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Flight Simulator

Flight simulation is an artificial re-creation of aircraft flight and various aspects of the flight environment. This includes the equations that govern how aircraft fly, how they react to applications of their controls and other aircraft systems, and how they react to the external environment such as air density, turbulence, cloud, precipitation, etc. Flight simulation is used for a variety of reasons, including flight training (mainly of pilots), for the design and development of the aircraft itself, and for research into aircraft characteristics, control handling qualities, and so forth.

Flight simulations have varying degrees of hardware, modelling detail and realism that depend on their purpose. They can range from PC laptop-based models of aircraft systems, to simple replica cockpits for familiarisation purposes, to more complex cockpit simulations with some working controls and systems, to highly detailed cockpit replications with all controls and aircraft systems and wide-field outside-world visual systems, all mounted on six degree-of-freedom (DOF) motion platforms which move in response to pilot control movements and external aerodynamic factors.

History of flight simulation Before World War I The first known flight simulation device was to help pilots fly the Antoinette monoplane. Whereas the earlier Wright designs used levers for pitch and roll control, the Antoinette used two wheels mounted left and right of the pilot, one for pitch and one for roll. Although the pitch wheel operated in a natural sense, the roll wheel did not (this had to wait until the "invention" of the centrally-mounted control column or "stick" or "joystick").

A training rig was developed in 1909 to help the pilot operate the control wheels before the aircraft was flown. This consisted of a seat mounted in a half-barrel and the two wheels. The whole unit was pivoted so that assistants outside could pitch and roll the device in accordance with the pilot's use of the wheels, using long wooden rods attached to the barrel structure. A full-size model of the "Antoinette Barrel Trainer" is in the foyer of the Airbus Training Centre at Toulouse, France.

World War I (1914-18) A number of pilot training devices were developed during World War I. Some, like the earlier Antoinette trainer of 1909, were for teaching pilots how to operate the flight controls. Examples include a 1915 UK trainer with a "rocking" cockpit described by H G Anderson, moving cockpit trainers by Lender and Heidelberg in France (patented in 1917), and the U.S."Ruggles Orientator" by W G Ruggles, patented in 1917.

Air Gunnery. Another area of training was for air gunnery by the pilot or a specialist air gunner. Firing at a moving target requires aiming ahead of the target (the so-called lead-angle) to allow for the time of travel of the bullets to reach the vicinity of the target. This is sometimes also called "deflection shooting" and requires skill and practice. During World War I, some ground-based simulators were developed to teach this skill to new pilots.

The 1920s and 1930s The best-known early flight simulation device was the Link Trainer, produced by Edwin Link in Binghamton, New York, USA, which he started building in 1927, later patenting his design which was first available for sale in 1929. The Link Trainer was a basic metal frame flight simulator usually painted in its well known blue color. Some of these early war era flight simulators still exist, but it is becoming increasingly difficult to find working examples.

The Link family firm in Binghamton manufactured keyboard organs, and Edwin Link was therefore familiar with components such as leather bellows, reed switches and so forth. He was also an amateur pilot, but was not satisfied with the amount of real flying training that was available. He decided to build a ground-based device to provide such training without the restrictions of weather and the availability of aircraft and flight instructors. His design had a pneumatic motion platform driven by inflatable bellows which provided pitch and roll cues. An electric motor rotated the platform, providing yaw cues. A generic replica cockpit with working instruments was mounted on the motion platform. When the cockpit was covered over, pilots could practice flight by instruments in a safe environment. The motion platform gave the pilot cues of real angular motion in pitch (nose up and down), roll (wing up or down) and yaw (nose left and right).

Initially, aviation flight schools showed little interest in the "Link Trainer". Link also demonstrated his trainer to the US Army Air Force (USAAF), but with no result. However, the situation changed in 1934 when the Army Air Force was given a Government contract to fly the postal mail. This included having to fly in bad weather as well as good, for which the USAF had not previously carried out much training. During the first weeks of the mail service, nearly a dozen Army pilots were killed. The Army Air Force hierarchy remembered Ed Link and his trainer. Link flew in to meet them at Newark Field in New Jersey, and they were impressed in his ability to arrive on a day with poor visibility, due to practice on his training device. The result was that the USAAF purchased four Link Trainers at $3,500 each, and this can be said to mark the start of the world flight simulation industry.

The company Link Aviation Devices Inc was then formed, and sales followed to others including the UK Royal Air Force and, ironically in view of the Pearl Harbor attack on 7 December 1941, to the Imperial Japanese Naval Air Arm.

World War II (1939-45) The principal pilot trainer used during World War II was the Link Trainer. Some 10,000 were produced to train new pilots of allied nations, many in the USA and Canada because many pilots were trained in those countries before returning to Europe or the Pacific to fly combat missions.

During World War II, other ground-based flight training devices were produced. For instance, in 1943, a fixed-base aircraft-specific trainer for the British Halifax bomber was produced at the RAF Station at Silloth in the north of England. This consisted of a mock-up of the front fuselage of the Halifax, the pilot's flight controls being simulated through an analogue system that gave artificial resistance ("feel") when the pilot moved the controls. Another name for this device was the "Silloth Trainer".

A different type of World War II trainer was for navigating at night by the stars. The Celestial Navigation Trainer of 1941 was 13.7 m (45 ft) high and capable of accommodating the navigation team of a bomber crew. It enabled sextants to be used for taking "star shots" from a projected display of the night sky.

1945 to the 1960s In 1948, Curtiss-Wright delivered a trainer for the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser transport aircraft to Pan American. This was the first complete aircraft-specific cockpit trainer owned by an airline. There was no motion or visual system, but the cockpit was closely replicated and the controls functioned and produced responses on the cockpit instruments. The device provided training to flight crews in checks, drills and basic flight procedures.

With the advent of jet airliners such as the UK Comet and US Boeing 707 and DC-8, simulators were produced to train for checks and drills, and to avoid using the aircraft for familiarisation exercises that could be carried out in the simulator. An example was the simulator for the Comet 4 which had a 3-axis motion platform on which the forward section of a Comet fuselage was mounted. This was made by the Redifon company of Aylesbury, UK.

Military simulators With the "cold war" confrontation between the Soviet-backed Warsaw Pact nations and the Western powers in NATO, many new combat aircraft were produced and many new pilots trained.

Particularly for large military aircraft, a new generation of aircraft-specific cockpit trainers were produced using the analogue technology of the time. Many were fixed-base and where they had closely-replicated cockpits and models of aircraft performance and flight dynamics, were Flight Simulators (compared to Cockpit Procedure Trainers, CPTs, that did not have the flight dynamics programmes). In the Flight simulators, complete real-time flight profiles could be practised including faults and emergency drills.

Some of these analogue flight simulators simulated nuclear flash by using a photographic flashbulb outside the cockpit windows. Examples with photo-flash systems included the UK V-bomber simulators for the Valiant, Vulcan and Victor, produced by the Redifon company at Aylesbury and Crawley in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The simulator windows were of "frosted glass" because there was no visual system, although simple "model board" visuals using monochrome imagery were added in the late 1960s to some of these simulators.

