text:
Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Network Models/Learning new connections

Learning New Connections
Although a fully connected network is the most compact network, There might be a case for redundant connections, especially if the connections are Stochiatically organized. From the point of view of an organism that has limited resources it seems reasonable to double up on important connections and prune less important connections. This has in the past been called a Branch and Prune strategy.

Unfortunately determining the best strategy of branch and prune has proven to be difficult. It is only recently that we have begun to recognize the Molecular Traces associated with growing new neural fibrils, and/or absorbing them. The bio-molecular traces are complex, and operate in parallel in a chemical cascade reaction that we do not fully understand yet, so this model must be seen to be speculative, and therefore will probably need to be replaced once the science is further along.

Currently what we think is happening is that the chemical cascade reaction is sensitive to the activity of the synapses, and therefore preferentially results in new growth local to active synapses. Theoretically this can be either the growth of new synapses, or the growth of new fibrils to connect the neurons. We don't yet know the full chemical story, so we don't know yet whether we will find evidence of steering chemicals that guide the fibrils towards new active synapses, but we can assume from the sheer indiviuality of the connections that connections are opportunistic and are not specified as to end location, and thus can only be guided stochiastically. The brain goes through different growth rates, which we think are mediated partially by the presence of Growth Factors, which mean that the prevalence of opportunistic connections peaks at a relatively young age, and that the adult brain has a considerably smaller number of connections than the childs brain. What we think this means is that the brain does both branching and pruning and that pruning overtakes branching at a certain age.

Perhaps the reason that the brain has fewer connections in the adult brain is that the brain is more finely focussed on what it remembers, or perhaps adults just tend to reduce the variety of the things they learn compared to children. In any case Plasticity or the ability to make new connections tends to gutter out at about 60 years old, with the loss of Growth Factors that are related to cell fibril proliferation. Recent experiments with hormone replacement have shown that the age of senescence can be pushed back as long as hormones are supplied.

It is thought that the sensitivity to activation of synapses, might be related to the sequestering of protein tags associated with the synapse, if so, we will probably find that the chemical cascade reactions preferentially extend where there is a protein tag of a certain type.


text:
User:Brett bass4

Hey im Brett

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Brett bass4


text:
Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Network Models/Pruning Obsolete Connections

Pruning Obsolete Connections
Since the trend is for the Adult brain to have fewer connections than a childs brain, there is a need for the brain to somehow absorb some of the connections. This has been called Pruning in the Branch and Prune model. Although the experiments in this area have yet to be fully explored, Dr. Alkon, has suggested that certain neuro-chemicals result in the neuron "Focusing" and reabsorbing it's fibrils. This experiment was reported by a Japanese Scientist of his aquaintance, and whether it has been repeated or not, is unknown to me at this time.

What is important to recognize here is the utility to the nerve of being able to produce opportunistic connections and then reabsorb the ones that either don't connect productively, or become unused due to a shift of emphasis on which areas of the network are active. Quite simply its a matter of conservation of building materials. The more building materials can be reabsorbed the longer the cell can continue to produce new opportunistic connections.

What might be theorized is that if the neuron can reabsorb it's processes, and synapses when they are no longer needed, then it should do so, just before it creates a new generation of opportunistic connections in order to reduce the cost of construction. Thus we might find chemical traces that trigger such reabsorption as part of the earlier stages of the chemical cascade reactions that have been theorized result in the growth of either synapses or fibrils. These signals have to start early, in order to have time to reabsorb and digest the materials of the original processes and synapses before new ones are produced. Because of the relative sizes of the reabsorption project, synapses will not need as much lead time as fibrils for reabsorption.


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Introduction to Non-Genetic Darwinism/Complexity Theory

Complexity Theory
Although Complexity Theory is usually an advanced topic in computer science, recently it has become important to understand just why things are organized the way they are. As such it impinges on Physics, and may change the way we look at self-organization.

AIMS

 * 1) To introduce the idea of complexity as a way of storing energy
 * 2) To introduce A New Kind of Science, and the Class 4 Automata
 * 3) To introduce the idea of emergence as precipitation of order
 * 4) To link emergence with the Energy/Entropy Balance
 * 5) To show how Darwinism is just a special case of emergence
 * 6) To promote the idea that other forms of emergence often echo Darwinism

The Energy Theory of Complexity
Einstein stated the basic law of conversion of mass into energy as E=MC2 What this means is that matter is a special form of energy. The Energy theory of Complexity takes things one step further, and says that all forms of complexity are really just forms of energy that are protected from entropic reduction by the high dimensionality of space.

When energy is high enough, it is chaotic, but as Entropy increases, energy is drained away and some of it gets caught in the dimensional structure of space precipitating out into forms of order. As energy continues to drain, the energy needed to maintain a particular structure of space, sometimes gets drained away, and releases the energy that was stored in that spatial structure back into the environment increasing the local energy levels temporarily, and reducing the order to smaller more stable energy/spatial structures. Thus the same level of Entropy at different levels of energy can either form new order, or reduce order to simpler structures.

When energy is increased in a system, first the energy causes larger structures to form, and then it makes the space more chaotic as the energy/entropy balance increases. If energy keeps increasing, Entropy begins increasing to compensate, and order begins to precipitate out again.

When energy is decreased in a system, first the energy flows away from spatial structures, weakening them until they break apart into smaller spatial structures, releasing energy, which if released in enough quantity makes the system more chaotic, until entropy again begins to precipitate out order at a smaller spatial structure.

A New Kind of Science
Without getting too deep into his "Principle of Computational Equivalency" Stephen Wolfram's book, A New Kind of Scienceoffers insights that are especially interesting to this discussion, In that it mentions Cellular Automata experiments of Class 4 complexity, that indicate that order and chaos might alternate in an incremental system.

Cellular Automata and the Discovery of Oscillating Order/Chaos systems
The idea that Order and Chaos alternate in an incremental system, flies in the face of our understanding of Entropy as a breaking down of complexity, and fits our energy/entropy balance model. However, to counter our reluctance to accept this concept, we must notice that the order of our universe is strangely inconsistent, and that the second law on which we base our understanding of Entropy, is limited to systems that start and stop at an equilibrium state, and doesn't adequately describe the state where energy is being increased or decreased within the system. If we can accept that assertion, then we need to look no closer than to our periodic table to see that order is not always consistent.

You would think that the atomic weight of an atom would go up in regular increments, but as you get further and further into the periodic table, the increments get further and further apart, and the order seems to break down into large gaps where elements that were once predicted, were not found. Some of this can be explained by radioactive decay but in some cases the gaps are there simply because the elements were never created. Perhaps order is not as simple as we would like to think.

If order is not as simple as we would like to think, then perhaps Entropy is not as simple as we would like to think especially in that area where we assume that the natural cooling effect of entropy is to break things down into simpler components. In fact, Cellular automata that have a decremental input pattern also have a tendency to break up into alternating order and chaos patterns. The fact that you can generate order in a system that is cooling, seems counter intuitive with our former understanding of entropy.

The Big Bounce
Perhaps what we are seeing in the larger universe, is not only evidence for a Universe that is older than we thought, but evidence of an oscillating system within the Universe where periods of chaos alternate with periods of order, where the entropy state when it increases does not always result in breakdown into simpler elements, but sometimes results in the precipitation of order out of chaos. It might not be exactly the big bounce that the current Quantum Gravity scientists are working on, but it might be something a little less universal where elements are formed by the energies involved, and then recombine into molecules as a result of entropy, before they cool enough to break up again into smaller components.

