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The Inevitability of Globalism/Melting pot problem

When the Zenmeister says: "You will clap with one hand!" (Shamelessly borrowed from Charles Dyke)

As cultures are exposed to one another, they naturally tend to borrow or co-opt attractive or useful aspects. As these aspects are de-contextualized, the meanings change in both cultures: moving towards a common, "universal" meaning.


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Outdoor education/Research

Mixed method studies
Multimethodology
 * 1) Rofe, S. (2010).
 * 2) Pritchard, M. (2010).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Outdoor education/Research


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Active learning/Cybernetics

You may be asking yourself "What does Cybernetics have to do with active learning?" That is a good question! Cybernetics is...

title: Active learning/Cybernetics


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Talk:Active learning/Cybernetics

Cybernetics discuss

title: Talk:Active learning/Cybernetics


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User talk:Chad Hall

Hello Former Student!

I'm writing to you because you took a class from me in the past few years at the Art Institute. As of Spring, 2010, I'll not be teaching further classes at AIS for the foreseeable future. (We're parting ways on good terms!) Until now, you've been able to reach my Wikiversity educational resources from my website, but I've decided to delete that link. You can still reach all of those materials here.

If you're interested in what I'm up to in the future (which will include an album in 2010 and a novel in 2011) you can friend my facebook page or drop me an email at info@stevenarntson.info and you'll receive a periodic update about performances, classes, and publications.

If you know any current or former students of mine who might be interested in any of this, please forward this information if you have a moment.

I hope all is well for you.
 * Best! Stevenarntson

Midterm Grade Error

 * Chad,
 * I didn't see your name listed on your group's page, and so entered an incorrect midterm grade for you. Please sign in on that page this week.
 * Best, Stevenarntson

title: User talk:Chad Hall


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User:Cassiuscarr

My page.

title: User:Cassiuscarr


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User talk:Cassiuscarr

My talk page.

title: User talk:Cassiuscarr


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User:MaryJane47

Welcome to my little corner of the universe.

This is my first experience with Wikiversity but it looks cool and I plan to come back and do more!

title: User:MaryJane47


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Japanese I/Do It Yourself

This sub-course will focus on getting you, the student, to make your own sentences and will focus on syntax and creating "sentence templates." These are simple sentences which can be broken up and replaced with new vocabulary to make new sentences. While it is advised to use this method as a learning aid, it could also be used to replace grammar.

By reading these chapters, students should be able to create simple sentences and have simple conversation after learning the appropriate vocabulary.

The lessons in this sub-course assume no prior Japanese knowledge but will, on occasion, direct students to vocabulary lessons as required. It is designed for those literate in kana, but provides readings in brackets. Taken that it assumes no prior Japanese knowledge, it is designed to be sequential and should be read in order. However, the student who can make sentences in Japanese already may browse as he or she sees fit.

Lessons

 * Lesson 1: Your first sentence
 * Lesson 2: Your first useful sentence
 * Lesson 3: Applying Particles
 * Lesson 4: Using Adjectives
 * Lesson 5: Connecting sentences
 * Lesson 6: Changing tense
 * Lesson 7: Your shiny new sentence

title: Japanese I/Do It Yourself


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Talk:Japanese I/Do It Yourself

Could you leave this to me for a while. A week should do. I have an idea of the specific structure and I'd like to finish that before I release it to the public but if someone wants to categorise this I'd love you for it (I will eventually but I find it kinda tedious). Kanjo Kotr 20:51, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Japanese I/Do It Yourself


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User:Animalprincess123

I am a teenage girl with some creative talent. I write stories and poetry (which sometimes turn into songs), and I almost always have a writing project going. I love to research (for some odd reason) and this is one of my favorite places to go for personal research (as in, things I just want to know). My school won't let me use this site. :(

I also draw a little bit, but I'm not that good at it. I love to sing and I dance a little too. Not like at dance classes or anything, but I like to dance at dance parties. ^_^

I collect stuffed animals (the plush kind, not the real animal things; I forgot the word for it). I have more teddy bears than anything, I think. Yes, a teenage girl likes teddy bears. No, it isn't the end of the world. :-P

I love to read too! I almost forgot that...hehe. I like to watch cartoons, Knight Rider, NCIS, and Bones on TV, but I will watch anything. Oh, and I will read anything fiction! Only the really interesting nonfiction books...sometimes I get so bored...then I forget it all.

I am really forgetful sometimes, and my parents think that I just don't want to tell them, but I seem to forget everything! I'm sure I'll have to come back here later and add things because I forgot them.

I hope to do some good here with my randomly placed knowledge. I'm pretty sure there are plenty of people who know more than me though. ^_^

Toodle-oodles!