Introduction of visual systems The early visual systems used a small physical terrain model, normally called a "model board". The model board was illuminated, typically by an array of fluorescent light tubes (to avoid shadowing), and a miniature camera was moved over the model terrain in accordance with the pilot's control movements. The resultant image was then displayed to the pilot. Only limited geographical areas could be simulated in this manner, and for civil flight simulators were usually limited to the immediate vicinity of an airport or airports. In military flight simulators, as well as airfields, model boards were produced for larger areas that included terrain for practicing low flying and attacking targets. During the "cold war" between NATO and the Warsaw Pact powers, some model boards with large areas of real terrain were produced before being superseded by digital image generation systems.

Developments in motion systems The motion system in the 1929 Link Trainer design gave movements in pitch, roll and yaw, but the payload (weight of the replica cockpit) was limited. For flight simulators with heavier cockpits, the Link Division of General Precision Inc. (later part of Singer Corporation and now part of L-3 Communications) in 1954 developed a system where the cockpit was housed within a metal framework that provided 3 degrees of displacement in pitch, roll, and yaw. By 1964, improved versions of this system provided displacements of up to 10 degrees.

It was found that six jacks in the appropriate layout could produce all six degrees of freedom that are possible for a body that can freely move. These are the three angular rotations pitch, roll and yaw, and the three linear movements heave (up and down), sway (side to side) and surge (fore and aft). The design of such a 6-jack (hexapod) platform was used first by Eric Gough in 1954 in the automotive industry and further refined by Stewart in a 1966 paper to the UK Institution of Mechanical Engineers (See under Stewart platform.

From about 1977, aircraft simulators for Commercial Air Transport (CAT) aircraft were designed with ancillaries such as the Instructor Operating Station (IOS), computers, etc., being placed on the motion platform along with the replica cockpit, rather than being located off the motion platform.

Computing in flight simulators The use of digital computers for flight simulation began in the 1960s and became universal by the 1980s. Originally these were from specialist high-end computer manufacturers such as Concurrent, Encore, Harris, IBM, etc., but with the increasing power of the PC, arrays of high-end PCs are now also used as the primary computing medium in flight simulators.

Visual display systems The early model-board display systems generally used TV screens in front of the replica cockpit to display the Outside World (OTW) visual scene to the crew. Early computer-based Image Generator systems also used TV screens and sometimes projected displays. The focal distance of these displays was the distance of the screen from the crew, whereas objects in the real OTW visual scene are at a more distant focus, those close to the horizon being effectively at infinity.

Distant-Focus displays In 1972, the Singer-Link company, headquartered at Binghamton, New York State, developed a display unit that produced an image at a distant focus. This took the image from a TV screen but displayed it through a collimating lens which had a curved mirror and a beamsplitter device. The focal distance seen by the user was set by the amount of vertical curvature of the mirror. These collimated display systems improved realism and "depth perception" for visual scenes that included distant objects.

Optical infinity This above was achieved by adjusting the focal distance so that it was above what is sometimes referred to as "optical infinity", which is generally taken as about 30 feet or 9 meters. In this context, "Optical Infinity" is the distance at which, for the average adult person, the angle of view of an object at that distance is effectively the same from both the left and right eyes. For objects below this distance, the angle of view is different for each eye, leading to the brain being able to process scenes in a stereoscopic or three-dimensional sense. The inference is that, in simulation display technology, for scenes with objects which in the real world are at distances over about 9 meters / 30 feet, there is little advantage in using two-channel imagery and stereoscopic display systems.

Collimated Monitor Design The 1972 Singer-Link collimated monitors had a horizontal field of view (FoV) of about 28 degrees. In 1976, wider-angle units were introduced with a 35 degree horizontal FoV, and were called 'WAC windows', standing for 'Wide Angle Collimated', and this became a well-used term. Several "WAC Window" units would be installed in a simulator to provide an adequate field of view to the pilot for flight training. Single-pilot trainers would typically have three display units (center, left and right), giving a FoV of about 100 degrees horizontally and between 25 and 30 degrees vertically.

Viewing Volume and user's Eye-point For all of these Collimated Monitor units, the area from which the user had a correct view of the scene (the "Viewing Volume" from the user's "Eye-point") was quite small. This was no problem in single-seat trainers because the monitors could be positioned in the correct position for the pilots average eye-point. However, in multi-crew aircraft with pilots seated side-by-side, this led to each pilot only being able to see the correct outside-world scene through the collimated monitors that were positioned for that pilot's own eye-point. If a pilot looked across the cockpit towards the other pilot's display monitors, this was outside the viewing volume for those monitors and distortions or even "black holes" would be seen because the viewing angle was so far outside the Viewing Volume for the display units concerned. Clearly, for simulators with side-by side crew, a system that gave correct Cross-Cockpit viewing was required.

Cross-Cockpit Viewing A breakthrough occurred in 1982 when the Rediffusion company of Crawley, UK, introduced their Wide-angle Infinity Display Equipment (WIDE(TM)) system. This used a curved mirror of large horizontal extent to allow distant-focus collimated viewing in a continuous, seamless, horizontal display, by pilots seated side-by-side. The Outside-World (OTW) image was back-projected on a screen above the replica cockpit, and it was the reflection from this screen that was viewed by the pilots. For a diagram of a cross-cockpit display and examples of flight simulators that use it, see the entry under Collimated light. To avoid the weight and fragility of using a large glass mirror, the reflective material was on a flexible mylar sheet. When the simulator is in operation, the flexible sheet is held to an accurate shape by being attached to a shaped former by suction pressure using a small pump. The other major flight simulation companies now produce their own types of mirror-based cross-cockpit displays and these are now utilized in most Full flight simulators of Regulatory Levels C and D. The original Cross-Cockpit display systems used three projectors mounted on top of the replica cockpit and had a Field-of-View (FoV) of 150 degrees horizontally by 30 degrees vertically. With five projectors the horizontal FoV could be extended to 220 degrees. Developments have allowed these figures for three- and five-projector systems to be extended to 180 degrees with three projectors and 240 degrees with five.

Types of flight training devices in service Training for pilots Flight simulation is used extensively in the aviation industry for the training of pilots and other flight crew in both civil and military aircraft. It is also used for the training of maintenance engineers in aircraft systems, and has applications in aircraft design and development, also in aviation and other research.

Several different types of devices are utilized in modern flight training. These range from simple Part-Task Trainers (PTTs) that cover one or more aircraft systems to Full Flight Simulators (FFS) with comprehensive aerodynamic and systems modeling. This spectrum encompasses a wide variety of fidelity in both physical cockpit characteristics and quality of software models, as well as various implementations of sensory cues such as sound, motion, and visual systems. The following training device types are in common use:

Cockpit Procedures Trainer (CPT) - Used to practice basic cockpit procedures, such as emergency checklists, and for cockpit familiarization. Certain aircraft systems may or may not be simulated. The aerodynamic model is usually extremely generic if one is even present at all. CPTs are usually not regulated. Aviation Training Device (ATD) - Used for basic training of flight concepts and procedures. A generic flight model representing a "family" of aircraft is installed, and many common flight systems are simulated. Basic Instrument Training Device (BITD) - A basic training device primarily focused on generic instrument flight procedures. Flight and Navigation Procedures Trainer (FNPT) - Used for generic flight training. A generic, but comprehensive flight model is required, and many systems and environmental effects must be provided. Flight Training Device (FTD) - Used for either generic or aircraft specific flight training. Comprehensive flight, systems, and environmental models are required. High level FTDs require visual systems but not the characteristics of a Full Flight Simulator (FFS), see below. Full flight simulator (FFS) - Used for aircraft-specific flight training under rules of the appropriate National Civil Aviation Regulatory Authority. Under these rules, relevant aircraft systems must be fully simulated, and a comprehensive aerodynamic model is required. All FFS require outside-world (OTW) visual systems and a motion platform. Full Mission Simulator (FMS) - used by the military to denote a simulator capable of training all aspects of an operational mission in the aircraft concerned.

