text:
Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 9

Topic

 * Talk again about context.

Focuses

 * Listening Set Skill = "E" Listen for detail and specific information in presentations, narratives and conversations
 * Listening Curriculum Statement = "6" Listen for detail
 * Speaking Set Skill = "A" Awareness of Context
 * Speaking Curriculum Statement = "1" Context & Register

Definition

 * Context = What a person or people is/are talking about.

Why?

 * Because if you know the context, you can understand a conversation even if you do not know all the words.
 * e.g. If you know people are talking about food, you can understand phrases like "eggplant is delicious", even if you do not know what eggplant is.

Example

 * Draw two stick figures on the board. Explain that the two of them are having a conversation. These are not questions for the students.
 * A: "What outdoor activities do you like?" B: "I like wake boarding. You?" A: "I don't like outdoor activities, I like cf."
 * Questions:
 * What is the context?
 * What is wake boarding?

Lesson Question

 * What is the context?

Word(s) of the Day

 * Scuba Diving - Demonstrate with an air pack on my back and breating/swimming underwater and seeing many fish.

Question of the Day

 * "What outdoor activities do you like?"

Contact Information

 * QQ ID 867996874
 * QQ Name Danoff
 * e-mail danoff.charles@gmail.com

Teaching Materials

 * FUN WITH ENGLISH 8A Textbook
 * Lessons Notebook

Plan

 * 0 Before Class
 * In classroom at least 30 minutes before my first class of the day.
 * Before class, make sure chairs are set up correctly
 * Write Lesson plan, Lesson, Definition, Example, my contact info and that it's OK to say "I don't know" or "No reason" on the board.
 * Ask if everyone has their textbooks and pens. If they don't tell them to go get them.
 * Have the students write down where they sit on my seating chart.
 * Depending on who is in the class, hand around my notebook and have them write down their names. Do not announce it, just give it to one student.

 * 1) Coversation
 * 6 Minutes
 * 1) * If the kids don't respond, ask them the questions directly.
 * 2) * Are you tired?
 * 3) * Are you hungry?
 * 4) * Is it anyone's birthday today in class?
 * 5) * How did the tests go? How were the tests?
 * 6) * What did you do after the tests finished?
 * 7) * Any questions for me? Add that the longer we talk here, the less time we have to spend on the textbook.
 * 8) Joke
 * 2 Minutes
 * 1) * "hat in the Red Sea" joke.
 * 2) Introduction
 * 4 Minutes
 * 1) * Make sure they understand the word "introduction."
 * 2) * Point out the Lesson Plan, mention if we move fast, we can get to the game quicker.
 * 3) * Tell them my contact info, and say that "I am busy. I want to talk to you, but if I can't it is not because I don't like them, it is because I am busy. I like all of you. Please say hello again or e-mail me. E-mail is much better."
 * 4) * Mention that if ask a question and they don't know the answer, it's fine to say "I don't know". Write "No why" and "No reason" ask which is correct if I ask "Why?" cross out "No reason" explain that it is Chinese, not English.
 * 5) * Words of the Day
 * 6) * Lesson - Ask if they remember what we did last week? Mention we will be focusing on the same idea once again.
 * 7) * Definition
 * 8) * Example
 * 9) * Question of the day: "What outdoor activities do you like?"
 * 10) ** Ask directly to 1 to 3 students?
 * 11) ** If no responses, say well, you can answer on page 34.
 * 12) * Ask for any questions.
 * 13) Page 34 Let's get ready A
 * 2 Min
 * 1) * Walk around the class, help the students who are struggling.
 * 2) * Select two or three students to talk about what they selected, and ask some follow up questions.
 * 3) Page 35 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 87
 * 4 Min
 * 1) * Divide the class in half to read.
 * 2) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 3) Page 35 Let's listen 1 B - Tapescript Page 88
 * 6 Min
 * 1) * I read it through.
 * 2) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 3) Page 36 Let's listen 2 A - Tapescript Page 88
 * 8 Min
 * 1) * Ask a student to play one role, and I will play the other.
 * 2) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 3) Competitive Hangman
 * 8 Min
 * 1) * Divide the class in half.
 * 2) * Draw two hang man diagrams.
 * 3) * Explain the two halves will be playing against one another with the goal of finishing Hangman first.
 * 4) * Give each team one word with the same number of letters and a similar level of difficulty.
 * 5) * Start with one side, then alternate back and forth with the questions.
 * 6) * First team to finish or the last team to be hung wins.

Extra Time

 * Rows & Columns
 * 20 Questions
 * Soccer Dialogue Illustrating Argument vs. Conversation
 * Ball Self-Introduction Game
 * Competitive Hangman
 * "How high can you clap?" Game
 * Simon Says
 * Telephone

g8c5

 * AFLS Teaching Journal 3 Page 33
 * Call on random kids in the convo worked well.

g8c4

 * AFLS TJ3 Page 35
 * told them that if they had more questions we could talk more, and it worked well.
 * they were not quite as shy as usual today and a little naughty, which was a nice change
 * didn't need the context example or the question of the day
 * a few were all on top of the context questions
 * forgot word of the day.
 * Lesson objectives achieved?
 * yeah
 * What I did well
 * Being a little livelier.
 * What I could improve upon
 * Getting more kids involved with the conversation.
 * Next Week
 * move on from context
 * call on the kids in the opening conversation who don't usually speak
 * Thoughts
 * with these types of classes I really think it might be better to do some sort of activity that gets everybody talking

g8 c8

 * AFLS TJ4 Page 2-3
 * got to the textbook after 26 minutes
 * weird class, something was off and I'm not quite sure what it was. I think it started in the Rows & Columns game following the Thanksgiving Speech I gave for the second time to them, when Mr. President very chose 'whole class' to sit down with him and I turned down his request.

g8 c7

 * AFLS Teaching Journal 4 Page 3
 * frustrating class who disrespected me and almost made me lose my temper
 * should've played the full answer game and done the Blue Whale Speech

Additional Options

 * Example of Context

 * A: I like to play cf every day. Do you? B: No, I hate CF. I like WOW. ?: If the context is computer games, what is WOW?
 * Page 37A Let's listen 3A - Tapescript Page 88
 * 4 Min

 * 1) Ask a student to play one role, and I will play the other.
 * 2) What is the context of the conversation?
 * Outdoor Activities Conversation
 * 2 Minutes

 * 1) What Outdoor Activities do you like to do?
 * 2) * surfing, snowboarding, scuba-diving, skydiving, hiking, rock climbing, skiing, skateboarding, camping
 * 3) What would you like to try?

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 9


text:
User:Charles Jeffrey Danoff/Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 10

Topic

 * identify: opinion / fact and argument / conversation
 * Briefly review context.

Focuses

 * Listening Set Skill = 6. Listen for gist in passages and conversations.
 * Listening Curriculum Statement = c) Follow discussion to identify fact/opinion.
 * Speaking Set Skill = A. Awareness of context.

Definition

 * Opinion = What a person thinks.
 * Fact = What a person knows.
 * Context = What a person or people is/are talking about.

Why?

 * Because knowing the difference between fact and opinion is important for making decisions.

Example
Questions:
 * Draw two stick figures on the board. Explain that the two of them are having a conversation. These are not questions for the students.
 * A: “Xi yang yang is a cartoon. Do you like it?.” B: “Yes! It's great!”
 * Which sentence is a fact?
 * Which is an opinion?
 * What is the context?

Lesson Question

 * Is this fact or opinion?

Word(s) of the Day

 * extinct
 * Animals that are all dead.
 * endangered
 * Animals that are few in number and may all die, soon.

Question of the Day

 * What animals do you like?

Contact Information

 * QQ ID 867996874
 * QQ Name Danoff
 * e-mail danoff.charles@gmail.com

Teaching Materials

 * FUN WITH ENGLISH 8A Textbook
 * Lessons Notebook
 * Stopwatch

0 Prior to the Bell

 * 1) In classroom at least 30 minutes before my first class of the day.
 * 2) Before class, make sure chairs are set up correctly
 * 3) Write Lesson plan, Lesson, Definitions, Example, my contact info, words of the day and that it's OK to say “I don't know” or “No reason” on the board.
 * 4) Ask if everyone has their textbooks and pens. If they don't tell them to go get them.
 * 5) Have the students write down where they sit on my seating chart.
 * 6) Depending on who is in the class, hand around my notebook and have them write down their names. Do not announce it, just give it to one student.
 * 7) Stopwatch ready to go before class.

