in accordance with the APA format. I hope my e-journal is useful to you and that you enjoy reading my future entries. Regards, Gajah

Chapter 1: Introduction

Reeve opens the chapter with why the study of motivation is so important, namely it's interesting and it has purpose. He suggests that from a scientific perspective two fundamental questions must be answered :

1 What causes behaviour? and

2 Why does behaviour vary in its intensity?

These questions also provided the framework for the in-class lecture in week 1. Reeve (2009) defines motivation as those processes that give behaviour its energy and direction. Motives are sourced either internally from needs, cognitions and emotions or from external events. Motivation is expressed in ways; behaviour, engagement, brain activations and through self report. Behaviour expresses the presence, intensity and quality of emotion (Reeve, 2009, p11). Engagement refers to the behavioral intensity, emotional quality and personal investment in another person's involvement during an activity (Reeve, 2009, p11). Brain activation coupled with physiology refers to the brains initiation of fast acting neurotransmitters and the release of the slow acting hormones (Reeve, 2009). Self-report is simply an individuals ability to record one's motivation (Reeve, 2009).In addition, motives direct attention and prepare action which is one of the eight themes of motivation. The eight themes of motivation are as follows:

1 Adaptation. Motives and emotions enable an individual to adapt to the environment. As the environment is often changing and unpredictable our motives and emotions need to be flexible enough to meet these demands (Reeve, 2009).

2 Directs attention and prepares action. Motives gain our attention in order for us to focus on one major event at a time, for example the sensation of thirst is a cue to fulfill a physiological need. The body is then prepared for action, to continue with the thirst example the body is preparing to access fluid to achieve satiety.

3 Motives vary over time. Although motives are constant, they vary in intensity over time and as such affect our behaviour accordingly. For example thirst will be stronger on a hot summers day while exercising than compare to a sedentary activity in winter.

4. Different types. Humans are motivationally complex (Reeve, 2009, p17).

5. Approach and avoidance. Humans have an innate need to adopt both approach and avoidance traits. Approach tendencies are generally regarded as pleasant experiences for example joy, hope and desire (Reeve, 2009). Conversely, avoidance tendencies are generally aversive in nature such as pain, fear and pressure (Reeve, 2009). Interestingly avoidance tendencies are usually stronger motives as the are associated with removing one self from harm.

6 Peoples wants. The study of motivation has identified what human beings want or crave. Research has identified that many motives are universal and that some are influenced by culture (Reeve, 2009).

7 Supportive conditions. In order to flourish, motives require a supportive environment or social context. Within this filed of study, researchers focus on four main areas; education, work, sport and exercise, and therapy (Reeve, 2009).

8 Sound theory. Theories provide a conceptual framework for interpreting behavioural observations, and they function as intellectual bridges to link motivational questions and problems to satisfy answers and solutions (Reeve, 2009, p21).

Personal Insight

''I have completed my first summation of the Chapter 1 from the Reeve Text book. It has been quite arduous and extremely time consuming, I have severely underestimated how time consuming this would be. I am currently up to date with the assigned readings, which I must admit is a first for me yet I am way behind the eight ball with regard to my e-journal entries. I suspect that the reason for taking so long to date is my low level of competence with the wiki format. Nevertheless I shall crack on, as Plato said 'in order to play the flute, one must play the flute'. Although it was my intent to summarise the text book chapters, I consider my first attempt to be too lengthy and I will need to add other resource material to the academic content. What I have learned from the first lecture is that motivation is not a simple process. There is a dynamic interplay between cognitive and physiological functions and the environment in which we live. Additionally, motives are generally always present yet vary in their intensity and duration.''

Chapter 2: Motivation in Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

 * Philosophical origins. The Greeks have been acknowledged as the founders of motivational study through the work of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The Greeks hypothesised the theory of dualism, the body and the mind as separate entities (Reeve, 2009). The French philosopher Descartes added to dualism by distinguishing between passive and active aspects of motivation. Descartes considered the will to be the strongest motivational force (Reeve, 2009).

 * Grand Theories. The grand theories eventually replaced the ancient philosophical ideals. The first grand theory was Descartes study of the will, followed by Darwin's instinct and finally drive theory was introduced.

