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Types of Evidence in Medicine

 Aims and Objectives:
 * To define evidence-based medicine and outlay its importance in medical practice
 * To describe the scientific method of research
 * To list and describe the types of evidence available and rank them according to the strength

Evidence-based Medicine
"Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients." It aims to apply evidence gained from the scientific method to certain parts of medical practice. It seeks to assess the quality of evidence relevant to the risks and benefits of treatments (including lack of treatment).

The importance of scientific evidence is best observed when previous literature, medical rationale, patient preferences and practitioner experience are combined. This combination intends to provide the patient with the best known standard of care. The main drawback for evidence-based medicine is the fact that studies of populations are not necessarily relevant when a medical practitioner is treating a single patient. Despite this, evidence-based medicine still remains the gold-standard for analyzing the risks and benefits of certain treatments.

The Scientific Method
The scientific method is the method of choice when gathering medical evidence. It follows a strict structure to ensure that evidence gathering is standardized, regardless of the type of evidence gathering used. Its goal is to test a given hypothesis (theory).

The process is as follows:

 * 1) Define the question
 * 2) Gather information and resources
 * 3) Form hypothesis
 * 4) Perform experiment and collect data
 * 5) Analyze data
 * 6) Interpret data and draw conclusions
 * 7) Publish results
 * 8) Retest

Types of Evidence
There are many types of evidence gathering tools used in medicine. They all use the scientific method and are subject to rigorous scrutiny if they report a hypothesis as true.

Systematic Review
A systematic review is a literature review focused on a single question which tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that question. Systematic reviews are generally regarded as the highest level of medical evidence by evidence-based medicine professionals. An understanding of systematic reviews and how to implement them in practice is becoming mandatory for all professionals involved in the delivery of health care.

A systematic review is a summary of research (often in the biomedical or health care context) that uses explicit methods to perform a thorough literature search and critical appraisal of individual studies to identify the valid and applicable evidence. It often, but not always, uses appropriate techniques (meta-analysis) to combine these valid studies, or at least uses grading of the levels of evidence depending on the methodology used. A systematic review uses an objective and transparent approach for research synthesis, with the aim of minimizing bias. While many systematic reviews are based on an explicit quantitative meta-analysis of available data, there are also qualitative reviews which nonetheless adhere to the standards for gathering, analyzing and reporting evidence. Recent developments include realist reviews and the meta-narrative approach.

Many healthcare journals now publish systematic reviews, but the best-known source is the Cochrane Collaboration, a group of over 6,000 specialists in health care who systematically review randomised trials of the effects of treatments and, when appropriate, the results of other research. Cochrane reviews are published in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews section of the Cochrane Library, which to date (February 2007) contains 2,893 complete reviews and 1,646 protocols.

While systematic reviews are regarded as the strongest form of medical evidence, a review of 300 studies found that not all systematic reviews were equally reliable, and that their reporting could be improved by a universally agreed upon set of standards and guidelines.

A further study by the same group found that of 100 guidelines reviewed, 4% required updating within a year, and 11% after 2 years; this figure was higher in rapidly-changing fields of medicine, especially cardiovascular medicine. 7% of systematic reviews needed updating at the time of publication.

Randomized Controlled Trials
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of scientific experiment most commonly used in testing healthcare services (such as medicine or nursing) or health technologies (such as pharmaceuticals, medical devices or surgery). According to Lachin (1998), 'RCTs are considered the most reliable form of scientific evidence in healthcare because they eliminate spurious causality and bias'. RCTs are mainly used in clinical studies, but are also employed in other sectors such as judicial, educational, and social research. As their name suggests, RCTs involve the random allocation of different interventions (or treatments) to subjects. This ensures that known and unknown confounding factors are evenly distributed between treatment groups.

In an open trial, the researcher knows the full details of the treatment, and so does the patient. These trials are open to challenge for bias, and they do nothing to reduce the placebo effect. However, sometimes they are unavoidable, particularly in relation to surgical techniques, where it may not be possible or ethical to hide from the patient which treatment he or she received. Usually this kind of study design is used in bioequivalence studies.

In a single-blind trial, the researcher knows the details of the treatment but the patient does not. Because the patient does not know which treatment is being administered (the new treatment or another treatment) there might be no placebo effect. In practice, since the researcher knows, it is possible for them to treat the patient differently or to subconsciously hint to the patient important treatment-related details, thus influencing the outcome of the study.

In a double-blind trial, one researcher allocates a series of numbers to 'new treatment' or 'old treatment'. The second researcher is told the numbers, but not what they have been allocated to. Since the second researcher does not know, they cannot possibly tell the patient, directly or otherwise, and cannot give in to patient pressure to give them the new treatment. In this system, there is also often a more realistic distribution of sexes and ages of patients. Therefore double-blind (or randomized) trials are preferred, as they tend to give the most accurate results.

Traditionally the control in randomized controlled trials refers to studying a group of treated patients not in isolation but in comparison to other groups of patients, the control groups, who by not receiving the treatment under study give investigators important clues to the effectiveness of the treatment, its side effects, and the parameters that modify these effects.

There are two processes involved in randomizing patients to different interventions. First is choosing a randomization procedure to generate a random and unpredictable sequence of allocations. This may be a simple random assignment of patients to any of the groups at equal probabilities, or may be complex and adaptive. A second and more practical issue is allocation concealment, which refers to the stringent precautions taken to ensure that the group assignment of patients are not revealed to the study investigators prior to definitively allocating them to their respective groups.

A major difficulty in dealing with trial results comes from commercial, political and/or academic pressure. Most trials are expensive to run, and will be the result of significant previous research, which is itself not cheap. There may be a political issue at stake (compare MMR vaccine) or vested interests (compare homeopathy). In such cases there is great pressure to interpret results in a way which suits the viewer, and great care must be taken by researchers to maintain emphasis on clinical facts.

Cohort Study

A cohort study or panel study is a form of longitudinal study used in medicine and social science. It is one type of study design and should be compared with a cross-sectional study.

A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period (e.g., are born, leave school, lose their job, are exposed to a drug or a vaccine, etc.). Thus a group of people who were born on a day or in a particular period, say 1948, form a birth cohort. The comparison group may be the general population from which the cohort is drawn, or it may be another cohort of persons thought to have had little or no exposure to the substance under investigation, but otherwise similar. Alternatively, subgroups within the cohort may be compared with each other.

In medicine, a cohort study is often undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and disease; failure to refute a hypothesis strengthens confidence in it. Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of the disease under investigation. The study groups, so defined, are observed over a period of time to determine the frequency of new incidence of the studied disease among them. The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already have the disease. Distinguishing causality from mere correlation cannot usually be done with results of a cohort study alone.