1 Coversation
6 Minutes
 * 1) If the kids don't respond, ask them the questions directly.
 * 2) Are you hot?
 * 3) What do you like to do when it's cold outside?
 * 4) Make a list on the board.
 * 5) Talk about myself, and what I like to do in the winter.
 * 6) Are you tired?
 * 7) Are you hungry?
 * 8) Is it anyone's birthday today in class?
 * 9) What are you going to do this weekend?
 * 10) Any questions for me? Add that the longer we talk here, the less time we have to spend on the textbook.

2 Joke
2 Minutes
 * Piano joke.

3 Introduction
4 Minutes
 * 1) Make sure they understand the word “introduction.”
 * 2) Point out the Lesson Plan, mention if we move fast, we can get to the game quicker.
 * 3) Tell them my contact info, and say that “I am busy. I want to talk to you, but if I can't it is not because I don't like them, it is because I am busy. I like all of you. Please say hello again or e-mail me. E-mail is much better.”
 * 4) Mention that if ask a question and they don't know the answer, it's fine to say “I don't know”. Write “No why” and “No reason” ask which is correct if I ask “Why?” cross out “No reason” explain that it is Chinese, not English.
 * 5)  What animals do you like?
 * 6) Ask directly to 1 to 3 students?
 * 7) Ask for any questions.

4 Speech
5 Minutes
 * 1) Give my speech about my life in Anqing, so far. Other teachers could use any 3 to 5 minute speech they write or find.
 * 2) After finishing, ask them the questions, but tell them to listen more carefully, as I am going to give the speech again.
 * 3) When I finish reading the speech the second time, have them answer the questions in a row & column type format.

5 Page 38 Let's get ready A & B
7 Min
 * 1) Walk around the class, help the students who are struggling.
 * 2) Ask the students if the statements are facts or opinions.
 * 3) If they don't know those words, go through the definitions on the board.
 * 4) When they get to the words “extinct” and “endangered” go through them on the board.

6 Page 39 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 90
2 Min
 * 1) I read it through. Stop at the end of each section and ask the students the answers.
 * 2)  Read the animal blurbs out of order, but do not tell the students what I am doing. Let them figure it out.
 * 3) Ask the students if the statements are facts or opinions.

7 Page 40 Let's listen 2 B - Tapescript Page 91
6 Min
 * 1) I read it through.
 * 2) When checking for answers, do it as a class, the activity is too strange to ask individual kids.
 * 3) Ask the students if the statements are facts or opinions.
 * 4) What is the context of Lisa and the reporter's conversation?
 * 5) If they do not know context, go through it on the board.

8 Page 41 Let's listen 3 A - Tapescript Page 91
6 Min
 * 1) I read it through.
 * 2) Ask the students if the statements are facts or opinions.
 * 3) What is the context of Nancy, David and Helen's conversation?

9 What's the Question?
7 Min
 * 1) Form two teams (three will work, but two seems to add just the right amount of competitive tension).
 * 2) Explain the game, with a few examples of answers in search of questions. Ask, 'What's the question?', and get students to correctly say the corresponding questions for your answer.# Have two players--one from each team--come to the front. Style it like a game show if you like, with the students standing side-by-side. If you have access to bells or buzzers, it's even more fun.
 * 3) Next, read an answer to a question and say, 'What's the question?' The fastest player to respond wins a point for her/his team. New contestants come to the front for a new round.

Extra Time

 * Competitive Hangman
 * Rows & Columns
 * 20 Questions
 * Ball Self-Introduction Game
 * “How high can you clap?“ Game
 * Simon Says
 * Telephone

G8 C7
AFLS Teaching Journal 4 Inside of the Back Cover
 * had the class with 3 girls whose names relate to the weather.
 * that girl who ran out of class b4 sat up front and really seemed to be giving me a chance, even laughed at something I said
 * answer game works well, but I need to think of more answers

Next Week

 * 1) identify: argument / conversation
 * 2) Review:
 * 3) identify: opinion / fact
 * 4) Context
 * 5) formal v. informal discussion

0.1 11 Nov 2009

 * 1) Chose the textbook questions to use in a meeting with Mr. Brown.

0.11 12 Nov 2009

 * 1) Crafted the lesson plan around the questions.

0.2 November 17, 2009 9:59 PM

 * 1) changed the example sentence to something related to the day's lesson.
 * 2) dropped “# What animals do you like?“ & “# What fish do you like?“ from the opening convo, because they are part of the question of the day.
 * 3) combined Page 38 Let's get ready A & B, because for the advanced students doing 1 at a time is too slow, and while they are working it gives me more time to work 1-on-1 with the slower students.

0.3 November 18, 2009 9:59 PM

 * 1) Changed the opening conversation questions to be more relevant to what we are talking about in class, now.
 * 2) Added “speech“.
 * 3) Added “Read the animal blurbs out of order, but do not tell the students what I am doing. Let them figure it out.“
 * 4) Added a new joke.
 * 5) Moved “words of the day“, example & deinition to more logical places in the lesson plan as opposed to arbitrarily at the beginning.

0.31 24 August 2010 16:53 -

 * 1) Changed the formatting to align it with media wiki code.
 * 2) Removed some student's names.

0.32 17 February 2011

 * Did some wikignoming to get ready for publication.

Page 38 Let's get ready B
4 Min
 * 1) Walk around the class, help the students who are struggling.
 * 2) Select two or three students to talk about what they selected, and ask some follow up questions.


text:
Building a Perpetual Energy Machine/Abd

Zachary has left out some steps. Given his idea, what steps or necessary parts did he leave out? Is anything missing from the description of the generator? I'll leave this for others to explore.

The idea is presented that a spinning object, somehow suspended frictionlessly in a vacuum, will continue to spin indefinitely. Is that true? Under what conditions would it be true?

The rotation will continue indefinitely as long as there is no interaction between the object and anything not connected to it. If the vacuum is not perfect, generally, this will create a (probably small) interaction between the object, a force opposing the rotation. Other kinds of interactions can also slow the object. But if there is no interaction, no force acting on the spinning object, yes, it will continue to spin until there is a force altering the motion, or, effectively, forever.

Now, suppose the object is a magnet. Magnets interact with certain other kinds of objects, and they will do this with no physical contact, through a perfect vacuum, even. But suppose that the box is made of a material that isn't attracted to a magnet (or, same thing, that doesn't attract the magnet)? With no other consideration, the magnet would still continue to spin.

But is there something in the device described which will slow the magnet?

A coil is placed in relationship to the rotating magnet so that the magnetic field lines cut across it as the magnet rotates. If the coil is open, there will be no current in it, and the coil will have no effect on the magnet. However, if a circuit is established, say by connecting a light bulb, the magnet's movement will cause a current to be induced in the coil, flowing through the whole circuit. Current flowing in a coil will produce a magnetic field, this is an electromagnet. The nature of that field will be such that it will oppose the magnetic field of the magnet, exerting a force on the magnet. This is called "back electromotive force, or "back EMF." If current flows, this will slow the magnet.

The coil, when a circuit is formed, will extract energy from the rotating magnet, slowing it according to how much energy has been extracted.

Now, what if we arrange set up some coils so that current flowing through them, with the right timing, will cause the magnet to speed up? Could we run the current from the first coil through another coil or coils so that the effect of slowing from the generation of the current will be cancelled out or even more than cancelled out by the effect of speeding up?

title: Building a Perpetual Energy Machine/Abd


text:
Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 7

Focuses

 * Listening Set Skill = “E“ Listen for detail and specific information in presentations, narratives and conversations
 * Listening Curriculum Statement = “6“ Listen for detail
 * Speaking Set Skill = “A“ Awareness of Context
 * Speaking Curriculum Statement = “1“ Context & Register

Lesson

 * The context of a conversation.

Why?

 * Because if you know the context, you can understand a conversation even if you do not know all the words.
 * e.g. If you know people are talking about food, you can understand phrases like “eggplant is delicious”, even if you do not know what eggplant is.

Example

 * Context: Two people are talking about food. B: do you like anchovies? A “I think anchovies are delicious and you?” B “I hate anchovies.”
 * What are anchovies?

Lesson Question

 * What is the context?

Words of the Day

 * Head, Fall off

Contact Information
To be written on the board.
 * QQ ID 867996874
 * QQ Name Danoff
 * e-mail danoff.charles@gmail.com

Teaching Materials

 * FUN WITH ENGLISH 8A Textbook
 * Mr. Brown & Mr. Danoff soccer dialogue cards

0 Before class

 * Make sure chairs are set up correctly,and lesson topic, why, Topic Example, lesson question, joke, my contact info and plan are written on the board. Ask if everyone has their textbooks and pens. If they don't tell them to go get them, maybe have them write their names in my notebook under “Class __ Grade ___ I forgot my textbook.” If not done already, have them rip the answers out of their textbooks.