Animalprincess123 21:39, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

title: User:Animalprincess123


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User talk:Animalprincess123

 Hello Animalprincess123, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 00:48, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

 Hello , we are the Baah and Bahh twins and we'd both like to welcome you to Wikiversity. While you sit back and explore Wikiversity, enjoy some of our fresh goat milk. You can help us learn by creating new learning resources or help us by improving the guided tours and other exploration tools. We look forward to seeing you around. Baaaahbye for now.

title: User talk:Animalprincess123


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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q005 Toppling vs Sliding of a cube

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q009 Magnetic field ratios in two different cases

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q010 Intensity versus wavelength graphs of blackbodies

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q013 Dimensional analysis

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q015 Pendulum sliding on a plane

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q017 Electrostats - energy of a configuration

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q018 Spinning rod with a bead on it, time when it starts slipping

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q019 expansion of ideal gas in three different paths

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q020 Melting of ice and evaporation - graph

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q022 Radioactive materials and decay constant

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q023 capcitors and dielectric, equivalent capcitance

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q026 Ideal gas and graph of a process

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q028 Ball dropped from a height, graphs

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q031 Magnetic fields of parallel wires

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q032 Divergent beam passsing from a glass slab

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q033 Glass slab in water and total internal reflection

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q036 electrochemical cells simple question on potentials

Test Text

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q040 highest nucleophilicity

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q041 order of reactivities in SN2

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Joint Entrance Examination/2000 Screening/Q042 electronic configuration and predicting state

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User:Lily~enwikiversity

Graduate student in Physics at the University of Oxford, UK

Favorite Quotations
If you can't explain your physics to a barmaid it is probably not very good physics.

title: User:Lily~enwikiversity


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Portal:Ethnology/North America/Library

North American division library
A sub-library of the School of Ethnology library. While the main ethnology library lists resources pertaining to the general subject of ethnology, the North American division handles external resources specific to the cultures of North America. Each department has its own bookshelf, as well as larger and more general areas such as the map room.

Areas

 * Map room

Department bookshelves

 * Anishinabe

title: Portal:Ethnology/North America/Library


text: Category:Ethnology libraries

title: Category:Ethnology libraries


text: Category:North American division library


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Japanese I/Do It Yourself/Your first sentence

This Lesson is aimed at teaching how to create beginner's sentences in Japanese. Beginner's sentences are different from native speaker's sentences but should be learnt all the same because they are a necessary step if one wants to understand more advanced sentences.

Before we begin, it is recommended that you learn how to read kana and Japanese pronunciation.

Components
There are four things needed to say a beginner's sentence in Japanese. They are:

A subject
The subject of a sentence is what the sentence is about. In Japanese, the subject is often omitted when the listener is already aware of what it is. In the following example, the subject is "this girl".

"This girl is my daughter. Is 8 years old. Is called Hayley."

There was no need to repeat "this girl", or "she" as the listener already knew what was being discussed. It may sound strange in conversation, but Japanese do not think so. Though Japanese typically omit subjects, we will be using subjects in all of our sentences in this lesson so as to familiarise ourselves with the form.

For our beginner's sentence, we will be using the subjects これ (kore, this),　それ (sore, that) and　あれ (are, that). The difference between それ and あれ is that それ refers to objects that are at the listeners location and あれ refers to objects that are far from both the speaker and the listener. So あれ could also be translated as "that (thing) over there". These words have kanji forms but are only used in hiragana.

The Particle は
は (wa) is the subject marker, also known as the subject particle. As all particles are placed after the word they modify, は is placed after the subject. It's sole purpose is to highlight the subject. It will be in all of our sentences.

The character は is normally pronounced "ha" but this changes when it marks the subject. This can provide difficulty for the beginner when reading but the distinction becomes easy after familiarisation with Japanese.

Use of a Japanese accent
By learning how to pronounce Japanese, you should know how to change words into 外来語 (gairaigo, loan words) and, with practice, speak with a Japanese accent. It is better to do this when speaking Japanese as English sounds can be very out of place and it can be hard to switch between the completely different accents.

Our basic sentences will mean "this is a ...", "that is a ...", "that over there is a ...", etc. And, at first, the ellipsis (...) will be replaced by made-up loan words.

です - To be
The last thing we need is the verb です (desu, to be). It is another thing that will be in all of our sentences. There are two other ways of saying "to be" in Japanese and each (as well as this one) comes in different forms, but です is the only one you will need for these lessons.

Note that it is usually pronounced closer to "des" or "dess" when on it's own but should always be spelt as "desu". Also note that Japanese verbs do not change when coupled with certain pronouns. That is, です corresponds to "is", "are", "am", etc., regardless of what pronoun it is describing.

Syntax
Now you know the vocabulary but how do you put it all together? The answer: exactly as you learnt it. Japanese is a SOV (Subject Object Verb) language meaning the sentence begins with a subject (followed by the subject particle, は) and ends with a verb (like です) and includes most other content (mainly just the object) in between. Sentences exist where words come before the subject and after the verb but they are currently beyond our scope.

Example
An example of forming a sentence with these components is これはコンピューターです.
 * Subject: これ (kore, this)
 * Subject Particle: As always, は (wa)
 * Object (loan word): Computer, or as it is written and pronounced in Japanese コンピューター(konpyuutaa)
 * Verb: です (desu, to be)

Now try pronounce it. Kore wa konpyuutaa desu.

Do It Yourself
Hopefully you can pronounce Japanese and, if you can, you should be able to make hundreds of sentences. Look at things around your room. Kore wa spiikaa desu (this is a speaker), are wa kappu desu (that over there is a cup). Try it yourself. Naturally, you'll need someone else to listen to you if you want to use sore.