In many professional flight schools, initial training is conducted partially in the aircraft, and partially in relatively low cost training devices such as FNPTs and FTDs. As the student becomes familiar with basic aircraft handling and flight skills, more emphasis is placed on instrument flying, cockpit resource management (CRM), and advanced aircraft systems, and the portion of flight training conducted in these devices increases significantly. Finally, for more advanced aircraft-specific training, Full Flight Simulators (FFS) are used, particularly as part of conversion to the Commercial Air Transport (CAT) aircraft that the pilot will eventually fly.

For many commercial pilots, most aircraft orientation and recurrent training is conducted in high level FTDs or FFS.

In comparison to training in an actual aircraft, simulation based training allows for the training of maneuvers or situations that may be impractical (or even dangerous) to perform in the aircraft, while keeping the pilot and instructor in a relatively low-risk environment on the ground. For example, electrical system failures, instrument failures, hydraulic system failures, environmental system failures, and even flight control failures can be simulated without risk to the pilots or an aircraft.

Instructors can also provide students with a higher concentration of training tasks in a given period of time than is usually possible in the aircraft. For example, conducting multiple instrument approaches in the actual aircraft may require significant time spent repositioning the aircraft, while in a simulation, as soon as one approach has been completed, the instructor can immediately preposition the simulated aircraft to an ideal (or less than ideal) location from which to begin the next approach.

Flight simulation also provides an economic advantage over training in an actual aircraft. Once fuel, maintenance, and insurance costs are taken into account, the operating costs of an FSTD are usually substantially lower than the operating costs of the simulated aircraft. For some large transport category airplanes, the operating costs may be several times lower for the FSTD than the actual aircraft.

Engineering simulation Engineering flight simulators are used by aerospace manufacturers for such tasks as:

Development and testing of flight hardware. Simulation (emulation) and stimulation techniques can be used, the latter being where real hardware is fed artificially-generated or real signals (stimulated) in order to make it work. Such signals can be electrical, RF, sonar, etc., depending on the equipment to be tested. Development and testing of flight software. It is much safer to develop critical flight software on simulators or using simulation techniques than it is to develop using actual aircraft in flight. Development and testing of aircraft systems. For electrical, hydraulic, and flight control systems, full-size engineering rigs sometimes called 'Iron Birds' are used during the development of the aircraft and its systems.

Entertainment Amateur flight simulation refers to the simulation of various aspects of flight or the flight environment for purposes other than flight training or aircraft development. A large number of free or commercial flight simulators are available:

FlightGear, a free and open source flight simulator X-Plane, also includes a Space Shuttle and Mars flight simulators YS Flight Simulation 2000, a freeware flight simulator targeted at low end systems Microsoft Flight Simulator Series - its latest installment (Microsoft Flight Simulator X) now includes space as an area to be discovered, with a payware space shuttle available.

Technology Motion in flight simulators A Full flight simulator (FFS) duplicates relevant aspects of the aircraft and its environment, including motion. This is typically accomplished by placing a replica cockpit and visual system on a motion platform. A six degree-of-freedom (DOF) motion platform using six jacks is the modern standard, and is required for the so-called Level D flight simulator standard of civil aviation regulatory authorities such as FAA in the USA and EASA in Europe. Since the travel of the motion system is limited, a principle called 'acceleration onset cueing' (which see) is used. This simulates initial accelerations well, and then returns the motion system to a neutral position at a rate below the pilot's sensory threshold in order to prevent the motion system from reaching its limits of travel.

Flight simulator motion platforms used to use hydraulic jacks but electric jacks are now being used. The latter do not need hydraulic motor rooms and other complications of hydraulic systems, and can be designed to give lower latencies (transport delays) compared to hydraulic systems. Level D flight simulators are used at training centers such as those provided by Airbus, FlightSafety International, CAE, Boeing Training and Flight Services (ex-Alteon) and at the training centers of the larger airlines. In the military, motion platforms are commonly used for large multi-engined aircraft and also in helicopters, except where a training device is designed for rapid deployment to another training base or to a combat zone.

Statistically significant assessments of training transfer from simulator to the aircraft are difficult to make, particularly where motion cues are concerned. Large sample sizes of pilot opinion are required and many subjective opinions tend to be aired, particularly by pilots not used to making objective assessments and responding to a structured test schedule. However, it is generally agreed that a motion-based simulation gives the pilot closer fidelity of flight control operation and aircraft responses to control inputs and external forces. This is described as "handling fidelity", which can be assessed by test flight standards such as the numerical Cooper-Harper rating scale for handling qualities. Generally, motion-based aircraft simulation feels like being in an aircraft rather than in a static procedural trainer. In a re-structuring of civil flight training device characteristics and terminology that will take place in about 2012, the Level D Full flight simulator will be re-designated an ICAO Type 7 and will have improved specifications for both motion and visual systems. This is a result of a rationalisation of worldwide civil flight training devices through which 27 previous categories have been reduced to seven.

Qualification and approval Procedure In order for a Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD) to be used for flight crew training or checking, it must be evaluated by the local National Aviation Authority (NAA), such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States. The training device in question is evaluated against a set of regulatory criteria, and a number of both objective and subjective tests are conducted on the device. The results of each test, along with other significant information about the FSTD and its operator, are recorded in a Qualification Test Guide (QTG).

The result of the initial evaluation of the FSTD, called the Master QTG (MQTG), details the baseline performance of the device as accepted by the qualifying authority. A periodic re-evaluation, called a recurrent qualification, is performed regularly, generally in one year intervals (although the interval can be as low as six months for some FAA evaluations and as high as three years for some European evaluations), and the performance of the device is evaluated against the MQTG. Any significant deviations may result in the suspension or revocation of the device's qualification.

The criteria against which an FSTD is evaluated are defined in one of a number of regulatory and/or advisory documents. In the United States and China, FSTD qualification is regulated in 14 CFR Part 60. In most of Europe, as well as several other parts of the world, the relevant regulations are defined in JAR-FSTD A and JAR-FSTD H. The testing requirements vary between the different levels of qualification, but almost all levels require that the FSTD show that it matches the flight characteristics of the aircraft or family of aircraft being simulated.

The main exception to the above process is the evaluation of an ATD by the FAA. Rather than other FSTD, where each device is evaluated on an individual basis, ATDs are evaluated as a model line. When a manufacturer wishes to have a model of ATD approved, a document that contains the specifications of the model line and that proves compliance with the appropriate regulations is submitted to the FAA. If this document, called a Qualification Approval Guide (QAG) is approved, all future devices conforming to the QAG are automatically approved, and individual evaluation is neither required nor available.