Cyclical Entropy
One possible interpretation is that the reason for this oscillation in the precipitation of order, has to do with the local energy/entropy balance. In this interpretation it is thought that energy perturbs the system making it more dynamic, and Entropy cools the system making it more ordered. The idea is that the oscillation we observe has to do with the Entropy/Energy balance. At first when energy is added to a system it becomes more dynamic and may break up into chaos. However, as it cools, the energy entropy balance shifts slightly towards entropy, and order begins to precipitate out of the chaos. As cooling continues, the entropy rate increases again, increasing the rate of precipitation out of chaos, and order grows. Then when cooling reaches a certain level, it begins to overcome the energy, and break down the system into smaller elements, which in turn release energy into the system, causing the system to break down into dynamism again and become more chaotic. On the other side of the coin, when a system is incremental instead of decremental, we see a gradual increase in energy over time, and Entropy cooling just results in a sort of stair stepped curve called a power curve, where cooling balances energy input for a while, and thus the energy/entropy balance remains the same, then when energy increases enough there is chaos while the energy creates more dynamism until entropy catches up and causes the curve to plateau out again.

What is important is that as the Universe gets larger, the amount of entropy available increases which increases the amount of energy that is needed to overcome it, and so the expansion of the Universe is part of the reason for the power curve existing. In this interpretation the precipitation of order is a result of the Energy/Entropy balance, not Entropy alone, and so the reason why Entropy as a breaking down of order doesn't make sense is because we are misattributing the effects of the Energy/Entropy balance to Entropy alone.

The Power Curve and the precipitation of order
If this theory is correct, then we would expect the power curve to have longer and longer plateaus as the amount of entropy increases, and it takes more and more energy to create the dynamism that causes the next band of chaos to form. Further we would expect that our universe would be made up of elements that had atomic or molecular weights that fell further and further apart on the periodic table, and that we would have aggregation of galaxies that is more prevalent than was originally thought.

There is one major problem with this theory, and that is that it flies in the face of the first law of thermodynamics that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. If energy can't be created, where is all this energy needed to create the new plateaus on the power curve coming from?

Conservation of Order in an Incremental System
If the energy theory of complexity is correct, then in an incremental system, smaller structures will form first, and energy will combine those structures until it gets high enough to become chaotic. After a while Entropy will begin to catch up with energy again, and larger structures will form. The Energy/Entropy balance will result in a power curve where precipitation of order happens at gradually increasing energy levels, and as a result the complexity of the elements the system is made up of will increase, but earlier forms of complexity will be conserved as long as they did not break down into smaller components

Conservation of Order in a Decrementing System
As the Energy/Entropy balance shifts closer to the Entropic side, either through entropic cooling, or through energy flow from one system to another, The most energetic states tend to be more sensitive to further cooling. This seems related to the force that drives energy flow from one place to another. The higher the voltage of a wire, the more insulation is needed to keep the electricity from arcing over to another wire of lower potential. This is probably why radioactive isotopes break down faster than stable isotopes. Elements were formed in the high-energy states of the early universe, and as such, unless they are quite stable, they break down when molecules made of the same elements wont. This is probably because the molecule is already more entropic than the element itself.

Evolution, as the emergence of order in an incremental Biological system
I once joked, that I exist simply as an opportunity to increase the partial pressure of long-chain molecules in the Universe. If we see complexity as simply a method of cooling the Universe by sequestering energy in complex arrangements, then, perhaps a more radical interpretation is possible, Life exists, simply to sequester more energy, than is possible with normal entropic mechanisms. It is perhaps less stable than the combination of two chemicals into a molecule, but more stable than fire. If this is true, then at the heart of Evolution we might find the same mechanism as was first used to create the elements, and then the molecules on which biology is based.

Chemistry, how Entropy actually helps combine chemicals
It takes time for an Atomic Bond to form. When two chemicals are first mixed together, it takes longer for them to combine, than once they have started combining. Energetic systems are more uncertain at the Atomic level, than cooler systems, and the result is that the energy of the atoms banging off each other may be too great for Atomic Bonds to form. This means that while it is good to have a hot temperature when you are breaking atomic bonds and separating reagents, it is good to have a cooler temperature when you are combining them, or letting them precipitate out as crystals.

No two chemicals will combine, if the result is a higher Energy/Entropy balance. Unless the ambient temperature of the solution is high enough to contribute the extra energy. And if the Energy/Entropy balance is too low, the result will either freeze or break into smaller parts. but when the Energy/Entropy balance is correct, chemicals combine better, than at other times. As a result it is often necessary to combine chemicals at a particular temperature for best combination.

The Energy Death of the Universe is Running Late
The Red shift suggests the Universe is still expanding, the complexity of the Universe indicates that it has not reached anywhere near the state of Energy/Entropy balance where it becomes uniformly uninteresting, as a result, we can say, that it looks like the Energy Death of the Universe is running late. We see no evidence of it even beginning to happen other than the local effects of entropy.

Darwinism as a description of the principle by which order emerges and is conserved
It is my contention, that Darwinism is more than just the definition of a biological and genetic tendency to form species, it is a biological and genetic example of a more basic principle, the principle of Self-Organization or Self-Ordering, and that that principle, can be seen wherever the Energy/Entropy balance approaches the balance range needed for the precipitation of order out of chaos. Life promotes an energy/entropy balance that in turn promotes the precipitation of order out of chaos, but doesn't allow the energy levels to drop low enough to promote breaking apart into smaller structures.

Can Darwinism be applied to systems other than biological systems?
If this last statement is true, then Undoubtedly, YES, Darwinism can be applied to other systems that are non-biological in nature. Because it is in effect a system that promotes the precipitation of order out of chaos, and as long as there is enough energy for chaos to exist, other forms of precipitation that do not involve biology will also exist.

The Edge of Chaos
Recently some scientists have noted that Evolution seems to promote the stabilization of systems that balance almost halfway between order and chaos. Called the Edge of Chaos, this theory suggests that there might be an equilibrium state that balances energy and entropy. If so we can assume that the equilibrium will respond to new energy by oscillating back and forth between chaotic and ordered states. Evolution might therefore merely be an expression of the power curve that follows from the existence of such an equilibrium state in an incremental universe.

Assignment:

 * If the energy of the universe increases, does Entropy increase or decrease? and The Energy/Entropy balance?

 * If entropy increases in the Universe and energy is constant, does the Energy/Entropy Balance increase or decrease?

 * Look at the Periodic Table of Atoms if you can find one that has more than just the atomic number at the top of each element, and usually near the bottom you will find the atomic weight. Look at the intervals between weights, do they trend to take longer between each element? Are they consistent, or are there gaps? Why do you think this is?

 * Consider putting two chemicals into a solution, and getting a third chemical back out, do you think that the chemicals magically combined or did they need some self-organization to combine? Is Energy/Entropy balance, a reasonable explanation?

 * Now that you have heard an explanation of why non-genetic Darwinism might exist, in an energy complexity theory Universe do you think that it does exist, or not? Write an essay on this question.

 * Consider the Edge of Chaos theory, and the concept of an energy/entropy equilibrium. What would the effect of that equilibrium be on the second law of thermodynamics? Would this make life an exception to the rule, or simply an extension of the rule?

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User:XiYen

Just a student wanting to lean all I can.

My learning interests are: computers, math, 3d modeling, computer programing, art (drawing, painting, minor

sculptures), and tech (plays, films, anitmation, sound/light design). So if you would like to refer me to

any source that might help me with the subjects I am studying, I might know something about what you want

to learn, although there are no guarantees. Write under the line.

title: User:XiYen


text:
User:Egm6322.s09.bit.gk/r4

We can see from the free body diagram ,equating the horizontal forces ,we have

$$ -T_0cos(\alpha)dy+T_0cos(\alpha+d\alpha)dy-T_0cos(\beta)dx+T_0cos(\beta+d\beta)dx=0 $$

and equating the vertical forces, we have,

$$ -T_0sin(\alpha)dy+T_0sin(\alpha+d\alpha)dy-T_0sin(\beta)dx+T_0sin(\beta+d\beta)dx=P(x,y)dxdy $$

where $$P(x,y)$$ is the transverse load acting on the membrane

$$\Rightarrow T_0\left[\left (sin(\alpha+d\alpha) -sin(\alpha)\right )dy+\left (sin(\beta+d\beta)-sin(\beta)\right )dx\right]+P(x,y)dxdy=0$$