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Portal:Ethnology/North America/Library/Map room

Map room
Welcome to the map room of the North American division library of the School of Ethnology! Here you will find a collection of maps organized by subject matter. All maps link to Commons.

Culture distribution
Maps showing the traditional homelands of tribes or culture groups.
 * Pre-Columbian American cultures
 * Iroquois Five Nations circa 1650 BCE

Reservations/reserves
Maps of the reservations or reserves set aside for indigenous cultures by their respective governments, either showing the relative location of the reservations or the reservations themselves.
 * American Indians and Alaska Natives map by U.S. Census Bureau

Ethnolinguistics
Maps showing language families or any map pertaining to language distribution in North America.
 * North American language families
 * Early Indian Languages of the USA
 * Maya Languages


text: User talk:Drjayztekradio

title: User talk:Drjayztekradio


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Anishinabe/Bookshelf

Anishinabe Bookshelf
Welcome to the Anishinabe bookshelf of the North American division library! This is an organization of relevant resources about the Anishinabe people on the web, on the other WikiProjects, and in the real world. Please check your resources for quality before you list them below!

Course source textbooks (Wikibooks)

 * Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History

Web resources

 * An Introduction to Ojibway Culture and History
 * Ojibwe History
 * Ojibwa
 * Native Languages of the Americas: Chippewa (Ojibway, Anishinaabe, Ojibwa)

Books
Books are organized first by subject and then alphabetically by author's surname.

Culture

 * Chippewa Customs by Frances Densmore (Publications of the Minnesota Historical Society). ISBN 978-0873511421
 * Ojibway Ceremonies by Basil Johnston (Bison Books). ISBN 978-0803275737
 * Kitchi Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway by Johann G. Kohl (Borealis Books). ISBN 978-0873511728

History

 * The Diary of Bishop Frederic Baraga: First Bishop of Marquette, Michigan (Wayne State University Press). ISBN 978-0814322956
 * Night Flying Woman: An Ojibway Narrative by Ignatia Broker (Minnesota Historical Society Press). ISBN 978-0873511674
 * Ojibwa Chiefs, 1690-1890: An Annotated Listing by John A. Ilko (Whitston Publishing Company). ISBN 978-0878754625
 * History of the Ojibway People by William W. Warren (Borealis Books Reprint). ISBN 978-0873511629

Language

 * A Dictionary of the Ojibway Language by Frederic Baraga (Borealis Books). ISBN 978-0873512817
 * A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe by John D. Nichols and Earl Nyhom (University of Minnesota Press, 1995). ISBN 978-0816624287

Mythology

 * The Bear-Walker: And Other Tales by Basil Johnston (Royal Ontario Museum). ISBN 978-0888544155
 * Ojibway Heritage by Basil Johnston (Bison Books). ISBN 978-0803275720
 * Ojibway Tales by Basil Johnston (Bison Books). ISBN 978-0803275782

Other

 * Mille Lacs Indian Museum & Trading Post 43411 Oodena Drive Onamia, MN 56359-2259  (320) 532-3632

title: Anishinabe/Bookshelf


text: Category:North American division library bookshelves


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User talk:Shahed~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Shahed. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Shahed~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:58, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:22, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shahed~enwikiversity


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Trauma

Definition
Trauma is defined as any body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from accident, injury, or impact. Trauma patients may require specialized care, including surgery and blood transfusion, within the so-called golden hour of emergency medicine, the first sixty minutes after trauma occurs. This is not a strict deadline, but recognizes that many deaths which could have been prevented by appropriate care occur a relatively short time after injury. In many places organized trauma referral systems have been set up to provide rapid care for injured people. Research has shown that deaths from physical trauma decline where there are organized trauma systems.

Techniques
In a prehospital setting, also called the "field", emergency medical technicians, paramedics, specialized nurses, firefighters and other trained providers known as 'first responders', use stabilization techniques to improve the chances of a trauma patient surviving the transport to the nearest hospital or trauma center. After ensuring their own safety and taking Body substance isolation precautions, professionals begin performing a primary survey, consisting of an assessment of the level of consciousness of the patient, then checking and treating airway, breathing, and circulation (called the "ABC's"). The method was published by Peter Safar in his 1957 book, ABCs of Resuscitation. The basic principle is that death primarily resulted from a lack of oxygen to the brain (anoxia). The main priority is therefore to ensure that oxygenated blood is circulating.

The purpose of the primary survey is to identify life-threatening problems. Ensuring that the injured person is not disabled by unnecessary movement of the spine is paramount. On most patients, and all unconscious patients, the neck is secured with a Cervical collar, and the back is secured to a long spine board with head supports, or other medical transport device such as a Kendrick Extrication Device, before moving the patient. This is called clearing the cervical spine, also known as doing "C-spine." Unless the victim is in imminent danger of death, first responders will usually "load and go," transporting the victim immediately to the nearest appropriate trauma-equipped hospital.

Upon completion of the primary survey, the secondary survey is begun. This may occur during transport or upon arrival at the hospital. The secondary survey consists of a systematic assessment of the abdominal, pelvic and thoracic viscera, complete inspection of the body surface to find all injuries, and neurological exam. The purpose of the secondary survey is to identify all injuries so that they may be treated. A missed injury is one which is not found during the initial assessment (for example, as a patient is brought into a hospital's Emergency Department), but rather manifests itself at a later point in time, sometimes with baleful consequences (i.e., a liver laceration is sometimes missed and a patient sent home, who will abruptly go into shock shortly thereafter.)

