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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Social needs

Overview
The degree to which one enjoys life can be said to be represented in the strength of their social relationships. However, social relationships as a means of fulfilling social needs can also be seen as a determinant of Happiness and Wellbeing. Social contexts provide opportunities for social needs to be met and for growth and self improvement within the individual. Four types of basic social needs identified by Reeve (2009) are explored here in terms of their effect (both positive and negative) on one's wellbeing. This chapter looks at how social needs are satisfied and the impact this has as a determinant and influencing factor of wellbeing and improved Quality of Life.

This chapter will help you understand what social needs are and their importance in daily functioning and success. Having the ability to satisfy social needs by surrounding yourself with supportive, positive and strong relationships is detrimental in reducing adverse consequences of stressful life events (Rook, 1984) and improving psychological wellbeing - well worth investing in!

Social needs

It is important to recognise and understand basic needs as they are a commonality between all individuals that help us comprehend what drives human behaviour and motivates us to set and achieve tasks and goals in life. Psychologist Abraham Maslow popularised basic human needs by suggesting that individuals are motivated to fulfil basic physiological and psychological needs in order to reach a phenomenon he coined self-actualisation. Maslow developed a Hierarchy of Needs which is commonly represented as a pyramid (See Figure .2.). In essence, basic needs which appear at the bottom of the pyramid must be conquered before one can be satisfied and 'move on' to address more complex needs. If left unsatisfied, the individual would be left with unpleasant feelings and a sense of deprivation (Benson & Dundis, 2003).

Social needs, differing from psychological or physiological needs, are acquired through experience, development and socialisation (Reeve, 2009). Their effect on mental health and well-being has been documented in many recent studies (Berscheid & Reis, 1998; Myers, 1999) as existing within us as "acquired individual differences that make up part of our personality". These individual differences and social contexts that support one's basic social needs facilitate natural growth and have been found to stimulate wellbeing and self improvement (Deci & Ryan, 2000). A social need is defined as "an acquired psychological process that... activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive" (Reeve, 2009). Maslow's third stage, Love/Belonging is particularly relevant to this concept, as it identifies the need for belonging, love and affection, developed through strong relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments, and close family ties. The importance of developing and maintaining these relationships is vital in reaching self actualisation and the emergence of the self through expressions of companionship and feelings of acceptance. However, while Maslow's theory may at the surface appear relevant, it is argued that little research actually proves that what characterises the theory can be applicable to real life situations and that it is more subjective than generalisable.

Four basic social needs were identified by Reeve (2009); Achievement, Affiliation, Intimacy & Power. Historically, Freudian Theory stated that emotional experiences formed basic personality structures which in turn, continued to shape reaction throughout life in a largely unconscious way. Therefore, an emphasis was placed on the influence and importance of child-rearing practices of emotional experiences as fundamental in shaping adult experiences. In contrast, social learning theorists have denied early childhood learning as being important or more important at any specific time in one's life (Reeve, 2009). An extensive study by McClelland & Pilon (1983) looked at adult needs for achievement, affiliation and power, in which no association between an adults need for affiliation and experienced child-rearing practices existed. However, few childrearing experiences could be used to predict adult motives which gave the study a conclusion that social needs, rather than being set at an early age, instead emerge and change over time.

Maslow's theory can be understood in terms of the health care sector and overcoming challenges in the workplace and understanding human behaviour and motivations to perform well. Firstly, the most basic needs must be met so that employees do not dwell or become stressed over them, forcing them to spend too much time contemplating the issue. For example, if health care practitioners are paid well and express a satisfaction towards their wages, they are less likely to stress about financial difficulties and percieved inequity. This would allow them to progress towards the next level in which safety and security within the job is sought. A secure working environment can be interpreted in many different ways including perhaps security of employment, or relevant OHS practices. Regardless of how it is percieved, only when that percieved need is satisfied can the practitioner then move to the third level which involves the seeking of social belongingness and inclusion in the work environment (Benson & Dundis, 2003).

Four basic social needs
Four basic social needs are achievement, power, intimacy and affiliation

Achievement
In humans, the need for Achievement is to aspire to accomplish and seek "success in a competition with a standard of excellence" (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell, 1953). Influenced strongly by social persuasions (McClelland & Pilon, 1983), this competition may stem from a task, or be a competition with one's self to achieve and exceed beyond what has already been accomplished. While emotional reactions vary individually, individuals with a high need for achievement are reported to respond more to approach-oriented emotions such as hope, pride, and anticipatory gratification. (Reeve, 2009). In contrast, individuals with a low need for achievement are reported to respond better to avoidance-oriented emotions such as anxiety, defense, and a fear of failure. Achievement is an acquired need rather than an innate need, and can develop strongly in children when independence training, high performance aspirations, high ability self-concepts, and a positive value for achievement related pursuits are provided by their parents (Reeve, 2009). However, being acquired, achievement motivations change throughout the life span.

Raised expectations and standards of excellence are enforced towards us everyday and in many different contexts, for example, at school (a test), at work (a brief), in sports (an opponent), (Reeve, 2009). Elliot (1997) combined classical (Atkinson's Model) and contemporary perspectives of achievement to create an integrated model. This model outlined two contrasting types of goals: Performance goals & mastery goals.

While a performance goal often refers to outperforming others, mastery goals often allow an individual to (Reeve, 2009):
 * develop greater competence
 * make progress
 * overcome challenges, and
 * improve the self, and

unlike performance goals, mastery goals are often associated with "positive, productive ways of thinking, feeling and behaving" (Reeve, 2009).

When looking at achievement motivations and their influence on wellbeing, implicit theories play a key role in guiding the type of goals people pursue, with incremental theorists often adopting characteristics of mastery goals to improve learning, progress and self-concept.

Power
A high need for power stems from the desire to "impact, control, or influence... another person, group, or the world at large" (Winter, 1973), in which high-power individuals strive on dominance, reputation, status, and/or position (Reeve, 2009). Individuals with a high need for power seek out relationships just as those high in achievement, intimacy & affiliation needs, however the purpose of these relationships is to establish and maintain influence over other individuals (Winter, 1973). Therefore, not surprisingly, these individuals seek out leadership roles, and often report strong positive emotions when experiencing a sense of control (Reeve, 2009). Interestingly however, results have shown that having these characteristics did not always make that individual 'more liked' nor does it mean that the decisions they make when leading a group are always the best choice. Instead, when put in group situations, power-seeking individuals often produced poorer decisions as they were less open to alternative ideas, and their assertiveness often proved to be detrimental to group functioning (Fodor & Smith, 1982; Winter & Stewart, 1978; Reeve, 2009)

Intimacy & Affiliation
The need for affiliation can be thought of as the need for approval, acceptance, and security in interpersonal relations, whilst more contemporary views focus on the need for approval and need for intimacy as two core facets that make up affiliation (Reeve, 2009). In its early study, the need for affiliation was conceptualised as "establishing, maintaining or restoring a positive, affective relationship with another person or persons" (Atkinson, Heyns, & Veroff, 1954). While they may appear extraverted, friendly and confident, highly affiliated individuals often experience a significant amount of anxiety in their relationships. Overshadowed by a fear of social rejection, individuals with high affiliation needs often interact with others in such a way that allows them to avoid negative emotions, fear of disapproval or loneliness (Reeve, 2009). Highly affiliated individuals are known to monitor people's reactions and percieved opinions of them, and invest time seeking reassurance.

However, a more positive conceptualisation of affiliation is present in intimacy motivation, which provides motivation to engage in close, positive, interpersonal relationships that decreases fear of rejection. The intimacy motive reflects a concern for the quality of one's social involvement and is defined as a willingness to "experience a warm, close, and communicative exchange with another person" (McAdams, 1980).

Intimacy & Old Age (Steverink & Lindenberg (2006).

Well-being
""I feel energised". - Moller, Deci & Ryan, 2006"

Social interactions are commonly associated with increased psychological wellbeing and a positive sense of self. Irrespective of the intensity of stressful events, studies have shown that high levels of social support, and positive social relationships and experiences contribute to a healthy psychological wellbeing (Williams, Ware & Donald, 1981). In contrast to individuals who pursue extrinsic goals, individuals who are intrinsically motivated often experience (Kasser & Ryan, 2001):
 * Optimal functioning & higher psychological well-being and mental health
 * Greater self-actualisation
 * Less anziety & Depression
 * Greater self-esteem
 * Higher quality interpersonal relationships

""I look forward to each new day". - Moller, Deci & Ryan, 2006"

Table 1: Five Essential Elements of Well-Being (Rath & Harter, 2010).