When $$\theta$$ is small ,we can assume, $$ sin(\theta)=Tan(\theta)$$

$$\therefore$$ the above equation becomes,

$$T_0\left[\left (tan(\alpha+d\alpha)-tan(\alpha)\right )dy+\left (tan(\beta+d\beta)-tan(\beta)\right )dx\right]+P(x,y)dxdy=0 $$

Let this equation be $$(1)$$

but,$$tan(\alpha)$$ is the slope the membrane with respect to the $$x$$ and $$y$$ axes

where the displacement is given as $$w=w(x,y)$$

$$\therefore$$

$$tan(\alpha)=\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial x}\right]_{x,y}$$ and $$ tan(\alpha+d\alpha)=\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial x}\right]_{x+dx,y}$$

$$tan(\beta)=\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial y}\right]_{x,y}$$ and $$ tan(\beta+d\beta)=\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial y}\right]_{x,y+dy}$$

Substituting the slopes in $$(1)$$,we have ,

$$T_0\left[\left(\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial x}\right]_{x+dx,y}-\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial x}\right]_{x,y}\right)dy+\left(\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial y}\right]_{x,y+dy}-\left[\frac{\partial w}{\partial y}\right]_{x,y}\right)dx\right]+P(x,y)dxdy=0 $$

Let this be equation $$(2)$$

We have Taylor series expansion as ,

$$f(x+dx,y)=f(x,y)+\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}dx+...$$

substituting taylor series expansion in equation $$(2)$$,we have

$$T_0\left(\frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial x^2}+\frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial y^2}\right)+P(x,y)=0$$

$$ \Rightarrow T_0\triangledown^{2}w(x,y)+P(x,y)=0 $$

hw2
To show that $$\kappa (u)grad(u)+f(x,y)=0$$ is non linear

Let,

$$L\left( \right):$$ be an operator,such that $$L\left(\ u\right)$$ is linear with respect to $$u$$ if,

$$ L\left(\alpha u+\beta v\right)=\alpha L\left(\ u\right)+\beta L\left(\ v\right)$$

Therefore, in the present problem ,assuming 2D, we have,

$$L\left( \right)=\kappa \left(\overline i\frac{\partial\left( \right) }{\partial x}+\overline j\frac{\partial\left( \right) }{\partial y}\right)+f(x,y)$$

$$L\left(\alpha u+\beta v \right)=\kappa (\alpha u+\beta v)\left(\overline i\frac{\partial\left(\alpha u+\beta v \right) }{\partial x}+\overline j\frac{\partial\left(\alpha u+\beta v \right) }{\partial y}\right)+f(x,y)$$

$$\Rightarrow L\left( \alpha u+\beta v \right)=\kappa (\alpha u+\beta v)\left(\overline i\alpha\frac{\partial\left(\ u\right) }{\partial x}+\overline i\beta\frac{\partial\left(\ v\right) }{\partial x}+\overline j\alpha\frac{\partial\left(\ u\right) }{\partial y}+\overline j\beta\frac{\partial\left(\ v\right) }{\partial y}\right)+f(x,y)$$

$$\Rightarrow L\left(\alpha u+\beta v \right)=\kappa (\alpha u+\beta v)\left[\alpha\left\{\overline i\frac{\partial\left(\ u \right) }{\partial x}+\overline j\frac{\partial\left(\ u \right) }{\partial y} \right\}+\beta\left\{\overline i\frac{\partial\left(\ v\right) }{\partial x}+\overline j\frac{\partial\left(\ v\right) }{\partial y} \right\}\right]+f(x,y)$$

\therefore,we can see that

$$\Rightarrow L\left(\alpha u+\beta v\right)\neq\alpha L\left(\ u\right)+\beta L\left(\ v\right)$$

$$ \therefore \kappa (u)grad (u)+f(x,y)$$ is non linear

title: User:Egm6322.s09.bit.gk/r4


text:
Federal Reserve

Welcome to the learning project on the US Federal Reserve

 * Fed Open Market Committee (FOMC)
 * FOMC minutes - a book of seven seals

The fed's principal tools:
 * Open Market Operations
 * Discount Rate (complete with ambiguous minutes) window
 * Reserve Requirements

title: Federal Reserve


text:
Research Mentoring Program

Welcome to the Research Mentoring Program at Wikiversity! This program is for students who would like to receive mentoring in research, and for others who wish to provide this mentoring. Its purpose is to provide a forum for independent research, as well as a place for freelance academics and others to be recognized through certification. This program is part of the larger Mentors program.

Research Certification
Research Certification is a verification that the User is able to perform research at a professional level, and make original contributions to the sum of human knowledge. It is conferred by one's research mentor.

Levels of Research Certification

 * Research Apprentice: Has performed original research.
 * Master of Research: Has published at least one first-authored paper in a peer-reviewed professional journal.
 * Doctor of Research: Has published at least three first-authored papers in peer-reviewed professional journals, as part of a single research program.

Research Mentor Certification
Research Mentor Certification is a verification that the User is able to supervise others in their path toward Research Certification. It is conferred by one's mentee and by other mentors.

Levels of Research Mentor Certification

 * Mentor: Has verified at least one Master or Doctor of Research.
 * Professor:
 * Has reached Doctor of Research level in the Research certification program
 * Has reached Mentor in the Research Mentor Certification program
 * Has served as secondary supervisor for at least two Masters or Doctors of research in at least two Fields of Research within the same larger discipline
 * Has brought at least one course from "partly developed" or lower, to "nearly complete" or higher
 * Director of Research:
 * Has reached Doctor of Research level in the Research Certification program
 * Has reached Mentor in the Research Mentor Certification program
 * Has served as primary supervisor for at least two Masters or Doctors of Research, in at least two Fields of Research within the same larger discipline
 * Has served as secondary or later supervisor for at least three additional Masters or Doctors of Research, in at least one additional Field of Research within the same larger discipline.
 * Has brought at least three courses and one School, Topic or Portal page from "partly developed" or lower, to "nearly complete" or higher.

title: Research Mentoring Program


text:
Talk:Arbitrary Hour

Proposal
I can give a talk on: Let me know which interests you more, and I'll prepare it.
 * howto make a database-backed webapp in an hour
 * music theory

Or, if anyone is more interested in digital audio, "ajax", security considerations when writing webapps, or nearly-anything Python related, I could talk about one of those topics as well. -Ben Fisher

title: Talk:Arbitrary Hour


text:
User:Lader Gwiader

w:kw:User:Moon

title: User:Lader Gwiader


text:
User:Jeangagnon

User:Jeangagnon fr:Utilisateur:Jeangagnon
 * fr:Utilisateur:Jeangagnon

title: User:Jeangagnon


text:
User:GreySmith Institute

= GreySmith Institute of Advanced Studies =

Welcome to the Institutes User page. This is the official contact address for the GreySmith Institute of Advanced Studies. Our Portal is at Portal: GreySmith Institute.

The GreySmith Institute is a Collaboration within the general WikiVersity Collaboration. Our relationship to WikiVersity is similar to the relationship a private institute has with a regular University.

The GreySmith Institute takes on specific projects as interest of the majority of the members indicates. Currently the GreySmith Institute is working on the Artificial Consciousness project suggested by its founder Graeme E. Smith It hopes to do the research necessary to develop a Hybrid Consciousness as suggested in How the Mind Might Work an as-yet unpublished book that is part of a series on brain modeling by Graeme E. Smith

The GreySmith Institute is not open for Students at this time, due to Construction of the Main Portal, however You can express your interest in becoming a student at Portal: GreySmith Institute/Student Union

Although we cannot predict completion of the portal, at its completion we will be considering a Call for Content, and later a Call for Papers. People who would like to take advantage of the proposed Online Repository, and Library to publish their own work can contact us at any time, and we will discuss licensing issues, etc. Please contact us if you want to contribute related courseware or to host related courses at WikiVersity.

