text:
United States currency/50¢

The half dollar of the United States, sometimes known as the fifty-cent piece, has been produced nearly every year since the inception of the United States Mint in 1794. The only U.S. coin that has been minted more consistently is the cent.

Half dollar coins are commonly used in casinos. In particular, rolls of half dollars are kept on hand in cardrooms in the United States for games requiring 50-cent antes or bring-in bets, for dealers to pay winning naturals in blackjack, or where the house collects a rake in increments of 50 cents (usually in low-limit seven-card stud and its variants).

The half dollar's circulation, aside from use in some casinos and movie theaters, has declined significantly. This is primarily due to a confluence of two events: the silver crisis of 1963, and the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. The value of silver had risen by 1962-63 to the point that it became worthwhile to melt down U.S. coins for their bullion value. U.S. Silver coins (those of ten cent value and above, which contained 90% silver through 1964) began to disappear from circulation, leading the United States to change to layered composition coins made of a copper core laminated between two cupro-nickel outer faces for the 1965 - present coinage years. The Kennedy half-dollar design, however, continued to be minted in a 40% silver-clad composition from 1965–1970.

Initially the Kennedy halves were hoarded for sentimental reasons and because they were recognized as the only precious metal U.S. coin remaining in circulation. By the time mintage figures could match normal demand and the coin's composition was changed to match the rest of the (non-silver) coinage in 1971, both businesses and the public had adapted to a world in which the half dollar did not generally circulate. Other uses had been found for the half-dollar section of the cash drawer. People had gotten used to depending on quarters as the major component of change.

Most coins enter circulation through the change drawers of businesses. Hardly any businesses stock their change drawers with half dollars or dollar coins, and many banks do not stock these coins and/or hand them out as normal business practice, so the coins do not see much circulation. The fact that virtually no vending machines in the United States accept half dollars further curtails its circulation.

50¢ of the United States of America

 * Value: 0.5 U.S. dollar

 * Mass: 11.340 g (0.365 troy oz)
 * Diameter: 30.61 mm (1.205 in)
 * Thickness: 2.15 mm (0.085 in)

 * Edge: 150 reeds
 * Composition: 	91.66% Cu, 8.33% Ni

 * Years of Minting: 1971–1974; 1977–present

Obverse
 * Design: John F. Kennedy
 * Designer: Gilroy Roberts
 * Design Date: 1964

Reverse
 * Design: Presidential Seal
 * Designer: Frank Gasparro
 * Design Date: 1964

Early History

 * On December 1, 1794 the first half dollars (approximately 5,300 pieces) – were delivered. Another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 but these coins were produced with a die of 1794, because dies were too expensive to throw out because of the date.
 * Due to the high production of half dollars from the 1790s, another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801. The coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse.
 * One of the great mysteries of half dollars was the 150,000 that were minted in 1804 without one specimen known to exist. The coinage of 1804 was struck with dies from 1803, accounting for the reason.
 * In 1838, half dollar dies were sent to a branch mint for the first time. The dies were sent to New Orleans and in 1839, the New Orleans Mint struck nearly 180,000 half dollars.

Silver Half Dollars

 * Flowing Hair 1794–1795

Draped Bust
"Draped Bust" was the name given to a design of United States coins. It appeared on all regular-issue copper and silver United States coinage from 1795-1808. The denominations that featured the Draped Bust design included the half cent (1800-1808), large cent (1796-1807), half dime (1796-1805), dime (1796-1807), quarter (1796 -- see coin below, 1804-1807), half dollar (1796-1807) and silver dollar (1795-1804). Gold coins did not carry this design.

Basic Design
n 1796, Congress responded to the almost universal dissatisfaction of the first coins (Flowing Hair) and decreed a new design. As was the custom of the time, all denominations bore the same design or, in this case, the same obverse. By Congressional decree, certain features were required: The eagle, the word Liberty, stars and United States of America. It was not considered necessary to include the value of the coin since it could be discerned from its size based on the precious metal content. Thus, the half dime was the smallest silver coin (containing 1/20 of the amount of silver in a dollar) and each denomination was larger up to the silver dollar.

Obverse
All coins (copper and silver) bore the same obverse. Robert Scot, Chief Engraver of the U.S. Mint from 1793-1829, transformed a portrait of a society lady by Gilbert Stuart into a rather Buxom Ms. Liberty. Some accounts identify the woman as Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham. She remained essentially unchanged for several years with the exception of an extra curl added to her flowing locks in 1798.

Reverse
There are three basic reverse designs. The first, for copper coins, features the value of the coin (half cent or one cent) surrounded by a wreath or vine. The words "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" encircle the wreath. In 1795-1797, a scrawny, naturalistic bald eagle was depicted on the reverse side of all silver coins. This design is known as Draped Bust, Small Eagle and usually commands a high price due to the extremely low mintage at the time. In 1798, the small eagle was replaced by the Heraldic eagle. This design is known as Draped Bust, Heraldic Eagle. The famous 1804 Silver Dollar has this design as well the reverse of the Kennedy half dollar in 1964. Three denominations also bore the appropriate fraction: Half cent (1/200), large cent (1/100) and half dollar (1/2).

Rim
The half dollar rim (edge) bore the words FIFTY CENTS OR HALF A DOLLAR.

Stars
Initially, the decision was made to add a star to the obverse of a coin for each new state that joined the union. By 1796, the nation had grown to 15 states with the addition of Vermont and Kentucky. Each denomination was minted with 15 stars. That year Tennessee was admitted and a 16th star was added. Director of the Mint Elias Boudinot, realized that the situation could not continue indefinitely and decreed that all coins would contain the original 13 stars. The half dime of 1797 exemplifies the confusion at the time; it was minted with 13, 15 and 16 stars.

National Motto
The Heraldic Eagle introduced a national motto - E pluribus unum (one out of many). It appears on a flowing ribbon and is held in the talon of the eagle. In 1956, the national motto was replaced and is now In God We Trust, a phrase that first appeared on American coins in 1864 at the height of the Civil War.

Variations
Due to primitive working conditions, materials and poorly constructed dies numerous errors and variations appeared. These include letters and numbers shaped differently, cracks appearing on the surface of the coins, misprints and overstrikes (LIKERTY - half dime, 1796), the size of stars or numbers varied from one die to the next (1807 - half dollar) and dates overpunched previous dates (large cent - 1800, printed over 1798 and 1799). Incongruities persisted: In 1796 the half dollar appeared with 15 stars, then 16 stars. Mysteriously it portrayed 15 stars in 1797 despite the presence of 16 states. Many of these faults are quite rare and demand a high premium due to their scarcity.

Famous Draped Bust Coins
The Greatest 100 U.S. Coins selected the 1804 silver dollar as the number one coin. It bears a heraldic eagle on the reverse and the price is prohibitive. Eight were minted in 1834 (Class I) and the rest minted in 1858 (Class II). The 1802 Half Dime ranks number 61. Only 3,000 were minted and the vast majority of these were either lost, melted or wore out. Most 1802 half dimes that do exist are in extremely poor condition. The 1797 Half Dollar (ranked 68)has the "small eagle" design. This design is rare due to the very low mintage and the inferior equipment and procedures. Less than 3,000 were minted. It's companion, the even rarer 1796 half dollar (ranked 72) had a mintage of only 934. The pair constitute the sole mintage of the half dollar "small eagle" design. One is required for a complete Type Set, thus there are always more buyers than sellers. The 1796 quarter (seen above) ranked 71. It is also the "small eagle" design and is the only representative in this denomination of that design. Since it too is required for a complete Type Set, its price continues to rise. Only 6,000 quarters were minted that year. By comparison, the Tennessee State Quarter, one of five struck in 2002, had a mintage of 650,000,000. The mintage of all state quarters in 2002 was over 3 billion.)

 * Capped Bust, 1807–1839

Seated Liberty
The "Seated Liberty" designs appeared on most regular-issue silver United States coinage during the mid- and late-nineteenth century, from 1836 through 1891. The denominations which featured the Seated Liberty design included the half dime, the dime, the quarter, the half dollar, and the silver dollar. Another coin that appeared exclusively in the Seated Liberty design was the twenty cent piece. This coin was produced from 1875 to 1878, and was discontinued because it looked very similar to the quarter. Seated Liberty coinage was minted at the main United States Mint in Philadelphia, as well as the branch mints in New Orleans, San Francisco, and Carson City.

Obverse
The basic obverse design of the Seated Liberty coinage consisted of the figure of the goddess Liberty clad in a flowing dress and seated upon a rock. In her left hand, she held a pole surmounted by a liberty cap, which had been a pre-eminent symbol of freedom during the movement of Neoclassicism. Although it had fallen out of favor in Europe by 1830, Neoclassicism remained in vogue in the United States until after the American Civil War. Liberty's right hand rested on the top corner of a striped shield with a diagonal banner inscribed with the word "LIBERTY." The shield represented preparedness in the defense of freedom. The date of the coin appeared on the bottom below Liberty.

Reverse
The basic reverse design of Seated Liberty coins depended on the denomination. The size of half dimes and dimes necessitated a smaller array of elements. On these coins, the reverse consistently featured a wreath around the words "HALF DIME" or "ONE DIME". Before 1860, this wreath consisted of laurel leaves, a traditional Neoclassical image, but beginning that year, the wreath was enlarged and was filled not only with leaves, but also traditional American agricultural products, such as corn and wheat. On quarter, half dollars, and silver dollar coins, the reverse featured a central eagle about to take flight, with a striped shield upon its breast. The eagle clutched an olive branch of peace in its right talons and a group of arrows in its left talons. Above the eagle around the rim were the words "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" and below the eagle around the rim lay the coin denomination. Beginning in 1866 the coins featured a ribbon with the motto "In God We Trust" above the eagle.

Stars
When the first Seated Liberty half dimes and dimes appeared in 1837, the obverse contained no stars. The next year, the coins featured thirteen six-pointed stars around the rim, commemorating the original thirteen colonies.

Drapery
The Seated Liberty coins featured a few minor design changes over the years. Around 1840 (the exact date depends upon the denomination), extra drapery was added to Liberty's left elbow.