Avoidance Motivation & Well-Being
Just as high-achievement motivation allows for positive self improvement and enhanced well-being, a fear of failure can lead to a lack of progress, dissatisfaction, diminished interest, and impaired psychological well-being (Reeve, 2009). Performance-avoidance goals emerge when individuals develop a fear of performing poorly, making a mistake and potentially embarrassing themselves. This can have serious negative consequences not only by decreasing the individuals motivation to complete tasks and challenge themselves, but also in their well-being. If an individual is continuously avoiding any situation that might result in a negative consequence, they begin to develop a dissatisfaction, negative affect and find little enjoyment in normally well engaging activities (Reeve, 2009).

(Ryff, 1991)

Self-Acceptance: is one's ability to hold a positive self perception which is accepting of all traits of one's personality, including good and bad qualities. One who scores low in self-acceptance often feels disappointment in the self and wishes to be different.

Positive Relations with Others: refers to the relationships one has with others and the extent of which these relationships are satisfying and trusting. These types of relationships allow for affection, intimacy, understanding, and give-and-take.

Autonomy:scoring high in autonomy means one is able to overcome social pressures and instead focus on individual needs and use that to motivate behaviours. Autonomy relies on personal judgement, regulating behaviours from within.

Environmental Mastery:a sense of presence and competence in certain environments. Scoring high in environmental mastery means one is able to exploit opportunities present in their environment that satisfy personal needs and values.

Purpose in Life: is one's sense of directedness and beliefs that life is purposeful and meaningful.

Personal Growth: An individual who holds personal growth in high regard use goals to reach their full potential and are open to new learning and experiences.

Social exchange theory explores costs as well as rewards when engaging in behaviour, that is motivated to fulfil their needs. A study by Rook (1984) found that not only were positive social outcomes related to wellbeing, but also negative social outcomes had a strong influence on psychological wellbeing.

Positive consequences: Relationships with friends and neighbours, considered to be a high level of social support, were considered a good predictor of wellbeing in adults and elderly. Rook's (1984) study focused on the social relationships of elderly women and how this allowed them to fulfil social needs and therefore increase wellbeing.

Negative consequences: Looking only at positive consequences of social interactions can cause an oversight to the true dimension of ones social life and one's true state of wellbeing. Instead, as social exchange theory explores, the benefits of social relationships and whether social needs are met should be considered in terms of the balance (or imbalance) of benefits and costs involved. While little research focuses on this flip side to social needs and wellbeing, the possibility that individuals with low social-support could be vulnerable to stressful events is a vital perspective. Interestingly, social psychological research has suggested that negative social experiences have the potential to detract from wellbeing to a much larger extent than wellbeing is enhanced by positive social experiences, perhaps because they are not experienced as commonly as positive experiences (Rook, 1984).

Summary or conclusion
Social contexts have the potential to satisfy basic needs and faciliate natural growth processes among individuals. Achievement, Power, Affiliation & Intimacy are recognised by Reeve (2009) as vital basic social needs that are fundamental in many areas of personal growth and wellbeing. This chapter has identified types of needs and types of wellbeing and how each interact to impact on quality of life. If we fail to understand our needs, then our needs cannot be met. Social communities provide the opportunity for these needs to be explored and individuals are able to work towards satisfying them. This gained satisfaction leads to a sense of purpose and happier, healthier attitudes in life. Something we wish for everyone.

The stakes might be high, but investing in your friends, family, intimate partner, social communities, and in yourself pull in many rewards and bonuses that are undeniably invaluable.


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Social needs 2

What are needs?
There are three basic types of needs which need to be satisfied in order for a person to function and survive. These are physiological needs, psychological needs and social needs. The difference between physiological and psychological needs is quite distinct. The difference between psychological and social needs however, are a little less obvious.

A physiological need is required for an organism to survive and involve our biological systems such as our brain and other organs within the body. These systems contribute to the process of maintaining homeostasis, which is discussed in more detail below. Physiological needs include the following: Our bodies are designed to inform us when any of these needs are not being met, which is a form of physical deprivation. For example, if you haven’t eaten for a prolonged period, your body instigates a feeling of hunger. This is a physiological response informing us that we require food and ensuring that this basic need is met.
 * Thirst
 * Hunger
 * Sex
 * Pain Avoidance

A psychological need is inherent in individuals and it generates a desire to behave in a manner to ensure that our needs are met. These include: An interesting point of difference between physiological and psychological needs is that psychological needs are not necessarily based on deprivation. If you have been successful previously, this does not necessarily reduce your desire to achieve success in the future.
 * Autonomy
 * Competence
 * Relatedness

We define social needs as a person's desire to be accepted and have a sense of belonging, similar to psychological needs but with more of an interactive aspect and include the following themes:
 * Achievement
 * Affiliation
 * Intimacy
 * Power

Theoretical Background
There are a number of theories which attempt to explain how an individual ensures that their needs are met and have been built on over many decades based on continued research in the area of needs and motivated behaviour.

Murray’s Need-Press Theory
In 1938, Henry Murray proposed one of the first theories of needs, called the need-press theory, in which he composed a list of psychological needs which were thought to impact on human behaviour. Needs referred to a person’s behaviour, feelings or reactions, while press referred to the environment surrounding the individual and how this either hindered or supported the fulfilment of these psychological needs. The focus of this theory appeared to be on psychological needs and an individual’s interaction with the environment. However, this theory does not take into account the importance of satisfying physiological needs.

Hull’s Drive Theory
According to Clark Hull, all human behaviour is driven by four main drives which are sex, hunger, thirst and pain avoidance. This theory, referred to as Drive Theory or Drive-Reduction Theory, describes these drives as the basis for all human behaviour as we strive to reduce the drives by seeking out remedies ie. driven to seek out water to quench our thirst. While this theory generated a lot of research in order to elaborate on what appeared to be quite a basic explanation of drive reduction principles, there were several animal studies conducted in which brought to light some of the limitations of Hull’s drive proposal. Berlyne, D. E. (1955). The Arousal and Satiation of Perceptual Curiosity in the Rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48(4), 238-246.

A study conducted by Deci and Ryan demonstrated that monkeys would perform puzzle tasks for prolonged periods of time, simply for the enjoyment of doing them. Similar results were found in a later study conducted by Berlyne on rats, which when placed in a maze would continue to explore spaces until they were no longer novel to the rat. These results indicated that behaviours were not solely caused by an intention to reduce the four drives that Hull had suggested were the basis for all behaviour.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
One of the more popular and well-known theories of needs is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow suggested that a person must satisfy the below needs, referred to as basic needs, in their hierarchical order which is as follows:

 * 1) Physiological Needs eg. breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis and excretion
 * 2) Safety Needs eg. Security of body, employment, resources, mortality, family, health and property
 * 3) Love/Belonging Needs eg. Friendships, family and sexual intimacy
 * 4) Esteem Needs eg. Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and respect by others
 * 5) The Need for Self-Actualization eg. Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice and acceptance of facts.

Maslow states that his theory is not supposed to be a rigid example of how one should live their life, however it does seek to provide a logical order in which needs are satisfied by an individual. Research has also shown that this theory provides a good basis for predicting quality of life based on the hierarchy across different countries.

Self-Determination Theory

The most recent theory to emerge in regards to need motivation is the Self-determination Theory proposed by Deci and Ryan. This theory integrates previous theories in that it focuses on both an individual’s inherent tendency to grow and their innate psychological needs. This theory proposes that there are three main needs that a person requires in order to be wholly satisfied: Psychological need to experience self-direction. The urge to be in charge of the initiation of one’s own behaviour. Psychological need to effectively interact with the surrounding environment Psychological need to interact with, and establish relationships with, other people. Includes desire to be emotionally linked to others.
 * Autonomy
 * Competence
 * Relatedness

When these needs are met, the result is an increase in growth and integration. If they are not met, non-optimal outcomes are sometimes achieved such as grief, anxiety and other similar negative emotions. These negative outcomes are thought to have a detrimental effect on an individual’s need fulfilment.

Needs, Wants and Likes
A need can be distinguished from a want/like easily by remembering that a deficit in what a person wants or likes is not likely to cause serious harm. A deficit in a psychological need however, such as water, food or sleep can cause serious psychological and physical harm.

''Eg. It was a very hot day and Susan was thirsty. She turned to her mother and said that she needs a drink (or else she runs the risk of becoming dehydrated). She said that she wants a bottle of soft drink (the type of drink is a preference, not a requirement)''

Monitoring and Satisfying Needs
ho•me•o•sta•sis “Psychology. a state of psychological equilibrium obtained when tension or a drive has been reduced or eliminated “.