If you wish to discuss topics related the NeuroScience, Psychology, and NeuroPsychology we have sponsored a public forum that is open to all at Neuropsychology Forum

If you wish to discuss topics related to Computer Science and how we are going to use it to build an artificial consciousness we have sponsored a public forum that is open to all at Computer Science Forum

If you wish to discuss topics related to Artificial Consciousness we have sponsored a public forum that is open to all at Artificial Consciousness Forum

If you wish to discuss related courseware and what the curriculum of our Institute should be, we have sponsored a forum at GreySmith Courseware Forum

If you want to learn more about Artificial Consciousness there is an introductory course at Artificial Consciousness

If you want to learn more about phenomenal Consciousness, we are working on a course on Non-Genetic Darwinism that might help you to understand Dr. Edelman's contribution to Consciousness Research.

Currently there is no courseware about Hybrid Consciousness so your best source of information on that topic is Graeme Smith

One of the services we hope to offer is the mentoring and certification of students who have no formal degrees but who wish to contribute to the Artificial Consciousness research going on at the Institute. We are strong believers in Freelance Academics and Freelance or Amateur Scientists as roles for those who can't or won't get accreditation from a normal university, and are equally supportive where the individual has a degree in a different speciality but can't get access to this courseware at their home University.

Although Wikiversity does not have an accreditation status as would be needed to transfer credit to other institutions, it has much more flexibility as to the nature of the programs it can offer, and who can contribute, and represents a truly international audience for courseware.

WikiVersity members are encouraged to edit courseware and articles found on the wiki, and many students transfer their understanding of topics to the wiki as they learn them. As such, the student should double check the knowledge offered here with other sources, but because Wikiversity is designed as a learning experiment, the quality of the services is expected to constantly improve over time so don't let a few rough edges fool you into thinking it is less valuable.

title: User:GreySmith Institute


text:
Empathy Models/Empathy Model/Forgiveness

Christian changes to its predecessor, Judaism, included the reduction of 700-800 Jewish religious laws into two Christian laws: love everyone as yourself, and love God. But the biggest contribution of Christianity to modern religion was the concept of complete forgiveness.

The importance of this Christian rule goes to the nature of hate, the greatest challenge humanity faces. Real haters know no better and find it impossible to prevent themselves from hurting other people, and they are aware of this disability. They are constantly aware that retribution for the pain they have caused to others may be around the corner, and the paranoia that this fear causes, may raise their level of hate exponentially, hate for the people whose anger they have brought unto themselves; this is when things get really dangerous. Hate is caused by a lack of empathy, a class of disorders caused by broken or missing empathic neurons and related neural constructs. People suffering from a lack of empathy are emotionally isolated; they are distant from resources that can help with their situations. They operate based on misconceived perceptions of their place in the world because of their isolation. They blame others for their situation; their condition is very much like being on cocaine. Cocaine users, because of their mental isolation, are narcissists as were Hitler and Saddam Hussein, according to experts.

Mental isolation, paranoia, and narcissism go together. Another example of a paranoid individual is Richard Nixon. Nixon's actions personal isolation as the president are well known; his paranoia ultimately caused him to reveal his crimes. He suffered an exaggerated sense of self-importance, and believed himself to be a victim. Beck supports this description of this kind of isolated condition in his Prisoners of Hate.

Christ's approach of forgiveness diffuses the paranoia that hate causes; to forgive the actions caused by it and to reassure the paranoiac, reducing the fear the paranoia causes, reducing the chances of further destructive actions.

This in an unintuitive strategy; most of us, and nearly all natural organisms, react to a threat with a counter-strategy. As amazingly unlikely as that sounds as a strategy, I believe it is correct and works better than any other, and this is what Christ preached above all else: forgiving those who "trespass" against you, and loving your enemy as yourself.


text:
Boundary Value Problems/Main PDE's to be addressed in course

Return Boundary Value Problems

Heat Equation
$$ \scriptstyle u_t - \alpha^2 \nabla^2 u = F$$

Poisson's Equation
$$\scriptstyle \nabla^2u = F$$

The Wave Equation
$$\scriptstyle u_{tt}-c^2\nabla^2u = F$$

Maxwell's Equations
$$ div(E) = 4 \pi \rho $$

$$ \scriptstyle curl(E) + \frac{1}{c} \frac{\partial B}{\partial t} =0 $$

$$ \scriptstyle curl(B) - \frac{1}{c} \frac{\partial E}{\partial t} =\frac{4\pi}{c} J $$

$$ \scriptstyle div(B) = 0 $$


text: Category:EE 230 SMPS Fundamentals

title: Category:EE 230 SMPS Fundamentals


text:
Boundary Value Problems/Review: ODEs

Return to Boundary Value Problems

For more of an introduction to ODEs you are referred to ../BVP-Ordinary-Differential-Equations and for examples please look at Examples of ordinary differential equations

First order differential equation:
Let $$ t \in [a,b] $$ the equation $$\frac{dy}{dt}=k(t)y+f(t) $$

is a linear ordinary (single independent variable) differential equation of first order (first derivative). If $$ f(t)=0 $$ on $$ [a,b] $$ the equation is called "homogeneous" differential equation. Otherwise it is called nonhomogeneous otherwise.

Examples of homogeneous and non-homogeneous:

$$ (Homogeneous) \frac{d}{dt} y = 10 y $$ where $$ k(t)=10 $$ is a constant coefficient.

$$ (Homogeneous) \frac{d}{dt} y = t y $$ where $$ k(t)= t $$ is a coefficient that increases as $$ t $$ increases.

$$ (Nonhomgeneous) \frac{d}{dt} y = 10 y + sin(t) $$ where $$f(t)=sin(t)$$.

Solving homogeneous ODE with constant coefficients: Separable case
Solving $$ \frac{d}{dt} y = 10 y $$

$$ \frac{1}{y} \frac{d}{dt} y = 10  $$

$$ \int \frac{1}{y} \frac{dy}{dt} dt= \int 10 dt $$ $$ ln(|y|) = 10t + C_1 $$ where $$C_1$$ is the integration constant.

$$ e^{ln(|y|)} = e^{10t + C_1} $$

$$ y(t) = e^{C_1}e^{10t} $$

$$ y(t) = C_2e^{10t} $$

After integration there is a constant, an unknown. This will happen each time you integrate. To determine this unknown for a particular application you will need another piece of information. Typically it is another equation that requires $$ y(0)= intial value $$. This condition with the above differential equation defines an Initial Value Problem. For this problem the value of C_2 is determined by using an intial condition such as $$ y(0)= 5 $$. Then $$ y(0)=C_2 e^{0}=C_2 = 5 $$ and making the substitution provides the solution $$ y(t) = 5 e^{10t} $$

Student work
Solve the following IVPs:

 * 1) Differential eq: $$  \frac{dx}{dt} = 5x $$ where $$x(t)$$ for all $$ \infty < t <\infty $$. Initial value: $$ x(0)=-2 $$

Click here for solution: ../BVP-solution-1

 * 1) Differential eq: $$  \frac{dx}{dt} = 5x + 2 $$ where $$x(t)$$ for all $$ \infty < t <\infty $$. Initial value: $$ x(3)=-2 $$

Click here for solution: ../BVP-solution-2

Pre-class work:
Complete each of the following:
 * Read the following:
 * Pages 1-10 of Powers
 * Lecture notes (web page)
 * (View) Associated Lecture Video
 * Work the following problems ../BVP-Exercise 1-1:Problems and Solutions

title: Boundary Value Problems/Review: ODEs


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File talk:Lift-force-en.svg

attack is spelled wrong

title: File talk:Lift-force-en.svg


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Help:Mouse-over

Here are some ways to create mouse-over effects.

Using mouse-over effects on wiki text can improve usability.

Examples
Hover over me.

Syntax: Hover over me.

Using: Template:H:title

The default is a dotted underline

Hover here

 * Syntax: Hover here

Main page (with link)

 * Syntax: Main page

To not have a dotted underline, add dotted=no

Hover here

 * Syntax: Hover here

Main page (with link)

 * Syntax: Main page

 * Notes

Template:H:title could be further developed with a 3rd parameter to deal with the situation where one wants to create a link (page name), a link alias, and mouse-over text.