The appropriate first aid for a trauma patient is to immediately call for help using the emergency medical service, then treat for shock. Do not move the victim unless failure to do so would create a greater risk to their life (i.e. hazardous chemicals or a spreading fire). Also see wilderness first aid if immediate emergency help is unavailable.

In case of traumatic accidents, health care providers use the ABC of life (airway, breathing and circulation) as their primary survey in identifying and assessing the condition of the patient. Airway is considered as the most important factor to be assessed then the breathing and circulation. From this technique the appropriate intervention will be identified immediately and prioritization of action can be done according to the most important aspect to be assessed

title: Trauma


text:
User:Altera vista/Designing for the Commons/Directory

BACK


text:
User:Kernoweger

Dedh da, Kernoweger ew hanow-usyer ve, ha ma acont dhebm war an Wikipedya Sowsnek y'wedh.

title: User:Kernoweger


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Biblical Studies (NT)/The Epistles of Paul: Saved by Grace

NEW TESTAMENT

Lesson 8

 THE EPISTLES OF PAUL  Saved by Grace

What Is an Epistle?
Epistle is another word for letter. The epistles of the New Testament are letters which were written by prominent people in the early church to individuals or communities within the church, or to the church in general. There are twenty-one altogether. Of these, the first thirteen were written by the apostle Paul and are often referred to as the Pauline Epistles. The other eight were written by several different authors and are referred to as the General Epistles. The epistle to the Hebrews, which does not name its author, used to be grouped with Paul’s epistles, but most scholars now believe that it was not written by Paul (see separate lesson on Hebrews). Unger’s Bible Handbook (Moody, 1967) says:
 * In the four Gospels, the person and work of Christ are presented historically, eventuating in [Jesus’] death, resurrection and ascension. In the Acts, the result of these historical events is traced in the founding and growth of the church. In the Pauline epistles, the doctrinal revelation and theological significance of all these events are expounded.

Paul’s epistles are named after the churches or individuals to whom they are addressed. The order in which they appear in the New Testament is as follows:
 * 1) Romans
 * 2) 1 Corinthians
 * 3) 2 Corinthians
 * 4) Galatians
 * 5) Ephesians
 * 6) Philippians
 * 7) Colossians
 * 8) 1 Thessalonians
 * 9) 2 Thessalonians
 * 10) 1 Timothy
 * 11) 2 Timothy
 * 12) Titus
 * 13) Philemon

Unlike some of the other biblical authors, Paul makes his identity plainly known. As these are letters which are written on the basis of his leadership position in the church, it was natural that he should leave no doubt as to his identity. He introduces himself by name in the opening sentence of each letter, as was customary. For example, Romans begins: “Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ... to all who are in Rome” (1:1,7). The first letter to the Corinthians opens: “Paul, called to be an apostle of Jesus Christ through the will of God... to the church of God which is at Corinth” (1:1 2). The rest of the letters open in a similar vein.

In reading these epistles, Paul's cultural and religious background must be kept in mind. His Jewish worldview colors everything he writes. Even though he had converted to Christianity, he was still a practicing Jew who had an expert knowledge of, and deep faith in, the Hebrew scriptures. As with the other New Testament writers, the greatest evidence of Jesus' Messiahship, for Paul, was not his miracles, but that he came in fulfilment of the Hebrew scriptures.

Paul frequently refers to the "law," and contrasts his old legalistic religion with his new life under grace, through faith in Christ. It must be remembered that (in most cases) Paul is not referring to law in a general sense, but specifically to the Law of Moses, through which, he says, no one can be "justified," and the very purpose of which was to show us how we are unable to enter into God's promises by our own merits, but are utterly dependent on grace.

Chronological Order
The order in which Paul’s epistles appear in the New Testament is not the order in which they were written. The probable chronological order and approximate dates are as follows:

Early Epistles
 * 1 Thessalonians (52 AD)
 * 2 Thessalonians (53)
 * 1 Corinthians (55)
 * 2 Corinthians (56)
 * Galatians (56)
 * Romans (57)

Prison Epistles (written while Paul was under house arrest in Rome):
 * Philemon (61-62)
 * Colossians (61-62)
 * Ephesians (61-62)
 * Philippians (62)

Pastoral Epistles
 * 1 Timothy (62-66)
 * Titus (62-66)
 * 2 Timothy (66)

The Roman Empire
All of the places to which Paul’s epistles were directed were within the boundaries of the Roman Empire, and, more specifically, were within the areas which we know today as Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Crete. Were it not for the safety ensured by the Roman forces, the excellent standard of the Roman roads, and the trading ships constantly plying between the various commercial ports of the empire, communication between these areas might have been difficult or impossible, and the early church a lot more fragmented. As it was, Paul was able to travel extensively, establishing new churches everywhere he went, and having established them, to keep in touch with their progress and provide them with ongoing spiritual counsel through his letters. Some of these are preserved for us in the New Testament, but there were undoubtedly others which have been lost in the sands of time.