Arrows And Rays
In 1853 and 1873, the U.S. Mint changed the weight of each denomination of silver coins. Both times, arrows were added to the coins on each side of the date. These were removed from coins in 1856 and 1875, respectively. In 1853, the mint also placed rays around the eagle on the reverse of half dollars and quarters, a feature which endured for that one year only.

Legend and Mintmarks
In 1860 the U.S. Mint eliminated the stars on the obverse of Seated Liberty half dimes and dimes, replacing them with the legend "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA," which had previously appeared around the wreath on the reverse of the coins. Before this time, half dimes and dimes minted in New Orleans and San Francisco had featured their mintmarks inside the wreaths. Afterwards, the "O" and "S" (and, later, the "CC" for Carson City) mintmarks were located below the wreath next to the rim. On quarters, half dollars, and silver dollars, the mintmarks were always placed below the eagle but above the coin currency on the reverse.

Barber
Liberty Head ("Barber") designs appeared on United States minor silver coinage (the dime, quarter, and half dollar) from 1892 to 1916. They derive their common name from their designer, Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber.

Origins
Liberty Head ("Barber") designs appeared on United States minor silver coinage (the dime, quarter, and half dollar) from 1892 to 1916. They derive their common name from their designer, Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber.

Obverse
The basic obverse design of the Barber silver coinage consisted of a Liberty head with a cap and wreath. This figure was inspired both by classical Greek and Roman models and by the designs of various 19th-century French coinage. The word "LIBERTY" appeared on the headband in incuse; since it wears relatively quickly in circulation, it is often used by numismatists to help determine the condition of circulated coins. The Liberty head is flanked by six stars on the left and seven on the right, and the motto "IN GOD WE TRUST" appears above it. The date is centered below the figure.

Reverse
There were two basic reverse designs on Barber coinage. The dime featured a wreath of American agricultural products with the words "ONE DIME" in the center. The mint mark, if any, was positioned below the wreath. This reverse design differed little from that of the old Seated Liberty dime.

On the quarter and half dollar, a heraldic eagle, similar to that featured on the Great Seal of the United States, is the central design element, with "QUARTER DOLLAR" or "HALF DOLLAR" and the mint mark (if any) located beneath it. As on the Great Seal, the eagle carries a banner in its beak reading "E PLURIBUS UNUM", and the amount of the motto visible is helpful to numismatic graders in determining the condition of circulated specimens. A field of 13 stars (the same number as on the obverse, representing the 13 original American colonies) appears above the eagle, and on the top edge, "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" is inscribed.

Collectible Barber Coins
Although the Barber series contains few mint marks or other aberrations, the 1894-S Barber Dime is one of the most valuable coins ever produced by the United States. Only 24 were produced. Of those, only nine remain, one of which sold for $1.9 million in 2007.

Walking Liberty
The Walking Liberty Half Dollar is a silver half dollar coin issued by the United States government, equal to fifty cents. Walking Liberties were minted from 1916 to 1947. The coin is named after its representation of Liberty on the obverse. The coin's obverse and reverse was designed by Adolph A. Weinman and his mark, "AAW", appears under the eagle's wing feathers on the reverse.

History
All American coinage at the turn of the 20th century was set to be changed in an effort started by President Theodore Roosevelt. The new half dollar succeeded the unpopular and often ridiculed Barber half dollar. This coin along with the Mercury dime (which Weinman also designed) and Standing Liberty Quarter eliminated the uniform design that was a tradition of American coinage since the mint opened in 1793.

The Walking Liberty half dollar obverse is considered the best designed silver coin in American coinage. As a result, it was used as the obverse design of the American Silver Eagle bullion coin while the St. Gaudens double eagle obverse was chosen for the obverse of the American Gold Eagle series.

Mints
Mintmarks were located on the obverse under 'In God We Trust' in 1916 and 1917. In mid 1917, the mintmark was moved to the reverse. It is located to the upper left of 'half dollar' along the rim.

 * None (P - Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
 * D (Denver Mint in Denver, Colorado)
 * S (San Francisco Mint in San Francisco, California)

Special Varieties/Errors
Unlike most United States coins, the Walking Liberty half dollar only has one significant error. The 1946-P has a Doubled reverse variety that has an increased value.

Rarities
In the series there are no difficult rarities but there are some low-mintage (less than one million made) dates:

 * 1916-P
 * 1916-S
 * 1917-D Obverse Mint Mark
 * 1917-S Obverse Mint Mark
 * 1919-P
 * 1921-P
 * 1921-D
 * 1921-S
 * 1938-D

Franklin
The Franklin half dollar is a coin of the United States, minted from 1948 to 1963. The coin pictured Benjamin Franklin on the obverse and the Liberty Bell on the reverse. A small eagle to the right of the bell was necessitated by law; ironically, Franklin himself had opposed the selection of the eagle as the US national symbol, preferring the turkey as a "more noble bird". A bill rushed through Congress after the assassination of John F. Kennedy caused the Franklin half to be replaced by the current Kennedy half dollar in February 1964, nine years before the design would otherwise have been eligible for a change.

Approximately 510 million Franklin halves were minted during the period 1948 to 1963. Coins without a mintmark were minted in Philadelphia, whereas those with a "D" were minted in Denver and with an "S" in San Francisco. The mintmark on specimens having one is visible on the reverse side centered above the bell yoke. Engraver John R. Sinnock's initials appear at Franklin's shoulder on the obverse.

Sinnock's initials inadvertently reflected the tensions of the times. Sinnock had also designed the Roosevelt dime, released two years earlier, placing his initials "JS" on the obverse. In the tense climate of the Cold War, a rumor spread that these initials stood for Joseph Stalin, placed there by a Soviet agent in the mint.[1] Perhaps to avoid further controversy, Sinnock used his full initials "JRS" on the half. (Stalin's middle name was Vissarionovich.)

Large quantities of the Franklin half dollar were melted as silver bullion shortly after 1964, when the intrinsic value exceeded the face value of U.S. silver coinage. Despite these losses, Franklin halves in gently circulated condition remain quite affordable even today, and the more common dates do not command more than a 25 percent premium over bullion. {As of this notation in September of 2007, common date circulated 90% silver coins are valued at 9-10 times face value}. Well-struck uncirculated pieces showing full bell lines in the Liberty Bell design on the coin's reverse command a substantial premium.

The one notable error in the series of the Franklin half dollar is the "Bugs Bunny" error, so called because damage to the coin's obverse die resulted in a split in Franklin's upper lip, giving the appearance of prominent front teeth. The damage to the die resulted from the obverse and reverse dies striking each other without a coin planchet in between. The error is found in 1955 coins minted in Philadelphia. There is also a 1961-P Proof doubled die.

Franklin Half-Dollar of the United States of America

 * Value: 0.50 U.S. dollars

 * Mass: 12.50 g
 * Diameter: 30.6 mm
 * Thickness: ? mm

 * Edge: reeded
 * Composition: 90% Ag, 10% Cu

 * Years of Minting: 1948–1963

Obverse
 * Design: Benjamin Franklin
 * Designer: John R. Sinnock
 * Design Date: 1948

Reverse
 * Design: Liberty Bell
 * Designer: John R. Sinnock
 * Design Date: 1948

Kennedy
Evolving from the Franklin half dollar, the Kennedy half dollar is a coin of the United States first minted in 1964. This coin was first struck in 1964 less than a year after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. The front features the face of President John F. Kennedy on the obverse and an eagle on the reverse. The obverse was designed by Gilroy Roberts and the reverse was designed by Frank Gasparro.

Specifications

 * Obverse design: President John F. Kennedy
 * Reverse design: The Seal of the President of the United States
 * Bicentennial reverse designer: Seth Huntington
 * Bicentennial reverse design: Independence Hall in Philadelphia
 * Edge: reeded
 * Diameter: 30.6 mm

Composition
The Kennedy half dollar was struck in 90% silver in 1964. The following year, this was changed to silver-clad, with the silver content lowered to 40%. In 1971, the circulation coinage composition was changed a final time, eliminating the silver, and using the copper-nickel clad standard common to the dollar, quarter, and dime. Bicentennial half dollars dated 1776-1976 were produced in the years 1975 and 1976 in the copper-nickel clad composition for circulation and proof and also in the 40% silver composition in uncirculated and proof versions for inclusion in special collector sets. When the United States Mint started producing silver proof sets in 1992, the Kennedy half dollar included in them had the same composition as the coins of 1964.

Silver issue (regular circulation in year 1964, silver proof sets from 1992 to date):
 * Weight: 12.5 g
 * Composition: 90% silver, 10% copper
 * Silver content: 11.25 g (0.3617 troy oz)

Silver-clad issues (regular circulation in years 1965-1970, proof set in years 1975-1976):

 * Weight: 11.5 g
 * Composition:
 * Outer layers: 80% silver, 20% copper
 * Inner layers: 20.9% silver, 79.1% copper

 * Silver content: 4.60 g (0.1479 troy oz)

Copper-nickel clad issues (regular circulation from 1971 to date):

 * Weight: 11.34 g (0.4 oz avoirdupois)
 * Composition: 75% copper, 25% nickel

History
The Kennedy half dollar replaced the Franklin half dollar within a year of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. In fact, Gilroy Roberts, the former chief engraver of the mint, and Frank Gasparro, the current chief engraver at the time, designed the coin a mere five days after Kennedy's death—though the profile of Kennedy was the same one Roberts had used for Kennedy's inaugural medal two years earlier.

Ironically, the new Kennedy design caused the slow disappearance of the half-dollar as a regular mainstream circulating coin, through a series of unrelated events. First, collectors and even ordinary citizens hoarded the coins of 1964, due to the "new" design and because of sentiment for the late President Kennedy. In 1965 silver was eliminated from other coin denominations (dimes and quarters became copper-nickel clad), but silver remained in the half-dollar. The older Franklin halves of 90% silver were quickly removed from circulation by collectors and hoarders, and since the public now hoarded silver coins, most of the 90% silver 1964s, as well as the 40% silver composition 1965-1970 halves, saw little circulation as well. By time the Kennedy half dollar became regular copper-nickel clad in 1971, many banks and merchants were already used to no longer stocking and using the denomination as they were prior to 1964. The half dollar has always circulated to some extent, but has not at the level of circulation it had before 1964. Given the facts that the cash drawers of most merchants do not contain a place for quantities of half dollars, that most vending machines do not accept them, and that the dollar coin is smaller and is the subject of a push for acceptance, the half is likely to retain its limited circulation status.