+ Will: Descartes felt that an understanding of the will would naturally lead to the identification of motives. However, this theory unravelled many complexities, will alone is not enough to identify or explain an indiidual's motivation.

+ Instinct: Darwin's achievement was that 'his motivation concept could explain what the ancient philosopher's and Descartes could not, namely where the motivational force came from in the first place' (Reeve, 2009, p28). Darwin hypothesised that instincts expressed themselves as inherited bodily reflexes when in the presence of a stimulus (Reeve, 2009).

+ Drive: This theory arose from a functional biology, one that understood that the function of behaviour was to service bodily needs. Drive acted to restore a set point within the body, it is reactionary to internal deficits, such as thirst drives the need to drink and hunger drives the need to eat (Reeve, 2009). Drive theory was hypothesised by Freud in 1915 but the most renowned theory was created by Hull in (1943). Hull's major point that hadn't been suggested previously was that motivation could be predicted before it occurred (Reeve, 2009).

 * Mini theories. These theories limit their attention to specific motivational phenomenon, such as achievement motivation theory and flow theory (Reeve, 2009). A table of mini theories is illustrated.

 * Contemporary Era. The study of motivation is currently regarded as a phenomenon that is connected to all fields of contemporary psychology (Reeve, 2009).

Personal Insight

''The history of the study of motivation is closely aligned to the study of psychology which highlights to me the importance of motivation as a disipline. As with most theories or fields of study, the topic of motivation has risen and fallen in accordance with support from the extant scientific community. Although the grand theories of motivation are intuitive I was nonetheless surprised to see that Instinct theory was coined by Darwin- although retrospectively this does make sense.''

Week 2: How to use Wikiversity
Personal Insight ''I found this lecture quite difficult to follow as there was a lot of technical information specific to wikiversity which I am not familiar with. Indeed, I am quite intimidated with all of the assessment tasks due to their technical content. I am a mature age student and have minimal experience with the internet and using syntax for websites such as wiki. I will definitely have to revise this lecture on-line. The cynic in me is screaming that I should be focusing my learning on the topic of Motivation and Emotion, not wasting my energy on learning to use different aspects of the world wide web. However, if I approach these assessments with an outlook from the dicipline of positive psychology the tasks are obviously challenging and will provide me with the opportunity to enhance my wider learning. In all honesty my personal position is in between the cynic and +ve psych approaches. Although I am somewhat apprehensive about the assessment pieces, I am excited that they are outside of the stock standard assessment template of an essay and exams. Thus as students we can get creative with the tasks and hopefully this will alleviate the tedium of standard assessments. Only time will tell.''

Week 3: The Brain & Physiological Needs
Chapter 3: The Motivated and Emotional Brain

The brain generates cravings, needs, desires, pleasure, and the full range of emotions, as such all motivational and emotional states involve brain participation (Reeve, 2009). In addition to responding to internal stimuli, the brain is also affected by the external environment.

 * Three principles. The three principles that guides motivational and emotional research involving the brain are as follows:

+ Specific brain structures generate specific motivations. Different brain structures, when stimulated give sire to specific motivational states (Reeve, 2009).

+ Biochemical agents stimulate specific brain structures. Neurotransmitters are the 'quick' communication messengers of the nervous system and hormones are the 'slow' communication messengers within the endocrine system (Reeve, 2009).

+ Day to day events stir biochemical agents into action. Biochemical agents stimulate the brain and generate psychological experiences. Hunger as an example is triggered by the ghrelin hormone, conversely the leptin hormone decreases hunger when the body is satiated (Reeve, 2009).

 * The Brain. The brain can be viewed in two ways, firstly through a surgical procedure ante or post mortem and secondly through the use of technological aids such as a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

 * Approach Vs Avoidance. The structures within the brain are geared to initiate either approach or avoidance tendencies. An example of an approach oriented structure is the hypothalamus which signals pleasurable feelings associated with feeding, drinking and mating. An example of an avoidance oriented structure is the amygdala which is responsible for detecting and reacting to danger (Reeve, 2009).