In wiki text, this can presently be done like this:

link alias (note that the link goes to Sandbox)

 * Syntax: link alias  (note that the link goes to Sandbox)

title: Help:Mouse-over


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Philosophy of History/Schools of History

A "school" of history is a clearly defined historiographical approach to the study of history. It does not refer to a physical building or specific academic institution, in this instance, but to an approach to the study of history taken by a group of like-minded academics. A school of history may be associated with a particular institution, where those who developed the approach worked, but it refers to the intellectual ideas proposed and developed into a recognizable approach to studying history.

To everyone that have interest in histories please do so study history because without history the next next generation won't know what was the cause nor uses before nor what had happened.The uses are very complicated to get it, but the times goes you'll know why it's very important that history aren't just myths.This is counted for the other school to know how to generate other uses of history sites.


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Help talk:Mouse-over

Good idea. Hillgentleman | //\\ |Talk 17:18, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

title: Help talk:Mouse-over


text:
LaTeX/Including graphics

To include graphics, e.g. a .jpg file, the basic syntax is \includegraphics. The package graphicx is needed.

\documentclass{article} \usepackage[pdftex]{graphicx} \begin{document} \includegraphics{yourpicturefile.jpg} \end{document}

 * LaTeX/Inserting diagrams
 * http://mathstat.uohyd.ernet.in/manuals/latex/graph_latex.html
 * LaTeX/Importing_Graphics

title: LaTeX/Including graphics


text: Template:LaTeX-footer

title: Template:LaTeX-footer


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User talk:R.S.(AUA)

 Hello R.S.(AUA), and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --AFriedman 17:50, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

 Hi! My name is WikiversityJack. I am a pumpkin and a Wikiversity mascot. My aunt told me that fun + learning = Wikiversity. Let me know if I can help you out.

title: User talk:R.S.(AUA)


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups

Neural Groups
At first scientists thought that each neuron was important to the operation of the brain, however as the size of the probes meant to connect to neurons in the brain got smaller, it became possible for scientists to note, that, especially in the cerebral cortex, neurons tended to form groups, where hundreds of neurons would activate, but only a token few would actually fire. The idea that hundreds of neurons would contribute to the firing of a few, was called Neural Groups by some and the Center Surround Function by others. While we are still not sure exactly how it happens it is thought that there is some mechanism whereby neurons naturally self-organize into groups. Others have noted that the center surround function is mostly found in the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, and that the right hemisphere operates differently, which might be the basis of bicameral mind theories.

 * Inherited Phylogeny Neural Groups
 * Heterogeneous Neural Groups
 * Marr's Codon Model
 * The Center Surround Function
 * Laberge - Kasevich Theory of the Apical Dendrite
 * A Unified Neural Group/Columnar Model


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Inherited Phylogeny Neural Groups

Inherited Phylogeny Neural Groups
There are probably over 150 different types of neurons in the brain. many of these can be seen to congregate in clusters of a single type of neuron, whether those clusters are layers such as might be found in the cerebral cortex, or Laminae as might be found in the thalamus or hippocampus. Sometimes, the change in type of cell is radical, such as between the hippocampus and its surroundings, and sometimes the change in type of cell is subtle, such as between layer2 and 3 of the cerebral cortex.

Sometimes such as in the Laminae of the thalamus the main difference lies not in the type of cells so much as the fact that they are encapsulated in connective tissue, so that they make up separate clusters of the same type of cell.

I call these Inherited Phylogeny Neural Groups, because the groups form a relatively uniform cluster that all descended probably from the same stem cell, and thus tend to share the same cell phenotype.

As a result of this harmonious state of being, these clusters of cells probably to the same job, just with different data.


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Heterogeneous Neural Groups

Heterogeneous Neural Gropus
If the brain is made up of clusters of homogeneous Neural Groups, it is also made up of organs that have multiple such neural groups but of different types, that work together to do a particular function. In order to understand how the organ and by extension the brain works, we often need to study how the neurons work together to form more complex functions. One way of doing this, is to study neural groups that are formed of specific Inherited phylogeny Neural Groups to see how they interact. I call these groups of heterogeneous Homogeneous Neural Groups Heterogeneous Neural Groups because it is the interaction between the Homogeneous Neural Groups that defines the function of the larger cluster.


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Marr's Codon Model

Marr's Codon Model
In the 1970s David Marr was studying at Trinity College in Cambridge, and he developed a method of using Probabilistic Mathematical Methods to attempt to understand how some areas of the brain worked. At the time, the reigning theory was that neural connections were mathematical functions, so in his Theory of Cerebral Cortex, for instance, he assumed that the basket cells in Layer 4 of the Cerebral Cortex were Division Functions, and that the connections would work out mathematically to have some meaning beyond his basic Probabilistic Methods. He was sorely disappointed, and died in 1980 before he had published more than a few models of brain functions.

One of the functions he had published was the Theory of Cerebral Cortex article that claimed to have defined the function of the cerebral cortex. Of course since then we have found that his work was not sufficient to capture the whole function of the cerebral cortex. But it was a solid starting point in that it attempted to explain at least the bottom four layers of the cerebral cortex.

Of course Marr was a man before his time, and made a number of unfortunate assumptions, not the least of which being that he could unravel the snarl of connections in the human brain and make sense of it.

One aspect of his research was that he theorized a CODON, a self-classifying Content addressable Memory element as the basis for the Cerebral Cortex. Of course that is not the only function that the cerebral cortex has, so his theory was proven to be inaccurate, but, I feel it is an honest characterization of the Heterogeneous Networks within the first four layers of the cortex, as long as they are isolated from the rest of the brain. Unfortunately for Marr, the Cerebral Cortex is not isolated like his mathematical formulae were, so other functions overlay the basic memory function and complicate proof of its suitability.

One of the main exceptions I have heard of to Marr's work, was experiments done using neural networks that failed to capture certain neural frequencies associated with the real cortex.

Today Marr's article is used as an example of a level of sophistication to reach for, and to cow overenthusiastic graduate researchers. It's main claim to fame however is the fact that it is so dry as to put readers to sleep. My own experience was that the one article put me to sleep 18 times before I read it through once. Some scientists believe that their research is not properly valued if they make it too easy to understand, and so they use literary tricks to increase rather than reduce the complexity of the writing. One way that Marr managed to increase the difficulty of his work was to mystify the reader as to his mathematical functions. cateogry: Neural Networks


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Center Surround Function

The Center Surround Function
As I mentioned in the Neural Groups page, One of the reasons why we study neural groups is because of the tendency of neurons at least in the Left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex to self-organize into groups where hundreds of neurons act to influence the output of a few selected neurons.

The problem is that we don't know enough about other areas of the brain to be able to be sure that they don't also self-organize, nor enough about how the Left Hemisphere does, to be able to prove that they shouldn't. One theory, exists however which might shed light on this function, and that is the theory that the center surround mechanism is managed by the sixth layer Pyramidal Neurons of the Cerebral cortex, and that therefore we shouldn't expect the same self-organization in other ares of the brain, unless they have a similar function.

Center Surround Function might be a very important cortex function, in that it gathers together a large field of data, to produce a single signal. This partitioning of knowledge into clusters, might be extremely important in that it allows for recognition of fields of responses as being germane to a single signal. This also might speed the discrimination of signals, since if they trigger different neural groups they must be different.

In some theories of the bicameral mind, it is the ability of the brain to both cluster the signals thus recognizing the simularity of certain types of signals, and the ability to have a representation of the same signals, that is not so differentiated, that gives the human mind more sophistication.

One interpretation is that the undifferentiated form, allows us to model ranges of signals while the other allows us to recognize groups of signals as being the same type. It has long been thought that the strategy by which we pick the more general modeling mechanism, or the more specialized differentialized form at some stages in our mental processing, is related to some extent to the dominance of the one hemisphere over the other. The greater majority of people are left dominant brainwise, and thus tend to use the differentiated form preferentially to the undifferentiated form.