The advantage of cohort study data is the longitudinal observation of the individual through time, and the collection of data at regular intervals, so recall error is reduced. However, cohort studies are expensive to conduct, are sensitive to attrition and take a long time to generate useful data.

Some cohort studies track groups of children from their birth, and record a wide range of information (exposures) about them. The value of a cohort study depends on the researchers' capacity to stay in touch with all members of the cohort. Some of these studies have continued for decades.

Case-control Study
Case-control studies are used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing a group of patients who have that condition with a group of patients who do not.

Case-control studies are a relatively inexpensive and frequently-used type of epidemiological study that can be carried out by small teams or individual researchers in single facilities in a way that more structured trials often cannot be. They have pointed the way to a number of important discoveries and advances, but their retrospective, non-randomized nature limits the conclusions that can be drawn from them. Case-control studies use patients who already have a disease or other condition and look back to see if there are characteristics of these patients that differ from those who don’t have the disease.

The case-control study provides a cheaper and quicker study of risk factors; if the evidence found is convincing enough, then resources can be allocated to more "credible" and comprehensive studies. One major disadvantage of case-control studies is that they do not give any indication of the absolute risk of the factor in question. For instance, a case-control study may tell you that a certain behavior may be associated with a tenfold increased risk of death as compared with the control group. Although this sounds alarming, it would not tell you that the actual risk of death would change from one in ten million to one in one million, which is quite a bit less alarming. For that information, data from outside the case-control study must be consulted.

Outcomes Research
Outcomes research is the method by which the effectiveness of a health care system, unit or individual treatment is measured. The measurements used may be objective measures, such as blood pressure readings, or subjective measures, such as the severity of pain. It allows for a somewhat objective measure of the outcomes of clinical practice.

Ecological Studies
Ecological studies are studies in which associations are sought between a disease and certain ecological attributes of the population. Ecological studies may reveal an increased incidence of disease in certain areas of a country, at a certain time of year, among migrant workers, among people of a certain occupation or people of a certain social class.

Case-series
A case series (also known as a clinical series) is a medical research study that tracks patients with a known exposure or examines their medical records for exposure and outcome. A case series can be retrospective or prospective and usually involves a smaller number of patients than more powerful case-control studies or randomized controlled trials.

A case series is a type of observational study. Case series may be consecutive or non-consecutive, depending on whether all cases presenting to the reporting authors over a period of time were included, or only a selection.

Expert Opinion
This is the knowledge available to experts in their field based on experience and training. It is considered the least valuable source of medical evidence and the experts are required to update and improve their knowledge by studying medical evidence higher up the valued chain.

Ranking of Evidence
Medical evidence is ranked according to its value:

 * 1a: Systematic reviews (with homogeneity ) of randomized controlled trials
 * 1a-: Systematic review of randomized trials displaying worrisome heterogeneity
 * 1b: Individual randomized controlled trials (with narrow confidence interval)
 * 1b-: Individual randomized controlled trials (with a wide confidence interval)
 * 1c: All or none randomized controlled trials
 * 2a: Systematic reviews (with homogeneity) of cohort studies
 * 2a-: Systematic reviews of cohort studies displaying worrisome heterogeneity
 * 2b: Individual cohort study or low quality randomized controlled trials (<80% follow-up)
 * 2b-: Individual cohort study or low quality randomized controlled trials (<80% follow-up / wide confidence interval)
 * 2c: 'Outcomes' Research; ecological studies
 * 3a: Systematic review (with homogeneity) of case-control studies
 * 3a-: Systematic review of case-control studies with worrisome heterogeneity
 * 3b: Individual case-control study
 * 4: Case-series (and poor quality cohort and case-control studies)
 * 5: Expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal, or based on physiology, bench research or 'first principles'

 The ranking of medical evidence is as follows:
 * Systematic Review
 * Randomised Controlled Trial
 * Cohort Study
 * Case-control study
 * Outcomes research
 * Ecological study
 * Case-series
 * Expert opinion

Any Questions? How to rank Cross-sectional studies? Please guide about that too.

title: Types of Evidence in Medicine


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Social psychology (psychology)/Assessment

Overview
For exact due dates, see unit outline or assessment (ucspace).

FAQ

 * 1) Will final marks be moderated? No.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Social psychology (psychology)/Assessment/Essay


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Social psychology (psychology)/Staff

The teaching staff for this unit are:

Note: To email, replace the " at " with @ (it is shown like this to limit automatic spamming)

title: Social psychology (psychology)/Staff


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User talk:Arete~enwikiversity

Hello, welcome around here. I hope we can help you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 07:58, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 Hello Arete, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 07:58, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 Woof! My name is Jack(Russell). I am a dog and a Wikiversity mascot. I am pretty new around Wikiversity. Perhaps we can learn together! Tail wag...

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Arete. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Arete~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

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title: User talk:Arete~enwikiversity


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User talk:Mariodonick

Hello Mario, welcome around here. I hope we can help you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 07:59, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 Hello Mariodonick, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 07:59, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mariodonick


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User:Mayank.grd

Mayank Kumar 3rd Year B.Tech Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of technology, Delhi Interests:
 * Image Processing/ Computer Vision
 * Genetic Programming (GP)
 * Digital Design
 * Embedded Systems

title: User:Mayank.grd


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BCP/Rhododendron maximum

Rhododendron maximum

title: BCP/Rhododendron maximum


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BCP/Rhododendron maximum/Logs

2008 Logs

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Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:56, 21 June 2008 (UTC)
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title: BCP/Rhododendron maximum/Logs


text: Social psychology (psychology)/Topic

title: Social psychology (psychology)/Topic


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Help:Experimental resource types

On Wikiversity, you are not restricted to any canon of conventional educational resource types. You can try and create new kinds of resources. This page is intended as a guide and as help in this process.

Poor reasons for being experimental

 * "I want to be different."
 * What you think is experimental may be very, very conventional (see below), not that there's anything wrong with it. Remember that collaborative authoring is 1000’s years old, and probably older than individual authoring.
 * "I want to be famous."
 * Prior to the inception of the wiki and Wikipedia, there were nevertheless tens of thousands of progressive educators all over the world, experimenting, developing and publishing methodologies in other formats. Just as a matter of statistics and probability, your chances of having an original idea are slim.
 * "I want to achieve great things."
 * If you wish to see further, stand on the shoulders of a giant rather than your own two feet. Find someone who already did something similar to what you want, then borrow from them, learn from them, build on their foundation incrementally. (Tip: this is the wiki way).