Although the empire facilitated the letters of Paul, its politics do not seem to have influenced their contents to any great degree. Nevertheless, Paul said:
 * Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are appointed by God. Therefore whoever resists the authority resists the ordinance of God, and those who resist will bring judgment on themselves. Render therefore to all their due: taxes to whom taxes are due, customs to whom customs, fear to whom fear, honor to whom honor. (Rom 13:1,2,7)

Paul himself lived these words to the letter. He submitted himself at all times to the governing authorities, yet at the same time, he did not hesitate to claim those privileges to which the law entitled him. His letters show that even when he was in prison, he believed that God was using the situation for the furtherance of the Gospel. In his letter to the Ephesians while under house-arrest in Rome, he referred to himself as “the prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles” (Eph 3:1).

Romans
From the second century BC, Rome had expanded dramatically as money and merchandise flowed in from the provinces of the empire. By the first century AD, its population had reached more than a million, a fairly large city by today’s standards, but huge for those days. It was the political and commercial hub of the largest empire the world had known until that time. Located on seven hills, Rome was famous for its wide scenic avenues. Most of the population lived in large multi-storied tenement houses, while the more wealthy residents lived in houses with rooms which opened onto a central courtyard. They worshipped at whichever of the many beautiful temples dedicated to the Roman gods they chose, and amused themselves at the city’s many theaters, parks and public baths. The River Tiber, then as now, flowed through the center of the city.

The epistle to the Romans was written after Paul arrived in Corinth in about 57 AD, towards the end of his third missionary journey. From a reference in the epistle, it appears to have been taken to Rome by Phoebe, a woman of Cenchrea in southern Greece. Although this is the first of Paul’s epistles as they appear in the Bible, we can see in the chronological list that it was actually the sixth to be written. It probably was placed first because it so completely and clearly explains the significance of all that has preceded it in the gospels and Acts. It expounds in clear and logical terms the concepts which are at the very heart of Christian theology, and its influence on the thinking of theologians, philosophers, and other intellectuals down through the centuries has been immeasurable.

Unlike the other churches to which Paul’s epistles are directed, Paul had nothing to do with the founding of the church at Rome. It may have been started by Jews who were converted at the Pentecost festival in Jerusalem in 30 AD (see Acts, chapter 2). Regardless, it had expanded to include many non-Jewish believers. This letter served to introduce Paul to the Romans in anticipation of a future visit. It also gave them a clear and concise exposition of the basic tenets of the Christian faith. This enabled the leaders to present Paul’s basic teachings in advance of his coming, so that when he finally arrived he need only clarify what had already been taught.

1&2 Corinthians
The city of Corinth was the capital of the Roman province of Achaia, now in southern Greece. It was located on the isthmus (narrow strip of land) that joins mainland Greece with the area called the Peloponnesus. In Paul’s time, the city was already a thousand years old, having been established in the tenth century BC. Its location on the narrow isthmus gave it access to ports on both the Aegean and the Adriatic Seas, which led to its position of importance as a center of culture and commerce in the ancient world. It was known especially for its pottery and brass.

Because of its large Roman population, Latin was commonly spoken as well as Greek, and there was also a Jewish community. The city’s dependence on sea-going trade gave rise to the worship of Poseidon, god of the sea, but the worship of Aphrodite, goddess of love, was even more pronounced. Her temple on the Acrocorinth, an adjacent mountain, was served by more than a thousand prostitutes and drew visitors from all over the empire. Corinth still exists, but it has a greatly reduced population of about nine thousand people.

Paul wrote his first epistle to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians) in about 55 AD, while on his third missionary journey. In the course of his travels, he spent two years in Ephesus, and it was during that time that he wrote this letter. He had established the church at Corinth several years earlier, during his second missionary journey. The Corinthian Christians were faced with the daily struggle of living in an environment where immorality was rampant and temptation abounded, and there must have been great pressure to conform to the ways of their fellow citizens. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of the major themes of 1 Corinthians was the need to avoid sexual immorality. Paul also addressed other problems, particularly disputes among church members and confusion concerning spiritual gifts. Some of the clearest and most detailed teaching in the Bible in regard to spiritual gifts is found in the first epistle to the Corinthians.

Paul also wrote 2 Corinthians during his third missionary journey. After his two-year stay in Ephesus, he traveled to northern Greece, where he spent several months in the province of Macedonia. He was planning to continue south to Corinth after his stay in Macedonia, and he wrote this letter from there, knowing that he would soon be in Corinth in person. The epistle was written in response to teachers who were misleading church members about the Gospel message and denouncing Paul’s ministry. Paul defended his own ministry and warned the Corinthians not to be misguided by individuals whose goals were self-serving.

Galatians
The name Galatia dates back to the time of the ancient Gauls, who settled the area in the third century BC. The region came under Roman control in 189 BC, but did not actually become a province until 25 BC. In Paul’s time, Greek culture and language prevailed, although there were Jewish communities in most of the major towns. It is in their synagogues that Paul first preached the Gospel when entering a new town. It is not known exactly when and where Paul wrote Galatians, but it is thought to have been in about 56 AD, about the time that the epistles to the Corinthians were written. Paul’s first missionary journey was concentrated in this area and he had founded churches in such cities as Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, and Antioch (in Pisidia) in the years between 45 and 48 AD. He revisited these churches on his second and third missionary journeys.