1 Coversation
4 Minutes
 * 1) Are you tired?
 * 2) Are you hungry?
 * 3) Topics: Halloween & the Honmei Opera
 * 4) What did you do at last year's halloween party?
 * 5) What do you usually do on Friday nights?
 * 6) Ask if it's anyone's birthday in class?

2 Introduce the Lesson
7 Minutes
 * 1) Ask if they remember what we did last week? Mention we will be focusing on the same idea once again.
 * 2) Have the class read the Lesson Goal, Why, Topic Example, Words of the Day, & Today's Question
 * 3) Have the class read the Lesson Plan
 * 4) Tell them my contact info, and say if I don't respond on QQ, I apologize, sometimes I am busy.

3 Joke
3 Minutes
 * Blackboard joke from http://iteslj.org/ click on jokes.

4 Page 22 Let's get ready A
4 Minutes
 * 1) Ask students why they chose various traits.

5 Page 25 Let's listen 3 A & B - Tapescript Page 83
12 Minutes
 * 1) Teacher reads. Students do both at the same time.
 * 2) What is Karen listening to?
 * 3) What is the man talking about? What is the context?

6 Soccer Dialogue Illustrating Argument vs. Conversation
6 Minutes
 * 1) Select one student, give them the lines and have them be “Mr. Brown.”
 * 2) Depending on how it goes, have 2 students come up and do both parts.
 * 3) * Mr. Brown - I think david Beckham is too old.
 * 4) * Mr. Danoff - Really? How old is he?
 * 5) * Mr. Brown - He's 34.
 * 6) * Mr. Danoff - 34! 34 is not old.
 * 7) * Mr. Brown - He's old for a football player.
 * 8) * Mr. Danoff - Don't you mean soccer player?
 * 9) * Mr. Brown - No I don't. I mean football player?
 * 10) * Mr. Danoff - No. You mean SOCCER!
 * 11) * Mr. Brown - NO! I mean football!
 * 12) * Mr. Danoff - SOCCER!
 * 13) * Mr. Brown - FOOTBALL!
 * 14) What is the context of their conversation?
 * 15) Are Mr. Brown & Mr. Danoff having an argument or a chat?

7 Scary Story - The Woman with the Red Scarf
9 Minutes

Extra Time

 * Rows & Columns
 * 20 Questions
 * Ball Self-Introduction Game
 * British vs. American English Word Game - Review Chapter 5
 * Competitive Hangman
 * “How high can you clap?“ Game
 * Simon Says
 * Telephone

Acknowledgments

 * 1) Focuses come from the curriculum section of the 2009/2010 East Meets West China Information Booklet.

Versions

 * 0.1 7 Oct 2009
 * Created in a meeting with Mr. Brown.
 * 0.2 October 20, 2009 9:46 AM
 * Modified instructions for 1 & 2. Added 3 “Heroes Discussion“. Took out “Page 23 Let's listen 1 A“. Took out “Page 23 Let's listen 1 B“. Took out “Teachers Talk About 3 of Their Heroes“ and incorporated it into the Heroes Discussion. Added “Self-Introduction Ball game“ in as the game for part 9.
 * 0.3
 * fied before class preparation.
 * Added “Lesson Goal“ & “Why?“
 * Added British vs. Am English warmup game.
 * Moved around the order of the lesson.
 * Added “20 Questions“.
 * 0.301
 * Changed the introduction, so that the whole class is reading, as opposed to just one of the students.
 * 0.302 28 Oct 2009
 * Added formatting and pre-lesson notes from 8A Lesson 8 Chapters 7&8 v0.2 Grade 8 Class 3
 * Changed joke to a halloween one.
 * Moved the word game to extra time in favor of a scary story.
 * Added “words of the day“.
 * Took out page 24 A & the Heroes discussion in favor of the scary story.
 * 0.4 October 29, 2009 6:22 PM
 * Changed lesson topic to just lesson & topic example to just example.
 * re-worded the “Why“ took out the reference to the exam
 * removed Page 23 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 82
 * added Soccer Dialogue Illustrating Argument vs. Conversation with more questions
 * removed Rows & Columns because the Scary Story takes long enough.
 * 0.41 24 August 2010
 * Edited it to make it appropriate for publication on a wiki.
 * 0.42 24 1 January 2011
 * Uploaded a slightly stripped older version as a public domain PDF on Wikiversity.
 * 0.43 17 February 2011
 * Wikignomed for publication, incl. adding lesson detail box.

Page 23 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 82

 * 1) I will be Karen, students are Tim, John, Lisa & David. Read one time.
 * 2) What is the context of the conversation? Is she arguing? Is she giving directions? Is she asking questions?

Page 24 Let's listen 1 A

 * 1) Divide class in half to read. Students read once, I read the second time, as they do the answers.

Heroes Discussion

 * 1) What does hero mean?
 * 2) Who are heroes?
 * 3) Who are your heroes? Why?
 * 4) Are heroes important? Why?
 * 5) Are heroes different for boys and girls?
 * 6) Be careful with the “why?” questions, as they might turn kids off.
 * 7) Write the answers on the board and see where the discussion goes.
 * 8) See how it goes, perhaps chime in with my thoughts on heroes.
 * 9) At the end, ask “Whay have we been talking about?”

Page 23 Let's listen 1 B

 * 1) Kids read from a slide, answer questions and speak the speech together.

Contact Information
I am actively seeking feedback on how to improve this lesson, please edit it and/or email me at, danoff.charles@gmail.com

title: Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 7


text:
Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 8

Preface
Lesson from a period when I was writing lots of information up on the board before class, as way to organize. I spent a few weeks trying to get through the idea of context with moderate success and this is one of those weeks.

Topic

 * Talk again about context.

Focuses

 * Listening Set Skill = "E" Listen for detail and specific information in presentations, narratives and conversations
 * Listening Curriculum Statement = "6" Listen for detail
 * Speaking Set Skill = "A" Awareness of Context
 * Speaking Curriculum Statement = "1" Context & Register

Definition

 * Context = What people are talking about in a conversation.

Why?

 * Because if you know the context, you can understand a conversation even if you do not know all the words.
 * e.g. If you know people are talking about food, you can understand phrases like "eggplant is delicious", even if you do not know what eggplant is.

Example

 * A: "I love playing cf. Do you like cf?" B: "No, I hate cf. I like playing DNF."
 * What is the context?

Lesson Question

 * What is the context?

Contact Information

 * QQ ID 867996874
 * QQ Name Danoff
 * e-mail danoff.charles@gmail.com

Teaching Materials

 * FUN WITH ENGLISH 8A Textbook

Plan

 * with higher ability class, add page 31
 * 0 Before Class
 * Before class, make sure chairs are set up correctly
 * Write Lesson plan, Lesson, Definition, Example, my contact info and that it's OK to say "I don't know" or "No reason" on the board.
 * Ask if everyone has their textbooks and pens. If they don't tell them to go get them.

 * 1) Coversation
 * 2) * 4 Minutes
 * 3) * Are you tired?
 * 4) * Are you hungry?
 * 5) * Is it anyone's birthday in class?
 * 6) * Are you studying a lot for your upcoming tests?
 * 7) Introduce the Lesson
 * 8) * 4 Minutes
 * 9) * Have the class read the Lesson Plan
 * 10) * Ask if they remember what we did last week? Mention we will be focusing on the same idea once again.
 * 11) * Go over: lesson, definition and example.
 * 12) * Mention that if ask a question and they don't know the answer, it's fine to say "I don't know". Review that if I ask "why?" they should say "no reason."
 * 13) * Ask for any questions.
 * 14) * Tell them my contact info, and say if I don't respond on QQ, I apologize, sometimes I am busy.
 * 15) Joke
 * 16) * 3 Minutes
 * 17) * "T" joke.
 * 18) Page 26 Let's get ready B
 * 19) * 4 Min
 * 20) * Explain to the kids if they have gone walking before, put a check. If they have gone on a boat put a check.
 * 21) * Ask one or two kids to stand up and share what they have done.
 * 22) Page 27 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 84
 * 23) * 4 Min
 * 24) * I read the dialogue, ask the students to listen and circle the places the travel agent talks about.
 * 25) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 26) Page 27 Let's listen 1 B - Tapescript Page 84
 * 27) * 6 Min
 * 28) * Explain to the kids there are multiple answers for each person.
 * 29) * Go through each person individually, asking what fits?
 * 30) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 31) Page 32 Let's listen 2 - Tapescript Page 86
 * 32) * 8 Min
 * 33) * Have 3 kids read the first time, and I will read the second time. With the kids who come up, go over the difficult words.
 * 34) * After going through the answers, ask students "Where do you want to go?" and "Why?"
 * 35) * What is the context of the conversation?
 * 36) Rows & Columns
 * 37) * 7 Min
 * 38) * Are there any parks near your home?
 * 39) * How many rooms are there in your house?
 * 40) * What is your favorite room in your house? Why?
 * 41) * What kinds of music don't you like?
 * 42) * Do you like books?
 * 43) * What do you like more, books or movies? Why?