 * Neurotransmitters & Hormones. Neurotransmitters act as chemical messengers within the CNS by enabling neurons to communicate with one another. There are four motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways; dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and endorphin. Three hormones are integral to motivation and emotion; cortisol, testosterone and oxytocin. Cortisol is regarded as the stress hormone, testosterone is associated with high sexual motivation and oxytocin is kn own as the bonding hormone and promotes nurturing and support (Reeve, 2009).

Personal Insight

Chapter 4: Physiological Needs

 * Need. A need is any condition within a person (or animal) that is essential and necessary for life, growth and well-being. Motivational states therefore provide the impetus to act before damage occurs to the psychological and bodily well being (Reeve, 2009). Needs are divided into physiological, psychological and social needs (Reeve, 2009).

 * Regulation. According to Hull's drive theory, physiological deprivations and deficits such as a lack of sleep, thirst and hunger create biological needs which in turn energises an individual into action (Reeve, 2009). Psyhcological drive is monitored by a seven stage cyclical pattern; need, drive, homeostasis, negative feedback, inputs/outputs, intraorganismic mechanisms and extraorganismic mechanisms.

+ Physiological need describes a deficient biological condition.

+ Psychological drive is the conscious manifestation of an underlying unconscious biological need.

+ homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a steady state of equilibrium or set point.

+ Negative feedback refers to homeostasis' physiological stop system. Drive activates behaviour, negative feedback stops it.

+ Inputs and outputs. Drive arises from a series of sources (inputs) and motivates a number of different goal-directed behaviours (outputs).

+ Intraorganismic mechanisms include all of the biological regulatory systems within a person that act in concert to activate, maintain and terminate the physiological needs that underlie drive.

+ Extraorganismic mechanisms include all of the environmental influences that play a part in the activating, maintaining and terminating psychological drive.

 * Thirst. About 2/3 of our bodies comprise water. When our water volume drops by 2% we feel thirsty and when we drop by 3% we become dehydrated. Thirst arises from intracellular and extracellular fluid loss. Thirst satiety is activated following the negative feedback system as previously mentioned, it comprises the mouth, stomach and cells (reeve, 2009).

 * Hunger. Hunger is more complex than thirst but follows a 'depletion-replenishment' model. Appetite is influenced by short-term and long-term needs. Short-term appetite is triggered by blood glucose level and long-term appetite is monitored by stored energy in the body (Reeve, 2009).

 * Sex. In lower animals, sex or mating is triggered by the female's ovulation cycle and the production of pheromones. Human sexual behaviour is also influenced but not determined by hormones namely testosterone and estrogen. Generally, men and women experience and react to sexual desire very differently. In men, the correlation between physiological arousal and psychological arousal is high. Conversely, the correlation in women is low as their sexual desire is responsive to emotional intimacy and other relationship factors (Reeve, 2009).

Personal Insight

Tutorial 1:
Following the initial welcome and introduction from James we conducted some 'ice breaker' activities which were fun and refreshing. Motivation: directs and guides behaviour.
 * Tutorial One was quite an interesting session and was very different to the average tutorial I have experienced at UC.
 * The class was divided up into small groups of three to four participants, I was teamed up with Salbo, S.Emp and MO. Each member was tasked with defining motivation and emotion. I kept my definitions quite short thus adhering to the principle of parsimony as follows:

Emotion: intense feelings that are short lived. Motivation: Gives energy to direct behaviour.
 * As a group we shared our personal definitions and formed two hybrid definitions from a team consensus as follows:

Emotion: Feelings that affect a persons behaviour that are intense and short lived.
 * The group definitions from the class are at (link to be added).

 * Motivation. Deckers (2010) describes Motivation as an internal disposition that pushes an individual toward some desired end. Reeve (2009) states that the study of Motivation concerns those processes that give behaviour its energy and direction.
 * The key elements from the aforementioned informal and formal definitions of motivation are: energy, direction and behaviour.

 * Emotion. Deckers (2010) suggests that Emotions are a functional reaction to a stimulus event or change. Reeve (2009) describes Emotions as short-lived feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that help us adapt to opportunities and challenges.
 * The key elements of emotion are: feelings, short-lived, reactions.