Teacher/student distinctions
One of the characteristics of experimental educational approaches in the field of open educational resources is the erasure of the strict distinction between teacher and learner. To students who are disillusioned with their teachers after making it through an unusually old-fashioned educational system, this can seem like fun: "students rool!". However the reason for creating resources which do not require a teacher/learner distinction is in fact that there are parts of the world with such under-developed educational systems that they have few or no teachers, or teachers lacking qualifications in key areas, or teacher-student ratios which are so bad that unusual approaches are required. It is sadly a matter of economic necessity in these areas that teachers must become students or students must become teachers, just in order to provide a basic education for everyone involved. However we need to remember that extreme situations of this kind have occurred throughout history, so methods of education which attempt to cope with these situations also exist which are centuries old.

Reaching new audiences
''Distance education dates back to at least as early as 1728, when "an advertisement in the Boston Gazette...[named] 'Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand" was seeking students for lessons to be sent weekly. Modern distance education has been practiced at least since Isaac Pitman taught shorthand in Great Britain via correspondence in the 1840s. '' (From Wikipedia, Distance education)

The internet is an old idea which works a little quicker and on a larger scale. The speed and scale of the new opportunities provides good reason to modify old methods and invent new ones. Remember that there are parts of the world where electricity is only available for part of the day, if at all, and that these may be the parts of the world with the greatest educational needs.

Saving time
The word "wiki" means fast. Possibly the one thing which school-teachers in developed countries most lack is time. If you develop methods of education on Wikiversity which help make things faster for school-teachers, then you are catering for a huge market.

Compensating for lack of resources
Necessity is the mother of invention. The other side of this is that if nobody needs your invention, nobody will use it. Need brings both ideas and audiences. Resources (in the sense of money, time, staff, books, materials, etc) are very unevenly distributed in the world, even within the world's richest educational systems. Developing new ways of using a wiki to cope with lack of resources isn't rocket science, though. Just follow one simple principle: follow the need.

Abandon conventionality completely
Section under construction.

Modify conventionality step-by-step
Section under construction.

{{clear))

Things to think about before you goof up

 * When Thomas Edison invented the light-bulb, he is widely quoted as saying that his (failed) attempts included no less than 1200 experiments with 6000 different types of vegetable matter as possible filament components. Don't think you'll get it right first time.
 * Don't stereotype convention. People who stereotype convention usually end up assuming that "convention = frontal teaching", perhaps because they were taught that way. Convention really just means any methods which have been well-studied and are widely used in education. Here is some reading for you: traditional education, education reform, constructivism (learning theory), active learning, problem-based learning, discovery learning, student-centred learning, Socratic method, open classroom.
 * If you didn't manage the reading list above, don't worry. The wheel was a great invention, and if you reinvent it, nobody's complaining (it's your time). To continue the story, Edison didn't actually invent the light-bulb; he spent enormous amounts of time and money improving previous ideas and then found that someone else had had the idea first (see rest of story).

Things to do while you experiment

 * Be educational. Even if your resource isn't a lesson, nevertheless read a lot of the advice at Help:Lesson about teaching and being educationally valuable. A lot of it may apply.
 * Try out your ideas on a real world class so that you can create a feedback cycle for testing and improving your ideas. Run your feedback cycle like this:
 * Put your experimental resource type onto Wikiversity.
 * Send your class to the resource.
 * Find out what the class thinks.
 * Judge whether the class learnt anything.
 * Think about the above.
 * Write an experience report on Wikiversity for others who follow in your tracks.
 * Modify your resource in the light of what you learnt from the experience.
 * Repeat steps 2 to 7 until you feel the resource type works.
 * Think of a name for your new invention and tell us about it.
 * If you hope to rely on a new audience that was waiting for you on Wikiversity, this may not work. Even if sufficient numbers of people become interested in your resource, the quality and quantity of feedback you get will be very low. There are people who have done it this way, but they were probably talented educationalists who worked very hard. Real world classes are an easier route.

Observational clocks
Wikiversity has a resource type called an "observational clock", which is based on the scientific practice of phenology dating back at least 1200 years to a time when the Chinese and Japanese recorded the annual variations in the blossoming times of peach and cherry trees.

The "observational clock", despite building on ancient and very well-established ideas, can be classified as an "experimental" resource type because of the arduous and innovative process of adapting the MediaWiki content management system to the hosting of a global phenological recording system. A Wikiversity observational clock is an experiment in massively distributed collaboration which invites school classes and amateur horticulturalists from all over the world to join in tracking the bloom times of hundreds of species of plant. At the technical level, the project involves complex templates for creating and maintaining recognition and classification "keys". Adapting and perfecting the technology behind the resource type is an ongoing process which responds to the growing number of participants and species.

Although the majority of resources on Wikiversity are probably conventional resource types, the very largest single resource is an observational clock - the Bloom Clock Project.

Related resources on Wikipedia

 * Massively distributed collaboration
 * Collaborative writing

Related resources on Wikiversity

 * Wikiversity learning model
 * Learning
 * Learning projects
 * Interactive learning resources
 * Learning resources

title: Help:Experimental resource types


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Talk:Educational Media Awareness Campaign/Languages/POTD 5

Other sign languages
This is alphabet of AMERICAN sign language. And should be made clear. American Sign Language is not THE sign language! There are hundreds of different sign languages in the world. :o) -- Dazissimo (A British Sign Language native)

 * Criticism justified. I have updated the item to reflect this. Thank you for pointing this out. --McCormack 12:22, 21 June 2008 (UTC)


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Portal talk:Social entrepreneurship/Curriculum/General/Valuation

Comments on (and contributions to) the Valuation section are welcome.

Sections for Comment

 * Evaluation Framework for Student Social Entrepreneurship


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User:Desalvionjr

Hello~ Userpage Comming Soon

title: User:Desalvionjr


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Epidemiology and Public Health

 Aims and Objectives:
 * To define epidemiology and public health
 * To list the functions of public health
 * To describe the assessment of evidence of causation
 * To outline the process of population-based health management
 * To describe different public health programs

Epidemiology and Public Health
Epidemiology is the study of those factors affecting the health of a given population. Public Health is the management of those factors. Together, they act as a concept known as preventive medicine.

The work of communicable and non-communicable disease epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection and analysis, including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Epidemiologists may draw from other scientific disciplines, such as biology, in understanding disease processes, as well as social science disciplines, including sociology and philosophy, to better understand proximate and distal risk factors.

The goal of public health is to improve lives through the prevention or treatment of disease. The United Nations' World Health Organization defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." In 1920, C.E.A. Winslow defined public health as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."