In 1975 and 1976, the bicentennial half dollar was minted showing Independence Hall on the reverse. All of the bicentennial halves are dated "1776–1976." While the special half sparked some interest in the public, when the half returned to its regular design in 1977, it continued its decline in use and mintage. By 2002, the coins were no longer minted for commercial use, but only in special mint rolls, mint sets, and proof sets for collectors.

The 1964 proof coins were first minted with an "accented" or heavy hair incised about the ear which Jacqueline Kennedy supposedly disliked. After approximately 120,000 were minted the dies were revised and the hair slightly smoothed out. The "I" in "Liberty" also has a truncated bottom serif on the left side. The first die variety typically sells for about four times the latter type, although can be more expensive in top grade, since they seem to have often been poorly struck.

There is a significant demand for half dollars for use at casinos, where they can be used in paying off odd-dollar bets in blackjack and other games. For example, if a player gets "blackjack" at that game with a five-dollar bet, he or she is to be paid $7.50. Some casinos now use a fifty-cent ceramic chip.

At the bottom of Kennedy´s neck, with a magnifier, the mark of the engraver can be seen clearly. Without a magnifier it looks like a hammer and sickle; and during the Cold War this also added interest to the coin.

Mints
In 1964, the mint mark appeared on the reverse, under the eagle's left talon. Starting in 1968, mint marks appear above the second and third numbers in the date under Kennedy's neck. Mint marks as of 2007 include:

 * Blank (Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 1964–1979
 * P (Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 1980—
 * D (Denver Mint in Denver, Colorado)
 * S (San Francisco Mint in San Francisco, California)

All San Francisco Kennedy halves are proofs. Proof coins were minted at Philadelphia in 1964, but all other proofs were minted at San Francisco.

 * Kennedy 1992–Present (Not issued for general circulation; in silver proof sets only)

40% Silver Half Dollars

 * Kennedy 1965–1969
 * Kennedy 1970 (Not issued for general circulation; for collectors only.)
 * Kennedy 1976 (Only those issued in collectors sets were produced with 40% silver.)

Copper-Nickel Clad Half Dollars

 * Kennedy 1971–1974, 1977–1986, 1988–2001 (General circulation issues.)
 * Kennedy 1987, 2002–Present (Not issued for general circulation; for collectors only.)
 * Kennedy Bicentennial 1975–1976 (All were dated 1776-1976.)

In addition to these regular issue coins, Half dollars are the most common denomination used for United States Commemorative Coins.

-km 12:21, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

More from km

 * Skeletal system
 * Integumentary system
 * Cycloid
 * Venus
 * Mercury
 * Liquid water on Europa
 * Virus
 * Circulatory system

title: United States currency/50¢


text:
User:GerardM

 * Meta:user:GerardM
 * Betawiki:user:GerardM

ja:利用者:GerardM pt:Usuário:GerardM

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:GerardM


text:
User:Perw

Hi,

I am living in Sweden and working at GR Education, GRUL-section.

Within the framework of our activities at GR Education, GRUL develops, hosts and provides the Swedish school systems with tools for experiencial learning, such as simulations, roleplays and live role playing games (or LARPs). Due to our double background as an organisation, on one side as experienced LARP producers and game designers, and on the other side working in learning as teacher trainers, we have during the past years worked on trying to merge the two fields of interest together. At GR Experiential Learning, we use simulations and role playing games within a wide variety of areas, democracy enhancing games, games on sexual and reproductive health, games on the European Union, Games on poverty etcetera. Although we often are seen in schools hosting games, at teacher training seminars and so on throughout Sweden, a clear focus of our work lies in developing new pedagogical LARP tools for the school system.

title: User:Perw


text:
User talk:Santiago~enwikiversity

The software is called MediaWIki. See this website. --JWS 14:04, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Santiago. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Santiago~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Santiago~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Mecimecimec

HI, I have changed this a little bit. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat,  wiki blog ) 16:34, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Mecimecimec, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 16:34, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mecimecimec


text:
User talk:Perw

Welcome
Hello Perw, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 16:38, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Perw


text:
Adolescence/Drinking and Driving

Picture this: a mother, father, and friends are weeping; community members shake their heads for the tragedy. Another young adult driver’s life has been taken by impaired driving. Traffic accidents continue to be the leading cause of death in the United States for young people and alcohol consumption before driving is a deadly contributor to these crashes. In a 2005 national survey of young people in the US conducted by the CDC, 1 in 10 respondents reported having driven after drinking within the last month. The consequences of teen drinking and driving are numerous and can include death and physical injury, participating in other risky behaviors, and financial loss and community loss.

According to Hingson (2003), alcohol was involved in 50% of fatal crashes and 20% of crashes resulting in serious injury. In 2005, 23% of drivers aged 15-20 years old who died in motor vehicle crashes (MVC’s) had a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.08% or above (CDC, 2008); in the majority of US states, this is above the legal limit to be driving. At a BAC of 0.08% the driver’s performance significantly decreases in areas such as glare recovery, complex visual tracking, parking, steering and braking. Even at as low a BAC as 0.02%, the driver experiences slowed reaction time and decision making processes. Each 0.02% increase in BAC doubles one’s likelihood of being in a fatal crash; that likelihood is even higher for drivers under the age of 21.

Added to the inherent danger of drinking and driving, one must consider other risky behaviors young people engage in while under the influence of alcohol. Teen drivers are much less likely to wear their seatbelts after having consumed alcohol, and are much more likely to speed. In fact, the CDC reports that in 2005, 74% of teen drivers killed in MVC’s were unrestrained and 38% were speeding. In addition to the threats mentioned above, one could experience financial loss. For all ages, the cost of alcohol related crashes in the US in 2005 was $51 billion (CDC, 2008). If a young driver, at the very least, gets in a fender bender as a result of drinking and driving, he will have repair costs to his vehicle. At the severe end of the spectrum, a driver might be responsible for his vehicle repair costs, the vehicle repair costs of another party, and medical bills for both parties. Legal repercussions could include a fine (if not a jail sentence), and one’s insurance rates are raised for crashes.

Finally, it must be remembered that teen drinking and driving is a community problem too. Teens that make the decision to drive after drinking are members of the community. Poor decisions will affect the community negatively. As such, the community must encourage teens to make safe decisions, such as choosing to stay in one place if they choose to consume alcohol. We must all help convince teens that the costs of drinking and driving are too heavy to bear.

title: Adolescence/Drinking and Driving


text:
Missouri Coalition for Quality Care (MCQC)

The Missouri Coalition for Quality Care (MCQC) is an organization working for the rights and protection of the elderly and the disabled. It offers many resources for people who care about someone living in a nursing home – or someone receiving in-home care – that feel frustrated or confused about long term care services.

Founded in 1987, MCQC now has a membership of over 700. Although the majority of the coalition members are Missourians, a portion of the members are from other states. They joined MCQC because of their concerns and interests in improving the quality of care and life for nursing home residents and recipients of in-home health care services.

MCQC maintains an informative website full of resources regarding long-term care issues. One particularly important part of their website is the page on “Elder Abuse and Neglect Hotline Calls.” The Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services (MDHSS) is required by law to maintain an Elder Abuse and Neglect Hotline, which can be reached toll-free at 1-800-392-0210. Any member of the general public can use this hotline. Anyone who has witnessed or suspects the abuse or neglect of an elderly or disabled individual is asked to report the incident to the State by using this hotline number. MDHSS employees will personally respond to the phone calls and are required to gather as much information about the abuse or neglect as possible from the caller. They will ask for the caller’s name; however, the choice to remain anonymous is acceptable. Phone calls are then evaluated and prioritized based upon their perceived severity. It is because of this hotline that many of the suspected abuse incidents in the state of Missouri have been investigated and resolved.

The MCQC website also includes information on classes of violations nursing homes may commit and federal fines that may be imposed. The following information includes these:

CLASS DEFINITIONS:

Class I: A violation which presents either an imminent danger to the health, safety or welfare of any resident or a substantial probability that death or serious physical harm would result. This is the most severe classification of State deficiencies. If an inspection results in any Class I violations, inspectors will revisit the facility within 20 days.

Class II: A violation which has a direct or immediate relationship to the health, safety or welfare of any resident, but which does not create any imminent danger. This is the intermediate classification of State deficiencies. If an inspection results in any Class II violations, but no Class I violation, inspectors will revisit the facility between 40 and 90 days.

Class III: A violation which has an indirect or a potential impact on the health, safety or welfare of any resident. This is the least severe classification of State deficiencies. If an inspection results in less than twenty Class III violations and no Class II or Class I violations, the facility is considered to be in substantial compliance and no revisits are required. These violations are not required to be corrected; therefore a correction date may not be displayed on the website. If an inspection results in twenty or more Class III violations and no Class II or Class I violations, inspectors will revisit the facility within 120 days.

Class I/II: This violation may be cited as a Class I or a Class II. It will be cited at the lower classification, Class II, unless there is sufficient evidence to support the more severe classification of Class I.

Class II/III: This violation may be cited as a Class II or a Class III. It will be cited at the lower classification, Class III, unless there is sufficient evidence to support the more severe classification of Class II.

FEDERAL FINES: The following is information related to fines that were imposed on Missouri Nursing Homes for violation of Federal health care standards. This information was obtained from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services under the provisions of the Freedom of Information Act.

Please note that the information provided covers Federal fiscal years 2005, 2006 and a portion of Federal fiscal year 2007. Unlike state fiscal years which run from July 1 through June 30, Federal fiscal years run from October 1 through September 30. Therefore, Federal fiscal year 2005 starts on October 1, 2004 and ends September 30, 2005. Federal fiscal year 2006 starts on October 1, 2005 and ends September 30, 2006. However, the information provided for Federal fiscal year 2007 starts October 1, 2006 and ends April 30, 2007, the date MCQC requested the information on Federal fines. Fiscal year 2007 will be updated in October 2007.