Thus, it is thought that Left handed people tend to be more artistic, while Right handed people tend to be more specialized. Recently work has been done on mixed handedness, that suggests that strategies that make use of both sides of the brain may make understanding of things like evolution more likely, in that the differentiated form and the undifferentiated form are more easily fused if the processing strategy compares them more often. One way of looking at this, is that people with balanced brain dominance tend to see the larger picture because they can compare the model to the specialized recognition system, and thus see where one is more useful than the other.

While we don't know exactly how the Sixth layer Pyramidal Neurons operate, one thought is that they cluster the neural group together by sensing pre-threshold signals, suppressing the surrounding neurons to keep them from actually firing, and promoting the centroid of the set so that it fires. Evidence that the centroid shifts over time, might indicate that because of its dependence on the prefiring potential of the second and third layers of the cerebral cortex, the highest value pre-firing is allowed to fire, while the rest of the neurons are suppressed. As one neuron becomes fatigued, or habituated, and can no longer fire, the next most enervated neuron, takes over, thus keeping the neural group active longer.

The Sixth layer pyramidal neuron, has been associated with the Column structure in the cerebral cortex, where it has been seen that stimulation at different levels within the column causes the column as a whole to fire, suggesting that the column, at least in the Left Hemisphere of the brain is the most likely signal level to be transferred outside the cortex.


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Laberge's Apical Dendrite Function

LaBerge - Kasevich Theory of the Apical Dendrite
So far we have encountered theoretical functions for the first 4 layers of the cortex, and the 6th layer, so to round out the model we need a theoretical function for the 5th layer. While there might be other models out there, the only one I know of, is The LaBerge - Kasevich theory of the Apical Dendrite, which links the 5th layer of the cerebral cortex to the thalamus, via the Apical Dendrites of the 5th layer pyramidal neurons.

LaBerge and Kasevich's work is on the Attention System, and so their theory is based on the idea that the 5th layer is the target of the bottom-up attention system. while I disagree with some of the assumptions they have made, mostly about the nature of Awareness and Consciousness, I think their work is important, if only because it stresses the importance of the length of the Apical Dendrites of the 5th layer pyramidal neurons, to the timing of attention, and links the bottom-up attention system to the Mini-column architecture of the Cerebral Cortex.

The idea is that 80 to a hundred of pyramidal neurons from layer 2/3 form mini-columns, and the 5th layer Pyramidal Neurons act as the axis of those mini-columns. Then about a hundred of the Mini-Columns form a column as described in the center surround function page.

Thalamic connections cause the Axis Pyramidal Neuron to fire, and this in turn causes the layer 2/3 pyramids to pre-activate which encourages them to respond to any patterns found in the stimuli coming from the mossy dendrite layer. This might in fact be necessary for the stimulation of the phenomenally implicit memory using a place-code addressing scheme.

Now this might seem confusing, since it suggests an activation role for the 5th layer, that connects at a level below the Column Architecture, and so causes us to ask, at what level does the brain react?

However we can clearly see that at one level of organization the output is likely to be at the mini-column level, and at another level of organization the output is likely to be at the column level. Some experiments have shown that the center surround effect is less prevalent on the Right Hemisphere which would make the output at the minicolumn level dominate, while the left hemisphere has a stronger center surround function and so the column level is more likely to dominate.


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User:HolyCanoli1985

My name is Salvatore Circosta, I am a Roman Catholic seminarian for the Diocese of Springfield in Massachusetts. I study theology at St. John's Seminary in Boston where I am working on my Masters, and received my B.A. in philosophy at Providence College in Providence, Rhode Island. I reside in Springfield in the Forest Park neighborhood. I have a blog: []

title: User:HolyCanoli1985


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User:Wrongloop

Testing how to use Wiki format

title: User:Wrongloop


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Neural Groups/Unified Neural Group/Columnar Model

A Unified Neural Group/Columnar Model
We can clearly see, that if we take the Neural Group Models, and the Columnar Models together, then we have a chance at arriving at a much better cerebral cortex model than Marr could have, and the reason of course is that reasearch has been done that links the different functions together in ways that Marr couldn't have predicted in his time.

The Cerebral Cortex "Out of context" model
Now I want you to understand that we are just talking about the native functions of the Neural Groups that make up the cerebral cortex, not how they react to outside circuits, nor even why they might exist in this configuration. Thus this is taking the Cerebral Cortex "out of context" in order to look at how it might function.

Inhibitive Highly Interconnected "Mossy Dendrite" Layer
In Marr's diagram of the cerebral cortex signals are input into the cerebral cortex at layer 1 where they are interpreted by a layer of mossy dendrite neurons. These operate on the selectionist theory to compete for output to parallel fibers in the Layer2/3 zone, which act as inputs to the Pyramidal Neurons in these two layers. This is somewhat analogous to a layer of combinational logic, feeding an input bus. We assume because of the dynamic nature of opportunistic connections that we will not find anything but local coding on these parallel fibers. Thus coding across the brain is likely to involve redundancy and degeneracy (Dr. Edelman's term) where the same stimulus is coded in a number of different manners.

Because the parallel fibers are local in extent, the Pyramidal Neurons do not have to deal with the breadth of the possible signals, and so degeneracy in the code is not a significant factor. However, neither is location of a stimulus, since rich interconnections at layer 1 link separate local bus like arrangements. This means that the location of a specific codon (Marr's name for the self-classifying content addressable memory units) is indeterminate at this level.

Content Addressable Memory
Marr's description of the Codon as a type of Content addressable memory, is controversial to this day, however one aspect of content addressability is favored by the mechanism of a selective layer feeding local busses, and that is the idea that given that type of input, content addressability simply requires that the neuron detect a particular pattern on the bus, in order to fire the neuron. Thus the content (in the form of a pattern sensitivity) of the neuron selects which neurons fire in the second and third layers.

Marr's description however talks about self-classification as a necessary function of the codon, however this function, while it is not resulting in locational specificity is also done by the combinational complexity of the input layer by selection of which stimuli are placed on which local busses. To some extent however the fan-out of the input neurons limits the breadth of any connection to the cerebral cortex, thus limiting the direct influence any one signal has on the brain. As a result there is a locality bias to signals where signals tend to gather around the particular connection they were transferred through.

Bias inducing Interface
Although Marr, thought that layer 4 was primarily suited to reducing redundancy in the signals, we have since had reason to believe that his characterization of the Mathematical Functions of this layer were a little optimistic, while this layer might seem suited to reduction of redundancy another interpretation of this layer, is that it might present an interface by which other parts of the brain can influence the processing of the first three layers. For instance Basket neurons which he though would function as division functions, might also work as Somal Shunt functions essentially shutting off the output of a Pyramidal Neuron without affecting its input. There might be good reason to do such a function, if we connected our cortex to the rest of the brain.

Other Neurons which seem to have the effect of exciting or inhibiting their tame pyramidal Neurons, might bias the outputs of the content addressable memory in order to suit functions outside the mere address-ability of the content. An example of where this might be valuable is in the influence imposed on the brain by emotions. Being able to excite or inhibit specific signals might be valuable.

Mini-Column Activation Interface
If Dr. LaBerge is even slightly correct in his interpretation Layer 5 gives areas outside the actual cerebral cortex the capability to semi-activate areas of the cortex, making them more sensitive to the content of their inputs. I won't get into the linkage to the Bottom-up Attention system at this point in time, but the ability to activate the brain at the mini-column level, is certainly suggestive.

Column Activation Interface
While we may not be sure that it operates on the Right Hemisphere as strongly as it does on the Left, the ability to cause a center surround effect is important if you are going to have a selective memory that discriminates between similar elements. The linkage here to the concept of Bicameral Function is not insignificant or there would not be as much difference in thought patterns between people with different dominance patterns in their brains.