The public-health approach can be applied to a population of just a handful of people or to the whole human population. Public health is typically divided into Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Health services. Environmental, Social, Behavioral, and Occupational health are also important subfields.

Functions
The functions of public health include:

 * Health surveillance, monitoring and analysis
 * Investigation of disease outbreaks, epidemics and risk to health
 * Establishing, designing and managing health promotion and disease prevention programmes
 * Enabling and empowering communities to promote health and reduce inequalities
 * Creating and sustaining cross-Government and intersectoral partnerships to improve health and reduce inequalities
 * Ensuring compliance with regulations and laws to protect and promote health
 * Developing and maintaining a well-educated and trained, multi-disciplinary public health workforce
 * Ensuring the effective performance of health services to meet goals in improving health, preventing disease and reducing inequalities
 * Research, development, evaluation and innovation
 * Quality assuring the public health function

Assessing evidence of causation
Although epidemiology is sometimes viewed as a collection of statistical tools used to elucidate the associations of exposures to health outcomes, a deeper understanding of this science is that of discovering causal relationships. It is nearly impossible to say with perfect accuracy how even the most simple physical systems behave beyond the immediate future. Epidemiologists use gathered data and a broad range of biomedical and psychosocial theories in an iterative way to generate or expand theories, to test hypotheses, and to make educated, informed assertions about which relationships are causal, and about exactly how they are causal. Epidemiologists Rothman and Greenland emphasize that the "one cause - one effect" understanding is a simplistic mis-belief. Most outcomes — whether disease or death — are caused by a chain or web consisting of many component causes.

Bradford-Hill criteria
In 1965 Austin Bradford Hill detailed criteria for assessing evidence of causation. These guidelines are sometimes referred to as the Bradford-Hill criteria, but this makes it seem like it is some sort of checklist. For example, Phillips and Goodman (2004) note that they are often taught or referenced as a checklist for assessing causality, despite this not being Hill's intention. Hill himself said "None of my nine viewpoints can bring indisputable evidence for or against the cause-and-effect hypothesis and none can be required sine qua non".

 * 1) Strength: A small association does not mean that there is not a causal effect.
 * 2) Consistency: Consistent findings observed by different persons in different places with different samples strengthens the likelihood of an effect.
 * 3) Specificity: Causation is likely if a very specific population at a specific site and disease with no other likely explanation. The more specific an association between a factor and an effect is, the bigger the probability of a causal relationship.
 * 4) Temporality: The effect has to occur after the cause (and if there is an expected delay between the cause and expected effect, then the effect must occur after that delay).
 * 5) Biological gradient: Greater exposure should generally lead to greater incidence of the effect. However, in some cases, the mere presence of the factor can trigger the effect. In other cases, an inverse proportion is observed: greater exposure leads to lower incidence.
 * 6) Plausibility: A plausible mechanism between cause and effect is helpful (but Hill noted that knowledge of the mechanism is limited by current knowledge).
 * 7) Coherence: Coherence between epidemiological and laboratory findings increases the likelihood of an effect. However, Hill noted that "... lack of such [laboratory] evidence cannot nullify the epidemiological affect on associations".
 * 8) Experiment: "Occasionally it is possible to appeal to experimental evidence".
 * 9) Analogy: The effect of similar factors may be considered.

Population-based Management
Epidemiological practice and the results of epidemiological analysis make a significant contribution to emerging population-based health management frameworks.

Population-based health management encompasses the ability to:
 * assess the health states and health needs of a target population;
 * implement and evaluate interventions that are designed to improve the health of that population; and
 * efficiently and effectively provide care for members of that population in a way that is consistent with the community’s cultural, policy and health resource values.

Modern population-based health management is complex, requiring a multiple set of skills (medical, political, technological, mathematical etc.) of which epidemiological practice and analysis is a core component, that is unified with management science to provide efficient and effective health care and health guidance to a population. This task requires the forward looking ability of modern risk management approaches that transform health risk factors, incidence, prevalence and mortality statistics (derived from epidemiological analysis) into management metrics that not only guide how a health system responds to current population health issues, but also how a health system can be managed to better respond to future potential population health issues.

Examples of organizations that use population-based health management that leverage the work and results of epidemiological practice include Canadian Strategy for Cancer Control, Health Canada Tobacco Control Programs, Rick Hansen Foundation, Canadian Tobacco Control Research Initiative.

Public Health at work
One of the most important public health issues facing the world currently is HIV/AIDS. Tuberculosis is also reemerging as a major concern due to the rise of HIV/AIDS-related infections and the development of tuberculin strains that are resistant to standard antibiotics. Another major public health concern is diabetes. In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, this number will double.

A controversial aspect of public health is the control of smoking. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers in all developed countries, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for smokers to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility (often using the phrase nanny state in the UK), and worry that the state may be emboldened to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. However, proponents counter that inflicting disease on other people via passive smoking is not a human right, and in fact smokers are still free to smoke in their own homes.

Screening
Screening, in medicine, is a strategy used in a population to detect a disease in individuals without signs or symptoms of that disease. Unlike most medicine, in screening, tests are performed on those without any clinical indication of disease.

The intention of screening is to identify disease in a community early, thus enabling earlier intervention and management in the hope to reduce mortality and suffering from a disease. Although screening may lead to an earlier diagnosis, not all screening tests have been shown to benefit the person being screened; overdiagnosis, misdiagnosis, and creating a false sense of security are some potential adverse effects of screening. For these reasons, a test used in a screening program, especially for a disease with low incidence, must have good specificity in addition to acceptable sensitivity.

Like any medical test, the tests used in screening are not perfect. The test may appear positive for those without disease (false positive), or may miss people who have the disease (false negative). Even with a correct result, other factors may mean that a screening test is not beneficial to a population.

 * Adverse effects of screening procedure (e.g. Stress, anxiety, radiation exposure, chemical exposure).
 * Stress and anxiety caused by a false positive screening result.
 * Unnecessary investigation and treatment of false positive results.
 * Prolonging knowledge of an illness if nothing can be done about it.
 * A false sense of security caused by false negatives, which may even delay final diagnosis.
 * Overuse/waste of medical resources.
 * Unnecessary and uncomfortable procedures looking for a disease that is unlikely.

World Health Organization guidelines were published in 1968, but they are still applicable today.

1. The condition should be an important health problem. 2. There should be a treatment for the condition. 3. Facilities for diagnosis and treatment should be available. 4. There should be a latent stage of the disease. 5. There should be a test or examination for the condition. 6. The test should be acceptable to the population. 7. The natural history of the disease should be adequately understood. 8. There should be an agreed policy on who to treat. 9. The total cost of finding a case should be economically balanced in relation to medical expenditure as a whole. 10. Case-finding should be a continuous process, not just a "once and for all" project.