Homeostasis regulates our bodies and is designed to keep us in a state of equilibrium. Homeostatic drives, such as thirst and hunger, are triggered by internal process. Non-homeostatic drives are triggered due to external events rather than internal processes. For example, sexual arousal and emotional activation are triggered by environmental factors and only become active once the appropriate environmental cues are presented.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs
"When needs are nurtured and satisfied, we live, grow, and thrive; when needs are neglected and thwarted, we are damaged, regress and suffer”

Advantages
When a person's needs are met, they are no longer motivated by a driver to fulfil them, however there will always be another need which will take its place. One of the advantages of fulfilling one's needs is a high feeling of self-worth, self-esteem and achievement.

Together, these needs serve to contribute positively overall to a person's growth and well-being. As an example, after having a glass of water or consuming breakfast, a person will experience a certain level of satisfaction. As the day continues and the effects of their consumption wears off (such as the calories get expended or the water evaporates from their system)deprivation begins to set in again. It is an advantage of our bodies that we have a regulatory system that allows us to notice, on a physical level when our needs are not being met.

Disadvantages
So what happens when psychological, physiological or social needs are not fulfilled? If physiological needs, such as eating, sleeping or drinking, are not met. This can result in serious physical injury to an individual and in serious cases of deprivation, may result in death. Psychological damage can also occur if psychological and social needs are not met, as well as damage to one's social world and an individual's interpersonal relationships.

Deficiency needs is the collective term given to basic needs such as safety, belonging and self-esteem. If a deficiency need is not fulfilled, this can lead to negative feelings and emotions and in terms of Maslow's hierarchy, can create a failure to achieve higher levels of growth toward reaching self-actualisation. It has also been commented on that modern society has become too materialistic and as such, there is potential for discordance between individual needs structures and the environment as our psychological needs have evolved place.

Reeve also tells us that humanistic theorists, such as Maslow, use ill-defined constructs to describe aspects of their theories. This is a disadvantage as it makes it difficult to quantify, and in turn to test these theories extensively.

Current Research
'''Hagerty, M. R. (1999). Testing Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: National Quality-of-Life Across Time. Social Indicators Research, 46, 249-271.'''

This study focuses on using Maslow's theory or hierarchical needs to predict the development of Quality of Life over time and across several different countries. Results agreed with aspects of Maslow's theories, especially in respect to need achievement.

'''Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological Needs and the Facilitation of Integrative Processes. Journal of Personality, 63(3), 397-427.'''

In this study, Ryan seeks to explain that basic human psychological needs cannot simply be defined as either non-existent or automatic, but rather as dynamic and dependent on social contexts and cues. Ryan's definitions of needs also takes into account the concept of "wants" as a separate concept.

'''Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The Darker and Brighter Side of Human Existence: Basic Psychological Needs as a Unifying Concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319-339.'''

A response to commentaries published on Ryan and Deci's "Self-Determination" theory (SDT) framework. This article explores the comments made by fellow scientist in the field of psychology and addresses them in relation to their theory of Self-determination.

'''Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On Happiness and Human Potentials: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166.'''

This article examines the concept of "well-being" and what actually contributes to an individual's sense of well-being in regards to fulfilling of one's needs. It also discusses the underlying causes of well-being and its stability over time.

Quiz
{Which of the following is not a psychological need? - Relatedness. - Competence. + Achievement. - Autonomy.
 * type=""}

{In what year did Clark Hull propose his Drive Theory? + 1943. - 1953. - 1954. - 2001.
 * type=""}

{A person's need to experience self-direction and be in charge of their own behaviour is described as competence. - TRUE. + FALSE.
 * type=""}

{Complete this sentence: { Homeostatic | homeostatic } drives, such as thirst and hunger, are triggered by internal events.
 * type="{}"}

{Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs consists of 5 stages, the final stage being self-actualisation. + TRUE. - FALSE.
 * type=""}


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User:Laura.smith

Book chapter: Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness

title: User:Laura.smith


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Avoidance motivation

Comments
Hi Beth, i have been looking on your page and it is looking like your finishing it up...just something that i have realised while snooping on your page....when the words are red it means your link has failed - you should make sure that you have correctly saved your links so that they dont fail. :) 124.176.58.244

Comment by Magnolia - your links were excellent - this would be an excellent topic to introduce to schools to get the students motivated as well as understanding themselves and their motivation

Rfoster 12:01, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 06:45, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

Alleged plagiarism
An initial investigation has indicated possible plagiarism. This requires more investigation. For example: -- Jtneill - Talk - c 21:43, 11 December 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) "Avoidant personality disorder is reported to be especially prevalent in people with anxiety disorders, although estimates of comorbidity vary widely due to differences"
 * 2) "Research suggests that approximately 10–50% of people who have panic disorder with agoraphobia have avoidant personality disorder, as well as about 20–40% of people who have social phobia (social anxiety disorder)"
 * 3) "Some studies report prevalence rates of up to 45% among people with generalized anxiety disorder and up to 56% of those with obsessive-compulsive disorder"

Additional alleged plagiarism
-- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:44, 12 December 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) "Her avoidance strategy is to just never try."
 * 2) "|%22She%E2%80%99s+a+little+shy+and+has+a+hard+time+approaching%22&go=&form=QBRE She’s a little shy and has a hard time approaching"
 * 3) "Social anxiety disorder remains under-recognized in primary care practice"


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Health behaviours

Overview
'''The root of all health is in the brain. The trunk of it is in emotion. The branches and leaves are the body. The flower of health blooms when all parts work together.''' - Kurdish Saying.

Do you ever feel like you aren't in the best health you can be because of your lifestyle, habits and excuses you make? Do you want to live you life as long and disease free as possible? Do you want to kick the smoking (or cupcake) habit, hit the gym more often or just generally look after you health better?

If you answered yes then you have come to the right wiki to help yourself not only become more motivated but also to teach you how to be healthy and commit to long term habits to improve your health. This wiki will teach you about what health behaviours are, what inhibits health behaviours, what motivates them, the major theorists behind health motivation and how to apply this to yourself and any situation where you need help with motivating and improving your health behaviour.

Do you practice healthy behaviours?
{Nutrition: Whole servings of vegetables I eat per day. -Less than 5 +5 or more
 * type=""}
 * Five or more: give yourself one point)

{Activity: I frequently exercise. + True - False
 * type=""}
 * True: give yourself one point

{Risky habits: I frequently drink alcohol or smoke. -True +False
 * type=""}
 * False: give yourself one point)

{Prevention: I frequently see the doctor for preventative screen such as pap smears or skin checks. + True - False
 * type=""}
 * True: give yourself one point)

Did you score 4? Perfect! You practice great health behaviour to eliminate you from most major risks! Less than 4? Then you have identified areas where you need to improve you health behaviour, keep reading to find out how.

Health behaviours
Health means being in a state of physical, social and mental well being. A health behaviour is any activity undertaken which consequences are to improve or maintain the individuals health (Nutbeam, 1998). This means any activity that is done to foster, improve, restore or maintain a healthy condition or to prevent diseases; including any activity from diet and exercise, washing your hands, wearing a condom, taking prescribed medication or eating an apple everyday (Xu, 2009). The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) identifies that tobacco use, alcohol consumption, physical activity, dietary behaviour, use of illicit drugs, sexual practices and vaccinations are the key risk factors that contribute to chronic disease for Australians (AIHW, 2012), somewhat the opposite of a health behaviour. A health behaviour could even be considered as not participating in any of these behavioural risks.

Promoting positive health habits in your own life is important because not only will it increase your chance of survival but you will have an overall better wellbeing, mental health, self-esteem and general better quality and longer life (AIHW, 2012). Good nutrition through a balanced diet and sufficient physical activity will lead to increased immunity, better physical and mental development, greater productivity, improved bone, functional and mental health, aid in weight control and greatly reduce your chance of preventable disease and associated medical costs. Poor health behaviours, or behavioural risks, can cause high blood pressure, excess weight, impaired glucose regulation and high blood cholesterol which all may lead to a number of preventable diseases. Twelve of these diseases are listed by AIHW (2012) as; These examples of preventable disease are responsible for an increased cost to Australia well over $13 billion from 2005-2006 (AIHW 2010). Poor health also leads to increased levels of mental health problems such as stress, anxiety or depression as well as low self-esteem, poor immunity and sleep problems (AIHW,2012). Some of these preventable diseases are even in the top 10 leading causes of death in Australia (AIHW, 2012)

What motivates such behaviour?
It is important to understand what motivates good and bad health behaviours and to be able to predict health behaviour when developing interventions to change behaviour. There are four historically prominent theories of health behaviour motivation in psychology. These have been used to predict changes of general and health-protective behaviour. These four theories specify what determines the likelihood of an individual undertaking a ‘health-protective action’ or a health behaviour instead of their current behaviour. These theories assume that the ‘benefits’ of the new behaviour must outweigh the ‘costs’ of current behaviour (Weinstein, 1993). These benefits and costs include time, effort, money, convenience and satisfaction. These theories are known as motivational models for health behaviour; their primary focus is on what induces performance or lack thereof health behaviours. Most of these models focus on intention and are designed to predict behaviour at single points in time for example; next week. These models include the health belief model, protection motivation theory, social cognitive theory and the theories of reasoned action/ planned behaviour.