Also please note that Federal code numbers are listed under the caption “Deficient Practices.” More information regarding the specific nature of the codes can be obtained by going to the website http://www.cms.hhs.gov but it is difficult to navigate. The reader can look up the actual nursing home violations that caused the Federal fine in the nursing home violation section of the MCQC website, www.mcqc.com. Federal fines are imposed by recommendation of the state of Missouri upon the issuance of a notice of noncompliance. It needs to be mentioned that some Federal fines were imposed for violations that occurred prior to the implementation of the MCQC website section on nursing home violations and therefore may not be listed.

Missouri Coalition for Quality Care needs as many members as possible to bring about change. Click the website at the bottom of this page to visit the “Become a Member” page. There is a membership form to complete, available at the website, and there is also a lifetime membership fee. For joining MCQC, you will receive a membership card, a letter welcoming you as a member, the most recent MCQC newsletter and all future newsletters, the MCQC brochure, information on issues concerning eldercare and the disabled, and you will also be part of an important organization working for the rights and protection of the disabled and elderly.
 * All of MCQC’s resources are available at no charge on their website, http://mcqc.com/.

http://mcqc.com/articles/eldercarehotlinereport.htm http://mcqc.com/joinus.htm


text:
Adolescence/Physical activity

A negative health consequence of not engaging in adequate amounts of physical activity is obesity.

A study released from John Hopkins University explained that in 1996, when 3,345 adolescent’s body mass was measured via the BMI test, 28% of those adolescents were overweight.

The same test was administered to the same adolescents, five years later, and the incidence of overweight teens had nearly doubled to 51%.

What is sad is that there is no complexity to the concept of adequate physical activity for teenagers. If an adolescent engages in physical activity for approximately one hour, at least two times a week, they are protected from becoming overweight. As videogames become more prevalent, and the internet continues to revolutionize communication methods and the way we think as human beings, the rate of physical activity in teenagers will continue to decrease.

If an adolescent is overweight or obese now, there is a 36% chance of being overweight or obese as a young adult.

According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP), obesity costs our society $100 billion dollars annually but is also labeled as one of the easiest diseases to treat.

If teens today engaged in more physical activity, the number of overweight/obese teenagers would decrease significantly thus decreasing the prevalence of adult obesity in the future.

Why It Is Important
It is important in today’s society to continue to be physically active in order to maintain a healthy body. The Center for Disease Control states that in order to maintain a healthy body children and teenagers need an hour of physical activity/day, and several studies have found a positive association between the times spent viewing television and increased prevalence of obesity in children. However, the recommended hour of physical activity does not have to be all at one time. Doing smaller tasks throughout the day also count as physical activity; not exercise. To be more active in their lives’ teens need to find fun and easy ways to become more active: walk to school, ride a bike, play a sport, etc. The most important thing is to start developing healthy behaviors now that they can maintain throughout their lives.

Getting active is easier when smaller more realistic goals are made or when behaviors are supported by peers. So find a friend that has the same interest and get active! For more information on way to be more active and form healthy behaviors contact your local health department.

Teens today do not get enough exercise. The Center for Disease Control says that teens need at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity exercise daily. Unfortunately nearly 20% of teens in America today are considered to be clinically overweight or obese. Why is this? Teens today would rather spend time in front of a screen rather than getting much needed exercise. Health day news.com says that teens today have an average of 7 hours of “screen time” daily. This is compared to 1999 when teens spent about 3 hours a day of “screen time”. Screen time is considered any amount of time a person spends watching television, on a computer, or using any other kind of electronic media (video games).

Risks
Teens need more physical activity to avoid health problems in the future. Teens that are obese are extremely likely to become obese adults. This leads to many health problems such as: diabetes, cancers, and many cardiovascular diseases. Excessive time spent in front of a screen has its’ adverse effects. Research has shown that high levels of electronic media can lead to school problems, attention difficulties, sleep disorders, eating disorders, and obesity from a lack of physical activity. There are many other benefits to physical activity outside of the obvious obesity problems. Physical activity can help teens to: perform better in school, feel better about themselves, develop skills in sports, build strength and endurance, have more energy, sleep better, and physical activity is a wonderful to help deal with stress.

Taking Action
Teens, however, are not the only ones to blame. It is up to parents to do what they can to help their children become as healthy as they can. The CDC recommends that children have 2 hours or less of screen time per day. This means that parents must do what they can to make their child’s room electronic free, encourage alternative activities to screen time, and become active themselves.

One hour of daily exercise may seem like a lot, but it actually a lot easier to achieve than many believe. All 60 minutes do not need to be done at one time, but can be separated into several portions of the day. Sports are a great way to become active and develop other skills such as leadership and teamwork. However not everyone wants to play a sport because of time commitments or other various reasons. There are many other ways to get the amount of physical activity that you need. Some of the more simple ideas for daily activity include: take a walk, dance, walk the dog, ride a bike, take the stairs, play ball in the back yard, wash cars, do yard work, go swimming, take classes such as yoga or aerobics, weight lifting, go to the local park, or go in-line skating.

Is it Enough?
How do you know if your exercise is getting the job done? The “talk-sing” test is a great way to measure how intense the exercise is. If you can talk while exercising, then you’re doing great! If you are to breathless to talk, then you can slow it down a little bit. If you can sing during exercise, then you need to kick up the intensity! Before beginning any exercise program there are many important tips to remember. Consult a doctor if you are new to exercise. If you are new to exercise, don’t kill yourself on the first day. Start with ten minute intervals, and slowly work your way up to your desired time. To avoid injuries, make sure to stretch and warm up for at least ten minutes before performing any exercise. It is just as important to have ten minutes of cool down and stretching after exercise to avoid soreness the next day. Make sure to consume a lot of water, before, during, and after the workout to stay hydrated.

title: Adolescence/Physical activity


text:
Materials Science and Engineering/Derivations/Models of Micro and Nanoscale Processing/Kinetic Theory of Gases

Kinetic theory or kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to static repulsion between molecules, as was Isaac Newton's conjecture, but due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities. Kinetic theory is also known as kinetic-molecular theory or collision theory.

$$f(v) \frac{dC/dv}{C} = 4 \pi v^2 \left ( \frac{M}{2 \pi R T} \right )^{3/2} \exp \left ( \frac{-\frac{1}{2} M v^2}{RT} \right )$$

 * $$f(v)$$= fraction, $$dC/C$$, of the number of molecules between velocity $$v$$ and $$dv + v$$
 * $$M$$ = mass per mole
 * $$N_{av}$$ = Avogadro's number
 * $$R$$ = Gas constant
 * $$k_B$$ = Boltzman constant

The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions:

 * The gas consists of very small particles, each of which has a mass.
 * The number of molecules is large such that statistical treatment can be applied.
 * These molecules are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
 * The collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container holding them are perfectly elastic.
 * The interactions among molecules are negligible. They exert no forces on one another except during collisions.
 * The total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the container. This is equivalent to stating that the average distance separating the gas particles is relatively large compared to their size.
 * The molecules are perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
 * The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the temperature of the system.
 * Relativistic effects are negligible.
 * Quantum-mechanical effects are negligible. This means that the inter-particle distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength and the molecules can be treated as classical objects.
 * The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as comparable to the time between successive collisions.
 * The equations of motion of the molecules are time-reversible.

The Langmuir Equation
The Langmuir equation or Langmuir isotherm or Langmuir adsorption equation relates the coverage or adsorption of molecules on a solid surface to gas pressure or concentration of a medium above the solid surface at a fixed temperature. The equation was developed by Irving Langmuir in 1916.

$$\Phi = \frac{1}{2} C \bar v_x$$ $$\Phi = \frac{1}{2} C \left ( \frac{\int_0^{\infty} v_x f(v_x) dv_x}{\int_0^{\infty} f(v_x) dv_x} \right )$$ $$\Phi = \frac{1}{2} C \left ( \frac{2RT}{\pi M} \right )^{1/2}$$ $$\Phi = \frac{1}{4} c \bar v$$


text:
Health/Essays/Parental health

Much content from this page is copied from and, probably put there by our user. Some of this material may, in turn, be from other sources. Pending clearing up the copyright issue, this has been blanked. --Abd (discuss • contribs) 03:16, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Health/Essays/Parental health


text:
Stress (psychological)

Day-to-day life is full of stress; both on the personal and the professional fronts. Pressure of time often results in people reporting to their workplace with migraine attacks, body aches, mental strains, etc. Therefore, stress is a costly business affair that affects two aspects; the first is employee's health that directly affects the second which is the organization's profits. These affects happen because if the health does not allow the body to function normally, it will lead to increased absenteeism, late comings and short leaves in the organization. Furthermore, this directly affect the organization's growth and profit since employees are the main source of profit generation for an organization.

Many people are beginning to focus on changing unhealthy habits in order to achieve better lives. Diets are being modified and time is being made for exercise, but countless individuals are forgetting one key aspect of their life: their mental health. Americans are being overburdened with excessive workloads. The overwhelming amount people have on their plates coupled with the pressure to succeed causes an unhealthy amount of stress in the general population. While many see their stress as normal, a lot of the population's stress may be of an unhealthy nature that can lead to great physical and mental difficulties down the road. America must become familiar with this threat and take measures to reduce it before we ‘work ourselves to death’.

What is Stress?
The first definition for stress was created in 1936 by Hans Selye. He stated that stress is ”the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change (Institute of Stress)." Selye’s definition allows others to understand that stress is not merely a reaction to something bad, but a reaction to a change in situation. This definition lacks an explanation to what kind of response the body has. Stress is not only a change in a body response but more specifically a "physical, mental, or emotional strain or tension (Institute of Stress)." In order for stress to form, whether it is from a good or bad situation, there must be a stressor causing tension to appear.