Any Questions?

title: Epidemiology and Public Health


text:
Talk:Medical ethics

'''This page is for questions in relation to the lesson only. All other questions can be referred to the module or school talk pages.'''

title: Talk:Medical ethics


text:
Talk:Types of Evidence in Medicine

'''This page is for questions in relation to the lesson only. All other questions can be referred to the module or school talk pages.'''

title: Talk:Types of Evidence in Medicine


text:
Health Systems

 Aims and Objectives:
 * To define the health care system and state its goals
 * To describe the different methods of health care financing
 * To list the different health care models in use

Health Care Systems
A health care system is an organization to deliver health care. There are many variations of health care systems around the world.

The goals for health systems, according to the World Health Report 2000 - Health systems: improving performance (WHO, 2000), are good health, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair financial contribution. Duckett (2004) proposed a two dimensional approach to evaluation of health care systems: quality, efficiency and acceptability on one dimension and equity on another.

There are generally five primary methods of funding health care systems:
 * 1) direct or out-of-pocket payments
 * 2) general taxation
 * 3) social health insurance
 * 4) voluntary or private health insurance
 * 5) donations or community health insurance.

One recent study published by the National Bureau of Economic Research found no systematic relationship between the cost efficiency of health care systems and the type of financing used. The author concluded "that almost all financing choices are compatible with efficiency in the delivery of health care."

Health care has the following characteristics:
 * The provision of critical health care treatment is often regarded as a basic human right, regardless of whether the individual has the means to pay—some treatments cost more than a typical family's life savings.
 * Health care professionals are bound by law and their oaths of service to provide lifesaving treatment.
 * Asymmetric information
 * High risk level

Health care models include:

 * Purely private enterprise health care systems are comparatively rare. Where they exist, it is usually for a comparatively well-off subpopulation in a poorer country with a poorer standard of health care–for instance, private clinics for a small, wealthy expatriate population in an otherwise poor country. But there are countries with a majority-private health care system with residual public service (see Medicare, Medicaid).
 * The other major models are public insurance systems:
 * Social security health care model, where workers and their families are insured by the State.
 * Publicly funded health care model, where the residents of the country are insured by the State.
 * Social health insurance, where the whole population or most of the population is a member of a sickness insurance company.

In almost every country with a government health care system a parallel private system is allowed to operate. This is sometimes referred to as two-tier health care. The scale, extent, and funding of these private systems is very variable.

Any Questions?

title: Health Systems


text:
Talk:Health Systems

'''This page is for questions in relation to the lesson only. All other questions can be referred to the module or school talk pages.'''

title: Talk:Health Systems


text: User:Nihil novi

title: User:Nihil novi


text: User talk:Nihil novi

title: User talk:Nihil novi


title: User:Watchmefallaway11


text:
Wikipedia

These learning resources aim at providing knowledge that all Wikipedia and Wikimedia users, authors and administrators should possess. It aims at answering questions such as:
 * How can wikis and Wikipedia as phenomenon be understood?
 * How to edit and administrate Wikipedia and Mediawiki sites?
 * How can students, teachers, librarians, journalists, etc, use and relate to Wikipedia and other wikis?
 * What are the main criticisms of Wikipedia?
 * What research exists related to Wikipedia as phenomenon?
 * What are the current wiki technology development trends?

About Wikipedia

 * See more at Wikipedia article on Wikipedia.

Wikipedia (abbreviated as Wiki) is a multilingual, wiki-based, free-content online encyclopedia project. The name is a portmanteau of the words wiki, the Hawaiian word meaning quick, and encyclopedia. Wikipedia is written collaboratively by volunteers, allowing most of its articles to be edited by almost anyone with access to the website and is a free site for all types of ages. Its main servers are in Tampa, Florida, with additional servers in Amsterdam and Seoul.

Wikipedia was launched as an English language project on January 15, 2001, as a complement to the expert-written and now defunct Nupedia, and is now operated by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. It was created by Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales; Sanger resigned from both Nupedia and Wikipedia on March 1, 2002. Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a multilingual free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language".

Wikipedia has more than fifty eight million articles in many languages, including more than 6 million articles in both the English-language version and the Cebuano-language version and more than two million in the German-language version. There are 250 language editions of Wikipedia, and 18 of them have more than 50,000 articles. The German-language edition has been distributed on DVD-ROM, and there have been proposals for an English DVD or print edition. Since its inception, Wikipedia has steadily risen in popularity, and has spawned several sister projects. According to Alexa, Wikipedia ranks among the top fifteen most visited sites, and many of its pages have been mirrored or forked by other sites, such as Answers.com.

There has been controversy over Wikipedia's reliability and accuracy, with the site receiving criticism for its susceptibility to vandalism, uneven quality and inconsistency, systemic bias, and preference for consensus or popularity over credentials. Information is sometimes unconfirmed and questionable, lacking the proper sources that, in the eyes of most "Wikipedians" (as Wikipedia's contributors call themselves), are necessary for an article to be considered "high quality". However, a 2005 comparison performed by the science journal Nature of sections of Wikipedia and the Encyclopædia Britannica found that the two were close in terms of the accuracy of their articles on the natural sciences. This study was challenged by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., who described it as "fatally flawed".

Wikipedia and the Neutrality Principle
A precis of key ideas from Jose Van Dijck, who wrote a chapter on Wikipedia and the neutrality principle in her 2013 book, The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media (Oxford University Press).

Learning resources
The following is a list of learning resources that may be useful as course material on courses about Wikis and Wikipedia. The list is organized after resource type, and includes resources developed within this project and related Wikiversity projects as well as external links.

Syllabi

 * Suggested syllabus for a university level course named Wikis and Wikipedia - Authoring, Reliability and Technology
 * /Writing an article on Wikipedia: a course to take a new user through the process of writing or editing their first article.

Assignments and exercises

 * Wikipedia/Quizzes - Multiple choice questions about Wikipedia policies and Wikipedia criticism.
 * Wikipedia pop quiz - at Fanpop.com - Multiple choice questions about Wikipedia history and Wikipedia statistics
 * Inside_Wikipedia - Suggested discussion topics about Wikipedia policies and Wikipedia criticism.
 * Wikimedia Ethics/Suggested essays
 * Wikipedia/Suggested essays
 * Generating dynamic content with MediaWiki - Practical exercises

Videos
These are recorded seminars, lectures, webinars and instructions videos related to Wikipedia:
 * Jimmy Wales, "The Intelligence of Wikipedia", Oxford Internet Institute webcast (54 minutes Real Media or MPEG4) Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales explains the history and growth of Wikipedia with a particular focus on the internal community process which ensure a constant growth in quality.
 * Wikia training videos
 * Youtube search: Wikipedia

Slides
See also: Commons:Category:Wikimedia_presentations_in_English and meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Presentations.