 * Personal Interests. My personal interest within the field of psychology is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) with a particular focus on War Veterans and their Families. My text book chapter topic is The Affect of Anxiety on Emotion. The main motivators in my life are family; namely my partner, my children and my parents and brother, and being the best person I can be. I also commit a lot of my time to physical fitness and general well being. The main emotions in my life at the moment are love, happiness and unfortunately at times disappointment. My personal goals for this unit is to become familiar and comfortable with using wikiversity and to gain a D grade this semester.

Week 4: Psychological & Social Needs
Chapter 6: Psychological Needs

Humans in general, place themselves in environments that support and nurture their psychological needs, then positive emotions, optimal experience and healthy development follow.

 * Psychological needs. When an activity involves our psychological needs, we feel interest. Additionally, when an activity satisfies our psychological needs we feel enjoyment. The organismic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness provide people with a natural motivation for learning, growing and development. Thus enabling an individual to effectively interact with the environment (Reeve, 2009).

 * Autonomy. Human beings inherently want the freedom to construct our own goals and the freedom to make our own decisions. Reeve (2009) defines autonomy as the psychological need to experience self-direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation of one's behaviour. Autonomy is influenced by an internal Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC), Volition and Choice over One's Actions. PLOC is related to the source of an individual's motivation whether internal or external. Volition refers to an unpressured willingness to engage in an activity. Choice is with regard to decision making flexibility.

 * Competence. Everyone wants to be competent at chosen activities such as work, sport and in relationships. Competence is the psychological need to be effective in interactions with the environment, and it reflects the desire to exercise one's capacities and skills and, in doing so, to seek out and master optimal challenges (Reeve, 2009). The elements that promote competence are optimal challenge, clear and helpful structure and high failure tolerance (Reeve, 2009).

+ Optimal challenge. When challenge matches skill, concentration, involvement and enjoyment rise. If challenges and skills are perfectly matched, flow is achieved. Flow is regarded as a state of concentration that involves a holistic absorption and deep involvement in an activity. It is important to note that if an activity is too difficult or too easy, flow cannot be achieved (reeve, 2009).

+ Structure. Structure is defined as the amount and clarity of information about what the environment expects the person to do to achieve desired outcomes (Reeve, 2009).

+ Failure tolerance. When attempting to achieve optimal challenge or flow, failure is just as likely as achieving success. Therefore, individuals must have a high level of failure tolerance if attempting to achieve flow, especially on a regular basis (Reeve, 2009).

 * Relatedness. We all have a need for relatedness, whether it is with friends or family members, groups, organisations or communities. In short, we need to belong and as such we have a need for relatedness. Relatedness is defined by Reeve (2009) as 'the psychological need to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with other people, and it reflects the desire to be emotionally connected to and interpersonally involved in warm relationships'. Interaction with others is the primary condition that involves the relatedness need, at least to the extent that those interactions will promise the possibility of warmth, care and mutual concern. To be satisfying, a social bond needs to be characterised by the perception that the other person (1) cares about my welfare, and (2) likes me. When it comes to relatedness and relationships, quality is more important than quantity (Reeve, 2009).

Personal Insight

Chapter 7: Social Needs

As discussed in Chapter 4 during week three, a need is any condition within a person that is essential and necessary for life, growth and well-being.

 * Acquired needs. Because of repeated emotional experiences, we acquire preferences for particular situations, hobbies and careers that involve and satisfy the social needs we acquire and value. Acquired needs are divided into two categories; quasi needs and social needs. Quasi needs are situationally induced wants and desires that are not regarded as full needs in the same sense as the aforementioned physiological, psychological and social needs. However, they do represent true needs in some fashion. They can dominate the consciousness and originate from situation demands and pressures. Additionally, they are deficiency-oriented and are therefore reactive. Conversley, social needs are acquired through experience, development and socialisation. They are NOT set at an early age, indeed they emerge and change over time. Social needs arise and activate emotional and behavioural behaviour potential when need satisfying incentives appear. They are mostly reactive in nature and therefore lie dormant within us until a need incentive is encountered. Thus the social need is brought to our attention in terms of thinking, feeling and behaving (Reeve, 2009).