Until the publication of Part 60, qualification was called certification, and QTGs were called Approval Test Guides (ATGs). The terms certification and ATG no longer have any regulatory meaning other than for FSTD that remain qualified under FAA AC 120-45 or any other legacy standard.

Flight Simulator "levels" and other categories The following levels of qualification are currently being granted for both airplane and helicopter FSTD:

US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Flight Training Devices (FTD)

FAA FTD Level 4 - Similar to a Cockpit Procedures Trainer (CPT). This level does not require an aerodynamic model, but accurate systems modeling is required. Helicopter only. FAA FTD Level 5 - Aerodynamic programming and systems modeling is required, but it may represent a family of aircraft rather than one specific model. FAA FTD Level 6 - Aircraft model specific aerodynamic programming, control feel, and physical cockpit are required. FAA FTD Level 7 - Model specific. All applicable aerodynamics, flight controls, and systems must be modeled. A vibration system must be supplied, and this is the first level to require a visual system. Helicopter only.

Full Flight Simulators (FFS) FAA FFS Level A - A motion system is required with at least three degrees of freedom. Airplane only. FAA FFS Level B - Requires three axis motion and a higher-fidelity aerodynamic model than Level A. The lowest level of helicopter flight simulator. FAA FFS Level C - Requires a motion platform with all six degrees of freedom. Also lower transport delay (latency) over levels A & B. The visual system must have an outside-world horizontal field of view of at least 75 degrees to each pilot. FAA FFS Level D - The highest level of FFS qualification currently available. Requirements are for Level C with additions. The motion platform must have all six degrees of freedom, and the visual system must have an outside-world horizontal field of view of at least 150 degrees, with a Collimated (distant focus) display. Realistic sounds in the cockpit are required, also a number of special motion and visual effects.

European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA, ex JAA) Flight Navigation and Procedures Trainer (FNTP) EASA FNPT Level I EASA FNPT Level II EASA FNTP Level III MCC - Not a true "level" of qualification, but an add-on that allows any level of FNPT to be used for multi crew cooperation training.

Flight Training Devices (FTD) EASA FTD Level 1 EASA FTD Level 2 EASA FTD Level 3 - Helicopter only.

Full Flight Simulators (FFS) EASA FFS Level A EASA FFS Level B EASA FFS Level C EASA FFS Level D

Credits The training or checking credits allowed of an FSTD are based on the level of qualification and the operator's training curriculum. For some experienced pilots, Level D FFS may be used for Zero Flight Time (ZFT) conversions from one type of aircraft to another. In ZFT conversions, no aircraft flight time is required, and the pilot first flies the aircraft (under the supervision of a Training Captain) on a revenue flight.

Manufacturers Full Flight Simulator manufacturers include; FlightSafety International (FSI) (United States), Frasca International, Inc. L-3 Link Rockwell Collins Opinicus Corporation CAE Inc. Mechtronix Systems (Canada) Sim Industries in the Netherlands Indra Sistemas in Spain Indra Systems (United States) Havelsan in Turkey AXIS Flight Training Systems in Austria Thales Group in France and the UK CSTS Dinamika in Russia Aerosim

The UK Thales site at Crawley, near London Gatwick airport, is a successor to the ex-Rediffusion simulator factory. Another flight simulator manufacturer is Aerosim located in Burnsville, Minnesota, USA; their focus is making FTDs and VPTs (virtual procedure trainers).

There are currently about 1280 Full Flight Simulators (FFS) in operation worldwide, certificated for pilot training in the Commercial Air Transport (CAT) sector by the relevant National Civil Aviation Regulatory Authorities (NAA, such as the FAA for the USA and EASA for Europe)[9], of which about 550 are in the USA, 75 in the UK, 60 in China (PRC), 50 each in Germany and Japan, and 40 in France. Of these, some 450 were made by CAE, mainly in their Montreal factory, about 380 by Thales and its predecessors Rediffusion, (Singer) Link-Miles, and Thomson CSF, and about 280 by Flight Safety International. L-3 Communications operates a facility in Arlington, Texas which manufactures flight simulators for the military; the division (Link Simulation and Training) traces its legacy back to Link's original invention.

Flight simulators are also extensively used for research in various aerospace subjects, particularly in flight dynamics and man-machine interaction (MMI). Both regular and purpose-built research simulators are employed. They range from the simplest ones, which resemble video games, to very specific and extremely expensive designs such as LAMARS, installed at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. This was built by Northrop for the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and features a large scale five degrees of freedom motion system to a unique design and a 360 degree dome-mounted visual system. The most advanced research simulator with sustained G-capability, unlimited attitude control and a reconfigurable cockpit was developed in a joint-venture of TNO and AMST GmbH and is called DESDEMONA.

Instructor operating stations Most simulators have Instructor Operating Stations (IOS). At the IOS, an instructor can quickly create any normal and abnormal condition in the simulated aircraft or in the simulated external environment. This can range from engine fires, malfunctioning landing gear, electrical faults, storms, downbursts, lightning, oncoming aircraft, slippery runways, navigational system failures and countless other problems which the crew need to be familiar with and act upon.

Many simulators allow the instructor to control the simulator from the cockpit, either from a console behind the pilot's seats, or, in some simulators, from the co-pilot's seat on sorties where a co-pilot is not being trained. Some simulators are equipped with PDA-like devices in which the instructor can fly in the co-pilot seat and control the events of the simulation, while not interfering with the lesson.

Flight simulators are an essential element in individual pilot as well as flight crew training. They save time, money and lives. The cost of operating even an expensive Level D Full Flight Simulator is many times less than if the training was to be on the aircraft itself and a cost ratio of some 1:40 has been reported for Level D simulator training compared to the cost of training in a real Boeing 747 aircraft.

Modern high-end flight simulators High-end commercial and military flight simulators have large field-of-view (FoV) image generation and display systems of high resolution. All civil Full Flight Simulators (FFS) and many military simulators for large aircraft and helicopters also have motion platforms for cues of real motion. Platform motions complement the visual cues and are particularly important when visual cues are poor such as at night or in reduced visibility or, in cloud, non-existent. The majority of simulators with motion platforms use variants of the six cylinder Stewart platform to generate cues of initial acceleration. These platforms are also known as Hexapods (literally "six feet") and use an operating principle known as Acceleration onset cueing (which see). Motion bases using modern hexapod platforms can provide about +/- 35 degrees of the three rotations pitch, roll and yaw, and about one metre of the three linear movements heave, sway and surge.