These are slide show presentations, lecture notes and handouts related to Wikipedia:
 * Anne Pemberton, Rachel Radom, "Wikipedia 360° - The Good, The Bad, and the Anonymous", Randall Library, University of North Carolina Wilmington, September 2007
 * Phoebe S. Ayers, "Wikipedia 101 - or, how I learned to stop worrying and trust the Internet", UC Davis University Library, California Library Association Annual Meeting, February 2007
 * Aubri Keleman, "Teaching in Wikiland - An introduction to using Wikis in the classroom, January 2006
 * Martha Groom, Andreas Brockhaus, "Using Wikipedia to Re-envision the Term Paper", University of Washington Bothell, October 2007
 * Ken Winter, "Wiki, the Web and WorldCat: Open Editing and Research In Action" Committee on Library and Information Science for Transportation Annual meeting, January 2006
 * Dirk Riehle, "Learning from Wikipedia: Open collaboration within organisations", Talk the Future - the Future of Work and Business Conference, September 2008

Scientific publications
These are peer-reviewed academic papers related to Wikipedia, that students may review and use as references:
 * Academic studies about Wikipedia A review of some research publications related to Wikipedia
 * List of academic studies on Wikipedia (w:WP:ACST) List of academic conference presentations, peer-reviewed papers and other types of academic writing which focus on Wikipedia
 * Wiki Research Bibliography - meta list article
 * Wikimedia research - Wikiversity category
 * Google scholar search: Wikipedia

Text books
These text books may be used as course literature:
 * John Broughton, Wikipedia: The Missing Manual, O'Reilly, 2008 - Preview
 * Dan Woods, Peter Thoeny, Ward Cunningham, Wikis For Dummies, 2007 - Preview
 * Wiki Science - wikibook
 * Starting and Running a Wiki Website - wikibook
 * MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook - wikibook
 * MediaWiki User Guide - wikibook
 * List of books which have discussed Wikipedia
 * Google books search for "Wikipedia"
 * Google books search for "Wikipedia"

Glossaries
These glossares may serve as lists of terms that a student should understand after a course about Wikipedia:
 * Wikipedia:Glossary
 * Glossary

Wikipedia articles
These are articles, essays and help pages available at en.wikipedia.org, that may be useful as course materials on a course about Wikipedia:
 * Introduction
 * Welcome to Wikipedia
 * Help pages
 * Criticism of Wikipedia
 * Reliability of Wikipedia
 * Citing Wikipedia
 * Researching with Wikipedia
 * History of Wikipedia
 * Wiki
 * Wikipedia
 * Criticisms
 * Why Wikipedia is not so great
 * School and university projects

Case studies

 * Wikimedia Ethics Case Studies

Statistical sources

 * Wikipedia statistics
 * Wikipedia article traffic statistics - Comparison of invidual articles
 * Wikimedia official statistics - Comparison of wiki language versions
 * Wikistats by S23 - Statistics about Mediawikis - Comparison of wiki language versions
 * List of Wikipedias - Comparison of wiki language versions
 * Poll of Wikimedians by religion

University level courses

 * Informatics BA (A), Wikipedia – Authoring, Reliability and Technology, 7.5 higher education credits, Swedish distance course offered from fall 2009.

Other courses, workshops, conferences and events

 * Wikipedia academies
 * Wikimania
 * Elective part of the Australian Higher School Certificate syllabus English stage 6, Standard Module C, Elective 1: The Global Village, 2009-2012 (Board of Studies, New South Wales). See media coverage: Wikipedia Signpost, www.brisbanetimes.com.

Other lists of learning resources

 * Government of Western Austarialian, Department of education & training, Resourcing the Curriculum: Wikis in te classroom
 * Government of Western Austarialian, Department of education & training, Resourcing the Curriculum: Wikipedia
 * K-12 wiki resources
 * Utah State University list of resources: Wiki
 * Utah State University list of resources: Web2.0: Wikis

Wiki

 * Learn to learn a wiki way
 * Learning to edit a wiki
 * Wiki
 * Wiki portal

Wikipedia

 * Inside Wikipedia
 * Pywikipediabot
 * Wikipedia service-learning courses

MediaWiki

 * Generating dynamic content with MediaWiki
 * MediaWiki Project
 * MediaWiki - a Wikiversity topic

Wikimedia

 * How to be a Wikimedia sysop
 * Wikimedia studies portal - a Wikiversity portal
 * School of WikiService
 * Wikimedia Ethics

Wikipedia related

 * WikiGame

title: Wikipedia


text:
User talk:Korfel

Korzenny. See http://www.korzenny.com or http://hmc.comm.fsu.edu

title: User talk:Korfel


text:
Introduction to Swedish/Test

Grammar
{Fill in en or ett Det ligger { ett } äpple i korgen. Fordonet där borta är { en } bil.
 * type="{}" coef="2"}

{Fill in en or ett Malmö har { en } flygplats. Det är { ett } hus.
 * type="{}" coef="2"}

{Fill in en or ett Sverige har { en } populär kung. De har bara { ett } täcke. Han har fällt { ett } träd.
 * type="{}" coef="3"}

{Fill in en or ett Jag vet att { en } älg är större än { en } flicka. Uppsala är { en } stad som har { ett } centrum.
 * type="{}" coef="4"}

{Fill in en or ett
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Är du { en } fiende?

{Fill in the correct form of the adjective snygg (good looking)
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Han är en { snygg } kille.

{Fill in the correct form of snygg
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Hon har { snygga } kläder.

{Fill in the correct form of snygg
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Min tjej är { snygg }.

{Fill in the correct form of snygg
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Det är ett { snyggt } bord.

{Fill in the correct form of snygg
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Hans skor är { snygga }.