Extra Time

 * 20 Questions
 * Soccer Dialogue Illustrating Argument vs. Conversation
 * British vs. American English Word Game - Review Chapter 5
 * Ball Self-Introduction Game
 * Competitive Hangman
 * "How high can you clap?" Game
 * Simon Says
 * Telephone

g8 c5
TJ 3 Page 1
 * got through the textbook by 9:43
 * abandon the textbook with this class?
 * do activities where everyone is talking?
 * this class really got me angry
 * as soon as they stood for rows & columns they were talking
 * when the kids came in, the few new ones scrwed up where everyone else was sitting

g8 c4

 * 4 to 5 new kids in the class (screwed) over any hope for the seating chart
 * got through everything in the textbook quick
 * the kids were very, very quiet again
 * class roster changed again

g8 c10

 * The opening conversation went OK, a lot of kids were chatting, but the class as a whole responded to my questions.
 * add the definition of context to the board

g8 c9

 * working with 2 underachieving boys 1-on-1 was good. they seemed to honestly appreciate the help.
 * I believe if I keep up with the seating, helping, introductions & what not, it'll make a big difference
 * making a deal with the troublesome male leader to learn was a good idea
 * surprised how well they did with page 27 ex B

g8 c6

 * Name changes from pages 48 & 49 of my last notebook
 * Class had a lot of absentees
 * I really had some moments, where I started to lose it mentally, but I managed to keep it together
 * surprised at times how the kids sometimes all get quieter when some others would get involved
 * overall, not a great class, but not horrible, either
 * One boy was totally gone today

g8 c10

 * make sure the answers are out for this class.

g8 c9

 * A girl wants to play rows & columns.

Additional Options

 * Page 26 Let's get ready A

 * 1) Walk around, check who has forgotten their textbooks and pens. Have them write their names in my notebook.
 * 2) Ask if students have visited any of the places?
 * Page 31 Let's listen 1 B - Tapescript Page 86

 * 1) Ask a student to read Lisa's part. I will read Helen's. Have the other students listen and match column B with A.
 * 2) What is the context of the conversation?
 * Page 31 Let's listen 1 A - Tapescript Page 85

 * 1) I will give the speech. Ask the students to make the list of places in Australia and the UK.
 * 2) What is the context of the conversation?

title: Mr. Danoff's FWE 8A Lesson 8


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Motivation and emotion
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Motivation and emotion
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Social psychology
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Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Procrastination

Overview
"Anyone can do any amount of work provided it isn't the work he is supposed to be doing at the moment." - Robert Benchley

Do you sometimes find yourself cleaning your room, surfing the web, or watching a movie when you should be writing an essay that is due next week? Or, more generally, do you procrastinate? Procrastination is something that we all do to some extent, and for some, to the fullest extent possible (Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007).

The prevalence of procrastination around the world appears to be relatively stable with 20% of adults self-reporting as chronic procrastinators, of whom, 11.5% identify as arousal procrastinators and 9.5% as avoidant procrastinators (see Table 1) (Ferrari, O'Callaghan, & Newbegin, 2005). Arousal procrastinators are those who procrastinate in order to feel the 'thrill' of rushing to meet a deadline. These individuals are usually impulsive, easily distractible and often have poor organisational skills. Avoidant procrastinators procrastinate because they fear failure. They use procrastination as a self handicapping strategy so that they can attribute their poor performance to environmental causes.

What makes procrastination such an interesting phenomenon is that it is maladaptive, irrational, and causes psychological pain (Steel, 2009). It is assumed that individuals do not consciously engage in behaviour that will be detrimental to them, so, one can hypothesise that at some level procrastinators must ‘believe’ that they will successfully complete the task regardless of the delay (Sigall, Kruglanski, & Fyock, 2000). This irrational belief has also been called ‘wishful thinking’ (Sigall et al.).

By the end of this chapter it is expected that you will understand the causes of procrastination (focusing on demographic and psychological reasons, task characteristics, and the temporal motivation theory), the effects of procrastination and whether it is possible to change our procrastination tendencies. We will also briefly look at the history of procrastination and whether or not it is a modern phenomenon.

Definition
"Never do today what can be put off until tomorrow." - Humphrey Bogart

The word ‘procrastination’ comes from the Latin word ‘pro,’ which means “forward, forth, or in favour of’ and ‘crastinus’ which means “of tomorrow” (Steel, 2009). Basically it is the process of voluntarily delaying a task or decision until a later time, often resulting in a negative affect (Blanchard & Gottry, 2004; Hess, Sherman, & Goodman, 2000; Steel, 2007).

It is important to distinguish procrastination from decision avoidance (Anderson, 2003). Decision avoidance is the tendency to avoid making a choice which results in no action or change, whilst procrastination involves the intention to complete a task at some point in the future, but stalling during the current time.

History of Procrastination
Some researchers have stated that procrastination is a modern phenomenon which only emerged after the industrial revolution when there was a sudden increase in commitments, deadlines, and scheduling. Steel (2007, 2009), however, found comments about procrastination as early as 800BC. In approximately 800BC Hesiod, a Greek poet wrote;

 * “Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hands-grips with ruin (Works and Days, 1.413)” (Steel, 2007, p. 67).

Steel (2007, 2009) also found comments by Thucydides in 400BC who identified procrastination as the most criticised of character traits, by Cicero the Counsel of Rome in 44BC who stated that “In the conduct of almost every affair slowness and procrastination are hateful,” (2007, p. 66) and by Englishman John Lyly in his 1579 book, Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, where it is written that there is “Nothing so perilous as procrastination” (2007, p. 66). Procrastination has therefore clearly been recognised as a detrimental personal trait, throughout the ages.

Causes of Procrastination: Amotivation or A Stronger Motivation to Do Something Else?
There are a number of hypothesised reasons as to why people procrastinate. This chapter focuses on the most regularly cited causes. We will look at demographic and psychological causes, task characteristics, and the Temporal Motivation Theory. For a summary of the main predictors of procrastination see Table 3 and 4.

Demographics and Attributions
There does not appear to be any research indicating that gender or ethnicity have a significant main effect on procrastination (Ferrari, Keane, Wolfe, & Beck, 1998; Ferrari et al., 2005; Kachgal, Hansen, & Nutter, 2001). There has been evidence to suggest however, that gender and university type may influence procrastination through various attributions).

In an American study by Meyer (2000) an interaction between gender and reasons for procrastination was found; men tended to procrastinate on tasks where it would not affect their likelihood of success, whereas women tended to procrastinate on tasks where it would not affect their likelihood of failure. The author suggests that this is because women tend to attribute success to luck, and failure to ability, where men are more likely to attribute successful performance to ability, and therefore will do all that is possible to maximise their chance of success.

Another study found a significant effect for type of university, where students from prestigious universities were more likely to procrastinate than those from less prestigious universities (Ferrari et al., 1998) (see Table 2 for a list of fraudulent excuses provided by the students). A similar explanation was provided, whereby students who are high achievers (those in the prestigious university) were more likely to attribute poor performance to environmental causes such as their procrastination, resulting in a lack of time to complete the task to their full potential. These studies suggest that individuals who have a [[w:Self-schema|self-schema] based on success (males and those in prestigious universities) will act in a way that will result in an outcome consistent with their self-schema. Men will not procrastinate if they feel it might jeopardise their chance of success (which they see as an internal attribution) and those in prestigious universities will procrastinate if it provides them an external attribution for failure.

In his meta-analysis, Steel (2007) found a strong negative correlation between procrastination and age (r = -.48) - older people procrastinate less - where all participants are over the age of 12. However if any participants are under the age of 12 the correlation drops to -.15, which may explain why some studies found no main effect for age (Ferrari, et al., 1998; 2005). Other studies have also found that levels of procrastination drop as the level of education increases. Participants with a graduate degree were found to have the lowest levels of procrastination and participants with less than a high school degree with the highest (Ferrari, Ozer, & Demir, 2009). This could indicate that as one moves through the education system, that one learns to control procrastination tendencies, or, those that cannot control their motivation to procrastinate are more likely to drop out due to failure to complete tasks successfully.

Psychological
Within the literature there have many attempts to clearly and concisely state the causes of procrastination; the most comprehensive article to date appears to be that by Steel (2007, 2009) who describes it in terms of trait characteristics.

Avoidant Procrastination: Self-Worth and Self-Esteem
Avoidant procrastination occurs when one procrastinates in order to delay starting a task. This type of procrastination is associated with self-esteem, fear of failure, depression, and anxiety. Avoidant procrastination can be particularly detrimental as it can become a self-fulfilling prophecy where avoidance is positively reinforced and therefore continued.