What are some signs I am too stressed out?
Stress has long been considered a bad thing by most people. This is perhaps due to the undesirable side-effects that occur when in a stressful situation. Stress can be a motivating factor until it reaches a particular threshold. Increased stress has been shown to increase productivity up to a certain point (Institute of Stress). Past this point, stress decreases productivity drastically, by triggering exhaustion and even sickness (Institute of Stress). Since many people’s stress has surpassed this threshold, nearly 1 million workers are absent each day. This number tripled from 1996 to 2000 (Institute of Stress).

In order for people to better understand whether or not they have too much stress in their lives, they must be able to identify the signs and symptoms of unhealthy stress levels. Some symptoms of stress include (Institute of Stress):

What are the physical effects of stress?
Unhealthy amounts of stress can have detrimental long term effects on the human body. Stress initiates a release of cortisol, norepinephrine, and serotonin (Stress and Cardiovascular disease & Stress on the Brain). Normal stress levels allow the body to recuperate following a stressful situation and to re-balance hormone levels. On the other hand, chronic stress causes an imbalance of these hormones with excess in some areas of the body and deficiencies in others (Stress and Cardiovascular disease). For example, chronic stress causes a surplus of cortisol in the brain. This can lead to damage of neurons and loss of short term memory. In addition, the sympathetic activity, which stress instigates, leads to a suppression of the immune system which may worsen allergies and lead to greater susceptibility to illnesses (Stress and Cardiovascular disease).

Another major concern chronic stress creates within the medical community is its effects on a persons’ heart health. Stress not only increases a persons' chances of participating in unhealthy activities (eating unhealthily, not exercising due to work load, drinking alcohol, and smoking), it also triggers physiological responses which predisposes a person to heart disease. Chronic stress increases both blood pressure and risk of atherosclerosis (Stress and Cardiovascular disease). Both factors can inevitably lead to heart disease. In addition to heart disease, stress may lead to obesity and diabetes which are both linked to cardiovascular disease in several ways.

Other illnesses which stress has been shown to increase the chances of include migraines, ulcers, asthma, infertility, and irritable bowel syndrome. Nearly “75-90% of all doctors visits are due to stress-related ailments (Stress and Cardiovascular disease).” On top of the physical symptoms associated with stress, mental illnesses, such as depression, form as side effects. When the mind cannot keep up with the body, there can be psychological symptoms of distress. Stress shows an important impact on today's society. With the physical and psychological ailments caused by stress, a decreased workload can be able to increase quality of life for American citizens.

title: Stress (psychological)


text:
User talk:GerardM

Welcome
Hello GerardM, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Countrymike 21:09, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Gerard, noting your interest in plants I thought I should alert you of one of WVs more interesting projects, the Bloom Clock project. Countrymike 21:12, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:GerardM


text:
User talk:Shawnlawyer

Welcome
Hello Shawnlawyer, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Countrymike 21:13, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

ping, Erkan Yilmaz ( Wikiversity:Chat, wiki blog ) 16:36, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shawnlawyer


text:
Water fluoridation

Introduction
The fluoridation of city water supplies has been named one of the ten great public health achievements in the 20th century according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Additionally, the American Dental Association states that “community water fluoridation is the single most effective public health measure to prevent tooth decay" (ADA, 1). Fluoride has dramatically changed the oral health of millions of people since it was first introduced into the public water supply of towns and cities across the United States in 1945.  Grand Rapids, Michigan was the first to start this revolution of putting fluoride into public drinking water. This is a very important issue and citizens should not wait to fluoridate their drinking water.

Common Misconceptions
If water fluoridation is so momentous, why does only 67% of the United States population have access to fluoridated water (CDC)? In order to explain this, it is important to explore the many misconceptions about fluoridation.

Misconception #1: Water fluoridation is merely the government’s way to medicate citizens without their permission or knowledge.

Water fluoridation is actually a safe, effective, and inexpensive way to protect the teeth of all residents in a community. Unlike many medical treatments or preventive methods, everyone (men, women, children and adults alike) will have access to the protective benefits that fluoride has to offer, with no regard to socio-economic status. Fluoridated water has been proven to protect teeth from decay or even reverse the decay process.

Misconception #2: Water fluoridation is too expensive and has little cost benefit.

Water fluoridation has been calculated by the CDC to save up to $38 in dental treatment for every $1 invested in fluoridation. Furthermore, a study completed by the CDC in 2000 states that average per person savings ranged from $15.95 in very small communities to $18.62 in large communities. It was shown that even in worst case scenarios with high levels of treatment expenses, fluoridation was still cost-effective. In fact, it is estimated that fluoridation costs merely $0.50 per person in communities >20,000 and only $3 per person in communities <5,000. Even in the smallest communities, this amounts to less than a penny a day per person, or less than a nickel a day for an average family of four!

Misconception #3: Water fluoridation causes dental fluorosis, which actually weakens the teeth.

It has been shown that communities with highly naturally fluoridated water have seen high numbers of children with dental fluorosis. Dental fluorosis only occurs during tooth formation and becomes apparent when teeth come in. It can range from symmetrical whitish areas on the teeth (very mild) to brownish discoloration with pitting of the enamel (very severe). Though dental fluorosis certainly isn’t cosmetically pleasing, it has been shown that this does not affect the teeth strength, function, or promote adverse dental health effects. Mild cases of dental fluorosis have typically been seen in communities with more than 1ppm of fluoride in the water. Typical levels in fluoridated water range from 0.7 – 1.2ppm.

Misconception #4: Water fluoridation can cause cancer, decreased IQ, decreased bone strength, impaired immune system, impair thyroid function and many other ailments.

The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization have not found any reason to believe that water fluoridation causes cancer, decreased IQ, decreased bone strength, impaired immune system, or impaired thyroid function. To the contrary, some studies have shown that fluoridation actually increases bone strength, though more studies are required to make a full statement regarding fluoride’s impact on bone density. Furthermore, many studies performed on mice and human subjects have shown no significant difference in cancer incidence between those with access to fluoridated water and those without.

What is fluoride?
“Fluoride is a naturally occurring compound that can help prevent dental decay” (ADA, 10). Fluoride is an ion that comes from the element fluorine. Fluorine is a very abundant element and is found on the earth’s crust as the ion fluoride. Fluoridation of public drinking water is simply adjusting the amount of fluoride that naturally occurs in the water; for some this may mean adding fluoride and for others this is may mean decreasing the amount of fluoride. “The optimal fluoride level recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service is 0.7-1.2 parts per million for the prevention of tooth decay” (ADA, 1). As of 2002, over two-thirds of the United States population have fluoride in their public water supply. Public water supply fluoridation is a very safe and effective practice to prevent tooth decay. “Today, studies prove water fluoridation continues to be effective in reducing tooth decay by 20-40%, even in an era with widespread availability of fluoride from other sources, such as fluoride toothpaste” (ADA, 1).

Systemically VS Topically
Fluoride helps protect teeth from decay in two ways, systemically and topically. Systemically, fluoride is ingested into the body and the fluoride becomes incorporated with the tooth structure making it stronger. When fluoride is systemically ingested, such as drinking a glass of water with fluoridated water regularly, the fluoride incorporates into the teeth better than if it were applied topically, such as fluoride in the toothpaste. Systemically, fluoride is also present in saliva, which bathes the teeth throughout the day, again allowing the teeth to become stronger, and this further prevents tooth decay.(ADA, 10)

Economic Effectiveness
Water fluoridation is also very cost effective for small towns. It will cost approximately $3.00 per year per person to fluoridate the water. Furthermore, for every $1 spent on water fluoridation, $38 in dental treatments is saved (ADA, 1). It has been proved from data collected that the average lifetime cost per person to add fluoride to the drinking water is less than the cost of treating one dental filling (ADA, 56). To put it into economic terms, is it better for a person to pay $3.00 a year to have fluoridate their public water supply, which helps support healthy teeth without decay or is it better for a person to brush their teeth, hoping the fluoridated toothpaste will be sufficient to prevent tooth decay? Each person has to weigh the costs individually, but from the facts it seems evident that every public water supply should be fluoridated.It is quite a rare occurrence to find a public health initiative that is not only accessible by all people, but also inexpensive and cost-effective. Water fluoridation is needed in communities around the United States to protect the dental health of all people.

For more information regarding water fluoridation, please visit these websites:

http://www.cdc.gov

http://www.who.int

http://www.ada.org

Authors: Whitney Johnson, CHES and Nancy Johnson, CHES

Date: February 1, 2008

References:

(2007). Water Fluoridation. Retrieved January 16, 2008, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/.

American Dental Association. Fluoridation Facts. Chicago, IL: American Dental Association, 2005. Retrieved February 07, 2008 from the American Dental Association.

title: Water fluoridation


text:
User:Jesbela

Introduction
Welcome to my userpage! Right now I'm just getting started with using wikis, so bear with me. I'm currently learning how to edit pages and am using my user page as a practice tool.