''A good example is a smoker wanting to cease smoking, benefits of stopping would include all round better health and greater longevity, more money, less social stigma, more convenience by not smoking, paying for cigarettes, smoking around others and finding places you can smoke or buy cigarettes, but what are the costs of stopping smoking? This could include agitation, anxiety, depression, anger, increased appetite, drowsiness, headaches, nausea, the list goes on (Fiore, et al., 2008).''

The health belief model
The Health Belief Model (HBM) was conceived by Rosentock in the 60’s to understand why people were failing to use disease preventatives and compliance to treatment. The health belief model has since been considered the most widely used theoretical frameworks in health behaviour today (Janz & Becker 1984). Clemow, (2008) succinctly outlines the HBM as consisting of: It was also identified that social and psychological variables like health motivation, education or socioeconomic status may also be important modifiers of other variables listed. In a meta-anaylsis it was found that the most influential of these foundations in health motivation is the perceived barriers (Janz & Becker 1984) and although the effect sizes are small for all of the constructs they are all still statistically significant (Janz & Becker 1984). Critics of the HBM identify that the models foundations are poorly defined (Armitage & Conner, 2000) is based on the foundation that there is an abundance of cues to action which is most often not the case (Janz & Becker 1984). It also assumes that that health is a high priority for most people (Janz & Becker 1984).
 * Perceived threat
 * Susceptibility: the individuals risk of developing the condition. This can include general health problems, existing illnesses and complications or recurrent diseases.
 * Perceived severity: how serious the individuals sees the illness, as well as the costs if left untreated. This can include physical consequences such as money, pain, death or social consequences like stigmatisation.
 * Perceived benefits: the what good will be gained from taking action, this can include reducing the disease threat as well as other benefits like saving money or becoming more aesthetically attractive.
 * Perceived barriers: anything that will impede the action, this includes discomfort or inconvenience from changing behaviour as well as expense or danger. Another perceived barrier can be competition, this includes with other more pleasurable activities or even other information. For example the common competing information of weather eating fatty food is good or bad for you. Strength or pleasure of bad habits are often barriers that impede health behaviours.
 * Cues to action: these can be either internal cues, like thoughts or emotions, or external such as reminders for screening tests on your calender or advertisments on TV. External cues can also be in social settings where friends or family are participating in health behavior.

Protective motivation theory

Protective motivation theory (PMT) was also developed in 1975 and its foundations are based on that the function of engaging in health behaviors is a result of motivation to protect yourself (Rogers, 1975). Protective motivation theory specifies what characteristics of a message will influence to arouse, sustain and direct behaviour and what processes motivate health behaviours (Rogers, 1975). These processes are:
 * Severity of threat
 * Vulnerability to threat
 * How effective the alternate behaviour is to averting threat
 * How effective the person is at implementing alternate behaviour

Rogers (1975) proposed that when one encounters a health threat from the environment two routes are taken to through the aforementioned processes. These routes are either; threat appraisal or coping appraisal, and from these routes it is determined weather a person will or will no express a maladaptive response (Rogers, 1975). A maladaptive response is a behavioural risk to health, as mentioned in detail above; this includes anything from substance abuse to not washing your hands. It was suggested that intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are what determine the chance of participation in these behavioural risks (Rogers, 1975). Critics of the protection motivation theory point out that the theory does not account for people’s individual differences and that if a person is uncertain about themselves and their environment to implement health behaviours they are less motivated than their more confident counterparts (Brouwers & Sorrentino, 1993)

Theory of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour
The theory of reasoned action or (TRA) was developed in 1975 to explain the influence of action by beliefs and attitudes (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). It is identified that intention of action is the best forecast to behaviour, defined as an individuals cognitive readiness to perform and divided into three beliefs; Criticisms of the TRA identify that the theory lacks in identifying if people believe they have the ability to perform an action (Armitage & Conner, 2001).
 * Behaviour; conviction of the consequences of a behaviour.
 * Attitudes; value of placed on self-performance of the particular behaviour.
 * Subjective norms; how others in their life view the behaviour

''An example of TRA implemented would be if a person wishes to execute a physiotherapy plan of 3x 30 minutes daily stretching routine given to rehabilitate a sprained ankle. According to the TRA the individual must believe the plan will be effective, want to have a rehabilitated ankle and have their social network believe that’s how they will be rehabilitated. Here, some faults are identified in the TRA already the person could just as easily not implement the 90 minute daily physiotherapy plan and still see some improvement in their condition.''

This is where the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985) identified the need for perceived behaviour control, the difficulty of performing the particular behavior, this component links the intention to the capacity to perform. Further critics of the TRA and TPB pointed out that although attitudes, beliefs and behavioural control can predict behaviour often subjective norms are less effective at contributing to behaviour motivation. Examples of the TPB in health behaviours are listed below A meta analysis conducted in 2011 revealed that the type of behaviour moderated the effecicy of TPB. It was found that approximately 20% of variance could be predicted with physical activity and diety behaviours while only 15% of variance would be predicted for behaviors like detection, safe sex and drug abstinence (Robin, McEachan, Conner, Taylor & Lawton, 2011).
 * Smoking (Norman, Conner & Bell, 1999)
 * Dieting (Armitage & Conner, 1999, Ellis Gardener, 2003),
 * Exercise (Atsalakis & Sleap, 1996, Budden & Sagarin, 2008, (Ellis Gardener, 2003)
 * Safe sex (Rye, Fisher & Fisher, 2001, Armitage & Talibudeen, 2010)

Social cognitive theory
The social cognitive theory proposed by Bandura (1986) is what he based on his 1998 motivation model of health behaviour on. The foundations are self-efficacy and situational and action expectations of outcomes. It predicts that behaviours are performed if you merely have confidence, control and few obstacles.
 * Outcome: the results
 * Situation: some results are out of control.
 * Action: actions are instrumental to results.
 * Self-efficacy: confidence in ability to implement action
 * Self-regulatory control: observation and conscious influence to change habits

Social Cognition theory will account for small to medium variance between behaviours and the strongest predictor of behaviour is again, self-efficacy (Armitage & Conner, 2000). The self-efficacy component is similar to what has been describes in PMT and TPB

Intrinsic
Intrinsic motivation is naturally occurring, when you enjoy something and you do it and you receive no reward a lot of people experience it when explaining their reasoning for an activity is 'for fun'. The reward for the behaviour is the behaviour itself (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation cannot be created but it can be facilitated through environments which support autonomy and competence (very similar to self-efficacy), or knowing actions are under your own control and you have the skills to reach and master your goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Reading this self-help book would be an indication of perhaps having some intrinsic motivation to practice health behaviours, but not enough to foster behaviour without a little help. Your motivation may lie in the extrinsic category of motivation.

Extrinsic
Extrinsic motivation is participating in an action due to its outcome. This includes naturally occurring benefits or threats which have been explained above, practising good health for a better mind and body or to avoid illness. Other extrinsic motivation are rewards or punishments, which you can implement.(Ryan & Deci, 2000).

A good example of extrinsic motivation is giving yourself a new pair of shoes for every 5cm off your waist to motivate yourself to a healthy size through good nutrition and activity.

How can such behaviour be fostered?
As you can probably see, many of these aforementioned theories overlap in their foundations. By applying the knowledge you have learnt from the above theories you help can motivate yourself to participate in positive health behaviours. You will need to write the following down in application to your chosen behaviour in a dedicated notebook or journal- buy one with a calendar or weekly timetable to help.

 * Current maladaptive behaviour: By identifying what maladaptive, negative health behaviour or threat you want to address you can then appraise the following:
 * - Risks: how likely are you succumb to the costs of your negative health behaviour? Find some facts applicable to you and the behaviour you're addressing
 * - Costs: the costs of your negative health behaviour.

Keep all this information written down in the back of your journal, keep it simple and motivating.