Many of the early Christians in these communities were Jewish converts. Notwithstanding their faith in Christ, most of them were still practicing Jews, a practice which Paul, as a practicing Jew himself, did not discourage. However, there were some (the “Judaizers”) who taught that converts to Christianity must still observe the Jewish laws and traditions as a requirement for salvation. While Paul encouraged a moral lifestyle, he felt that with Christ, the age of law (i.e. the laws of Moses) had been replaced with an age of grace, so that it was not necessary for Jewish converts to Christianity to observe every detail of Jewish law. He did not want the believers in Galatia to get caught up in trying to observe a code that was both difficult and, in his view, unnecessary. Paul’s purpose in writing, therefore, was to refute the teachings of the Judaizers and emphasize that salvation comes only by grace, through faith. In refuting the Judaizers, Paul was able to draw on his own credentials as a former leader in the Jewish community. He wrote of himself, “I advanced in Judaism beyond many of my contemporaries in my own nation, being more exceedingly zealous for the traditions of my fathers” (Gal 1:14). He was not just an authority on the Gospel, but also on the Hebrew scriptures and traditions.

Ephesians
Ephesus was a major city in the Roman world. It was at the heart of Greco-Roman civilization and was a thriving business and cultural center. It was an important seaport and was connected to other important cities by first class highways. It is thought that a quarter of a million people lived there in Paul’s time, a large city for those days. There was also an amphitheater in Ephesus which could accommodate twenty-four thousand people, and the main street was lined with columns and paved with marble.

Ephesus was also the center for the worship of the fertility goddess, Artemis (Roman “Diana”), and the temple built for this purpose was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Werner Keller, in The Bible as History (Bantam, 1988) says:
 * The foundations [of the temple of Artemis] measured 390 feet long by 260 feet broad, sheets of white marble covered the roof, and a hundred columns 65 feet high led the way into the interior of the temple, which was extravagantly decorated with sculptures, paintings and gold ornamentation.

Notwithstanding these distractions, the Christian church at Ephesus was a thriving and healthy spiritual community. It was chief among the churches in the Roman province of “Asia” (in western Turkey) and must have been very close to Paul’s heart, because he lived there for two years. Luke writes in Acts that during that time, “All who dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10).

Paul’s reason for writing was to strengthen and encourage the church in which he had so many friends and in which he had labored so diligently. In the epistle, he speaks of the nature and unity of the church, and the responsibilities of believers as followers of Christ.

Philippians
The city of Philippi was in Macedonia, in northern Greece, about sixty miles east of Thessalonica. It was ten miles inland from the Aegean port city of Neapolis, known today as Kavala. The city was named after Philip II of Macedonia in 356 BC, who had a particular interest in the gold and silver mines in the area. It came under the control of Rome when the Romans conquered Macedonia in 167 BC. Its importance as a commercial center was partly due to its location on the Via Ignatia, the major east-west highway. The residents worshiped a mixture of Roman, Greek, Egyptian and local gods, and there was also a synagogue. Continuing excavations have uncovered extensive remains on the site, which is now uninhabited.

Philippians was the latest of the so-called Prison Epistles (it was actually a house-arrest). The year was probably 62 AD. According to Acts, the church in Philippi had been established by divine guidance (Acts 16:6-10) ten years earlier, during Paul’s second missionary journey. It was the first of the churches founded by Paul in what we now know as Europe. He apparently took great joy in the Christians at Philippi, for his letter is upbeat and personal. The Philippian church appears to have been a healthy spiritual community which gave generously in support of Paul’s work. It was one such gift that occasioned this joyful letter of thanks and encouragement to the Philippian Christians.

Colossians
The city of Colossae was in the southern part of the Roman province of Asia, about eighty miles from the Mediterranean coast in what is now southwestern Turkey. It was located on the Lycus River in the region of Phrygia. From the fifth century BC, it had been an important commercial center, well known for its wool products and cloth-dying industries. The city ceased to exist in later Roman times. Its site was discovered in 1835, but it has not yet been excavated. The church at Colossae, while not founded directly by Paul, was an offshoot of his work in Asia Minor. It is thought that it might have been established by Epaphras, for Paul writes, “...as you also learned from Epaphras, our dear fellow servant, who is a faithful minister of Christ on your behalf, who also declared to us your love in the Spirit” (Col 1:7-8).

We do not know for sure if Paul visited Colossae or not, but there is no doubt that the Colossians were well-acquainted with his work and reputation. He wrote to them to put an end to certain corrupting influences in the church there. From the contents of the letter, it appears that there were people who were trying to blend the teachings of the Gospel with other doctrines, a practice called syncretism. These doctrines came from such diverse sources as Jewish legalism, pagan religion, and Greek philosophy. Paul wrote to reaffirm the deity of Christ, and to reiterate that salvation is only made possible because of Christ’s atoning sacrifice.