A common explanation as to why people procrastinate is a fear of failure and the need to protect their self-esteem, in other words, procrastination is seen as a self-handicapping strategy (Diaz-Morales, Ferrari, & Cohen, 2008; Fee & Tangney, 2000; Ferrari & Díaz-Morales, 2007; Ferrari, et al., 1998; Hess, et al., 2000; Schraw, et al., 2007; Senecal, Lavoie, & Koestner, 1997; Steel, 2009). If someone is able to provide an external explanation for why they did not perform to their optimal potential (“I had to do all of it the night before it was due”) he/she is able to lower his/her performance standards, and failure is then not seen as a personal inadequacy. This self-handicapping explanation for procrastination has strong evidence with a meta-analysis finding a mean correlation between self-handicapping and procrastination of .46 (Steel, 2007). Further support is seen in the study by Kachgal et al. (2001) where students stated they procrastinate because they were “worried that I would get a bad grade” and “convinced that I wouldn’t meet my own expectations” (p. 4). It is important to remember however that procrastination is only one form of self-handicapping and because someone procrastinates on occasion, does not necessarily indicate that the person is a self-handicapper. Self-handicappers are likely to do more to harm their efforts then simply delay them (Steel, 2007).

Procrastination can also be a symptom of depression or anxiety, particularly in neurotic individuals (Hess, et al., 2000; Senecal, et al., 1997; Stainton, Lay, & Flett, 2000). This correlation exists because of a few suggested reasons. The first explanation is that people who are susceptible to the stress brought on by the overwhelming prospect of a task, cope by simply avoiding it (Diaz-Morales, et al., 2008). Another suggestion is that people who are depressed are simply too tired and unmotivated to start tasks (Steel, 2007). Steel (2007) further hypotheses that it may be due to depressed individuals' inability to take pleasure in any of life’s activities and their inability to concentrate.

An interesting suggestion by Hess et al. (2000) is that procrastination is due to individual circadian rhythms where neuroticism is a predictor of the evening trait (where individuals have more energy in the evening). Circadian rhythm activity has been found to be associated with how people encode, store and retrieve information, and therefore, also associated with academic achievement; with morning-trait individuals (individuals who have more energy in the morning) having higher Grade Point Averages than their afternoon- or evening-trait peers. Hess et al. therefore suggests that evening-trait individuals are more neurotic and have less ability to succeed which results in them avoiding tasks by procrastinating.

Whether one procrastinates because they are overwhelmed by the prospect of the task, or they are scared of failure, the process of procrastination can become a self-fulfilling prophecy (Ramsay, 2002). Individuals with procrastination tendencies report that they focus more on past failures than they do on possible future accomplishments (Specter & Ferrari, 2000). This can be seen in a case study of a 25 year old patient (Michael) who had recently been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Ramsay found that Michael had developed a core belief of failure based on constructions of past performances. From those constructions he developed conditional beliefs like “If I set a goal, I will not achieve it and will be disappointed. Therefore, if I do not set goals for myself, then I will not be disappointed.” (p. 84). Because the act of procrastinating is rewarding (one does not fail or feel stressed) individuals are more likely to continue to procrastinate as they will never receive the different (more rewarding) feedback of completing a task to their full potential, and so the self-fulfilling cycle of procrastination will continue.

Interestingly, procrastination has not only been related to low self-esteem but also high self-esteem, particularly in narcissists (Sigall et al., 2000). It has been found that wishful thinking (the belief that you will successfully complete a task in a short period of time) is related to high self-esteem as people feel they are superior to others and need less time to complete the task, and therefore can afford to procrastinate.

Arousal Procrastination: Self Control
"I can resist everything except temptation" Lord Darlington in Lady Windermere's Fan (1982) by Oscar Wilde

Arousal procrastination occurs when one procrastinates so that they are able to feel the ‘thrill’ that occurs when rushing to get something done in a short period of time. It has been associated with levels of impulsiveness, distractibility, and organisational skills.

Individuals have stated that one of the reasons they procrastinate is to experience the pleasurable arousal created when one is rushing to meet a deadline (Ferrari & Díaz-Morales, 2007). Many students state that they are unable to, “get into the flow unless I’m under pressure” (Schraw et al., 2007). Procrastinating in order to experience ‘flow’ appears to especially occur when the task is seen as boring or irrelevant to personal needs (Schraw, et al.,).

Impulsiveness and procrastination have also been found to be related with a correlation of .41 (Steel, 2007). Individuals who are impulsive are prone to procrastination as they do not have a clear picture of what is important. This lack of insight results in a reduced commitment to broader goals and important tasks, leaving individuals susceptible to the temptation of short term rewards (like going out with friends) (Blanchard & Gottry, 2004). Further evidence that impulsiveness can result in procrastination was provided in the meta-analysis by Steel (2007) where it was found that neurotic individuals are prone to procrastination not because of their anxiety, but their impulsiveness.

Students have stated that common barriers to completing academic work include the balancing of activities and time management, and the pressure to stay focused (Kachgal, et al., 2001). How well an individual can ignore distractions and stay focused on the task at hand has a correlation with procrastination of .45 for distractibility and -.58 for self-control and discipline (Steel, 2007). Self-control is necessary for individuals when trying to overcome procrastination as this is what allows us to override dominant behaviours which may be destructive, irrational or undesirable in the long term (Oaten & Cheng, 2006). One’s ability to organise one's time effectively is strongly related to procrastination with a correlation of -.38 (Steel, 2007). Further evidence for the association with organisation was found in a study by Senecal et al. (1997) who showed that in a laboratory setting individuals who rated themselves as trait-procrastinators managed their time more poorly than non-trait procrastinators. This was particularly so when they were expecting to be evaluated on the task.

Steel (2007) has suggested that because procrastinators appear to be low in conscientiousness, self-control, and self-regulatory behaviour, and high in impulsiveness and distractibility, that they may have an overactive Behavioural Activation System (BAS). Having an overactive BAS may also cause individuals to make rapid decisions and have shorter attention spans, both of which can contribute to procrastination.

Psychological Reactance
A further reason why an individual may procrastinate could be attributed to psychological reactance. Psychological reactance is the motivated state directed toward the re-establishment of free behaviours which have been eliminated, or threatened with elimination (Brehm, 1966). Brehm states that at any one time an individual has any number of possible behaviours they can partake in, and that freedom of choice is beneficial to our psychological growth. In each situation an individual will generally choose a behaviour that is most likely going to maximise their satisfaction. If a person’s behavioural freedom is reduced, or threatened with reduction, the individual feels an increased amount of self-direction in regards to their own behaviour, where they feel that they can do as they like and do not have to do what others tell them. For example, if a child who originally had the choice between vanilla, strawberry, or chocolate ice-creams was then told by their parent that they could actually only choose between vanilla or strawberry, they will be motivated to somehow reinstate their previous freedom to choose between the three flavours.

Having a free behaviour eliminated, or threatened with elimination, does not only result in psychological reactance to have the choice available again, but also increases the overall attractiveness of that eliminated free behaviour (Hammock & Brehm, 1966). Using the example above, not only will the child be motivated to ensure they have the choice between the three flavours, they will likely choose to eat the chocolate ice-cream as it has now become far more attractive than the other two. Had they not had that choice threatened with elimination in the first place, they may have chosen strawberry or vanilla instead.

Psychological reactance may therefore result in procrastination as it is the individual’s attempt at reinstating their choice between all available behaviours. If a teacher sets an assignment due tomorrow it threatens the student’s choice of free behaviours as they must complete the assignment, rather than other behaviours such as watching television. This may then result in psychological reactance where the students attempt to reinstate their freedom of choice by procrastinating and watching television instead (the more attractive behaviour as it was threatened with elimination). This may be particularly the case in individuals who have traits of rebelliousness, hostility and disagreeableness (Steel, 2009).

Task Characteristics
Although there is strong evidence for the psychological reasons for procrastination, the most commonly stated reason by individuals as to why they procrastinate is their personal interest in the task (Fee & Tangney, 2000; Ferrari, et al., 1998; Schraw, et al., 2007; Sigall, et al., 2000) and the difficulty of the task (Ferrari, Mason, & Hammer, 2006). In the meta-analysis by Steel (2007) it was consistently found that the more individuals disliked a task, and the more anxiety-producing it was, the more they procrastinated. This was also found in a laboratory setting where 45% of participants completed the boring task last (Senecal, et al., 1997).

Whether or not the task is to be evaluated also affects levels of procrastination (Senecal, et al., 1997). Tasks that may have the greatest impact on one’s life or student’s end of unit results were found to have the greatest levels of procrastination (Kachgal, et al., 2001). This may be a result of the fear of failure which causes many to procrastinate (see Avoidant Procrastination: Self-Worth and Self-Esteem).