''A good example of identifying a maladaptive behaviour and addressing the risks and costs of such behaviour is demonstrated in the infamous and controversial scare campaign known as the Grim Reaper AIDS ad. The advertisement identifies the health behaviour of using condoms and practising safe sex; the risks of getting aids, is real to everybody and 50,000 people are now affected by the virus; and identifies the costs of the maladaptive behaviour by saying "if not stopped it could kill more australians than WWII"''

 * Goal health behaviour: This should be the opposite of your maladaptive behaviour. If that is smoking, this should be not smoking; if your maladaptive behaviour is a bad diet then your goal health behaviour is good nutrition. Valley on a clear day.JPG
 * - Benefits: Think about, what current benefits do you get from your current maladaptive or risky behaviour; is it connivence, perhaps pleasure? Then do some research, what benefits do you get from changing the maladaptive behaviour to a positive health behaviour? Do they outweigh the current benefits?
 * - Value What is the value that you place on these benefits? For example, perhaps smoking currently gives you the immediate pleasure which you do value but growing old free of illness and watching your children grow up would be placed at a higher value than the immediate pleasure from cigarettes.
 * - Action Determine what actions you are going to set to change your behaviour. This may or may not be to a schedule and the schedule may be predesigned or one that you've made for yourself. See Goal setting for tips on where to begin.
 * - Results What do you want to achieve? Is is as simple as being able to eat better or do you want more energy or a smaller pant size? Results are like the benefits that you are aiming for but should be measurable for you.

Create a page in your journal for each of these, include pictures and information to help you achieve your goal. This could be anything from relaxation techniques if you are overcoming smoking to exercises and recipes if you want to practise better activity and nutrition

''The Australian Governments initiative Swap It, Dont Stop It is a great example of giving a goal, demonstrating the benefits, proposing a value and potential results of a health behaviour, in this case good nutrition. The website has lots of resources including a 12 week schedule and tailored fact sheets that are customised to gender, season and region. This particular initiative could be adapted to nearly any health behaviour. "''

 * Social support: most negative health behaviours will already be viewed as detrimental socially but make sure you tell your friends, family and significant others that you are planning on behaviour change (and are serious) and they should support you. Unfortunately in some cases such as smoking and alcohol cessation, social groups can have a negative effect on your behaviour change. Identify these situations early, or before they happen and assert your behaviour change firmly.
 * Cues to action: Social support can often naturally give you cues to action as well, friends asking how you have been with your behaviour change or pointing out your lapses. You still need to ensure that you have your own cues to action; your action schedule will help with this but ensure that you come into contact with it frequently. Good cues to action are reminders on your desk or calendar, apps on your smart phone and eliminating temptation of maladaptive behaviour. For example, don't keep large quantities of junk food at home or keep your gym bag in view at home.
 * Self-regulation: This again ties into action, cues to action and the schedule that you have planned. Make sure that you keep to your schedule, have realistic goals and maintain motivation through small rewards. If you have a bad day, there is always new opportunity the next morning. Stick to it!

Physical health promotion campaigns

The Australian National Preventive Health Agency Binge Drinking

Sexual Health Sun Protection

Promotion of healthy eating
The Australian guide to healthy eating Swapping bad for good Shape up The Australian dietary guidelines:

 * 1) Choose amounts of nutritious food and drinks to meet your energy needs
 * 2) Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods from these five groups every day:
 * 3) Plenty of vegetables, including different types and colours, and legumes/beans
 * 4) Fruit
 * 5) Grain (cereal) foods, mostly wholegrain and/or high cereal fibre varieties, such as breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles, polenta, couscous, oats, quinoa and barley
 * 6) Lean meats and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, and legumes/beans
 * 7) Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives, mostly reduced fat (reduced fat milks are not suitable for children under the age of 2 years)
 * 8) And drink plenty of water.
 * 9) Limit intake of foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol
 * 10) Encourage, support and promote breastfeeding
 * 11) Care for your food; prepare and store it safely

Promotion of exercise
The Australian physical activity guidelines:
 * 1) 	Think of movement as an opportunity, not an inconvenience.
 * 2)  	Be active every day in as many ways as you can.
 * 3)  	Put together at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most, preferably all, days.
 * 4) 	If you can, also enjoy some regular, vigorous activity for extra health and ﬁtness.

Mental and social health
There are no official mental health guidelines. But the Department of health offers several Mental Health programs such as Headspace which features information about Similarly there are also no social health guidelines, and even less information about social health problems. Fortunately there are many independent programs in schools to address bullying. Headspace also offers information about
 * Psychosis
 * Self-Harm
 * Depression
 * Relationships

Conclusion
Health is as a state of physical, social and mental well being. A health behaviour is anything done to improve or maintain your health or any activity that is done to restore health or prevent diseases. This can include nearly anything; no matter how small, or when, as preemptive or reactive to a health issue. Promoting positive health habits is important to it increase longevity, wellbeing, mental health, self-esteem and life quality. Activities that are detrimental to health are often referred to as maladaptive behaviours or health risks, these can lead to a number of preventable diseases.

It is important to understand what motivates good and bad health behaviours and to be able to predict health behaviour when developing interventions to change behaviour. There are four historically prominent theories of health behaviour motivation, which can predict changes of general and health-protective behaviour. These four theories specify what factors determine the likelihood of an individual participating in a health behaviour instead of their current behaviour. These theories assume that the ‘benefits’ of the new behaviour must outweigh the ‘costs’ of current behaviour and are include; health belief model, protection motivation theory, social cognitive theory and the theories of reasoned action/ planned behaviour.

Each have their own positives and negatives and they mostly have very similar components. By applying the knowledge of these theories behaviour you help can motivate yourself and organisations and implement interventions for the public to participate in positive health behaviours.

Other Related Book Chapters

 * Healthy eating
 * Overeating
 * Weight loss
 * Exercise motivation
 * Exercise
 * Dieting
 * Alcohol and university student motivation
 * Caffeine and motivation
 * Extrinsic motivation
 * Goal setting
 * Intrinsic motivation
 * Motivation and vegetarianism
 * Nicotine and motivation
 * Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Protection motivation and health


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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope that you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:18, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Chapter feedback
FYI, there is some feedback about the draft Social needs chapter here Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social needs -- Jtneill - Talk - c 09:43, 8 November 2011 (UTC)

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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Social needs 2

Comments
Evening!! Its looking really good, the colours are very calming i found :-) are you adding some pictures?? I really like that you have incorporated diagrams, sometimes they just pull everything together EamesA 13:58, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Excellent information - liked the quiz - well done - Magnolia

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-- Jtneill - Talk - c 23:53, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-image

Overview
"Our self image, strongly held, essentially determines what we become. - Maxwell Maltz"

The key question at hand is, “What exactly is self image?” The Cleveland Clinic (2009) provides us with the definition of “the personal view we have of ourselves.” This includes how we see ourselves physically, our personality and any other characteristics that we feel make us who we are. The greatest influence that fosters our self image comes from those who we spend the most time around: this includes our parents, friends and loved ones. Depending on our life experiences, we can have a relatively good self image or we can have a distorted image of ourselves. There is a constant internalized debate and questioning humans engage in to ask ourselves exactly “What do people think of me?” resulting in the overall image we have. Our responses are dependent upon what we think of ourselves and how we handle certain situations that arise in our lives. Another rather important part of our self image is our own body image. Although we can only do so much to alter this, it is as much connected to the internal thoughts of who we are because it is our outward expression of what is inside. Altogether, this idea of self image is something that is often distorted by several factors in society including the media, peers, and the workforce. It is also something that affects anyone and everyone, but can target specific demographics more significantly than others. This includes people who are constantly in spotlight (celebrities and athletes) as well as the everyday people in our lives. Now that we see it is an evident part of our lives, the goal is to try and improve our self image if it has, in fact, been distorted by one or more of these aforementioned aspects. The following will provide you with a clearer understanding of what self image is, what factors affect it, who it affects, and how we can change or improve what kind of self image we currently have to give us a more enjoyable and successful life.

Media
One of the strongest influences that a person can have regarding their self-image is by the media. Whether it regards the tabloids, magazines, television or social media websites, there is always an element of the subconscious that is affected. With issues surrounding physical appearance being the prime purpose for positive and negative outcomes regarding the consumer, it is paramount to understand the reasons behind this important factor that develops people’s self image.

Television shows such as “What Not to Wear” aim to alter the person’s outward appearance in their everyday life while at the same time targeting the person’s inner levels of confidence (or lack thereof). By offering the contestant $5000 for a new wardrobe, they must agree to have the hosts of the show take full reign of what clothing they have and are able to throw out what is not “stylish” or “up-to-date.” At the end of the show, the person typically walks away with a new sense of self as well as a completely new set of clothing that can be mixed and matched to create a number of new outfits. The way the media affects one’s self image is easily seen in this situation. By portraying that the way certain people dress is directly related to their success shows how strongly the media has a hold on society.