1&2 Thessalonians
The city of Thessalonica was in the Roman province of Macedonia, in what is today northern Greece. It was located at the top of the Thermaic Gulf, at the northwestern corner of the Aegean Sea. There is still a town on the site, though it is now known as Thessaloniki. The city was founded in 316 BC by one of Alexander’s generals, who named it after his wife. When Macedonia became a Roman province in 146 BC, Thessalonica became the capital. This was largely because Thessalonica, like Philippi, was located on the Via Ignatia, the main east-west route from the Balkans to Asia Minor, and also because of its busy sea-port. Some remains of the ancient city still exist. Of particular interest is the Roman forum, which can be seen in the center of modern Thessaloniki.

Among those of Paul’s epistles which he addressed to churches, the two which he wrote to the Thessalonians are the last to appear in the Bible. Yet they were actually the first to be written. Paul had established the church at Thessalonica on his second missionary journey in approximately 52 AD. He had to leave the town as a result of persecution, so he continued south to Berea, Athens, and Corinth. It was at Corinth that he wrote these epistles to the Thessalonians, probably in 52 or 53 AD. The first letter was written to clarify issues surrounding the second coming of Christ and the resurrection of believers. Some erroneous ideas had sprung up in the Thessalonian church which Paul found it necessary to correct.

The second letter was written just a few months later. Some of the Thessalonians had misunderstood Paul’s first letter to mean that the coming of Christ was imminent, and they had become slothful as a result. He therefore wrote to further clarify the issue and to remind them of their responsibilities as Christians.

1&2 Timothy
The two epistles to Timothy and the one to Titus are referred to as the Pastoral Epistles, because they contain instructions for Timothy and Titus in their roles as pastors of the churches at Ephesus and Crete, respectively.

The first of the epistles to Timothy is believed to have been written after Paul was released from his period under house-arrest, but before his final imprisonment and execution, which would place it between about 62 and 66 AD. The second was written in about 66 AD, during the persecution of Christians under Emperor Nero. Paul wrote it from his prison cell, knowing that his execution was close at hand, which makes it especially poignant:
 * I am already being poured out as a drink offering, and the time of my departure is at hand. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. Finally, there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will give me on that day; and not to me only, but also to all who have loved his appearing. (2 Tim 4:6 8)

We are introduced to Timothy in the sixteenth chapter of Acts. The setting was Paul’s second missionary journey, the year about 51 AD. Luke writes, “Then he [i.e. Paul] came to Derbe and Lystra. And behold, a certain disciple was there, named Timothy, the son of a certain Jewish woman who believed, but his father was a Greek” (Acts 16:1). Luke goes on to tell us that Timothy was well-respected in the local church and that Paul decided to take him along on his missionary travels. Despite Paul’s rejection of the notion that Christians need to obey the Mosaic rite of circumcision, he had Timothy circumcised to avoid any controversy with the Jewish community.

Apparently, there had been prophecies concerning Timothy, for in the first of his letters to him, Paul writes, “This charge I commit to you, son Timothy, according to the prophecies previously made concerning you” (1 Tim 1:18). Timothy traveled with Paul to Macedonia in northern Greece where he assisted him in his work in Troas, Philippi and Thessalonica. Afterwards, Timothy stayed on in Berea to care for the new church there while Paul went on ahead to Athens. Timothy later joined Paul in Athens for a time, before being sent back to Thessalonica to strengthen and encourage the new church. He then rejoined Paul, who had moved on to Corinth, and they lived and ministered together there. On Paul’s third missionary journey, Timothy was with him during his long and fruitful stay in Ephesus.

Though he was half-Jewish, Timothy chiefly evangelized and ministered among non-Jewish people. Paul obviously considered Timothy a capable and trustworthy servant of God, for in his letter to the Thessalonians, he wrote, “We sent Timothy, our brother and minister of God, and our fellow laborer in the Gospel of Christ, to establish you and encourage you concerning your faith, that no one should be shaken by these afflictions; for you yourselves know that we are appointed to this” (1 Thess 3:2-3). From other references in Paul’s letters, we know that Timothy was much younger than Paul, that by nature he was reserved and timid, and that he was afflicted by frequent ailments. Nevertheless, he was willing to accompany the apostle on dangerous journeys and to be sent on difficult and challenging missions. In his epistle to the Philippians, Paul says, “As a son with his father, he has served with me in the Gospel” (Phil 2:22). He was Paul’s closest companion and greatest help. He is mentioned more times and with greater affection than any of Paul’s other associates.

Titus
The epistle to Titus, like the first of the epistles to Timothy, was written after Paul’s release from house-arrest but before his final imprisonment, which places it between about 62 and 66 AD. Titus was a minister of the Gospel who, like Timothy, was taught and nurtured by Paul. He may have been one of Paul’s converts, for Paul called him “my true son in our common faith” (Titus 1:4).

During his third missionary journey, Paul sent Titus to Corinth to deal with problems of immorality in the church there, and to ask for material assistance for the church in Jerusalem. This visit seems to have been a success, for in 2 Corinthians, Paul writes, “We rejoiced exceedingly for the joy of Titus, because his spirit has been refreshed by you all” (2 Cor 7:13). Later on, Paul delegated to Titus the job of overseer to the churches in Crete, telling him to “set in order the things that are lacking, and appoint elders in every city” (Titus 1:5). Paul wrote him this epistle to give him encouragement and guidance.