The NASA Ames Research Center in "Silicon Valley" south of San Francisco operates the Vertical Motion Simulator. This has a very large-throw motion system with 60 feet (+/- 30 ft) of vertical movement (heave). The heave system supports a horizontal beam on which are mounted rails of length 40 feet, allowing lateral movement of a simulator cab of +/- 20 feet. A conventional 6-degree of freedom hexapod platform is mounted on the 40 ft beam, and an interchangeable cabin is mounted on the hexapod platform. This design permits quick switching of different aircraft cabins. Simulations have ranged from blimps, commercial and military aircraft to the Space Shuttle. In the case of the Space Shuttle, the large Vertical Motion Simulator was used to investigate a longitudinal pilot-induced oscillation (PIO) that occurred on an early Shuttle flight just before landing. After identification of the problem on the VMS, it was used to try different longitudinal control algorithms and recommend the best for use in the Shuttle programme. After this exercise, no similar Shuttle PIO has occurred. The ability to simulate realistic motion cues was considered important in reproducing the PIO and attempts on a non-motion simulator were not successful (a similar pattern exists in simulating the roll-upset accidents to a number of early Boeing 737 aircraft, where a motion-based simulator is needed to replicate the conditions).

AMST Systemtechnik (Austria) and TNO Human Factors (the Netherlands) have developed the Desdemona flight simulation system for the Netherlands-based research organisation TNO. This large scale simulator provides unlimited rotation via a gimballed cockpit. The gimbal sub-system is supported by a framework which adds vertical motion. Furthermore, this framework is mounted on a large rotating platform with an adjustable radius. The Desdemona simulator is designed to provide sustainable g-force simulation with unlimited rotational freedom.

Radio-controlling simulators A specific field for flight simulation are radio-controlled models - mostly airplanes and helicopters - that are steered from the ground by a transmitter. Here a major part of the learning curve for the pilot is the coordination between finger movement - typically via two joysticks for pitch/yaw and nick/roll - and the model reaction. RC flight simulator software thus uses an input, mostly an USB cable, from the same transmitter that is used for the actual model. With this setup the pilot can learn basic flying procedures without the risk of damaging the model. Current products use photographic textures from real flight fields and mimic the model and weather behaviour with complex physical models.

Advances in modern electronics Advances in electronics are now starting to bring pitch & roll motion platforms down into the realms of the high end home pilot. A simple combination of COTS (commercial off the shelf) hardware & software now allows home builders to construct simple pitch & roll platforms with some even building hexapod type platforms. These advances are also making it possible to home build controls with Force Feedback which simulates external forces on the control surfaces of the aircraft including hydraulic failures in control systems & the sensation of a landing on the controls. See also Force Feedback Australian flight & helisim builder Rainman Simulators currently has some of these systems in the development stage.

In video games Ace Combat After Burner Air Inferno FlightGear (including commercial copies Flight Pro Sim, Pro Flight Simulator, Flight Simulator Plus, and others) Interceptor Microsoft Flight Simulator Pilotwings X-Plane YS Flight Simulation System 2000

Article by : Raza Nawab

title: Flight Simulator


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User:Nawab.raza

Raza Nawab

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Pakistan

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email: nawab.raza@gmail.com

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title: User:Nawab.raza


text:
Literature/1976/Bateson

 * http://www.wholeearth.com/issue/2010/article/361/for.god's.sake.margaret
 * http://www.oikos.org/forgod.htm (including the diagram)

Excerpts

 * SB : Margaret, what was your perception at the time of the early Macy meetings as to what was going on?
 * Mead : The thing that cybernetics made the most difference to me, aside from all the things that you know, in the social organisation field, was the interaction between the mother and child. There had been too much emphasis that there were temperamental differences among children, so that you responded differently to a hyperactive baby than you did to a quiet baby. But the extent to which there was a system in which the mother was dependent on what the child had learned as the stimulus for the next position wasn’t well articulated until we got the cybernetics conferences going.
 * Bateson : The link-up between the behavioral sciences spread very slowly and hasn’t really spread yet. The cyberneticians in the narrow sense of the word went off into input-output.
 * SB: They went off into computer science.
 * Bateson : Computer science is input-output. You’ve got a box, and you’ve got this line enclosing the box, and the science is the science of these boxes. Now, the essence of Wiener’s cybernetics was that the science is the science of the whole circuit. You see, the diagram ...
 * Mead : You'd better verbalize this diagram if it's going to be on the tape.
 * Bateson : Well, you can carry a piece of yellow paper all the way home with you. The electric boys have a circuit like that, and an event here is reported by a sense organ of some kind, and affects something that puts in here. Then ... you say there’s an input and an output. Then you work on the box. What Wiener says is that you work on the whole picture and its properties. Now, there may be boxes inside here, like this of all sorts, but essentially your ecosystem, your organism-plus-environment, is to be considered as a single circuit.
 * SB : The bigger circle there ...
 * Bateson : And you’re not really concerned with an input-output, but with the events within the bigger circuit, and you are part of the bigger circuit. It’s these lines around the box (which are just conceptual lines after all) which mark the difference between the engineers and ...
 * Mead : ... and between the systems people and general systems theory, too.
 * Bateson: Yes.
 * SB : A kind of a Martin Buber-ish breakdown, ‘I-it’, where they are trying to keep themselves out of that which they’re studying. The engineer is outside the box ... and Wiener is inside the box.
 * Bateson : And Wiener is inside the box; I’m inside the box ...
 * Mead : I’m inside the box. You see, Wiener named the thing, and of course the word 'cybernetics' comes from the Greek word for helmsman.
 * Bateson : It actually existed as a word before Wiener -- it’s a nineteenth century word.
 * Mead : Yes, but he wrote the book Cybernetics and sort of patented the idea to that extent. And then he went to Russia, and was very well received. The Russians were crazy about this right away -- it fit right to their lives. But one of the big difficulties in Russian psychology is that they have great difficulty learning that anything's irreversible. So cybernetics spread all over the Soviet Union very rapidly, and in Czechoslovakia, whereas what spread here was systems theory instead of cybernetics.
 * SB: How did that happen? It seems like something went kind of awry.
 * Mead : Americans like mechanical machines.
 * Bateson : They like tools.
 * SB: Material tools more than conceptual tools.
 * Bateson : No, because conceptual tools aren’t conceptual tools in America, they’re not part of you.
 * SB: How about McCulloch? He loved machinery. Did he also see himself as inside the box?
 * Mead: Well, one of the things he spent a great deal of time on was perception machines, separate sensory apparatus for the deaf or the blind.

title: Literature/1976/Bateson


text:
Literature/1979/Lyotard

 * Introduction

Excerpts

 * Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity toward metanarratives. This incredulity is undoubtedly a product of progress in the sciences: but that progress in turn presupposes it. To the obsolescence of the metanarrative apparatus of legitimation corresponds, most notably, the crisis of metaphysical philosophy and of the university institution which in the past relied on it. @ Introduction
 * Here is the question: is a legitimation of the social bond, a just society, feasible in terms of a paradox analogous to that of scientific activity? What would such a paradox be? @ Introduction
 * ... the author of the report is a philosopher, not an expert. The latter knows what he knows and what he does not know: the former does not. One concludes, the other questions -- two very different language games. I combine them here with the result that neither quite succeeds. @ Introduction

Wikimedia

 * The Postmodern Condition
 * Lyotard professes a preference for this plurality of small narratives that compete with each other, replacing the totalitarianism of grand narratives. For this reason, The Postmodern Condition has been criticized as an excuse for unbounded  relativism. However, Lyotard suggests that there is an  objective truth, but because of the limited amount of knowledge that humans can understand, humans will never know this objective truth. In other words, Lyotard advocates that there is no certainty of ideas, but rather there are better or worse ways to interpret things.
 * Jean-François Lyotard, a postmodern theorist, has applied this term to societal 'power centers' that he describes as being 'governed by a principle of homeostasis,' for example, the scientific hierarchy, which will sometimes ignore a radical new discovery for years because it destabilises previously-accepted norms. @ Homeostasis

title: Literature/1979/Lyotard


text:
Literature/1955/McCarthy

 * http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html

Excerpts

 * We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.

title: Literature/1955/McCarthy


text:
Literature/1975/Winston

Author

 * Winston was director of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory for most of its existence, from 1972 to 1997. He succeeded  Marvin Minsky, who left to found the  MIT Media Lab shortly after establishing the AI Lab in the wake of the political upheavals at that time. He was succeeded by  Rodney Brooks after a long, stable period. Brooks went on to terminate the lab by merger into the  MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL).