Another example of how self image is portrayed can easily be seen in magazines. “Cosmopolitan,” “Women’s Health,” “GQ,” and “People Magazine” are great examples of how such magazine corporations market self image in a complete package. Most magazines, such as these, contain a few key elements. These include health and beauty, sex, fitness, nutrition, and fashion. The combination of each of these provides the reader with a total image that is desirable on many levels. By providing the consumer with advice and tips on how to make yourself the best that it can be (in the media’s standards), the reader then becomes desensitized to what is the “norm” and then allows themselves to be manipulated and shaped into who they want them to be. Altogether, magazines and advertisers know what is appealing and how to reel in the reader to show what one’s self image should be.

Peers/Colleagues
Another factor that affects one’s self image is their peers. Because of the strong effect they have on the development of one’s personality, mannerisms and activities they engage in, peers are quite significant to the growth of a person. Peers or colleagues have the ability to enhance the workplace or create an unstable work or living environment. Because of the fact that humans want to be accepted, social environments like the workforce provide opportunities for constant criticism based upon one’s actions and appearance.

A study completed in Canada expresses the importance of peer relationships in relation to self image. Specifically, the researchers looked at body image satisfaction among a group of 258 girls approximately 11.8 years old by providing questionnaires before, during and after a school-based session that went over the span of six weeks. The issues that were addressed included self esteem, body satisfaction, and perfectionism, which are all factors that have the capability of leading to disordered eating (especially among this age group). It was found that the program provided the girls with an improved self esteem regarding body image satisfaction over time (McVey, Davis, Tweed, Shaw, 2003). By providing the group of girls with a way to gain a greater understanding on how to deal with these issues, it showed the importance of peer relationships. Had these girls not received such valuable information, there is potential for them to lose sight of how to have a healthy and well educated self image. Although the study did not look at the extended long term effects of how this intervention would affect them in the future, it did indicate that there was some significant information that could lead to successful future research. Studies similar to this have the ability to greatly affect young people to examine their way of thinking and provide a healthy alternative to the forced norm that society expects us to maintain (regarding self image).

Workplace
The workplace is a place where appearance and self image is representative of not only the employee, but the company they are employed for as well. Whether one is required to wear a common uniform or follow a specific dress code, the confidence and self image the person has can be restricted or amplified. If one is meant to wear a common uniform (e.g. a fast food chain, janitorial staff, military, primary school child), one’s self image has the potential to be suppressed especially because of the monotony and lack of individuality that is able to be expressed. However, if there is a dress code, many people have a little more creativity and a way to express who they intend to present themselves as. Oftentimes, one’s self image (as portrayed by the clothing they choose to wear) can “make or break” whether one is viewed as professional enough to maintain the job they have.

Research completed in Athens, Greece regarding plastic surgery takes a look at whether one’s appearance is directly related to the choices they make regarding their professional lives as well as their personal lives. While also examining self-confidence, researchers tried to get a clearer look at 100 women who had recently received plastic surgery (within the past 40-60 days) and how they felt about their results thereafter. By providing a questionnaire to understand measures of self-confidence, self image and social acceptance, researchers were able to get a better understanding of whether the representations of these women undergoing plastic surgery for the purpose of improving their self image and self confidence existed. Questions included some similar to this in the questionnaire provided to the 100 women in the study:

 * 1) In which of the following plastic surgery operations were you subjected?
 * 2) At what degree did you personally desire to undergo plastic surgery?
 * 3) Would you characterize your desire to repair your deformity as obsession?
 * 4) For what reasons did you decided to undergo that plastic surgery operation?
 * 5) At what degree you felt fear before that plastic surgery operation?”

Altogether, there were 30 questions that were exploratory and 7 other questions that related to demographics. The results showed that there was, in fact, a significant relationship between interpersonal relationships and the effect it has on positive change in the interaction between their work partners/colleagues. They also saw that the opinion of others, regarding their appearance, was quite important to the females’ self image. In the end, researchers found that their hypotheses were proven and that there is a strong importance of outward appearance, especially in the workforce (A. Foustanos, M.D., L. Pantazi, and H. Zavrides, M.D., 2007). This study shows us that we, as humans, seek to prove ourselves with our outward appearance even if it means resorting to invasive procedures to make us happier and more satisfied individuals in our place of employment. This distorted way of thinking can lead to a variety of issues in the future development of a person that infiltrates their personal lives. It is important to recognise this issue as it has the potential to truly affect our mental health.

Demographics
Now that we have examined what factors primarily affect one’s self image, we can now take a look at specific demographics that undergo constant criticism that could affect their overall sense of self image they may have including the self image of those that follow them. Some of the most criticised groups of people are those who receive significant amounts of publicity: celebrities and athletes. Everyday people look up to these people as role models or mentors depending on the work they do or what they represent.

Celebrities
Celebrities are a particular group that are looked at on a regular basis. Their every move is watched, examined and mimicked in some cases. Due to the media, a lot of what they do is highlighted and exaggerated from what they wear to what they do. Social media sites, including “Twitter” are a great example of how a celebrity’s actions are under constant scrutiny. In particular, the public oftentimes engages in “celebrity worship” where they begin to compare themselves to how celebrities look to a degree that can significantly affect their psyche. A study completed in Great Britain looked at this association with young people and celebrity worship. Researchers wanted to look at whether this association was stronger with the viewer’s same sex celebrity, but also if it there was a stronger association for females than males in this respect. The study was conducted among three sample groups of various age groups (adolescent [14-16 years], young adults [18-30 years] and an older group [22-60 years]) to gather a more diverse sample. Each group was given two questionnaires that asked questions regarding body image. The results showed that females were much more likely to have an association between celebrity worship and body image. They also found that when they related celebrity worship with poor body image, it can be explained as intense-personal (meaning they keep their relationship with the celebrity to themselves) which results in the chances of having a poorer body image to be higher, especially among female adolescents. Finally they found that the phenomena of celebrity worship can be seen higher among females between the ages of 14-20, but does not exist thereafter. Although this may be present, the study shows that there is an association that cannot be ignored (J. Maltby, D. Giles, L. Barber, and L. McCutcheon, 2005). Therefore, we can see that females are capable of being affected by celebrities and relating it to their own lives and self image. This could have a negative effect on them in the grand scheme of life. Hopefully, by changing the norm of what is “socially acceptable” will become something that can be taken more seriously so as to understand how it is not positively affecting the public, as disordered eating is one of the biggest issues related to this. After being under such constant scrutiny as a celebrity, it must be difficult to understand that people are attempting to attain what they have while not living or maintaining an ideal lifestyle.

Athletes
Athletes are also a highly coveted demographic of people that are looked at on a regular basis. Depending on the level of skill and marketability they have, the more successful they are able to be. A study conducted in France took a look at how manipulating and distorting pictures of competitive swimmers affected how they perceived themselves to actually look. The study was completed among 21 French males and 21 French females as they were asked to assess what they perceived their bodies looked like (or what they wanted to look like) once their pictures had been slightly changed. The results showed there was a gender difference between males and females. Males were more likely to have a bigger difference between their real body image in comparison to their perceived body image than females. Also, females were less likely to express the desire to have a more stout body than the males (I. Urdapilleta, D. Aspavlo, L. Masse, and A. Docteur, 2010). It is clear that the effect the sport industry has on athletes plays a large role in how an athlete performs on and off the field. An athlete’s body is the source of success and any alterations that occur that hinder their performance could be quite detrimental. Unfortunately, the public that watches these athletes looks up to them for a variety of reasons and can sometimes fall short, resulting in a negative outcome. If athletes are already expected to maintain so much, how much more scrutiny must the consumer feel when they examine how hard they must be on themselves in order to attain such a coveted body type?

How to change or improve your self image
In lieu of the aforementioned studies, we can now take a step back and ask how we can actually improve our current self image. It is safe to say that there are some key elements that can be examined from each section which are linked to a successful self image.
 * By not allowing the media to completely guide and shape your opinions of who you are, you are able to avoid being manipulated by what society wants to mold you into. Choosing who you want to be despite what the media may expect from you is essential to having a healthy self image.
 * Relying upon peers is essential for successful living; however, develop yourself and your self image around what makes you feel accepted without compromising your values. Allow your peers and colleagues to support you, not bring you down.
 * Use the workplace to express yourself professionally (referring to your outward appearance) instead of standing out in an improper way.
 * Make yourself more aware of how you are affected by celebrities and athletes. Their constant infiltration by the media can have a serious effect on the way you present yourself to others. Continue to maintain a unique self image that is your own and not dictated by those who are constantly in the spotlight.