I am:
 * a 24 year old white woman
 * working in the social services/disAbility supports field
 * working towards a b of a (woman's studies) degree
 * prone to sleeping in and staying up late
 * a Wiccan, have been for seven years now
 * the proud friend of a cat (Karma)

title: User:Jesbela


text:
Talk:Wireless networks

what is wireless networks and how can we configure it

title: Talk:Wireless networks


text:
Primary health care

PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Milestones of PHC: •	The 30TH World Health Assembly Comes with new philosophies: •	Social justice and equity are essential for health •	Recognition of the role of community participation •	The relation between health and development (health is essential for development and development is essential for health) •	The importance of the political will The ideas concluded in the international objective of Health for All (HFA) Definition of HFA: Attainment by all peoples of the highest level of health that permit them to lead socially and economically productive life Alma-Ata Conference (1978) proclaimed PHC as way to achieving HFA

DEFINITION of PHC •	ESSENTIAL HEALTH CARE •	BASED ON SCIENTIFICALLY METHODS, •	ACCESSIBLE TO INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES THROUGH THEIR FULL PARTICIPATION

PRINCIPLES •	Equity •	Accessibility •	Appropriate Technology •	Community Participation •	Intersectoral Collaboration Essential COMPONENTS of PHC 1.	Health Education 2.	Mother and Child Health 3.	Nutrition 4.	Expanded Program of Immunization 5.	5. Safe water and Sanitation 6.	Control of Endemic Diseases 7.	Treatment of Endemic Diseases 8.	 Provision of Essential Drugs Supportive (secondary) elements of PHC •	Mental Health •	Occupational Health •	School Health •	Reproductive Health •	Adolescent Health etc Concepts of health care •	Provision of services by health personnel. It includes: o	Prevention o	Diagnosis o	Treatment o	Rehabilitation

Levels of health care •	Primary Health Care (the 1st level of contact between individual and the health system – curative and preventive) •	Secondary Health Care (essentially curative services) •	Tertiary Health Care (super-specialist care) Health Education Definition: PROMOTION OF HEALTHY BEHAVIOUR Components of H.E.: 1.	Sender 2.	Message 3.	Channel 4.	Receiver

Characteristics of sender •	Good skills of communication •	Professional ability •	Clear objectives

Communication Skills •	Listening •	Conversation •	Feeling •	Reading non-verbal communication •	Appraising •	Gaining friends Message Characteristics of message: 1.	In line with the objective 2.	Specific 3.	Based on felt needs 4.	Clear and understandable 5.	Fitting the receiver 6.	Culturally accepted Types/Channels of H.E 1. Direct: •	Individual •	Groups 2. Indirect: •	Posters •	Pamphlets •	Stickers •	Telecommunication Receiver: Characteristics of the receiver: •	Interested •	Motivated OBJECTIVE OF H.E: •	Assesses in changing unhealthy behaviour to healthy behaviour

TOOLS OF CHANGING BEHAVIOUR •	Education (health education) •	Economics •	Engineering •	Enforcement

PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION 1.	Simple language 2.	Interest 3.	Motivation 4.	Participation 5.	Learning by doing 6.	Examples MOTHER AND CHILD HEALTH MOTHER'S HEALTH PREMARRIGE CARE: •	CLINICAL EXAMINATION •	LABORATORY INVESTIGATION •	COUNCELLING (including sexual health) •	IMMUNIZATION (TT)

CAUSES OF MATERNAL MORTALITY: •	BLEEDINGS •	ECLAMPSIA •	ANAEMIA •	INFECTIONS

ROUTINE CARE DURING PREGNANCY: 1.	Proper history taking and clinical examination 2.	Health education for pregnant women nutritional health education, personal hygiene and sanitation avoiding tobacco, alcohol and non-prescribed drugs, explaining minor complications of pregnancy and childbirth, avoidance of occupational hazards etc 3.	Treat coexisting disorders and control chronic diseases 4.	Regular check of weight 5.	Regular check for BP 6.	Regular check for swellings

INTRANATAL CARE •	Clean •	Identification of childbirth complications •	Availability of referral system •	Availability of OEC unit

POSTNATAL CARE •	Checking for infections •	Health education (encouraging breast feeding, nutrition, FP etc) •	Good parenting •	Vaccination •	Rh immune globulin when indicated FAMILY PLANNING

PSYCHOSOCIAL AND LEGAL ISSUES •	COUNCELING AND VOLUNTARISM •	REVERSIBILITY OF TUBAL LIGATION AND VASECTOMY CAN NEVER BE ASSURED

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTIVES:

LACTATION Advantages: •	Encourage infant nutrition •	Safe and available

Disadvantages: •	High individual failure rates

ABSTINENCE FROM SEX Advantages: •	Accessible, safe and reversible •	Acceptable to most religious groups

Disadvantages: •	Requires strong motivation

SPERMICIDES •	Advantages: •	Available without prescription •	Generally safe •	Effective when combined with other methods

ADVANTAGES: •	Safe and •	no chemicals Disadvantages: •	Requires motivation and education

OTHER NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS •	Dry sex, •	calendar, •	temperature, and •	Cervical mucus analyses Advantages: •	Safe and accessible •	Acceptable to most religious groups Disadvantages: •	Requires education and desire •	High failure rates

COITUS INTERRUPTUS Advantages: •	Safe and available Disadvantages: Requires great control Ineffective for pre-ejaculate sperm

BARRIERS Sponge, cervical cap, diaphragm, male and female condoms Advantages: •	Provide protection against STDs •	Effective when combined with other methods Disadvantages: •	Require education and cooperation •	Not acceptable by some cultures •	Minimal risk of toxic shock

INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD) Advantages: •	Gives protection for years •	Effective Disadvantages: •	Perforation, infections, infertility (Avoid using this method to primigravidae) •	Heavier menstrual flow •	Cost COMBINED Pills (ESTROGEN-PROGESTIN) Advantages: •	Highly effective •	Not coitally related •	Generally safe and reversible •	Protect against anaemia, dysmenorrhea, ovarian cysts and endometrial cancers •	Possibly protective against breast and ovarian cancers Disadvantages of pills: •	Major side effects (increase risk of cardiovascular diseases •	Minor side effects (migraines, bleedings, phlebitis, nausea) •	Needs regular prescription and use

PROGESTIN-ONLY (Minipills, injections and implants) Advantages: •	Effective •	It does not affect lactation Disadvantages: •	Irregular cycle

VASECTOMY Advantages •	Highly effective •	Easy to perform Disadvantages:

•	Surgical complications •	Not accepted in many cultures

TUBAL LIGATION

Advantages: •	Highly effective •	Usually permanent

Disadvantages: •	Surgical risks •	Cost •	Rare re-canalization and ectopic pregnancies

Community Providers of MCH/FP: 1.	Traditional Birth Attendant (TBA) 2.	Trained TBA 3.	Village Midwife 4.	Health Visitors Child health

MAIN CHILD HEALTH PROBLEMS IN SUDAN: 1.	Malnutrition 2.	Infectious diseases 3.	Accidents 4.	Behavioural problems

Preventive measures 1.	Immunization 2.	Growth monitoring 3.	Health education 4.	Supplementation with vit. A

1. Immunization 1.	At Birth	BCG, Polio 2.	6 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 3.	10 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 4.	14 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 5.	9 month	Measles

2. Growth monitoring •	Monitoring by growth charts (road-to-health) for U5 children •	It is weight for age chart Interpretation: •	Wt increasing = appraise the mother •	No increase in wt = ask to increase the food/breast-feeding •	Over/under wt = check for disorders 3. Health Education

4. Supplementation with vit. A (Single massive dose of 200 000 IU every 6 moth for children 1- 6 years - Half the dose for infants)

NUTRITION Common Nutritional Problems in Sudan 1.	PEM 2.	Nutritional anaemia 3.	Vit. A deficiency 4.	Iodine deficiency

Prevention of malnutrition is a comprehensive program of social development of the entire country

Role of primary health care in improving nutritional status •	Health Education •	Nutritional surveillance •	Nutritional rehabilitation •	Nutrition supplementation

Types of routine immunizations in Sudan: Polio and BCG at birth Polio, DPT, HBV (6, 10, 14 weeks) Measles (9 month) Tetanus Toxoid (TT) for pregnant women TT Early in pregnancy TT-1 One month after TT-1 – TT-2 Total 5 doses Interval between 2 doses should not be less than one month Avoid TT 2 weeks before delivery

SANITATION AND SAFE WATER

Safe Water •	Basic requirements •	Free from pathogenic agents •	Pleasant to the taste (free from color and odour) •	Usable for domestic purposes

Biological (Water-borne diseases) Caused directly by the presence of an infective agent: •	Viral (viral hepatitis A and E, polio etc) •	Bacterial (GE) •	Protozoal (amoebiasis, giardiasis) •	Helmenthic (roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease etc) •	etc

Risks of inadequate water: •	Trachoma •	Scabies

Waterborne diseases caused by the presence of an aquatic host •	Malaria, filarial, Onchocerciasis, African Trypanosomiasis •	Snails (Schistosomiasis, Guinea worms)

Chemical Hazards •	High level of fluoride cause mottling of the dental enamel, low concentrations may cause dental carrier. •	High nitrate (used in fertilizers) levels content of water cause methaemoglobinaemia. •	Hardness of water is a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. It is always caused by high concentrations of calcium and magnesium •	Low concentration of iodine (simple goiter). •	Cyanides, ammonia and other toxic solvents and metals. •	Carcinogenic chemicals.

Physical Hazards (Radiation)

Water requirement •	For drinking water: 2 liters per day per head. •	For domestic use 150-200 liters per day per head •	Purification of water on large scale

Safe storage of water at large scale: •	Filtration •	Disinfection

Purification of water on small scale (at home) Household purification: •	Boiling (5-10 minute) •	Filtration (by small filters, Zeer) •	Chlorine tabs 0.5g is sufficient to disinfect 20 liters of water. --

EXCRETA Health hazards of improper excreta disposal •	Water pollution •	Soil pollution •	Contamination of food •	Propagation of flies

Measures to prevent faecal-borne infections •	Proper disposing of faeces •	Prevention of water supply •	Protection of food •	Personal hygiene •	Control of flies

Types of proper excreta disposal •	Ventilated Improved pit-latrines •	Septic tank •	Sewage

Solid wastes Components of solid wastes: •	Garbage (food waste) •	Rubbish (paper, plastics wood, metal, throw-away containers, glass etc Destruction products (bricks, pipes etc) •	Sewage treatment residue •	Dead animals Hazards of accumulated solid wastes •	Flies breading •	It attracts rodents and vermin •	Possible water and soil pollution •	Unpleasant appearance •	May infect food through dust Methods of disposal •	Dumping •	Burning •	Recycling

PEVENTION AND CONTROL OF ENDEMIC DISEASES

PREVENTION •	Primary Level (before) •	Secondary (early diagnosis and treatment) •	Tertiary (rehabilitation) CONTROL OF ENDEMIC DISEASES •	Ongoing operations aimed at reducing: o	Incidence of disease o	Duration of disease o	Risk of transmission o	Complication of diseases o	Financial burden Roll Back