It is interesting to note that the Apical Dendrites of the sixth layer terminate in the Fourth layer and thus may be influenced by external inputs. {{category: Neural Networks]]

{{subpage navbar}}


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Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Hybrid Models

Hybrid Models
The main difference between a Functional Model and a Hybrid Model, is that the hybrid model is based at least partially on the phenomenal models, and Neural Correlates. While the functional model is based primarily on the psychological models. Because the Hybrid model is based partially on the phenomenal models, it can take into account more recent research, that has not yet reached the sophistication necessary to qualify as a psychological model. This is partially because of the disciplinary distance between Neuroscience and Psychology. Because of this testing the Hybrid Model for function also acts as a test of the Neural Correlates and their interpretation that might be able to influence psychology when the psychologists become aware of the results.


text: User:Shanata

title: User:Shanata


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User talk:GreySmith Institute

= Official User forum for GreySmith Institute = Welcome The Institute is currently under renovation and may not open its doors to Advanced Studies Students for a few months yet. Contact Graeme Smith at his user page for any queries regarding the Architecture of the Institute, or Artificial Consciousness.

title: User talk:GreySmith Institute


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Portal talk:Social entrepreneurship/ideas/franchising

Is "franchising" the right word? It has connotations which may conflict with social entrepreneurship leading to monopolies ?? Or, maybe there is a lateral way of applying the "franchise" concept to social impact? - e.g. free "franchise" recipe for ....


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Speculation about Why a female octopus dies after her eggs are hatched

Female octopuses die around the time their eggs hatch. She reproduces only once and puts her available energy into generating and caring for her eggs. She finds a den and lays her eggs there. After that she does not eat and spends her whole time caring for the eggs, cleaning them and aerating them. It is likely that octopuses have evolved mechanisms enabling them to match the number of eggs they produce to their available energy. An octopus that produces too few eggs will lose reproductive fitness. She will survive for a time after her eggs hatch but will soon die in any case and she has fewer progeny than she could have had. An octopus which produces too many eggs will die before her eggs hatch or will not have the strength to care for them effectively. This will also reduce her reproductive fitness.

It is unlikely or impossible that octopuses can balance the above precisely. Certainly the amount of energy that a female will need to defend her eggs from predators is impossible to predict as that depends on the predators.

 * Perhaps female octopuses give chemical signals to their eggs to speed up or slow down their development. I imagine something along the lines of, “Hurry up babies, I’m getting weaker and I can’t look after you much longer.” I’m not suggesting that the mother octopus actually thinks that way, only that unconscious mechanisms may have evolved with that effect.  This could be tested in aquaria if mother octopuses are encouraged to look after eggs there and the water round them is regularly analysed chemically.

 * Perhaps young octopuses are flexible in when they hatch. While its mother can defend a young octopus its best survival strategy is to stay in its egg shell and continue its development there protected by its mother.  After its mother weakens the best survival strategy for the young octopus is to hatch so it can react to predators and to be dispersed in the plankton.  The mother disperses the young and the young hatch.  This could be tested in aquaria if eggs from one mother octopus are marked and moved to the den of another mother octopus where the eggs are slightly older or slightly younger.  Scientists could check if the transferred eggs hatch with their biological siblings or with their foster siblings.

As stated above for the last month of her life a mother octopus does not eat, she does not leave her den except to defend her eggs from predators, she lives for her eggs and has no other purpose in life. Her instinct tells her how to look after them. The last thing a mother octopus does for her young when they are ready to hatch is to blow them through her siphon and disperse them. It is generally agreed that octopuses and other cephalopods are intelligent. The intelligence of cephalopods is difficult to analyse as molluscs are different from vertebrates but octopuses are certainly comparable to dogs and cats and arguably are comparable to lower primates in intelligence. For an animal of that intelligence losing her eggs is likely to be a psychological shock. Even dogs understand when they have lost their master or mistress. First there is the excitment of blowing the eggs through the siphon, then she realises that she has lost everything that matters to her. When her eggs are gone she is weak, close to death and has nothing else to live for. Natural selection will ensure that she does what maximises the chances that her young will survive. She will not notice while she is blowing the eggs through her siphon that she is losing her eggs. Any mother octopus who notices that and decides to hold onto her eggs will reproduce less effectively than a mother who disperses them all. Natural selection will ensure that she does not notice what is happening till all her eggs are dispersed. Alternatively even if she notices that she is losing her eggs she will still intensly want to carry on dispersing them. Once all the eggs are dispersed natural selection stops affecting her. Whatever happens she cannot reproduce a second time. She is seriously weakened, in any case she cannot live longer than a few days or a week at most and she cannot evolve defences against the psychological shock of losing her eggs. That shock might kill her in hours even if she has the strength to live a few days.

The above looks like a poetic tragedy, it looks good for some type of story or romance but it happens to every female octopus anywhere in the world that reproduces successfully.

''Came across this while researching if octopuses take care of their young, as caring for young has been demonstrated to have played a role in the continued development of early humans intelligence. Since octopuses do not care for their young in the same way as mammals, it would be interesting to study how their higher level of intelligence developed without the vertical transfer of knowledge.''


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User:Proxima Centauri

I'm Proxima Centauri on many Wikis. Wikia recently let me take over as bureaucrat for Speculative Evolution Wiki. I asked for this as evolution and natural selection is one of my interests. On Speculative Evolution Wiki I'm trying to develop ideas about how life might evolve away from the Earth and away from the sun. I took this Wiki over from a pervious user who abandonned it and not all the articles are of Wikiversity standard. I'm building up an intellectual section. See
 * How Life could Evolve in a Red Dwarf Star System
 * Intelligent aliens

Here I've written,
 * Speculation about Why a female octopus dies after her eggs are hatched
 * Why humans are sometimes sexually attracted to foreigners or others from outside their community
 * A possible way to reduce paradoxical undressing in severe hypothermia

title: User:Proxima Centauri


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Category:Evolutionary Biology

Evolution by natural selection is an important part of biology.

title: Category:Evolutionary Biology


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How Life could Evolve in a Red Dwarf Star System

On Earth it is believed that life originated or could have originated in caves or round Hydrothermal vents. If life evolved similarly in a Red dwarf star system life could adapt over millions of years to cope with stellar flares. Scientists disagree about whether life could exist in red dwarf star systems. See Proxima Centauri where two scientists are cited, http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2006.0127 A Reappraisal of The Habitability of Planets around M Dwarf Stars and Impact on Expected Magnetospheres of Earth-Like Exoplanets in Close-In Habitable Zones. See also Habitability of red dwarf systems and Aurelia.

The text below assumes those scientists who think red dwarfs are habitable are correct.

Life in caves
Life in caves could gradually adapt to exploit environments nearer to the cave mouth. In the course of this, flares would increasingly become a problem. Life could gradually evolve defenses. For example living organisms could evolve opaque protective shells. When they detect that a flare is starting they could retreat into their shells. Probably different organisms would evolve different mechanisms. Resistant organisms could colonize habitats where more susceptible competitors would be killed by flares. Later when the protective mechanisms are sufficiently strong, living organisms could live out in the open and evolve Photosynthesis.

Life around hydrothermal vents
Life around hydrothermal vents would face greater difficulties. Most hydrothermal vents are in deep oceans where there is no intermediate habitat between the vents and the ocean surface. On Earth in places like Hawaii and Iceland geological activity typical of hydrothermal vents happens in shallow water. In such places life could also gradually evolve protection against flares. Resistant organisms could colonize habitats where more susceptible competitors would be killed by flares. As resistance progressively evolved life could move into shallower water where there is more light even between flares. Then again photosynthesis could evolve.

Small life and Microscopic life
A smaller living organism has a larger surface area to volume ratio. Therefore smaller plants and animals would need to use proportionately more energy to build protective shells and to carry such shells around if they moved. Small organisms could live in soil in mud, in the shadows of mountains where flares could not reach them or in deep water. Small organisms could also exist in rough terrain where there are places to shelter during flares. Small organisms could live on the surface of mud and soil as well provided they could burrow downwards during flares. Small life could live on the surface of water provided it could dive during flares. Small life, like tardigrades on Earth, could also survive radiation from flares by dehydrating their bodies, and remaining static for sustained periods of time.

Currently scientists believe that small life and microscopic life is probably more common than large life. Such life would be restricted to areas where at least some organisms could survive flares. Additionally, small life that is out in the open would need life chemistry that reacts strongly to the infrared and red light that a red dwarf star emits in large amounts so that it is protected, and/or able to utilize energy, efficiently from those long-wavelengths of light. At the same time it must not react fatally with the more intense light emitted during flares. The author is not a biochemist and does not know if this is possible.