The Cleveland Clinic (2009) also provides a list of ways to improve your overall self image as listed below:

 * Take a self-image inventory
 * Define personal goals and objectives
 * Set realistic and measurable goals
 * Confront thinking distortions
 * Identify childhood labels
 * Stop comparing yourself to others
 * Develop your strengths
 * Learn to love yourself
 * Give positive affirmations
 * Remember that you are unique
 * Learn to laugh and smile
 * Remember how far you have come

Some wonder whether there is a gender difference in promoting a healthier self image. According to a study regarding this issue, the researchers sought to uncover the differences while finding ways to improve them overall. Seeing as most research is done on improving women’s self image due to a strong influence of the media, peers, etc. not a whole lot of research is done on how men are affected. Many men struggle with self image, especially body image, when related to muscular size and even social comparison. Researchers found that the key to improving self image is to implement psycho-social interventions in order to reduce the levels of internalization (which leads to negative thought of one’s self image), by teaching people to make social comparisons more realistic, as well as showing people that social identities should be questioned when related to body dissatisfaction. Altogether, they found that these were some key ways to improve a negative self image when related to body dissatisfaction that works for both men and women (Grogan, 2010).

Also, a study regarding women’s self image and body image was conducted to see if reading theistic material could affect how they perceived themselves. A group of college women were asked to complete questionnaire regarding their levels of religiosity and body esteem. Afterwards, they were put in one of three treatment groups: spiritual, religious and control. Each group was given different materials to help cope with body image and was shown photographs of thin models to trigger these concerns. The results showed that those who were in the religious group fared better than the other two groups while the spiritual group had better results than the control group (C. Boyatzis, S. Kline, and S. Backof, 2007). Therefore, it can be seen that this could be a possible form of intervention for those who are struggling with self image, particularly with their body image. More research is needed to be done on this form of treatment, but it could indicate future success.

Conclusion
In summary, there are many factors that are involved with one’s self image. The perception we have of ourselves drives who we are and what we desire to be. Life experiences play a huge role in this and can build up or tear down the self image we have created and have developed. In addition to self image, body image plays a big role in what we see ourselves to be. The combination of the two creates the full picture. Our self image has the potential to be distorted by a variety of factors including the media, peers and the workforce. Others have certain expectations of who we are and we can often lose sight of our originality and creativity. Also, celebrities and athletes have an effect on how we present ourselves. They are often role models, but are also under constant scrutiny and criticism for their actions and appearance. Therefore, it is critical to examine how the media is portraying them and compare it to what is the reality. By having a more thorough understanding of what self image is, what factors contribute to it and who they have a strong effect on, we can draw positive advice and skills to improve our self image if it has been distorted in some way. We can do this by looking at ourselves, our experiences and what has possibly stood in the way of contributing to our success as an individual. Altogether, our self image is one of the strongest representations of who we are. In order to live an enjoyable and successful life, we must be willing to stand up and implement the tools given to us so we build and maintain a positive self image.


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Goal-setting and happiness

Overview
Many people pursue goals that they expect will make them happy, but happiness isn’t always the end result. There are people who will put everything they have into one aspect of their life, such as their careers (at the expense of their personal lives) only to wonder years later why they are successful and still unhappy (Lyubomirsky, 2005). It is all too common for people to be surrounded by beautiful homes, expensive cars, and designer clothes, have hundreds of Facebook friends and still have less personal satisfaction within their life than if they did not have all that extra “stuff” (Lyubomirsky, 2005). So then how is one to know which goals will provide personal happiness and which ones will not?

Happiness is a mental state of well-being that is characterised by a range of positive emotions (Lyubomirsky, 2001). Positive psychology experts have endeavoured to find the answer to questions focusing on what “happiness” is, and how we might attain it (Lyubomirsky, 2001 & 1998).

Goal-setting involves deciding what you want to accomplish and devising a plan to achieve the result you strive for (Hollenbeck, 1987). Goal-setting encompasses a major component of personal development and is viewed as an effective tool for making progress towards goals by ensuring that a person has a clear awareness of what they must do to achieve their objective (Hurn, 2006). Goal-setting is intrinsically linked with a desire to improve one’s self and overall happiness (Hurn, 2006). The amount of time spent on achieving goals, means that you will want to be sure of why you are working towards specific goals (Hollenbeck, 1987). Your happiness has to be the driving factor, and the deal breaker behind which goals you work towards, and which ones you toss (Hollenbeck, 1987).

Think back to the goals you achieved in your past. Remember how you felt when you got your driver’s licence or on your wedding day or when you graduated from your different levels of schooling? At every point in your life when you feel content or happy, you can most probably find that you were either making progress toward a goal or had reached a goal (Hurn, 2006).

Now think back to when you were last unhappy. In each case you may have either (Hurn, 2006)
 * 1) had no goal,
 * 2) were trying to reach an undesirable goal,
 * 3) you were making no or little progress towards a goal or
 * 4) due to circumstances you were not able to accomplish a desired goal.

Goal Guidelines

 * Goals should be challenging but realistic and attainable: If you set goals that are too easy, you will reach them without much difficulty, which will not provide you with a real sense of accomplishment. It is best to set goals that can be realistically reached, but only with a sufficient amount of time and effort put in (Latham, 2005).
 * Goals should be specific and concrete: The goal should target an area to be worked on, and you should be able to measure the improvement or changes that have been aimed for, and have a time frame in which to achieve the goal (Latham, 2005).
 * Avoid focusing on goal attainment: It is not possible to judge whether every goal made will ultimately be attainable. It is more than likely that you will not reach every goal that you set for yourself. Therefore it is more advisable to focus on the journey you have taken (degree of attainment) rather than whether or not you fully reached your goal (absolute attainment)(Latham, 2005).
 * Continuous goal setting: Goal setting is a process that never ends (Locke, 1990). Once one goal is achieved, another goal with a different direction should be created to take its place (Latham, 2005). As you evolve as a person, your goals will change. You should review your goals on a regular basis and adjust them as needed (Locke, 1990).
 * Feedback: You should get regular feedback on how you are doing in pursuing your goals from those around you (Latham, 2005). Having consistent feedback contributes to the effectiveness of goal setting.

Having vs. Achieving Goals:
Having the right type of goal helps you to find the happiness that you seek (Hollenbeck, 1987). The purpose of having goals is to provide you with direction, not necessarily to provide you with achievement and success (Lyubomirsky, 2005). The types of goals you go after should enhance your experience of the present, while it is advisable to avoid goals where you focus on the destination as being the key to your happiness(Hollenbeck, 1987).

Intrinsic and Authentic Goals:
Intrinsic goals are goals that are personally meaningful and satisfying (Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic goals are not the result of external conditioning (Ryan, 2000). They are instead goals that align with a person’s core values (Ryan, 2000).

In four simple words: Do what you love! (Lyubomirsky, 2001)

If your goals follow the conventional lifestyle of the average Australian adult and you go to university, get a job, get married, have children, then retire, it is important you pursue these goals because they are meaningful to you and you are not just following them because of social or familial conditioning (Lyubomirsky, 2001). Divert your energy to those goals which are meaningful and purposeful in your life (Ryan, 2000). If you enjoy helping others pursue volunteer work. If you enjoy dancing, take lessons. If you enjoy fitness, take up a sport you enjoy playing. Pursuing goals that mean something to you personally will bring happiness into your life (Lyubomirsky, 2001).

“Many men go fishing all of their lives without knowing that it is not fish they are after”- Henry David Thoreau (Erez, 1984)

Money, beauty, possession of items, and popularity for instance are for the most part extrinsic goals (Ryan, 2000). That is, they are pursued as a means to an end and not for their own sake and therefore true happiness is unlikely to be found in the pursuit of them (Ryan, 2000).

Harmonious Goals:
Not pursuing goals that conflict is important (Lyubomirsky, 1998). For example, attempting to maintain two goals of say starting your own business and spending a more significant amount of time with your family can seriously conflict with one another and cause an unsatisfying feeling during goal progression (Lyubomirsky, 1998). Pursuing goals that do not conflict creates a harmonious well-being and leads towards happiness (Lyubomirsky, 1998).

Flexible Goals:
People often stubbornly stick to their goals until they are completed whether they are gaining happiness from the progression or not (Hollenbeck, 1989). It is however apparent that change occurs and it is important to note that it is not a sign or weakness to change and is in fact a sign of strength and takes courage (Hollenbeck, 1989). Flexible goals lead to happiness as they stop us from being constricted (Hollenbeck, 1989). If we rigidly stick to goals we may be denying new evidence or knowledge that becomes available after we have set the original goal objective (Hollenbeck, 1989).

Future Goals:
Once a goal has been achieved it is important for you to create new goals to continue to have something fresh to strive for (Locke, 2006). Without a new goal a person becomes bored (Locke, 2006). Boredom ultimately leads to stress, misery or feelings of incompleteness (Locke, 2006).