It is not only the task itself which is important when individuals decide to procrastinate, but also the context that it is placed in and the way it is presented (McCrea, Liberman, Trope, & Sherman, 2008). A study by Schraw, et al. (2007) found that the majority of students stated that they were more likely to procrastinate on tasks that were for classes run by well organised instructors who provide detailed outlines and offer regular feedback. The students reported that the detailed plans provided by these instructors allow them to structure their time more efficiently and they were therefore able to 'plan to procrastinate'. Schraw, et al. suggests that these types of instructors are inadvertently promoting procrastination by removing the student's autonomy which may result in psychological reactance. Students have also been found to procrastinate more on tasks which are from lower level classes, large classes, and those run by young lecturers (Ferrari, et al., 1998), or lecturers who expect less and are flexible about providing extensions (Schraw et al.).

Temporal Motivation Theory
The temporal motivation theory combines self-control and task characteristics as an explanation for procrastination, and has found strong support with many participants indicating the importance of temporal proximity to rewards (Steel, 2007). The theory finds its roots in expectancy theory and hyperbolic discounting, and is based on the following formula (Steel, 2007):

Utility= (Expectancy ×Value)/(Γ×Delay)
 * Utility: Indicates how desirable a choice is
 * Expectancy: Indicates the chance of an outcome occurring
 * Value: Indicates how rewarding or aversive the outcome is
 * Γ: Indicates sensitivity to delay (individual levels of distractibility, impulsivity, and self control
 * Delay: Indicates how long one has to wait for the payout

The theory suggests that we are more likely to choose a task that has a good chance of a pleasurable outcome occurring soon (McCrea et al., 2008). When we are rewarded, or provided feedback on a task relatively instantly, we experience a sudden and intense release of stress and therefore we are likely to choose this outcome over a reward that occurs in the distant future (Schraw, et al., 2007). Consequently, individuals are likely to procrastinate over tasks that are unpleasant and/or only offer rewards in the distant future, even if they are larger rewards and procrastinating will be detrimental to them (Andreou, 2007; Steel, 2007).

An easy way to understand this theory is by viewing a discount curve map (see Figure 1) which tracks the value of a potential future reward as a function of time. When there are two rewards that are a long way off, the later, larger reward appears a superior option and we work towards that goal. However, when the sooner smaller reward becomes closer its value increases to the point that it overtakes the value of the larger, later reward (Andreou). To put this into an example, consider Jodie, a student who likes to get good grades, but also to socialise. At the start of the semester Jodie decides she is going to study all semester and be rewarded with great grades, however, on the first Friday of term her friends ask her to go out with them that night. Suddenly, the immediate reward of going out with friends has a greater value to Jodie than the distant reward of good grades (which may not even occur – expectancy), so she delays her studying to a later point in time.

Effects of Procrastination
Many students state that procrastination is not detrimental to their performance or affect. They state that it results in cognitive efficacy and peak experiences by maximising learning in a minimum amount of time (Schraw, et al., 2007). In the study by Schraw et al. students unanimously reported that increased effort late in the semester improved productivity, creativity, and quality of work because of the “adrenaline factor”. In addition, they stated that it relieves boredom, especially on tasks they do not find interesting.

Although students state that procrastination is not detrimental to them, this may be another form of ‘wishful thinking'! Throughout a semester students who rate themselves as trait procrastinators, also experienced some form of fatigue, guilt, anxiety, increased levels of irritability, and mild depression due to the stress of rushing to meet deadlines (Blanchard & Gottry, 2004; Schraw, et al., 2007; Stainton, et al., 2000; Steel, 2007).

Can We Change Our Procrastination Tendencies?
Many schools of thought have provided us with ways to stop procrastinating; these include learned industriousness, operant conditioning, energy regulation, and goal setting. Learned industriousness has emerged from classical conditioning(See also Wikipedia) and states that hard work which is rewarded, will eventually become rewarding for its own sake (Steel, 2009). We can also see the opposite occur in learned helplessness, where if you continue to fail at a task a self-defeating prophecy will occur. This suggests that if we set up tasks for ourselves which will lead to success we will begin to see the work itself as rewarding and are therefore more likely to do it in the future (Steel, 2007).

The operant conditioning (See also Wikipedia) principle of stimulus control may also be of importance. Since procrastination has been associated with distractibility and organisation we could employ processes of stimulus control to keep us on track (Steel, 2007). Operant conditioning works on the principle of reward and punishment where behaviours that are that rewarded are more likely to continue. It is also possible to have behaviours occur in particular situations by rewarding the behaviour only in that situation. For example a pigeon will learn that it will only be rewarded for pecking when a light is on. Using these principles, if individuals learn that they are rewarded when they study in the library (they receive good grades) the library could become a stimulus for study, leaving other environments for other activities.

Understanding energy regulation can also be advantageous as we can schedule our day to complete tasks at optimal times. Steel (2009) states that our energy peaks at 10am and drops at 3pm so if we work in the morning, we are less likely to procrastinate because of tiredness. Understanding this may be of particular importance for individuals who feel they have an evening circadian rhythm (Diaz-Morales, et al., 2008).

Goal setting is also an important strategy as this is based on the Temporal Motivation Theory of procrastination. Setting specific goals (and sub-goals) with self-imposed deadlines, allows you to bring rewards and feedback closer in time, which increases their value over that of other distracting activities (Ariely & Wetenbroch, 2002; McCrea, et al., 2008; Steel, 2009). A common strategy to set good goals is to use the SMART approach (see Figure 2) (Resnick, 2009; Roberts, 2007; Steel, 2009; Stone, 2008). Other suggested strategies include the “3 ‘P’ Rule” of Priority, Propriety, and Commitment (Atkin, 2005), and the Acronym ‘SUCCESSFUL;’ Stay focused, Understand procrastination, Clarify goals, Create contracts, Educate yourself, Support systems, Stay simple, Find your strengths, Understand how to work with deadlines, and Look into the future (Hoffman & Wallach, 2009).

Intervention studies have been conducted which utilise a combination of these techniques and positive results have been found, indicating they are viable options. An intervention program by Oaten and Cheng (2006) displayed the advantage of setting sub-goals and working throughout the semester instead of procrastinating until exams. This intervention imposed artificial deadlines on student’s work which meant that distant goals of completing an essay before the end of semester were broken down into several proximal, specific, clear and achievable goals which made students aware of their progress in concrete terms. The students were also given a study schedule to follow which 'suggested' times to study and tasks to complete. Throughout the semester students were also asked to keep a study diary in order to monitor themselves. The diary also generated feedback by displaying to the students any discrepancies which may have occurred between their goal to study and what actually happened. By becoming aware of these discrepancies students gradually learnt to self-regulate their behaviour. The students who participated in the program found strong benefits not only in their grades, but during the exam period also consumed fewer chemicals, had better dietary and exercise habits, attended to more household chores, and had better self-regulatory habits and less stress than their peers in the control group. Another intervention was conducted by Van Eerde (2003) which focused on time management. Participants in his study partook in a workshop that focused on increasing their ability to distinguish between the importance and urgency of a task. They were taught that there is one of four possible options with each task depending on whether it is important and/or urgent and they should act accordingly (see Figure 3). The participants were also taught how to make plans for a year, a month, a week and a list of tasks for each day. One month after the time management intervention training participants reported an increase in their ability to manage their time and a significant decrease in their worrying and procrastination tendencies compared to participants in the control group. These positive results indicate that individuals can alter their current procrastination behaviours if appropriate strategies are utilised and practiced.

Summary
Procrastination is a maladaptive motivational phenomenon that has afflicted humankind throughout the ages. It does not appear to discriminate between cultures or gender, however procrastination tendencies are lower for older people and those with a higher level of education. The psychological reasons for procrastination depend to some extent on the type of procrastination in question - Avoidant procrastination is associated with low self-esteem, fear of failure, depression, and anxiety, and Arousal procrastination is associated with impulsiveness, distractibility, and organisational skills. Psychological reactance may also play a role in procrastination especially if individuals have rebelliousness, hostility and/or disagreeableness traits. Task characteristics and the Temporal Motivation Theory are also of paramount importance when determining the likelihood that one will procrastinate. Although students state that procrastination is beneficial for a number of reasons, evidence to the contrary is strong and procrastinators should therefore attempt to change their behaviour as we can learn to become better self regulators. These strategies include setting up sub-tasks which allow for progressive success in order to develop learned industriousness, create environments which stimulate study, study when our energy is at its peak (possibly 10am), set SMART goals, and learn to be better time managers.