Translation English-Swedish
{ Hon är kortare än jag. { She is shorter than I.|She is shorter than I am.|She is shorter than me. }
 * type="{}" coef="2"}

{ Man får inte gå på järnvägsrälsen. { One must not walk on the rails.|You must not walk on the rails.|You must not walk on the railway track. }
 * type="{}" coef="2"}

{ Vad vill ni ha att dricka? { What would you like to drink? }
 * type="{}" coef="2"}

Vocabulary
{Translate into Swedish

a shed { ett skjul } several sheds { flera skjul }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ thousand { tusen }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ half an hour { en halvtimme|halvtimme }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ a quarter { en kvart|en fjärdedel }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ hello { hej|god dag }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ to work { att arbeta|(att) arbeta|arbeta }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ an animal { ett djur } several animals { flera djur }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ big { stor } bigger { större } the biggest { störst }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Translate into English vacker { beautiful }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{ de här { these }
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

Facts

{Who is the queen? René Descartes besökte drottning { Kristina }.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Which ship? Gustaf II Adolf lät bygga regalskeppet { vasa|wasa|Vasa|Wasa }, som nu finns på ett museum i Stockholm.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Which light house? Fyren { Långe Jan } står på Ölands södra udde.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Which year? Gustav Vasa blev kung år { 1523 }.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Which town? Vinga ligger utanför { Göteborg }.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

{Which politician? Statsminister { Olof Palme|Palme } blev mördad i Stockholm 1986.
 * type="{}" coef="1"}

title: Introduction to Swedish/Test


text:
Wikiversity talk:Random

Random redirects
Quoted from http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Redirect: ''A redirect target cannot depend on a variable, template, or parser function. When attempting this, the restriction does not become apparent in the preview (see also the section below on the rendering of a redirect page), but only after saving.'' --McCormack 06:29, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Random transclusions
I got it working with transclusions, which has the disadvantages that some links won't work and the page title displays as "Wikiversity:Random". I have added a top bar to attempt to compensate for this. Currently, it's the best I can do, and I think it's good enough - certainly better than choosing a random stub. --McCormack 07:44, 15 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Maybe put it (the Random project on the sidebar) back (revert) the way it was and attempt to build more consensus around the issue... --Remi 20:52, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Random

title: Wikiversity talk:Random


text:
User talk:JoshGordinski

Hey Josh, I liked this edit of yours. Brought a smile on my face. Thank you, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 20:26, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:JoshGordinski


text:
User talk:Orion

Hi, this user account was renamed as requested at: Changing_username, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 08:24, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Orion


text:
Multiple linear regression/Activity/Life expectancy

Activity: Life expectancy

 * If you're curious about how multiple regression can be applied, complete a Life Expectancy Calculator (takes ~15 minutes). This will use a regression equation (behind the scenes) to predict how long you will live.
 * What could you do to improve your life expectancy? (probably change your behaviour on some of the key predictors)
 * What do you estimate the unstandardised regression coefficients to be for each of the variables the calculator recommends you could change in order to increase your life expectancy?
 * What do you think the an 80% confidence interval would be for your life expectancy estimate? (can be estimated via this very short Life Expectancy Calculator (takes <1 minute).


text:
BCP/Digitalis grandiflora

Digitalis grandiflora

title: BCP/Digitalis grandiflora


text:
BCP/Digitalis grandiflora/Logs

2007 Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 23:49, 31 May 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:47, 3 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 14:34, 9 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:52, 18 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:45, 30 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:54, 2 July 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | PA! 15:16, 23 July 2007 (UTC)

Recent Logs

 * SB Johnny-LM 09:18, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 13:10, 25 October 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 13:07, 1 November 2007 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 08:51, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 10:31, 22 June 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny | talk 09:49, 20 July 2008 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 09:04, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Digitalis grandiflora/Logs


text:
BCP/Mentha requienii

Mentha requienii

title: BCP/Mentha requienii


text:
BCP/Mentha requienii/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 11:19, 17 June 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Mentha requienii/Logs


text:
BCP/Scabiosa graminifolia

Scabiosa graminifolia

title: BCP/Scabiosa graminifolia


text:
BCP/Scabiosa graminifolia/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * --SB_Johnny | talk 12:08, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Scabiosa graminifolia/Logs


text:
User:Jtneill/WMF

Australia

 * /Australia/

Elections

 * About Wikiversity vs. Wikibooks voting participation in the 2008 WMF Board Election: something Wikiversity related at Wikimedia Foundation.'s board election

title: User:Jtneill/WMF


text:
User talk:Freshvee!

-

title: User talk:Freshvee!


text:
User talk:TonyToddToo~enwikiversity

-

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called TonyToddToo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name TonyToddToo~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:08, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:TonyToddToo~enwikiversity


text:
Talk:Introduction to Swedish/Test

The test should consist of:

1) Grammar part (40 points)

2) Grammar part (theory) (10 points)

3) Reading comprahension part (20 points)

4) Translation part (Swedish-English) (10 points)

5) Translation part (English-Swedish) (10 points)

6) Listening comprahension part (20 points)

7) Vocabulary (30 points)

8) Facts part. (10 points)

Totally 150 points

Maybe the test should be split to several quizzes/web pages?.

--Mats 14:24, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Swedish/Test


text: Appreciative Inquiry

title: Appreciative Inquiry


text:
User talk:MenoBot

Please leave comments in English here.

title: User talk:MenoBot


text:
Talk:Social psychology (psychology)

 ''' Got a question or comment? Leave a message or email '''

title: Talk:Social psychology (psychology)


text:
BCP/Iberis umbellata

Iberis umbellata

title: BCP/Iberis umbellata


text:
BCP/Iberis umbellata/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Ngravagna 15:34, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Iberis umbellata/Logs


text:
BCP/Clematis 'Jackmanii'/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Ngravagna 15:52, 22 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 18:25, 28 June 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Clematis 'Jackmanii'/Logs


text:
BCP/Clematis 'Jackmanii'

Clematis 'Jackmanii'

title: BCP/Clematis 'Jackmanii'


text:
BCP/Clematis Jackmanii/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * Ngravagna 15:54, 17 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Ngravagna 15:55, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Clematis Jackmanii/Logs


text:
BCP/Astilbe

Astilbe

title: BCP/Astilbe


text:
BCP/Astilbe/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 11:19, 17 June 2008 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 09:03, 2 July 2008 (UTC)
 * SBJ 09:54, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Astilbe/Logs


text:
BCP/Angelonia angustifolia

Angelonia angustifolia

title: BCP/Angelonia angustifolia


text:
BCP/Angelonia angustifolia/Logs

2008 Logs

 * (no archived logs yet)

Recent Logs

 * SBJ 11:19, 17 June 2008 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 08:38, 2 July 2008 (UTC)
 * SB Johnny-LM 09:02, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * --SB_Johnny talk 11:10, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

title: BCP/Angelonia angustifolia/Logs


text:
Bloom Clock/Keys/Aurora, Colorado/Global Comparison Worksheet

This page is used to compare monthly data to the Global temperate seasons.