Contents

 * Marvin Minsky. "A Framework for Representing Knowledge."

title: Literature/1975/Winston


text:
Literature/1975/Minsky

 * http://courses.media.mit.edu/2004spring/mas966/Minsky%201974%20Framework%20for%20knowledge.pdf
 * Originally, MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306, June, 1974.
 * Reprinted also in 1981/Haugeland.

Author

 * Marvin Minsky

Wikimedia

 * Frame (artificial intelligence)

title: Literature/1975/Minsky


text:
User talk:Suxusx~enwikiversity

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title: User talk:Suxusx~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Olayemi subair

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title: User talk:Olayemi subair


text:
User talk:Monzurul haque

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title: User talk:Monzurul haque


text:
User talk:Abrosas5

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title: User talk:Abrosas5


text:
User talk:Buzzkit~enwikiversity

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title: User talk:Buzzkit~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Vshyam494949

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title: User talk:Vshyam494949


text:
User talk:Rmqwerty

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title: User talk:Rmqwerty


text:
User talk:Manas mishra~enwikiversity

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title: User talk:Manas mishra~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Rockymoscoso

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Gidza~enwikiversity


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User talk:LDee

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User talk:POEJ

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title: User talk:POEJ


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User talk:Sandeep dalal

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title: User talk:Sandeep dalal


text: Template:Dts

title: Template:Dts


text:
Template:Dts/examples

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Template:Dts/core

  This is an auxiliary template used by Template:Dts.vi:Bản mẫu:Dts/core

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Template:Dts/fmtdmy

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Template:Dts/doc

 stands for D ate T able S orting and is used to correctly sort and display dates in a sortable table (see Help:Sorting).

What it solves
Normally, for proper sorting, dates must be entered in YYYY-MM-DD format. However, that format does not conform to the Manual of Style for date display. This template automatically creates the hidden  for sorting purposes and then displays the date like this: July 4, 1776. To hide the output, use the dtsh template instead.

Input

When supplying a single parameter for the date, it is accepted and interpreted according to the php date/time format, except that a single number is interpreted as a year. By default the date is shown as supplied. If the first parameter is not just the year, but no format parameter is supplied, due to a call of function  the maximum number of calls of this template on a page is 1200.

Using format=mdy, format=dmy, or format=auto produces a format that depends on, but is not necessarily equal to the format of the supplied date. This requires multiple calls of function, reducing the maximum number of calls of this template on a page in the worst case to 88, see below.

Also see the examples below.

Output
Output sent to table
 * or

Output displayed to user
 * July 4, 1776 or
 * 4 July 1776

Linking
The template formerly linked dates automatically. To turn linking off the parameter  was used. In accordance with current guidelines linking is no longer supported. Please do not use this parameter. Please remove it from existing transclusions.

Limitation
Template:Dts/formauto calls  with format strings with a total length of up to 68 characters. The worst case is when the default case of the  applies, e.g. for the format 1876-08-25. In that case the template can only be called 88 times (here less because of the other examples):

Error handling
During early 2009, Template:Dts generated month names for invalid month numbers, such as number 23 displaying "November". No warning is displayed, for the formatted page, that such invalid dates are being used on the page.

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User talk:Meetnathan

 Hello Meetnathan, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Leutha 11:10, 4 July 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Meetnathan


text:
User talk:Arpitg~enwikiversity

 Hello Arpitg, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Leutha 11:10, 4 July 2011 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Arpitg. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Arpitg~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:03, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arpitg~enwikiversity


text: File:IF2 me.png

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User:EGM6341.S11.team5.cavalcanti/Mtg19

Mtg 19: Mon, 14 Feb 11

[[media:Nm1.s11.mtg19.djvu | Page 19-1]]

Pf of error of Simple Simpson's rule: p. 18-4 cont'd

Tighter bound

Definition:

Goal: $$\exists \left({\xi }_{3}\right)\in \mathrm{0,1}$$ such that $${G}^{3}\left({\xi }_{3}\right)\underbrace{=}_{\color{red}{(2)}}0=\frac{-2{(\xi )}^{2}}{3}\left\lbrack {F}^{\left(4\right)}\left({\xi }_{4}\right)+90e\left(1\right)\right\rbrack $$

see (5) p. 18-4

$$\rightarrow e\left(1\right)=\frac{-1}{90}\underbrace{{F}^{\left(4\right)}\left({\xi }_{4}\right)}_{\color{blue}{\frac{d^4}{dt^4}F}}\underbrace{=}_{\color{red}{(3)}}\frac{-{\left(b-a\right)}^{4}}{1440}{f}^{\left(4\right)}(\xi )$$

(4) p.18-3: $${E}_{2}=\mathit{he}\left(1\right)=\frac{-{\left(b-a\right)}^{5}}{2880}{f}^{\left(4\right)}(\xi )$$

→ SSET p.18-2

(end goal)

[[media:Nm1.s11.mtg19.djvu | Page 19-2]]

Note: Comp. G(.) for SSET (1) p.19-1 to G(.) for LIET (1)p.14-3

(1)p.19-1: $$G\left(\color{red}{x}\right)\mathrm{\colon }=e\left(\color{red}{x}\right)-{\color{red}{x}}^{5}e\left(1\right)$$

SSET p.18-2 $${E}_{2}=\frac{-{\left(b-a\right)}^{5}}{2880}{f}^{\left(4\right)}(\xi )$$

(1) p.14-3 $$G\left(x\right)=e\left(x\right)-\frac{{q}_{n+1}\left(x\right)}{{q}_{n+1}\left(t\right)}e\left(t\right)$$

$${e}_{n}^{\color{red}{L}}\left(f;t\right)\mathrm{\colon }\underbrace{=}_{\color{red}{(2)} \ \color{blue}{p.11-3}}f\left(t\right)-{f}_{n}^{L}\left(x\right)=\frac{{q}_{n+1}\left(t\right)}{\left(n+1\right)!}{f}^{\left(n+1\right)}(\xi )$$

Error: SSET p.18-2

(b – a)5 in error ↔ t5 in G(.)

LIET p.11-3

qn+1(x) in error ↔ qn+1(x) in G(.) "End Goal"

[[media:Nm1.s11.mtg19.djvu | Page 19-3]]

Proof of SSET: (Similar to proof of LIET p. 16-2)

Apply Rolle's theorem.