This is a common predicament for married couples post-honeymoon. Between the period of pre-wedding to honeymoon, a couple has multiple goals to achieve together which creates a sense of happiness, however post-honeymoon, after the extravagant celebrations are over, the couple may find themselves in a rut of boredom unless they create further future goals to achieve together.

This also applies to retirees. For some planning their retirement and the initial stages after leaving the workforce can be an absolute thrill. But the joy of freedom can quickly turn to boredom is a person does not work on making new goals for themselves.

Long-Term Commitment:
Two thousand years ago Seneca cautioned “though you may cross vast spaces of sea in an attempt to escape the stressors of your life, you will fail to find peace or happiness there because your faults will follow you wherever you travel.” (Hollenbeck, 1987)

Asking what we want to be rather than what we want can have a lasting impact on goal happiness (Hollenbeck, 1987). It is however a long term commitment, as being what we want involves the daily challenge of facing the gap between where we are now and where we want to be (Bandura, 1997 & Hollenbeck, 1987). For instance a person may want to be more generous towards the less fortunate because they feel as if it will bring them happiness to enrich the lives of other people. But the person first has to examine the gap between their current ungenerosity, aka where they are now to where they want to be. The person cannot pretend the gap does not exist if they want to better themselves (Hollenbeck, 1987).

Be True to Yourself:
When making goals it would be wise to make sure that what you are aiming for goals that coincide with who you really are (Lyubomirsky, 2001). There should be some compatibility; otherwise if the goal and your personality don’t align it is unlikely that you be willing to put in the work in the long run to achieve it (Lyubomirsky, 2001). This is why some of us, no matter how hard we try and however much we want to, just end up going around in circles (Lyubomirsky, 2001). If you enjoy doing something and get a lot of pleasure from it, it is very unlikely to actually be hard work (Lyubomirsky, 2001). Hobbies are one example of putting in effort to reach a goal which people just happen to enjoy at the same time.

The reason a person might prefer playing tennis over rugby is that tennis aligns better with their personality. Therefore if a choice had to be made, the goal of tennis is more likely to be achieved and enjoyed because motivation is less of an issue (Lyubomirsky, 2001).

We can still achieve goals that do not align with our personality, but the less it aligns the more of an external influence might be needed and finding happiness through progression of these goals will be more of a challenge (Lyubomirsky, 2001).

Enjoy the Journey:
One of the keys to happiness is enjoying the journey (Lyubomirsky, 2001). This can sometimes be easier said than done though. Achieving is beneficial, but it is a mistake to miss out on life as we achieve (Lyubomirsky, 2001). It is immensely important to enjoy the journey and to enjoy life as we accomplish goals. The extent to which you are making progress on our goals, you are happier emotionally and more satisfied with your life (Lyubomirsky, 2001).

Temporary Happiness
Instant gratification predominates in today’s society (Lyubomirsky, 1998). Situations arise where specific goals may lead to temporary happiness (Lyubomirsky, 1998). Often this brief happiness is associated with the lesser good which promises immediate pleasure and is more tempting in comparison to the greater good which may require more sacrifice and effort (Lyubomirsky, 1998). For example, while it may be more enjoyable to spend the night watching TV or out at a bar, but you know you will be better off is you spend the time working on an assignment.

The use of drugs has become a relatively common method to gain the goal of temporary happiness (Lyubomirsky, 1998). There are some who use drugs as a method to escape from their troubles. For a small price, a person can immediately take their mind off any issues and experience euphoria by taking a pill (Lyubomirsky, 1998). This short-term pleasure can ultimately lead to long term pain when the effects of the drug wear off and you feel miserable again and therefore feel the need to take the drug again, which leads to a spiral of need and relief (Lyubomirsky, 1998.

It is however difficult to achieve true happiness through goal-setting simply by enjoying the pleasures of the moment (Lyubomirsky, 1998 & Bandura, 1997).

Happiness Exercise: How to effectively use goals to enhance happiness
The following exercise is a guide that can help you explore the current state of your life in terms of goals, and help you assess your goals to find the ones that will give you direction to work toward that will likely bring happiness (Locke, 1990).

 * 1) List goals you have not reached yet (Locke, 1990): Make a list of the different types of goals you have currently not reached in your life. They can be small goals, extravagant goals, failed goals and current goals.
 * 2) Circle those goals that interest you the most (Locke, 1990): Circle all the goals that you have not yet reached but you have an interest in or feel motivated to complete. Cross out the goals that you cannot find any benefits to (Locke, 1990). Also eliminate the goals that are of no interest to you and you are not excited about achieving. However it is important to keep goals that are vital, however uninteresting they may be (Locke, 1990). For example your goal may be to “pay off all debts”. That goal may not thrill you, but examine the benefits: If you save ‘X’ amount of money in one year and pay off a credit card that leads to financial freedom which leads to less anxiety and stress.
 * 3) Add new desirable goals (Locke, 1990): Think about what your greatest desires might be. If you could accomplish anything, what would your goals be? What would you have? What would you do? Add any new goals to your list.

As you set goals for yourself, remember all of the areas of your life that are important to you (Hollenbeck, 1987). Map out a detailed description of how you would like your whole life to look. You can use a pie chart to represent your life, and put the goals for different areas of your life into the different ‘pieces’, making the more desirable goals into larger pieces of pie to provide you with a visual cue (Hollenbeck, 1987).
 * 1) Line up your goals in a logical sequence (Locke, 1990): The better your goals align with each other, the more likely you will reach them. For example “Finish my degree, so I can have a more stable income which can pay of my debt” or “Help my partner more around the house so we have more time to spend quality time together which can improve our relationship”. Make a list your goals from most important (want to accomplish/strive for first) to the lesser important goals or goals in which you want to strive for at a different point in your life.
 * 2) To complete the procedure and become happier, you now need to start making progress toward your goals (Locke, 1990): Whether it be big steps, baby steps, any progress is positive progress! (Locke, 1990).

By setting sharp and clearly defined goals, we can measure and take pride in our achievements; we can see progress in small manageable steps and this can build confidence and momentum and lead to happiness being achieved (Hollenbeck, 1987). The more progress you make towards your most desired goals, the happier and fulfilled you will be (Locke, 1990 & Hollenbeck, 1987). Attempt to review your goals on a regular basis to keep your attention and efforts aligned with your goals (Locke, 1990). Ask yourself “What can I do today or this week or this month to make progress towards my goals?”

Conclusion
Setting goals helps us achieve, gain a sense of accomplishment and feel happiness but it is also true that goals can’t guarantee that the things in which we strive for are necessarily the right things for our happiness or well-being (Hollenbeck, 1987). When they work for us, goals honour our own values and our values are more about what we want to be than what we want to have (Hurn, 2006). So much of what we think will make us happy, simply doesn’t (Hurn, 2006). Even if everything may not be going exactly the way we initially planned, if we love what we have while at the same time working toward making changes and creating new goals, we will lead a happy life (Davern, 2007).

Overall it is important to simple seek balance in all things (Diener, 2009). Balance planning with doing; having with being, wanting with experiencing, dreaming with implementing, achieving goals with experiencing the present (Diener, 2009).

Have a little fun… It’s good for you!


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Talk:Spanish/Verbs

Naming of pages involved with this resource
Currently, pages for individual verbs are found as pages in mainspace under the name of the verb. This would be better organized as subpages, before this goes much further. I'm not sure that the pages should be organized as "verbs," per se, that could be handled with categories. Rather, how about a Spanish dictionary, effectively?

We could move the existing verb pages to subpages of Spanish/Verbs or to subpages of a Spanish dictionary. The question is whether or not the top-level organization into verbs should be done. No dictionaries are organized that way, to my knowledge, as separate volumes, so to speak, for verbs, nouns, etc. Rather, each word may be categorized. Thus with a category, one can look only at verbs, say.

It might also be better to use pages that contain many definitions. I'm just trying to get some thinking going on this, before we have a pile of disconnected pages in mainspace.

I'm willing to help with custodian tools, ask me on User talk:Abd. Thanks. --Abd 18:08, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

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User talk:Bayloro

 Hello Bayloro, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Abd 18:12, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-image

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Great topic - should be presented at schools - well researched and presented - Magnolia

Rfoster 21:49, 8 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 10:44, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal-setting and happiness

Referencing
The overall structure looks good, but note that there is a distinct lack of referencing. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 20:25, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

This is an interesting topic - well done with the video - did you know that a ancient Chinese curse goes "May you fulfil your ambitions" - meaning that once a person actually achieves their goal, it does not necessarily lead to happinness - only more prolems. Magnolia

Rfoster 08:35, 7 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 10:43, 11 December 2011 (UTC)


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