(Reeve, 2009).
 * Achievement. The need for achievement is the desire to do well relative to a standard of excellence. A standard of excellence is any challenge to a person's sense of competence that ends with an objective outcome of success versus failure. When facing standards of excellence peoples emotional and behavioural reactions vary. Those high in the need for achievement respond with approach oriented emotions and behaviours whereas those low in the need for achievement react with avoidant emotions and behaviours. From this point of view, the need for achievement may be regarded as a double edge sword (Reeve, 2009). We all experience standards of excellence as a two-edged sword: Partly because we feel excitement and hope and anticipate the pride of a job well done; partly we feel anxiety and fear and anticipate the shame of possible humiliation. The need for achievement is derived from the difficulty of the task, competition, and entrepreneurship. Two theories dominate the understanding of achievement motivation; Atkinsons Model of Achievement Behaviour and a contemporary view that centres on a cognitive approach

+ Atkinson's Theory features four variables: achievement behaviour and it's three predictors- need for achievement, probability of success and incentive for success.

++ Dynamics of Action Model. In his dynamics of action model, achievement behaviour occurs within a stream of ongoing behaviour which is determined by three factors, instigation, inhibition and consummation. Instigation refers to causing a rise in approach tendencies and occurs by confronting environmental stimuli associated with past reward. Converselt, inhibition causes a rise in avoidant tendencies and occurs by confronting environmental stimuli associated with past punishment. Consummation refers to the fact that performing an activity brings about its own cessation. Achiement behaviour is regarded as something that is constantly changing, therefore it is viewed as dynamic, not static (Reeve, 2009).

+ The Contemporary approach to achievement motivation involves achievement goals. Contemporary researchers have become increasingly interested in why a person displays achievement behaviour. Integration. A robust model has been achieved by incorporating Atkingson's model and the contemporary theory. The integrated approach negates the deficiencies of the two previous models.

 * Affiliation and intimacy. The contemporary view of affiliation strivings recognises two facets: the need for approval and the need for intimacy. From a positive perspective affilliation is regarded as a willingness to experience a warm, close and communicative exchange with another person (intimacy). Conversely, the negative aspects include the anxious need to establish, maintain and restore interpersonal relations (affiliation). The principle condition that involves the need for affiliation is the deprivation from social interaction and the need for intimacy expresses itself as a growth oriented motive. When afraid, people desire to affiliate for emotional support and to see how others handle the emotions they feel from the fear object. During face-to-face interactions, high intimacy need persons laugh, smile and make eye contact more than do low intimacy need people. Because it is a deficit oriented motive, the need affiliation, when satisfied brings out emotions of relief rather than joy (Reeve, 2009).

 * Power. 'People high in the need for power desire to have impact, control and influence over another person, group, or the world at large'(Winter, 1973 as cited in Reeve, 2009). Impact allows power-needing individuals to establish power. Control allows the maintainance of power and influence enables an individual to expand or restore power. Conditions that involve and satisfy the need for power are leadership, aggressiveness, influential occupations and prestige possessions (Reeve, 2009).

+ Leadership and relationships. People high in the need for power seek recognition in groups and find ways for making themselves visible to others, apparently in an effort to establish influence. In selecting their friends and coworkers, power striving individuals generally prefer others who are in a position to be led.

+ Aggressiveness. Aggression is one means of both involving and satisfying power needs. However, overt aggression is generally considered a more within society and as such this need is regularly directed inward. The agressiveness release often occurs during drinking binges, where the alcohol is often blamed for the behaviour.

+ Influential occupations. People high in the need for power are attracted to occupations such as business executives, teachers, psychologist, journalists, clergy and international diplomats. Therefore, people can involve and satisfy their power strivings through the job they choose.

+ Prestige possessions. People high in the need for power surround themsleves with status symbols such as a luxury cars, latest electronic 'gadgets', clothing and expensive homes (Revve, 2009).