(see (1) p.19-1)

(see pictorial interpretation p.20-1; also (5) p.18-3)

title: User:EGM6341.S11.team5.cavalcanti/Mtg19


text:
User:Marksleem/Books/Computer Science

Computer Science

 * History of computing
 * Basics of computer architecture
 * Introduction to Computer Science
 * Personal computers
 * What is an Algorithm
 * How to go about implementing a problem solution as a program
 * Development environment and language principles
 * Types and variables
 * Operators and expressions
 * Control structures
 * Procedures and functions
 * Arrays, strings and records
 * Basic I/O

title: User:Marksleem/Books/Computer Science


text:
User:Marksleem/Books/CS Intro

Introduction

 * History of computing
 * Basics of computer architecture
 * Introduction to Computer Science
 * Personal computers
 * What is an Algorithm
 * How to go about implementing a problem solution as a program
 * Development environment and language principles
 * Types and variables
 * Operators and expressions
 * Control structures
 * Procedures and functions
 * Arrays, strings and records
 * Basic I/O

title: User:Marksleem/Books/CS Intro


text:
User:Gaidheal1/Organising Musicianship course

Here is where I will organise materials and hopefully create a new Musicianship course.

Existing Musicianship pages

 * Aural Training - a few paragraphs outlining (not very well) a few different types aspects of aural skills
 * Topic:Conducting and musical direction - a pretty box, with only a couple of links to other pages
 * Ear training - headings and TOC only - seems to be set up for a list of info
 * Topic:Ear training - a couple of links, and a claim to be a 'list of resources'
 * Ear training - Intervals and Harmony - lists links to following four pages, plus two redlinks
 * Ear training/Chords - quite a fleshed-out page
 * Ear training/Intervals - a basic page, containing a list of intervals and where they can be found in music
 * Ear training/Perfect pitch - consists of mostly random stuff about how to get it
 * Ear training/Recognizing triads - a reasonably fleshed out page, don't know about content yet...
 * Ear training - Rhythm - three links, all to non-existent pages
 * Musical transcription - a couple of lines about transcribing a clip of music
 * Orchestration - a most basic sentence describing orchestration in very simplified terms


text:
User:Sasan Geranmehr

Hack bye hector--95.82.4.142 01:36, 23 October 2011 (UTC)Hacked by hector

title: User:Sasan Geranmehr


title: File:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf


text:
Literature/1978/Turner

Wikimedia

 * Liminality
 * The attributes of liminality or of liminal personae ("threshold people") are necessarily ambiguous (Turner 1969). One's sense of identity dissolves to some extent, bringing about disorientation, but also the possibility of new perspectives. Turner posits that, if liminality is regarded as a time and place of withdrawal from normal modes of social action, it potentially can be seen as a period of scrutiny for central values and axioms of the culture where it occurs (Turner 1969) - one where normal limits to thought, self-understanding, and behavior are undone. In such situations, the very structure of society is temporarily suspended.

Chronology

 * Turner, Victor (1986). The Anthropology of Performance. PAJ Publications.
 * Turner, Victor (1986). The Anthropology of Experience. University of Illinois Press.
 * Turner, Victor (1985). Liminality, Kabbalah, and the Media. Academic Press.
 * Turner, Victor (1982). From Ritual to Theatre: The Human Seriousness of Play. PAJ Publications.
 * Turner, Victor (1977). "Ndembu Divination and its Symbolism," in: David Landy, ed., Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology. New York: Macmillan Publishing, pp. 175–182.
 * -- cf. implicature
 * Turner, Victor (1974). Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Cornell University Press.
 * Turner, Victor (1969). The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure. Aldine de Gruyter.
 * Turner, Victor (1967). The Forest of Symbols. Cornell University Press.
 * Turner, Victor (1969). The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure. Aldine de Gruyter.
 * Turner, Victor (1967). The Forest of Symbols. Cornell University Press.
 * Turner, Victor (1967). The Forest of Symbols. Cornell University Press.

Reviews

 * -- 2004/Maniura

title: Literature/1978/Turner


text: Category:Emotional intelligence

title: Category:Emotional intelligence


text:
Literature/2004/Maniura

 * http://books.google.com/books?id=NxHFMa635QAC

Excerpts

 * For Turner, pilgrimage shares some of the characteristics of rites of passage where an individual passes through a 'liminal' state, characterized by few of the attributes of normal life, before being reintegrated into the social group. Pilgrimage is the 'great liminal experience' of Christian religious life. The pilgrim travels to a remote shrine leaving behind his or her structured social self and entering a state of 'antistructure', experiencing a commonness of feeling among structurally independent persons -- 'communitas'. The status of the holy place in this system is not fully elaborated and the pilgrim's fundamental motivation seems to be the achievement of this ideal community. Turner does, however, note that pilgrimage sites tend to be associated with miracles. They secure 'personal exposure to the beneficent unseen presence of the Blessed Virgin or the local saint, mediated through a cherished image', and exposure through which 'faith is strengthened and salvation better secure' -- indeed an expression of intrinsic holiness. This exposure to the holy seems to be part of the longed-for 'communitas', perhaps to be glossed in theological terms as a direct perception of participation in the Communion of Saints.

Chronology

 * Eade, J. & M. Sallnow (1991). Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage. London.
 * Eade, J. & M. Sallnow (1991). Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage. London.

title: Literature/2004/Maniura


text:
Literature/1923/Malinowski

Excerpts
  The need of a Science of Symbolism and Meaning, such as is presented in this volume by Ogden and Richards. This need exemplified by the Ethnographer's difficulties in dealing with primitive languages.  Analysis of a savage utterance, showing the complex problems of Meaning which lead from mere linguistics into the study of culture and social psychology. Such a combined linguistic and ethnological study needs guidance from a theory of symbols, developed on the lines of the present work.  The conception of 'Context of Situation.' Difference in the linguistic perspectives which open up before the Philologist who studies dead, inscribed languages, and before the Ethnographer who has to deal with a primitive living tongue, existing only in actual utterance. The study of an object alive more enlightening than that of its dead remains. The 'Sign-Situation' of the Authors corresponds to the 'Context of Situation' here introduced.  Language, in its primitive function, to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a countersign of thought. Analysis of a complex speech-situation among savages. The essential primitive uses of speech: speech-in-action, ritual handling of words, the narrative, 'phatic communion' (speech in social intercourse).  The problem of Meaning in primitive language. Intellectual formation of Meaning by apperception not primitive. Biological view meaning in early non-articulate sound-reactions, which are expressive, significant and correlated to situation. Meaning in early phases articulate speech. Meaning of words rooted in their pragmatic efficiency. The origins of the magical attitude towards words. Ethnographic and genetic substantiation of Ogden and Richards' views of Meaning and Definition.  The problem of grammatical structure. Where to look for the prototype of grammatical categories. 'Logical' and 'purely grammatical' explanations rejected. Existence of Real Categories in the primitive man's pragmatic outlook which correspond to the structural categories of language. Exemplified on the nature the noun and of other Parts of Speech.
 * Contents

title: Literature/1923/Malinowski


text:
The History of the Paralympic Movement in Australia/Meetings

 * 1) /26 June 2011/
 * 2) /Perth 18 Sept 2011/
 * 3) /Brisbane 31 October 2011/
 * 4) /Brisbane 26 May 2012/


text:
The History of the Paralympic Movement in Australia/Meetings/26 June 2011

On 26 June 2011, Tony, Murray, Leigh and John met after the Brisbane Wikipedia Meetup. Thanks to Lankiveil who arranged an excellent meeting space with the Queensland Library, and joined us to discuss the project.