Check Your Knowledge
Across 3. Procrastination associated with sensation seeking and self-control 4. Common strategy used to set good goals 9. Necessary to help us overcome procrastination by helping to override dominant destructive, irrational or undesirable behaviours 10. The irrational belief that one will finish a task on time 11. Procrastination associated with self-worth and self-esteem 12. The main reason neurotic individuals procrastinate – they are 13. The process of delaying a task or decision until a later time, often resulting in negative affect 14. Morningness and Eveningness traits are associated with what rhythm 15. Principle used to change procrastination tendencies, based in the operant school of thought
 * Procrastination Crossword

Down 1. Arousal procrastination may occur in order to experience 2. How desirable a choice is (within the Temporal Motivation Theory) 5. Tasks are likely to be procrastinated on if they are boring and are going to be 6. A strategy used to protect self-esteem in the face of failure 7. The Greek poet who wrote about procrastination in 800BC 8. Students are more likely to procrastinate on tasks provided by what age lecturers


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Overview

There can be moments in your life where it feels like everything is piling on top of you one by one. Then there are moments where it may not be everything that is piling on top of you, but there is just one thing, one obstacle that you may feel you just can't get over or deal with. At moments like these organising your time and prioritsing your needs, so that the essential ones are met first, is important. The question still remains, how do you know which one is more important? This isn't always easy to determine, so needs are so similar that there is a fine line as to which one should be dealt with first. To start off with, not everyone is the same, John Citizen's needs are not the same as Jane Smith's. Our individual needs and the order as to which one is more important than the other will depend on you. However, hopefully this chapter will give you a little help as to which order has been established in the past and guide you in the right direction as to how to prioritise your own needs and subsequently get you that little bit closer to self-actualisation.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs was established in the early 40s by Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970). The theory behind his hierarchy was based on his article "A Theory of Human Motivation" (1943), which was reviewed in the 50th issue of the Psychological Review in America. He aimed to develop a theory that positive valid theory of motivation the satisfied the following demands:
 * 1) In theory, the organism as a whole must be considered as the foundation. Although, it is also important to note that isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions should not be ignored but should also be considered, along with the organism as a whole.
 * 2) Drives that are physiologically related or localised, should be considered to be atypical instead of typical. Therefore the drive theory is rejected.
 * 3) There should be an emphasis on ultimate or basic goals. Unconscious or basic goals are fundamental to motivation and therefore could be applied more universally or cross-culturally rather than superficial goals.
 * 4) Behaviour can consist of more than one motivation. The motivated behaviour is a means by which basic needs can can be appropriately expressed or satisfied.
 * 5) To understand that in practical situations, all organismic states are motivated and motivating. The situation surrounding the reaction should be taken into consideration, but the motivation should not be based on the situation alone.
 * 6) An organisms needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. Hence Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
 * 7) Classification of motivation should be classified to deal with the issue of levels of specificity and/or generalisation. The classifications should be based on the goals rather than the drives or motivated behaviour itself.
 * 8) The theory should be human-centered and not animal-centered. The reason for this is that if the theory is animal-centered than there is an exclusion of the purpose and goal, as animals can't write or verbalise it.  Therefore it is unnecessary to use animals when it would be better and more beneficial to the study to use humans.
 * 9) And most importantly, Motivation theory and Behaviour theory are not the same. Motivation is a class of behaviour, where it is possible that multiple motivations can produce or influence a single behaviour.

Through his research into functionalist tradition, holism (which is the idea that there is an intimate interconnection across the various parts of a whole, in our case humans, that cannot exist independently from each other), and dynamicism (eg, Freudism or psychoanalytical approach), Maslow established a new design known as "general-dynamic" theory (1943). His theory consisted of varying levels of five needs, also known as the Basic Needs, which included (from the bottom of the pyramid to the top):

 * 1) "Physiological" needs
 * 2) Safety Needs
 * 3) Love/Belonging Needs
 * 4) Esteem Needs
 * 5) Need for Self-Actualisation

Maslow (1943) states that the gratification and deprivation of each step of hierarchy serves to be an important source of motivation. He also mentions that for the average individual, the needs tend to be more often unconscious and the unconscious one are more likely to be the more significant and important ones.

The following sections of the chapter will go into more detail for each group of needs, followed by a section on the satisfaction of the needs and a summary. The summary section, consists of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in a "nut shell", a short quiz (juts to test you knowledge), and a multimedia clip.

"Physiological" Needs
 When it comes to "physiological" needs what are typically the first things that come to mind? The ability to breathe? The capability to eat and drink? Crystal has spent most of her life living on a day to day basis, never really knowing where her next meal will be coming from or if she will get another meal. Her mouth is constantly, especially during the hotter months, and her stomach grumbles excessively and none stop. Even though she may not know if she will get at least one meal, she is still about to sustain her body with the water it provides. Crystal's "physiological" needs to sustain her body is at such a low percentage that the desire to satisfy the need provides the required motivation to act on the deprivation. In the above figure of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it can be seen that at the bottom of the pyramid in the largest section are the "physiological" needs. Maslow (1943) believed that of all the basic needs, the "physiological" needs are the greatest in power and influence when it comes to an individual's motivation. He recognised that there are two aspects to this fundamental need: Homeostasis and Appetites.

Homeostasis is the body's automatic responses to sustaining a constant, normal state within the blood stream. Cannon (1932) includes that the body maintains its form of homeostasis by internally monitoring the following aspects:
 * Water content
 * Sugar content
 * Salt content
 * Protein content
 * Fat content
 * Calcium content
 * Oxygen content
 * Constant hydrogen-ion level
 * Constant temperature of the blood

The body's appetite comes from the lack of nutrients within the body. This is more commonly a chemical imbalance. To neutralise this imbalance the body then produces a specific appetite, that will take care of the lack of nutrients (Young, 1936).

To distinguish physiological needs from other needs, it is important to note that they are commonly isolable and localisable somatically (Maslow, 1943). Therefore the most common physiological needs are breathe, hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, and excretion. When it comes to studies of physiological needs, they have been primarily conducted on animals, particularly rats, because it is suggested that they have few motivations other than their physiological ones (Maslow, 1943).

Safety Needs
 Jacqui is in her mid to late 20s, and has spent her adult life to-date in a physically abusive relationship. She doesn't work and is solely dependent on her partner. If she needs money to buy groceries, her partner is more than happy to give her the money she needs, but she does not have her own and he will not give her any more then the exact amount. They are constantly being evacuated from their apartment, because rent is not being paid on a regular basis. Jacqui and her partner don't stay in an apartment for longer than six months at a time. She is worried day in and day out as to whether they will have somewhere to live the next month. She knows that she is in a disgraceful situation with her partner but she has no job and no financial security to leave him. What is she to do? Why is this insecurity taking over her thoughts and behaviour?

Just like the "physiological" needs, the safety needs are almost as exclusive. Explanations of the lack of safety can be difficult to describe in adults as they have learnt to inhibit any expression of fear or being threatened. Infants and children on the other hand have not learnt the ability to inhibit these expressions (Maslow, 1943). Maslow (1943) uses the example of illnesses in general. He explains that when a child is sick it may not just be the physiological aspect of the body, but could have a deeper meaning. In addition to the physical sickness, they can also exhibit a lack in their sense of feeling safe and secure, hence the need to be comforted by their parents or guardian. It this uncertainty of not knowing what is actually happening that threatens their need for safety and motivates them to seek comfort and knowledge from their parents. When children are raised in unthreatening and a loving family this enables them to effectively learn how to react to situations that adults would perceive to be dangerous (Maslow, 1943).

When it comes to an individual's safety needs, Maslow (1943) stated that a healthy, normal fortunate adult is more likely to be satisfied if the following is present:
 * Preference for a job with a tenure and protection
 * Desire for savings account
 * Insurance of various kinds
 * Familiar things, things that are recongnisable and known
 * Religion or world-philosophy or in more general terms science and philosophy

There are a number of extremes that can affect an individuals sense of safety. Then there are some people who have no control over their sense of safety, because psychologically it is out of their control. For example, some neurotic or near-neurotic individuals have a childish view of the world (Maslow, 1943). This does not apply to all cases of neuroticism, just some. The neuroticism causes in the individual the inability to inhibit their reactions like all other adults. Not being able to inhibit their reactions means that, like a child, when they are in threatening and dangerous situations, their reactions become excessively expressed and not hidden. Safety needs can also be deprived within individuals who are not of great socio-economic standing (Maslow, 1943).

In the book by Maslow and Mittelmann (1941), they talk about obssessive-compulsive individuals, whom have a constant desire to maintain order and stability in their world. Hence their repetitive routines. Goldstein (1939) brings up the issue of some cases of brain injury. These individuals try to avoid anything that they perceive as unfamiliar and strange.