Measurable Control

Eradication Elimination (eradication) of the agent --

TREATMENT OF ENDEMIC DISEASES

Guidelines of proper treatment of endemic disease at the PHC canters: •	Find the most common diseases •	Determine the simplest, cheapest and most effective routine for treating these diseases •	Train auxiliaries (paramedical) •	Provide the relevant equipments, drugs etc •	Trace the queues. What are the causes of delay? •	Large number of patients need management by exception •	Ensure communication and referral means ESSENTIAL DRUGS Definition Drugs which are used in treatment of 90% of diseases within a specific community The Problem: •	Countless drugs on use •	Most of used drugs are nonessential •	Inefficient drug supply systems, •	irrational use of drugs •	and lack of objective drug information. Criteria of Essential Drugs •	according to the need •	safe •	efficacy, •	good quality •	acceptable price The National List of Essential Drugs •	In 1977 the WHO compiled a model list of essential drugs. •	The model had 220 drugs, vaccines and diagnostic agents •	In Sudan a comprehensive national drug policy was formulated. •	The list have been subdivided according to the level of use: o	Nurses - list AA, o	Medical assistants at the level of dispensaries and health centers (list A) o	Medical officers (list B), o	list C for hospitals (specialist) o	List (S) for specialized units and centers. Advantages of Essential Drugs 1.	The prescriber makes better use of a smaller number of drugs by knowing thoroughly their indications, contraindications, side effects, dose etc 2.	Training and supervision 3.	quality control, 4.	drug management is easier, 5.	Less costly and more efficient. 6.	Improve national manufacturing of drugs

title: Primary health care


text:
User:Dr. Musa

Abdelmageed Osman Musa Personal information: •	Date of birth: 		17 May 1949 •	Place of Birth: 		Sudan - Wad Medani •	Nationality			Sudanese •	Marital status:		Married – Only one sun (Dentist) •	Languages			Arabic – English - Romanian Current address: •	Sudan •	Khartoum:	Amarat - St. 37 Block 10/11 •	P.O. Box:	8350 •	Mob:		0912288231 •	E-mail:	majeed_osm@yahoo.com Qualification: •	Medical Bachelor & Bachelor of Surgery - MBBS – Faculty of Medicine Craiova – Romania •	Mastership in Community Medicine (1992) – University of Khartoum Experiences: o	1982- 1987: Medical Practitioner – FMoH o	1987– 1992 (Postgraduate Studies – Univ. of Khartoum) o	1992-1995 (Head Dept. MCH /State Ministry of Health - Khartoum ) o	1995-2001(Assist. Prof. University of Shendi) o	2006 – Associate Prof. Int. Univ. of Africa (IUA) o	Head department – Community Medicine - (IUA) Training Courses: •	PHC – University of Gezira 1985 (4 weeks) •	Medical Education – Gezira Univ. – IUA Univ. (8 weeks) •	Reproductive Health - American University – Cairo – 2002 (3 weeks) •	IMCI – FMoH – 2002 + Training Workshop – WHO – Cairo 2006 (3 weeks) Others: o	UNV – Papua New Guinea (1997 – 1998) o	National Project director of Shendi Reproductive Health Project (UNFPA) 1998 - 2000 Now (Oct. 2008 UNV Health and Hyiegene Specialist - Yemen UNDP Sana'a Office -- Email: majeed_osm@yahoo.com

title: User:Dr. Musa


text:
Elderly and Activity

Older adults are the least physically active population in the United States. Data from the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention confirm that roughly 35% of adults 65-75 years old and 46% of adults older than 75 years are inactive or sedentary. About 40%-45% of adults are not active enough, and only 20%-25% of older adults are moderately active (HealthyAging).

It is never too late to get active. Often time’s people are under the impression that getting active requires going to a local fitness center and working up a sweat. You don’t have to join a gym to get healthy! While this is an option that does prove to be beneficial, it is not the only way that older adults can exercise to increase their quality of life (HealthyAging).

Physical activity directly influences the risk of chronic illness, loss of function, dependence, and death. It reduces high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, injury to falls, and stroke. Additionally, inactive adults increase their likelihood of bone loss and injury from falls, as well as their risk of developing diseases associated with aging, such as heart disease and colon cancer (HealthyAging and AHA). Other than preventing health conditions, staying active is an opportunity to maintain the following (Presidents Challenge):

Sense of Well Being: improve self-esteem, reduce stress, decrease anxiety and depression

Social Life: Exercising can be a social event, a way to make friends, a new hobby

According to the American Heart Association, physical activity doesn’t have to be strenuous to bring health benefits. Regular fitness routine is what is most important. Nearly 40% of people over the age of 55 partake in no leisure time physical activity (AHA). The American College of Sports Medicine and other government agencies recommend that adults should incorporate 30-45 minutes of moderate physical activity into their day. If 30-45 minutes of activity is too long, multiple bouts as short as 10 minutes each are sufficient alternatives (AGS).

Moderate intensity activities include walking, gardening, housework, dancing, chair aerobics, and water aerobics. Participating in games, such as golf, bowling, and table tennis are also suggested for the older population (AHA). Activities that incorporate endurance, strength, balance, and flexibility exercises help older adults gain the most health benefits (NIH).

Endurance: walking, aerobics

Strength: free weights

Balance: tai chi, separate balance training (i.e. standing on one foot), tandem walk exercises (walking by putting one foot in front of the other)

Flexibility: stretching

An increasing number of elderly people will be living below “thresholds of physical ability”. In this condition, a minor illness could make them completely dependent on others for their daily care (AHA). Healthy People 2010 recommend that inactive people should talk to their healthcare provider before increasing their physical activity (HP2010). Being able to walk up a flight of stairs, carry groceries into the house, and get the mail, are reasons to get moving and stay moving! An active lifestyle increases the longevity of remaining independent and prolonging the quality years of life.

Getting Started
Although it may seem difficult at first to introduce physical activity into your daily life, it may prove to be easier by following these tips from the National Institute on Aging:

1. Don't do too much, too quickly. 2. Remember to breathe during stretching exercises. 3. Use proper equipment and form with your respective activity. 4. If you're thirsty, you're already dehydrated, so remember to drink plenty of water. 5. Remember to warm-up prior to any physical activity.

The Clay County Public Health Center, which is located in Liberty, MO, offers the PEPPI exercise program to older adults interested in increasing strength and flexibility in a group setting. PEPPI is an acronym for Peer Exercise Program Promotes Independence and has proven effective in other states. Peer exercise groups primarily meet at nursing homes, but the program is open to any group of individuals wanting a fun way to exercise with their friends.

The program utilizes exercise bands for low-impact strength training. All participants are given the resistance band and a book depicting the exercises. At the initial meeting, participants are measured for flexibility, balance, and endurance. These measurements are recorded again after six months have passed to track progress and evaluate the program. Sustainability is the goal, but many participants exhibit improved range of motion and endurance. Other benefits include increased social contact and independence and reduced injury. If you live in Clay County and would like more information about this program, please contact the Clay County Public Health Center at (816) 595-4200. For further information:

Healthy Aging: http://www.healthyaing.com

Just Move: http://www.justmove.org

Fifty-Plus Fitness Association: http://www.50plus.org

Shape Up America!: http://www.shapeup.org

Centers of Disease Control:  http://www.cdc.gov/page.do

Prevention Research Center, University of South Carolina School of Public Health:  http://prevention.sph.sc.edu

Active Aging Partnership:  http://www.agingblueprint.org

International Council on Active Aging:  http://www.icaa.cc

title: Elderly and Activity


text:
Community medicine/Session 3

PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Milestones of PHC: •      The 30TH World Health Assembly Comes with new philosophies: •	Social justice and equity are essential for health •	Recognition of the role of community participation •	The relation between health and development (health is essential for development and development is essential for health) •	The importance of the political will The ideas concluded in the international objective of Health for All (HFA) Definition of HFA: Attainment by all peoples of the highest level of health that permit them to lead socially and economically productive life Alma-Ata Conference (1978) proclaimed PHC as way to achieving HFA

DEFINITION of PHC •	ESSENTIAL HEALTH CARE •	BASED ON SCIENTIFICALLY METHODS, •	ACCESSIBLE TO INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES THROUGH THEIR FULL PARTICIPATION

PRINCIPLES •	Equity •	Accessibility •	Appropriate Technology •	Community Participation •	Intersectoral Collaboration Essential COMPONENTS of PHC 1.	Health Education 2.	Mother and Child Health 3.	Nutrition 4.	Expanded Program of Immunization 5.	5. Safe water and Sanitation 6.	Control of Endemic Diseases 7.	Treatment of Endemic Diseases 8.	 Provision of Essential Drugs Supportive (secondary) elements of PHC •	Mental Health •	Occupational Health •	School Health •	Reproductive Health •	Adolescent Health etc Concepts of health care •	Provision of services by health personnel. It includes: o	Prevention o	Diagnosis o	Treatment o	Rehabilitation

Levels of health care •	Primary Health Care (the 1st level of contact between individual and the health system – curative and preventive) •	Secondary Health Care (essentially curative services) •	Tertiary Health Care (super-specialist care) Health Education Definition: PROMOTION OF HEALTHY BEHAVIOUR Components of H.E.: 1.	Sender 2.	Message 3.	Channel 4.	Receiver

Characteristics of sender •	Good skills of communication •	Professional ability •	Clear objectives

Communication Skills •	Listening •	Conversation •	Feeling •	Reading non-verbal communication •	Appraising •	Gaining friends Message Characteristics of message: 1.	In line with the objective 2.	Specific 3.	Based on felt needs 4.	Clear and understandable 5.	Fitting the receiver 6.	Culturally accepted Types/Channels of H.E 1. Direct: •	Individual •	Groups 2. Indirect: •	Posters •	Pamphlets •	Stickers •	Telecommunication Receiver: Characteristics of the receiver: •	Interested •	Motivated OBJECTIVE OF H.E: •	Assesses in changing unhealthy behaviour to healthy behaviour

TOOLS OF CHANGING BEHAVIOUR •	Education (health education) •	Economics •	Engineering •	Enforcement

PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION 1.	Simple language 2.	Interest 3.	Motivation 4.	Participation 5.	Learning by doing 6.	Examples MOTHER AND CHILD HEALTH MOTHER'S HEALTH PREMARRIGE CARE: •	CLINICAL EXAMINATION •	LABORATORY INVESTIGATION •	COUNCELLING (including sexual health) •	IMMUNIZATION (TT)

CAUSES OF MATERNAL MORTALITY: •	BLEEDINGS •	ECLAMPSIA •	ANAEMIA •	INFECTIONS

ROUTINE CARE DURING PREGNANCY: 1.	Proper history taking and clinical examination 2.	Health education for pregnant women nutritional health education, personal hygiene and sanitation avoiding tobacco, alcohol and non-prescribed drugs, explaining minor complications of pregnancy and childbirth, avoidance of occupational hazards etc 3.	Treat coexisting disorders and control chronic diseases 4.	Regular check of weight 5.	Regular check for BP 6.	Regular check for swellings

INTRANATAL CARE •	Clean •	Identification of childbirth complications •	Availability of referral system •	Availability of OEC unit

POSTNATAL CARE •	Checking for infections •	Health education (encouraging breast feeding, nutrition, FP etc) •	Good parenting •	Vaccination •	Rh immune globulin when indicated FAMILY PLANNING

PSYCHOSOCIAL AND LEGAL ISSUES •	COUNCELING AND VOLUNTARISM •	REVERSIBILITY OF TUBAL LIGATION AND VASECTOMY CAN NEVER BE ASSURED

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTIVES:

LACTATION Advantages: •	Encourage infant nutrition •	Safe and available

Disadvantages: •	High individual failure rates

ABSTINENCE FROM SEX Advantages: •	Accessible, safe and reversible •	Acceptable to most religious groups

Disadvantages: •	Requires strong motivation

SPERMICIDES •	Advantages: •	Available without prescription •	Generally safe •	Effective when combined with other methods

ADVANTAGES: •	Safe and •	no chemicals Disadvantages: •	Requires motivation and education

OTHER NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS •	Dry sex, •	calendar, •	temperature, and •	Cervical mucus analyses Advantages: •	Safe and accessible •	Acceptable to most religious groups Disadvantages: •	Requires education and desire •	High failure rates

COITUS INTERRUPTUS Advantages: •	Safe and available Disadvantages: Requires great control Ineffective for pre-ejaculate sperm

BARRIERS Sponge, cervical cap, diaphragm, male and female condoms Advantages: •	Provide protection against STDs •	Effective when combined with other methods Disadvantages: •	Require education and cooperation •	Not acceptable by some cultures •	Minimal risk of toxic shock

INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD) Advantages: •	Gives protection for years •	Effective Disadvantages: •	Perforation, infections, infertility (Avoid using this method to primigravidae) •	Heavier menstrual flow •	Cost COMBINED Pills (ESTROGEN-PROGESTIN) Advantages: •	Highly effective •	Not coitally related •	Generally safe and reversible •	Protect against anaemia, dysmenorrhea, ovarian cysts and endometrial cancers •	Possibly protective against breast and ovarian cancers Disadvantages of pills: •	Major side effects (increase risk of cardiovascular diseases •	Minor side effects (migraines, bleedings, phlebitis, nausea) •	Needs regular prescription and use

PROGESTIN-ONLY (Minipills, injections and implants) Advantages: •	Effective •	It does not affect lactation Disadvantages: •	Irregular cycle

VASECTOMY Advantages •	Highly effective •	Easy to perform Disadvantages:

•	Surgical complications •	Not accepted in many cultures

TUBAL LIGATION

Advantages: •	Highly effective •	Usually permanent

Disadvantages: •	Surgical risks •	Cost •	Rare re-canalization and ectopic pregnancies

Community Providers of MCH/FP: 1.	Traditional Birth Attendant (TBA) 2.	Trained TBA 3.	Village Midwife 4.	Health Visitors Child health

MAIN CHILD HEALTH PROBLEMS IN SUDAN: 1.	Malnutrition 2.	Infectious diseases 3.	Accidents 4.	Behavioural problems

Preventive measures 1.	Immunization 2.	Growth monitoring 3.	Health education 4.	Supplementation with vit. A

1. Immunization 1.	At Birth	BCG, Polio 2.	6 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 3.	10 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 4.	14 weeks	DPT, Polio, Hepatitis 5.	9 month	Measles

2. Growth monitoring •	Monitoring by growth charts (road-to-health) for U5 children •	It is weight for age chart Interpretation: •	Wt increasing = appraise the mother •	No increase in wt = ask to increase the food/breast-feeding •	Over/under wt = check for disorders 3. Health Education

4. Supplementation with vit. A (Single massive dose of 200 000 IU every 6 moth for children 1- 6 years - Half the dose for infants)

NUTRITION Common Nutritional Problems in Sudan 1.	PEM 2.	Nutritional anaemia 3.	Vit. A deficiency 4.	Iodine deficiency

Prevention of malnutrition is a comprehensive program of social development of the entire country

Role of primary health care in improving nutritional status •	Health Education •	Nutritional surveillance •	Nutritional rehabilitation •	Nutrition supplementation

Types of routine immunizations in Sudan: Polio and BCG at birth Polio, DPT, HBV (6, 10, 14 weeks) Measles (9 month) Tetanus Toxoid (TT) for pregnant women TT Early in pregnancy TT-1 One month after TT-1 – TT-2 Total 5 doses Interval between 2 doses should not be less than one month Avoid TT 2 weeks before delivery

SANITATION AND SAFE WATER

Safe Water •	Basic requirements •	Free from pathogenic agents •	Pleasant to the taste (free from color and odour) •	Usable for domestic purposes

Biological (Water-borne diseases) Caused directly by the presence of an infective agent: •	Viral (viral hepatitis A and E, polio etc) •	Bacterial (GE) •	Protozoal (amoebiasis, giardiasis) •	Helmenthic (roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease etc) •	etc

Risks of inadequate water: •	Trachoma •	Scabies

Waterborne diseases caused by the presence of an aquatic host •	Malaria, filarial, Onchocerciasis, African Trypanosomiasis •	Snails (Schistosomiasis, Guinea worms)

Chemical Hazards •	High level of fluoride cause mottling of the dental enamel, low concentrations may cause dental carrier. •	High nitrate (used in fertilizers) levels content of water cause methaemoglobinaemia. •	Hardness of water is a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. It is always caused by high concentrations of calcium and magnesium •	Low concentration of iodine (simple goiter). •	Cyanides, ammonia and other toxic solvents and metals. •	Carcinogenic chemicals.

Physical Hazards (Radiation)

Water requirement •	For drinking water: 2 liters per day per head. •	For domestic use 150-200 liters per day per head •	Purification of water on large scale

Safe storage of water at large scale: •	Filtration •	Disinfection

Purification of water on small scale (at home) Household purification: •	Boiling (5-10 minute) •	Filtration (by small filters, Zeer) •	Chlorine tabs 0.5g is sufficient to disinfect 20 liters of water. --

EXCRETA Health hazards of improper excreta disposal •	Water pollution •	Soil pollution •	Contamination of food •	Propagation of flies

Measures to prevent faecal-borne infections •	Proper disposing of faeces •	Prevention of water supply •	Protection of food •	Personal hygiene •	Control of flies

Types of proper excreta disposal •	Ventilated Improved pit-latrines •	Septic tank •	Sewage

Solid wastes Components of solid wastes: •	Garbage (food waste) •	Rubbish (paper, plastics wood, metal, throw-away containers, glass etc Destruction products (bricks, pipes etc) •	Sewage treatment residue •	Dead animals Hazards of accumulated solid wastes •	Flies breading •	It attracts rodents and vermin •	Possible water and soil pollution •	Unpleasant appearance •	May infect food through dust Methods of disposal •	Dumping •	Burning •	Recycling

PEVENTION AND CONTROL OF ENDEMIC DISEASES

PREVENTION •	Primary Level (before) •	Secondary (early diagnosis and treatment) •	Tertiary (rehabilitation) CONTROL OF ENDEMIC DISEASES •	Ongoing operations aimed at reducing: o	Incidence of disease o	Duration of disease o	Risk of transmission o	Complication of diseases o	Financial burden Roll Back

Measurable Control

Eradication Elimination (eradication) of the agent --

TREATMENT OF ENDEMIC DISEASES

Guidelines of proper treatment of endemic disease at the PHC canters: •	Find the most common diseases •	Determine the simplest, cheapest and most effective routine for treating these diseases •	Train auxiliaries (paramedical) •	Provide the relevant equipments, drugs etc •	Trace the queues. What are the causes of delay? •	Large number of patients need management by exception •	Ensure communication and referral means ESSENTIAL DRUGS Definition Drugs which are used in treatment of 90% of diseases within a specific community The Problem: •	Countless drugs on use •	Most of used drugs are nonessential •	Inefficient drug supply systems, •	irrational use of drugs •	and lack of objective drug information. Criteria of Essential Drugs •	according to the need •	safe •	efficacy, •	good quality •	acceptable price The National List of Essential Drugs •	In 1977 the WHO compiled a model list of essential drugs. •	The model had 220 drugs, vaccines and diagnostic agents •	In Sudan a comprehensive national drug policy was formulated. •	The list have been subdivided according to the level of use: o	Nurses - list AA, o	Medical assistants at the level of dispensaries and health centers (list A) o	Medical officers (list B), o	list C for hospitals (specialist) o	List (S) for specialized units and centers. Advantages of Essential Drugs 1.	The prescriber makes better use of a smaller number of drugs by knowing thoroughly their indications, contraindications, side effects, dose etc 2.	Training and supervision 3.	quality control, 4.	drug management is easier, 5.	Less costly and more efficient. 6.	Improve national manufacturing of drugs

title: Community medicine/Session 3


text:
Wiki business plan/Funding

Possible sources of funding include the following.
 * Shell game changer

title: Wiki business plan/Funding


text:
Wiki business plan/Intelligence

Please items that may be of interest to the business plan here.
 * http://innovation.spigit.com/Idea/View?ideaid=39
 * Clean tech investor summit

title: Wiki business plan/Intelligence