Larger organisms
Large organisms may, if they are motile, retreat into shells. They may also run and find shelter. A large animal or plant with a protective shell may spend its life in open terrain and the shell would protect it during flares. Would their young be large or small? There are two possibilities.

 * The first possibility is that young would be large enough to have protective shells as soon as they are independent from their parent or would grow fast after independence. Many animals and plants may produce a few large young rather than many small young. They may have shells at birth or on hatching. Perhaps small dependent young would retreat into their parent's shell during a flare. Perhaps parents would make a shell or a protective burrow for small young before leaving them to fend for themselves.  The young may alternatively grow shells after hatching, some young would die if a flare happened before they had grown a shell but sufficiently many young would live until they had a shell before their first flare so the species could continue. (Proxima Centauri flares every few days according to  but that site could be controversial This could happen with red dwarf stars that flare less often.)

 * The second possibility is that parents would lay eggs or deposit live young in muddy places or other places where a small animal can survive. When the young animals grow bigger and have protective shells, they would migrate to open terrain.

On Earth mammals have a layer of dead epidermis on the surface of their skin. Also mammalian hair is dead. The sun of the Solar System does not flare and therefore a thick dead layer is not needed on Earth. On a planet orbiting a red dwarf star thick opaque layers of dead skin or scales could protect the living parts of an animal from radiation during flares without restricting movement.

It is quite possible that in a red dwarf ecology larger plants and animals with protective shells or protective outer skins would fill many ecological niches where small organisms are on Earth.

Bioaccumulators
It is possible that extraterrestrial life on an exoplanet orbiting a star prone to flares might develop the ability to accumulate heavy elements in their shells or carapaces to mitigate the effects of radiation exposure. A similar adaptation is seen on Earth in the Crysomallon squamiferum species (Scaly-foot Gastropod) though not for the same reasons as hypothetical alien life might evolve. There are numerous other examples of bioaccumulators on Earth, many of which are hyperaccumulators. This potentially indicates that this could be a common trait adaptation on an alien planet.

Older Red Dwarf stars
Astronomers believe that red dwarf stars eventually stop flaring. Red dwarfs last for very long periods of time and age very slowly. Proxima Centauri is as old as our sun but is still young by red dwarf standards and is flaring frequently. Life could evolve after the star has stopped flaring provided geological conditions on the planet are favourable for life. Some scientists believe that life requires a geologically active planet like Earth. Barnard's Star is much older than Proxima Centauri and it is believed that this star flared during the 1990's.

Paradoxically, there might be a new threat to life when flares become less frequent. While flares are common mechanisms that enable organisms to survive them will remain sharp. Natural selection will weed out organisms with defective flare resistance. What will happen if a red dwarf star passes through a stage when it flares on average once every ten thousand years or once every million years? If that happens most organisms may be unable to resist flares when they happen. Organisms that happen to be in places that are sheltered from the flare would survive, but plants in those places would not get energy for photosynthesis afterwards.

On Earth many plants can survive if all the parts that are above ground are killed by, for example, a forest fire or a plague of locusts. Also seeds below soil level can survive such disasters. Gardeners know that some weeds grow again even after all the parts that are above ground have been removed. If a red dwarf flares rarely plant life could survive similarly.


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User talk:Nonviolenceglobal

 Hello Nonviolenceglobal, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --AFriedman 14:58, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

 Hi! My name is WikiversityJack. I am a pumpkin and a Wikiversity mascot. My aunt told me that fun + learning = Wikiversity. Let me know if I can help you out.

title: User talk:Nonviolenceglobal


text:
User talk:Proxima Centauri

 Hello Proxima Centauri, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 15:31, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

Exploring science through fiction
I do not know if you saw Exploring science through fiction, but I linked to How Life could Evolve in a Red Dwarf Star System from that page. --JWSchmidt 15:54, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

I have only read a small part of The Aliens of the Flaming Red Sun. I read Speculation about Why a female octopus dies after her eggs are hatched. There are only a few invertebrates that I had previously known anything about Drosophila, digger wasps, mealworms and Aplysia. The boundaries between instinct, learned behavior, conscious and unconscious brain activity are interesting. I wonder if you saw Nonkilling Human Biology, which deals with the question of human instincts. --JWSchmidt 21:02, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

Hi!
Hi ProximaC,

Nice to see you on this wiki! I remember you from EvoWiki and Palaeos. Btw, what is happening on EvoWiki? The server seems to have been down for a long time. What would you like to learn here, and how would you like to contribute? I'm happy to help/provide pointers about what is here. --AFriedman 16:59, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

Evowiki goes offline periodically. Last time when the wiki recovered I suggested moving to a different server. I'll suggest it again this time. The wiki will probably recover but there is a risk that some time the server will break permanently. Natural selection can operate against wikis that are managed recklessly. Proxima Centauri 17:55, 8 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Re: your page about the octopus that I saw you wrote, quite a number of species are what is called semelparous, which means reproducing only once in their lifetime and then dying afterward.  Semelparity tends to be associated with living in environments where one is not likely to survive to a second reproductive season, although it's nearly impossible to experimentally study why a particular trait evolved in a natural environment.  Other semelparous animals include most species of antechinus (a type of Australian marsupial).  I don't know offhand if all species of octopi are semelparous, or only some.  There is some very interesting research on the fitness tradeoffs of semelparity versus iteroparity (reproducing more than once in a lifetime), and it should be possible to perform further original research on this subject at Wikiversity.  A couple questions.  Are you interested in the physiological aspect of octopus semelparity, the evolutionary aspect of octopus semelparity, or both?  Also, do you have access to a major university library and the journals listed in the "References" section of Life history theory?  --AFriedman 20:35, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

I've written back to you on my Userpage if you'd like to take a look. --AFriedman 14:11, 9 March 2009 (UTC)
 * I've written to you on my Userpage again. Did you know that you can change your settings so that pages you change are automatically added to your watchlist?  --AFriedman 14:53, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

vandal
Thanks for the heads-up on the vandal. The best place to notify about things like this is Request custodian action. You might also try #wikiversity-en if you think it is urgent. Leaving a note on my talk page is also fine. --mikeu talk 12:36, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

"genitals on the main page" <-- this has been going on for a couple of days now. I know it is no fun to see, but apparently this guy has nothing better to do. --JWSchmidt 15:25, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

Block
User:Unstoppable Fandal needs a block. I've sorted out the Main Page and reverted all his (I doubt if that was a woman) edits. Here's one vandal edit that appeared on the Main Page and here's a second vandal edit that appeared on the Main Page, I've checked and the image is one of yours.

User:Silentassassin hasn't vandalized (yet?) though the account was created almost at the same time as Unstoppable Fandal. I don't know if that is an acceptable username at Wikiversity but the account certainly needs to be watched.

Are you a sysop? If you aren't do you know any sysop who is currently active? Proxima Centauri 08:34, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

Hi, please contact the custodians to get these pages deleted. Thanks for your work. Eml4500.f08 17:19, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

Vandal reporting
Hello. I noticed you had left a note about a vandal a couple days ago on JWSchmidt's page. He's not around much lately, and actually can't do much about it because his "custodian tools" were removed over a year ago. Best place to report is WV:RCA. --SB_Johnny talk 18:37, 24 October 2009 (UTC)

NDE
I made a link to a published journal article. This is a good example of a topic for which it is hard to get funding for scientific research, and probably even harder to get working scientists to spend time on. --JWSchmidt 21:37, 12 February 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Proxima Centauri. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Proxima Centauri~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:48, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Proxima Centauri


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Talk:How Life could Evolve in a Red Dwarf Star System

I also wrote this on Speculative Evolution Wiki. Proxima Centauri 16:12, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

I removed the link due to the unrelated and highly innapropiate themes explored by the story, and creative writing does not count as reliable sources of information.


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User:Ketaikeon

Ketaikeon 16:41, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

title: User:Ketaikeon