Laura Hale and NSIC dimension

 * 1) Wikipedia: Conflict resolution – issue between Laura Hale and another Wikipedia editor seems to be a problem with the latter. Laura Hale to continue with the Wikipedia dimension of the project.
 * 2) Laura to get resources from the NSIC in relation to the 1996 Paralympic Games and complete the 1996 Wikipedia page.
 * 3) Next to work on specific pages (as highlighted by the committee).
 * 4) Leigh to prepare a draft code of practice for the project

Details of Wikipedia pages

 * 1) Wikipedia pages to focus on Paralympic Games (Winter and Summer 22 Games) and Commonwealth Paraplegic Games (4 Games).
 * 2) Related Wikipedia pages to be created for medal athletes, coaches and administrators to be developed as the project continues.
 * 3) Strategies for encouraging volunteer contributors to Wikipedia pages – talk pages, red link (add more information), add comment in the top of the page as well as provision of images, vision and audio.
 * 4) Balance needed between employment of contractors and volunteers, as well as text and images, to establish pages.
 * 5) Approach to generate interest from Wikipedia community is to be generated by Leigh and John, most likely will consist of a mix of topics and list of resources to be provided for volunteers.
 * 6) Brief discussion of the editorial process on the Wikipedia pages: User submits, and community checks, and academic confirmation. Murray and Tony will edit Australia at the 1996 Summer Paralympics and provide feedback.

Formal Agreement progress

 * 1) Agreements are being organised at present between APC, UQ and UC.
 * 2) Issues to be resolved include contracts between APC and UQ, and UQ and UC. Related issues include mode of subcontracting, method of payments, and payment of contractors who have already conducted work.

Launch discussion and details

 * 1) Virtual announcement of the launch of the history of the Australian Paralympic Movement will be during the week starting July 11. Project space on Wikipedia will be created and available for the launch.
 * 2) Launched to be tied with the completion of the Australia at the 1996 Summer Paralympic Games Page.

6 month plan (July – December 2011)

 * 1) Australia at the 1996 Summer Paralympic Games Page completed
 * 2) Library resources generated
 * 3) Task Force Page completed
 * 4) Images and Video available
 * 5) 10 Wikipedia Games pages created
 * 6) Establishment of a community of contributors


text:
Literature/1936/Lewin

 * http://www.amazon.com/Principles-Topological-Psychology-Kurt-Lewin/dp/1406746797/

Excerpts

 * We have come to see that in investigations of this kind [of unified psychology] we must deal with persons as wholes to a much greater extent than in the psychology of sensation. In the psychology of sensation the individual's ideals, ambitions, and his social relationships play no role at all or only a subordinate one. But an experimental investigation of needs, of action, or of emotions cannot be carried out without taking into account the characteristics of the person, his momentary state, and his psychological environment.     This shows again that the concepts of which psychology is now in need have to meet the requirements which we suggested above: the system of concepts must be broad enough to be applicable to the most primitive bodily behavior as well as to the emotions, thought processes, values, and social relationships. It must be capable of representing these processes not as single isolated facts but in their mutual dependence as expressions of a concrete situation involving a definite person in a definite condition. These concepts must unify without undue simplification; they must include both person and environment, both law and individual case.     These requirements can be fulfilled only if one turns from the prevailing methods of "abstractive classification" and tries to build constructive concepts. (pp. 5-6)

Wikimedia

 * Lewin's Equation
 * Lewin's Equation, B=ƒ(P,E), is not actually a mathematical equation representing quantifiable relationships but rather a heuristic designed by psychologist Kurt Lewin. It states that Behavior is a function of the Person and his or her Environment. The equation is the psychologist's most well known formula in social psychology, of which Lewin was a modern pioneer. When first presented in Lewin's book Principles of Topological Psychology, published in 1936, it contradicted most popular theories in that it gave importance to a person's momentary situation in understanding his or her behavior, rather than relying entirely on the past.

title: Literature/1936/Lewin


text:
Literature/1997/Pinker

Authors

 * He is a Harvard College Professor and Johnstone Family Professor in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University. @ Steven Pinker

Chronology

 * Pinker, Steven (2011). The Better Angels of Our Nature: The Decline of Violence in History and Its Causes.
 * Pinker, Steven (2007).  The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature.
 * Pinker, Steven, ed. (2004). The Best American Science and Nature Writing.
 * Pinker, Steven (2002).  The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature.
 * Pinker, Steven (1999).  Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language.
 * Pinker, Steven (1994).  The Language Instinct.
 * Pinker, Steven (1992). Lexical and Conceptual Semantics.
 * Pinker, Steven (1989). Learnability and Cognition: The Acquisition of Argument Structure.
 * Pinker, Steven (1988). Connections and Symbols.
 * Pinker, Steven (1985). Visual Cognition.
 * Pinker, Steven (1984). Language Learnability and Language Development.
 * See also
 * Henry Plotkin (1997). Evolution in Mind: An Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology. Allen Lane.
 * Henry Plotkin (1997). Evolution in Mind: An Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology. Allen Lane.
 * Henry Plotkin (1997). Evolution in Mind: An Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology. Allen Lane.
 * Henry Plotkin (1997). Evolution in Mind: An Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology. Allen Lane.

Reviews

 * Google Reviews
 * Fodor, Jerry (1998). "The Trouble with Psychological Darwinism." London Review of Books (1998) Vol. 20, No. 2
 * The Pulitzer Prize finalist and national bestseller How the Mind Works is a fascinating, provocative work exploring the mysteries of human thought and behavior. How do we see in three dimensions? How do we remember names and faces? How is it, indeed, that we ponder the nature of our own consciousness? Why do we fall in love? In this bold, extraordinary book, Pinker synthesizes the best of cognitive science and evolutionary biology to explain what the mind is, how it has evolved, and, ultimately, how it works. This edition includes a new afterword that explores the impact of the book and its relevance today.
 * w: Talk:How the Mind Works

Comments

 * Steven Pinker may better note that the flamingo is stiffly pinker than the bruin or the  brown bear of etymological tautology, which in turn is so pinker than the grizzly and any other species. This mathematically provable notion has been well known since  Eleanor Rosch's prototype theory refined around semantic categories in 1975 in accordance with  Paul Grice's (1975) famous implicature or the implicit nature of meaning in mind, that is, embodied a posteriori, acquired or learned, rather than embedded a priori, innate or inborn.

title: Literature/1997/Pinker


text:
File:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS EC3.svg

See Wiki Commons Category:EGM6341.s11.TEAM1.WILKS for all figures related to this transcription work.

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User talk:Payday Loans09

Wikiversity is for learning, not advertising
Wikiversity is for learning, not advertising, hence the advertising page(s) you created have been deleted. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 10:29, 5 July 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Payday Loans09