Results

 * /January/ ~
 * /February/ ~
 * /March/ ~
 * /April/ ~
 * /May/ ~
 * /June/ ~
 * /July/ ~
 * /August/ ~
 * /September/ ~
 * /October/ ~
 * /November/ ~
 * /December/ ~


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Aurora, Colorado/Global Comparison Worksheet/March


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Aurora, Colorado/Global Comparison Worksheet/April


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Aurora, Colorado/Global Comparison Worksheet/May


text: Bloom Clock/Keys/Aurora, Colorado/Global Comparison Worksheet/June


text:
User talk:Cumeo89

 Hello Cumeo89, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! -- Terra 18:01, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cumeo89


text:
User talk:Andrea Di Stefano

 Hello Andrea Di Stefano, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! -- Terra 18:02, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

Re: online learning database
Any help is appreciated - see above for an intro to Wikiversity (WV). If you have questions (there are always questions), feel free to post them at the Colloquium, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 22:04, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Andrea Di Stefano


text:
User talk:J.ameriks

Hello J., welcome around here. I hope we can help you succeed in your learning goals. Below more info about Wikiversity, Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 21:56, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

 Hello J.ameriks, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;

 * [ Ask] a question or discuss Wikiversity issues at the Colloquium;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz uses the Chat (try) 21:56, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:J.ameriks


text:
User:Andrew.king

I'm a second-year science student at Auckland University, and I need to learn from a wider area of knowledge.

title: User:Andrew.king


text:
Oncology

Oncology is the medical subspecialty dealing with the study and treatment of cancer. A physician who practices oncology is an oncologist. The term originates from the Greek onkos (ογκος), meaning bulk, mass, or tumor and the suffix -ology, meaning "study of."

Oncologists may be divided on the basis of the type of treatment provided.

 * Surgical oncologists. These clinicians are surgeons who specialize in tumor removal.
 * Radiation oncologists: people who specialize in the treatment of cancer with radiation, a process called radiotherapy
 * Medical oncologists: who deal with using medication or chemotherapy to treat cancer.

In the UK, the majority of oncologists are known as Clinical Oncologists, and are fully qualified to practice both chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In most other countries these disciplines are more clearly segregated.

Oncologists may also be categorized on the basis of the patient type.
 * Gynecologic oncologists specialize in the treatment of cancer in women. Gynecologic oncologists can perform and give chemotherapy and assist in radiation therapy for these cancers in women.
 * Pediatric oncologists specialize in the care of children with cancer.

Oncology is concerned with:The diagnosis of cancer therapy (e.g. surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other modalities).

Follow-up of cancer patients after successful treatment palliative care of patients with terminal malignancies are also important topics within oncology.

Ethical questions surrounding cancer care can also arise.

Screening efforts of vulnerable populations, or of the relatives of patients (in types of cancer that are thought to have a heritable basis, such as breast cancer exist and are helpful in combating cancer.

The oncologist often coordinates the multidisciplinary care of cancer patients, which may involve physiotherapy, counseling, and clincal genetics, to name but a few. On the other hand, the oncologist often has to liaise with pathologists on the exact biological nature of the tumor that is being treated.

Lessons

 * 1) Molecular and cell biology of cancer
 * 2) Aetiology, epidemiology, and prevention of cancer
 * 3) Diagnosis and investigative procedures
 * 4) Scientific basis of cancer treatment
 * 5) Complications of cancer
 * 6) Quality of life and psychosocial issues
 * 7) Assessment of the results of cancer treatment

title: Oncology


text:
Developments in medicine

 * August 2008 Marijuana ingredients show promise in battling superbugs
 * April 2008 'Healing clays' show promise for fighting deadly MRSA superbug infections, other diseases
 * May 2007 Some soft drinks may not be healthy for consumption...
 * May 2007 New medical school to train rural doctors to open in Washington...
 * April 2007 High blood pressure may originate in the brain...
 * April 2007 FDA approves memory enhancer as food additive... recognized as generally safe...
 * March 2007 Antibiotics may be prescribed too often for sinusitis.
 * March 2007 New study shows treating disease in the mouth can improve cardiovascular health.
 * October 2006 STD testing goes online + Stanford grad student teams up with Adult Industry Medical Health Care Foundation.

Discussion questions

 * Where do you see medicine going? What is on the horizon?
 * How do you envision medicine in 10 years? 50 years?

title: Developments in medicine


text:
Anesthesiology

Anesthesia can be defined as a state of reduced consciousness or reduced sensitivity in order to render uncomfortable procedures tolerable, safe and technically feasible. Anesthesia can also be defined as the practice of employing techniques to induce such a state. Most commonly, this is achieved by administering medications that reduce perception and attenuate reactions to stimuli. The practitioner that provides anesthesia also monitors and attends to vital physiologic functions as they are altered during the anesthetic state and are affected by the surgical procedure.

Providers of anesthesia in the United States include anesthesiologists, nurse anesthetists, and anesthesia assistants. Anesthesiologists are specialized physicians who, after acquiring a medical degree, complete residency training of at least four years. Nurse anesthetists have achieved certification through additional schooling and training following acquisition of an initial nursing degree and practice of nursing in a critical care setting for at least one year. Anesthesia assistants attend school and undergo training to provide anesthesia under the direction of a physician anesthesiologist. Nurse anesthetists, depending upon the jurisdiction, may provide anesthesia with or without the direction of a physician anesthesiologist.

title: Anesthesiology


text:
Topic talk:Pediatric Medicine

see also: Topic:Pediatrics Emesee 01:45, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

I created this page. There isn't much on the other one just a general sentence or to. Not much use to the project anyway. I don't think much merging is necessary, just the deletion of the Pediatrics page. I think I'm the only one active in this project at the minute anyway but all views are obviously welcome. Go raibh mile maith agaibh 07:20, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Deletion seem to be copyright violation : Somebody create a page, you create a similar content page whit a another name. You want to delete the somebody's page because it's a stub and have a little content compare as you, but it's a contribution. So to respect the GFDL these page need to be merge. Crochet.david 07:36, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I see, what would be the difference in me nominating it for deletion the official way instead. Or indeed, asking for the original name to be changed to this, more accurate one, and then deleting the content on editing. Go raibh mile maith agaibh 07:41, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * The merge principe is to fusion the history list, and make a page a redirection to the another. The merge allow to respect the GFDL licence, and make that more one page (page with different name [plurial, different writting, ...] ) to go to one (with the redirection). It's better for allbody, if all possible contribution are gather in the minimum page (if it's speaking about the same thing, of course).Crochet.david 07:51, 23 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I understand. I support a merge to this page as the title is more accurate. I always appreciate advice and education regarding policies, thank you for explaining it to me.

title: Topic talk:Pediatric Medicine