Personal Insight

Week 5: Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation & Goal Setting
Chapter 5: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations

 * Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the inherent propensity to engage one's interests and to exercise one's capacities and, in doing so to seek out and master optimal challenges. When people are intrinsically motivated they act out of interest, or for the fun of it such as exercise or sport. The activity allows the person to feel free (autonomy), effective (competence) or emotionally close (relatedness). Intrinsic motivation has additional benefits such as promoting persistence, creativity, higher learning and well-being (Reeve, 2009). Extrinsic motivation arises from environmental incentives and consequences such as food, money, praise and trophies. Therefore, extrinsic motivation arises from some consequence that is separate from the activity itself. It is considered to be a behavioural contract: 'do this' and you will 'get...'. It is also referred to as a 'what's in it for me' type of motivation. On the surface, the behaviours of these two motivators appear to be the same, the difference between the is the source of the motivation (Reeve, 2009).

 * External regulation of motivation. Extrinsic motivation is influenced by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is defined as 'the process by which a person learns how to operate effectively within an environment'. The individual learns what to do in order to receive a reward or incentive and what to avoid in terms of punishment. An incentive is an environmental event that attracts or repels a person toward or away from initiating a particular course of action, therefore incentives precede behaviour. A punisher is any environmental stimulus that when presented, decreases the future probability of the undesired behaviour, for example yelling at a child when they go near a hot stove. A punisher follows behaviour. Incentives and rewards can be positive or negative, a positive reinforcer when presented increases behaviour, whereas a negative reinforcer when removed also increases the desired behaviour. The positive and negative elements should not be viewed as good or bad but regarded as adding or subtracting the reinforcer (Reeve, 2009).

 * Hidden costs of reward. There are detrimental affects of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivators are known to decrease intrinsic motivation and also to hinder the process and quality of learning. However, external regulation is not always bad or counter-productive when applied in specific ways. For example, research indicates that the detrimental affects can be reduced by using unexpected verbal praise and to limit the use of extrinsic motivators (Reeve, 2009).

 * Cognitive evaluation theory. The main reason behind the use of extrinsic motivators is to shape, influence or control another person's behaviour. However, they also provide a means of feedback to the individual acknowledging their efficiency or competence. Cognitive evaluation theory asserts that all external events have both a controlling aspect and an informational aspect. The theory presumes that people have psychological needs for autonomy and competence. Therefore, any external event such as money, praise or grades can be administered in a controlling or informational way. Praise for example can be delivered in either a controlling manner or informationally, 'you did an excellent job' or 'you did an excellent job because you ..'. The main point is that it is not the praise per se but the way it is delivered. Competition is a means where an individual can observe improvement in their own ability or by acknowledging their competence in relation to others (Reeve, 2009).

 * Types of extrinsic motivation. There are four types of external regulation which appear on a motivation continuum, namely external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. External regulation has an external PLOC and is usually preceded by an external prompt such as external rewards or punishments. Introjected regulation a minimal external PLOC and is monitored by self-control, ego and internal rewards and punishments. Identified regulation has a minimal internal PLOC and is determined by conscious valuing and personal importance. Integrated regulation has a predominantly internal PLOC and is associated with congruence between the task and the self (Reeve, 2009).

 * Building interest and motivating others. The problem with using expected and tangible rewards is that they yield only compliance, low quality learning, minimal functioning and a dependence on further external regulation. The difficulty is finding ways to motivate others to complete uninteresting tasks. Researchers have discovered that by informing others of the task with a verbal purpose statement adds value to the activity. As such engagement in the activity is created and the individual is able to internalise the outcome. Building interest in an activity enhances attention, effort and learning. Interest is regarded in two forms, situational interest and individual interest. Situational interest is triggered by by appealing external events and exists as a short-term attraction to an activity. Individual interest is more stable and develops over time as an enduring personal disposition. The greater an individual's knowledge of an activity or task attention, effort and performance are increased, therefore quality learning is very important with regard to motivating others and building interest (Reeve, 2009).