Therefore, by acquiring knowledge and systemising your world, it is possible that you can partially achieve satisfaction within your safety needs. Having a job that gives you the benefits you need to maintain your lifestyle, being able to have savings and insurance so you a least likely to have concerns about you financial situation if you were to get sick, and living amongst familiar surroundings and people, should decrease the prepotency of this need. With the decrease of importance of this need you life, will bring the emergence of higher needs: Psychological and Social needs, such as Love/Belonging Needs, Esteem Needs and Need for Self-Actualisation.

Psychological and social needs
The psychological and social needs, unlike the other two basic needs require some form of interaction between society and your self or the emergence greater abilities from within you. These needs include:

 * Love/Belonging Needs
 * Esteem Needs
 * Need for Self-Actualisation

Love/belonging needs
 Love/Belonging needs as described by Maslow (1943) are reflected by the "hunger for the affectionate relations with people". Maslow discusses how maladjusted individuals and individuals with severe psychopathology tend to prevent themselves from accomplishing this need (1943). He mentions that it is particularly common in today's society, however that was almost 60 years ago. In a more current study conducted by Hagerty (1999) he rates "belongingness" and love to the risk of a "broken family" in today's society. This includes both the risk of divorce and the risk of a child in the family dying. Hagerty (1999) found that over a period of 35 years, from 1960 to 1994, the number of intact marriages per 1000 population declined across 88 different countries. He also notes that over a period of 35 years the rate of improvement for the 88 countries is slowing reaching an asymptote structure.

As it can be seen from the above description, Love is not the same as sex. Sex is seen to be part of the more basic needs and therefore a physiological and not a social need, where as love is accomplished psychologically and socially. Love/Belongingness needs include the following:

 * Family
 * Friendship
 * Sexual intimacy

The "physiological" needs and the safety needs theoretically should be met first prior to this current need. However, Prager (1995, p. 289) states that some people work for hardly any rewards and are over stressed, yet they turn to close relations with loved ones for support and rewarding experiences. This raises the question as to the actual affect of economic pressure on the need for intimacy and as to whether the order of the hierarchy can actually be interchangeable and various steps reversed.

The most important thing to be learnt from this section is that if you wish to feel satisfaction in love/belonging needs than you need to be willing to not just receive the love from others but also be willing to give it.

Esteem needs
Esteem needs reflect the desire to achieve a stable, firmly based, high evaluation of ourselves, self-respect, or self-esteem and esteem of others (Maslow, 1943). Just like the physiological needs this one can also be divided further into:

 * 1) The desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence, for independence and freedom
 * 2) Desire for reputation or prestige, recognition, attention, importance or appreciation

Once satisfaction is acquired in the esteem needs, theoretically an individual should feel worth, self-confidence, strength, capability and the sense of being useful and necessary in the world. Whereas dissatisfaction theoretically brings inferiority, weakness, and helplessness. This results in basic discouragement, or compensatory or neurotic trends (Kardiner, 1941).

Essentially, if satisfaction is to be accomplished then one needs to acknowledge their real capacity, achievement and respect for others.

Need for self-actualisation
 In his article, Maslow described the need for self-actualisation to be a "desire to do what you are fitted for" (1943). As it can be seen in the above pyramid this need is at the tip of the hierarchy and the clarity of its emergence is dependent on the satisfaction of the four more basic needs. Like everything in life, there are of course exceptions to the rule and these will be discussed in the next section.

If you recall from the section on Safety Needs, one way the need can be achieved is by acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe. The Need for Self-Actualisation also requires the acquirement of knowledge and systemising the universe, however its done through expression rather than achievement. In other words, acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe via the search for "meaning" (Maslow, 1943). There are a number of ways to attain fulfillment through one or more of these areas:
 * Morality
 * Creativity
 * Spontaneity
 * Problem solving
 * Being unprejudiced
 * Acceptance of facts

How to establish satisfaction
There are a couple of things that should be noted. In order to accomplish satisfaction of your basic needs there are certain preconditions that need to occur, otherwise they could threaten an aspect of the basic needs and your progression to the satisfaction of higher needs. These preconditions as mentioned in Maslow's article (1943) are as follows:
 * Freedom to speak
 * Freedom to do what one wishes without harm to others
 * Freedom to express oneself
 * Freedom to investigate and seek for information
 * Freedom to defend oneself
 * Justice
 * Fairness
 * Honesty
 * Orderliness within a group

Your actions can be seen as psychologically important as long as it contributes directly to satisfying the basic needs (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970). The less directed or weaker the contribution, the less important it is to the point of view of psychological process. This can also be applied to your defense mechanisms. The more strong the defenses are the more they have to contribute to the need.

As mentioned in the previous section there are exceptions to the rule, such as:

 * 1) Your self-esteem can be more important than love. In which case these two needs are reversed.
 * 2) Your drive to creativeness can be more important than "lower" needs. This often seen in artists of all sorts.
 * 3) Your less prepotent needs can be lost, particularly if the greater prepotent needs (physiological and safety) are continuously being threatened.
 * 4) Levy (1937) state that "psychopathetic personality" have a permanent loss of the love/belongingness needs.
 * 5) Just as the lesser prepotent needs can be lost, if the greater prepotent needs have been satisfied for a long period of time then they can become under evaluated.
 * 6) Needs and desires are not the only determinants of behaviour.
 * 7) Individuals who have strong ideals, high social standards, high values etc. can sacrifice the needs of greater importance for the things they believe in. For example, refugees who refuse to eat for what they believe in, or protesters who will sacrifice their well belling for their cause.

When it comes to the satisfaction of each level it is important to note that each need does not have to be 100% satisfied before the next need can be tended too (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970, p. 59). Maslow states that it is more commonly seen that each need will only be partially satisfied and new needs emerge gradually as the previous need gets closer and closer to its satisfaction threshold, which is not 100%. For example, physiological needs may be 5% satisfied where as at the same time the need for safety maybe 0%. As the physiological need satisfaction increases, therefore to 25% than the need for safety might increase to 5%. Physiological satisfaction may increase more to 50% and the need for safety would increase too. (These are arbitrary numbers)

Summary
In order to prioritise your needs to best suit you it is important to evaluate what needs are more important to you. Maslow's hierarchy is only a guide line as it won't fit everyone. He even states himself that his theory is not ultimate or universal for all cultures, but it could be applied generally to other cultures (Maslow, 1943). Maslow's hierarchy begins at the base of his pyramid with "physiological" needs, such as breathe, hunger, thrist and sex. This being the most animalistic of the needs and fundamental. He also signifies the importance of safety and security, as this is the second need he mentions. The following psychological and social needs, Maslow mentions, can be reversible depending on the individual, depending on you. Love/Belongingness needs reflects the individual's desire to have a family (or be part of a family), to have friends (or to be a friend), etc. Esteem needs reflects the desire to be stable, to have a firmly based, high evaluation of yourself, to have self-respect and respect for others. The need for self-actualisation is the desire to do what you do best and enjoy doing.

Needs are never 100% fulfilled but can have a satisfaction threshold level. By that stage the importance of the next need would have already gradually increased and therefore can be tended to. The satisfaction of a need is dependent on you.

Quiz
{What is at the bottom of the Maslow's hierarchy of needs? - Need for Self-Actualisation + "Physiological" Needs - Safety Needs - Love/Belonging Needs
 * type=""}

{John has a great paying job, which allows him to pay the bills, the mortgage, feed his family and have a savings account. He has a loving wife and a healthy five year old daughter, who has just started kindergarten. He was raised in a diverse family. His mother was born in India and his father was born in Spain, they met in Australia and developed a network of friends from all around the world. He has always shown respect to people older him and as he got older he began to show respect to those younger them him too. The only thing that is missing in his life is that he hasn't had time to do the things he enjoys. He learnt to play the guitar in high school, however once he got a career and a family he just has not been able to get back to playing it. Which need is most likely not being attended to? - Love/Belonging need - Esteem need + Esteem need and/or need for self-actualisation - Need for self-actualisation
 * type=""}

{If a person has achieved satisfaction in their need for esteem then they can be expected to feel.... - Self-confidence - Worth - Capability + All of the above
 * type=""}

{True or False: As one need gradually increases in satisfaction, the importance of another need gradually increases. + True - False
 * type=""}

{True or False: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on his article "A theory of human motivation" (1943) + True - False
 * type=""}

Books by Maslow

 * 1) The Farther Reaches of Human Nature  NY: Viking, 1971.
 * 2) Religions, Values and Peak-Experiences  NY: Penguin Books, 1964.


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User:Tyrtaeus

I like to look after pet mice.

I also like to learn about wiki.

title: User:Tyrtaeus