Chapter 8: Goal Setting and Striving

 * Cognitive perspective on motivation. Cognitive sources of motivation focus on an individual's way of thinking and believing. The cognitive process from a motivational perspective is regarded as the causal determinants to action (Reeve, 2009).

 * Plans. People have a mental image of an ideal behaviour, event or object and also have a realistic view of the current state of these elements. When the current state does not meet the ideal state there is incongruity. The incongruity provides a motivational vision of how to remove the incongruity which gives rise to planning. Therefore the incongruity acts as the motivational 'spring into action' (provides energy), and the plan becomes the means of organising our behaviour toward the pursuit of the ideal state (provides direction). The test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) model is the means by which a plan is realised, implemented and adjusted if required. (include a diagram of the TOTE Model) The basic principle is that if the present state after testing is achieved then the individual exits the TOTE model. However, if the current state is not realised in accordance with the visualised state, the plan is amended, tested and implented again. This cycle continues until the current state in congruous with the ideal state. Two types of discrepancies may interfere with the TOTE process Discrepancy reduction provides feedback on how well or how poorly an individual is performing in relation to the plan, it is reactionary in nature. Discrepncy creation is proactive, it is based on a feed-forward process by looking into the future, such as an additional goal or higher goal to the one intended (Reeve, 2009).

 * Goal setting.

 * Goal striving.

Week 9: Nature of Emotion
Nature of Emotion: Five Perennial Questions

1. What is an emotion?

Emotions are defined as 'intense, short-lived subjective feelings that initiate action and influence behaviour' (Solomon, 2002). An initial analysis of this definition identifies three key points, firstly they are intense. Boven, White and Huber (2009) state that current emotions have a stronger impact than emotions which have occurred in the past, the explanation for this is that current emotions are more salient and therefore appear to be stronger in intensity. Secondly emotions are short-lived, lasting up to a maximum of four seconds (Ekman, 1984 as cited in Deckers 2010 & McMakin, Santiago & Shirk, 2009). Finally, emotions guide action and behaviour (Srivastava, McGonigal, Gross, Tamir & John, 2009). Early studies have identified that the core emotions are aligned with specific facial expressions (Ekman & Freisen, 1971; & Ekman & Freisen, 1978). Facial expressions are reported to be innate and are identical around the globe, thus they are not bound by race, religion or culture. Interestingly people who are blind from birth still convey facial expressions in the same manner as individuals with full sight (Fernandez-Dols, Carrera, De Mendoza & Oceja, 2007; & Miyamoto, Ellsworth & Uchida, 2010).

2. What causes an emotion?

Emotion serves as a catalyst to energise motives and thus guide behaviour (Srivastava, McGonigal, Gross, Tamir & John, 2009). In this sense emotions prime 'action readiness'. By way of example, fear energises the fight or flight response in indiviuals. The motivation of fear is to remove oneself from a dangerous situation, the resulting action may result in avoidance, freezing or escaping behaviours. Additionally, the facial expression of sadness signals distress to others and is a non-verbal request for assistance (Trachsel, Gurtner, von Kanel & Grosse Holtforth, 2010).

3. How many emotions are there?

Dr Paul Ekman's early research identified six core emotions: anger, Fear, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise. Ekman hypothesised that the core emotions have evolutionary links which are required for survival. His later research identified the additional emotions of contempt, guilt, shame, interest, embarrassment, awe and excitement (Ekman, 1992). He further increased his findings by classifying sensory emotions, namely relief, wonder, ecstasy and bliss (Ekman, 2003). 'Primary emotions are regarded as innate and are a response to an internal or external stimulus, whereas secondary emotions are defined as "the product of cognitive processing" (Becker & Wachsmuth as cited in Reichardt, Levi & Meyer, 2006, p.31).

4. What good are the emotions?

Emotions serve to initiate action and guide behaviour.

5. What is the difference between emotion and mood?

Moods are differentiated from emotions by intensity and temporal measurement. Moods are less intense than emotions but are longer lasting (Velasquez as cited in Canamero, 1998). Emotions have a short life span of seconds where as moods may last for hours (Ekman, 1984 as cited in Deckers 2010).

Week 14: Summary & Conclusion
Gajah 10:51, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

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