Unlike Timothy, who was circumcised to appease the Jewish community, Paul refused to have Titus circumcised. This is probably because, while Timothy had a Jewish mother (Acts 16:1), Titus’ parents were both Greeks. Paul made it clear that as far as he was concerned, “In Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision avails anything, but only faith working through love” (Gal 5:6). Soon after this incident, it was officially decided by the Jerusalem Council that it was not necessary for non-Jewish believers to be circumcised.

The island of Crete, where Titus was sent by Paul, lies in the eastern Mediterranean, at the southern end of the Aegean Sea. It is 30 miles from north to south and 150 miles from east to west. It was the home of an ancient and powerful civilization which had long since faded into obscurity in Titus’ and Paul’s day. Halley’s Bible Handbook (Zondervan, 1965) says:
 * The highest mountain in Crete, Mt. Ida, was famous as the legendary birthplace of the Greek god Zeus. It was the home of the half-mythical lawgiver Minos, son of Zeus, and of the fabulous Minotaur. The people were akin to the Philistines and thought to have been identical with the Cherethites (1 Sam 30:14). They were daring sailors and famous bowmen, with a very bad moral reputation.

Titus is believed to have remained in Crete until he died.

Philemon
In the opening of his epistle to Philemon, Paul refers to him as “our dearly beloved, and fellow laborer.” He also mentions “the beloved Apphia” and “Archippus our fellow soldier,” which are generally thought to be Philemon’s wife and son. Philemon lived in Colossae and may have been quite affluent, as the church met in his house (Philemon 2) and he was the owner of at least one slave. We know this latter fact because the subject of the letter is Onesimus, a slave who had run away from Philemon’s household and had come to Paul in Rome.

That Philemon had a slave, and that his slave had run away, might lead us to have a bad first impression of Philemon. Nevertheless, he appears to have been a sincere and dedicated Christian, for Paul writes, “I thank my God, making mention of you always in my prayers, hearing of your love and faith which you have toward the Lord Jesus and toward all the saints. For we have great joy and consolation in your love, because the hearts of the saints have been refreshed by you, brother” (Philemon 4,5,7). Onesimus, the slave who was the subject of the epistle to Philemon, had apparently robbed his master and run away to Rome, where he somehow found his way to Paul. Whether Onesimus deliberately sought out Paul or came to him by chance is not known, but the meeting was to be a life-changing experience for him. Paul first converted him to Christianity, then persuaded him to return to Philemon. Paul gave him this letter to take with him, in which he implored Philemon to take Onesimus back, not as a slave, but as a brother in Christ. In spite of Paul’s commendation, it must have taken a good deal of courage for Onesimus to return to Philemon, for he could have been executed for deserting him. The tone of the letter, however, leads us to believe that Paul had every reason to believe that Philemon would honor his request for clemency toward Onesimus.

Paul as Pastor
Acts contains an account of Paul’s ministry written by Luke, in which we see how Paul devoted his life to expanding the Christian movement beyond the borders of Jewish society, fervently evangelizing the non-Jewish population of the Roman Empire in the face of tremendous opposition. While the account is both moving and instructive, it is largely impersonal. It is only when we leave Acts and move on to Paul’s epistles that we begin to sense the deeply personal nature of Paul’s relationship with the churches which for the most part were established by him, and which he nurtured and served with all of his being.

The picture that emerges of Paul is one of a person who had strong paternal instincts towards the Christians under his leadership. He had a tremendous love and concern for them and felt great joy when they did well and great sorrow when they did not. For example, in his letter to the Galatians, he sharply rebukes them for being led astray by legalists, saying, “How is it you turn again to the weak and beggarly elements, to which you desire again to be in bondage? I am afraid for you, lest I have labored in vain. I desire to be present with you now and to change my tone; for I have doubts about you” (Gal 4:9,11,20). In contrast to that stern letter is the one to the Philippians. After receiving a gift from them when he was imprisoned in Rome, he wrote back, “I thank my God upon every remembrance of you, always in every prayer of mine making request for you all with joy. For God is my witness, how greatly I long for you all with the affection of Jesus Christ” (Phil 1:3,4,8).

Saved by Grace
There are many theological concepts that come to light in Paul’s epistles, but the theme of salvation is central to all of them. Paul’s view on salvation is summed up in these words which he wrote to the church at Ephesus: “By grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph 2:8). The doctrine of salvation put forth by Paul presupposes the following:
 * 1) All humans are in a fallen state.
 * 2) The natural consequence of our fallen state is endless suffering.
 * 3) To escape endless suffering, we need to be saved from our fallen condition.
 * 4) We are incapable of saving ourselves.
 * 5) Therefore, we need a Savior.

Paul apparently considered that the need for salvation was self-evident, for he did not dwell on the circumstances of how human beings came into their fallen state, but focused on the solution, which, for Paul, was the forgiveness of sin made possible through the atonement of Christ:
 * By one man [i.e. Adam] sin entered into the world, and death by sin, and thus death spread to all men, because all sinned. But the free gift is not like the offense. For if by the one man’s offense many died, much more the grace of God and the gift by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, have abounded to many. (Rom 5:12,15)

Beyond the basic understanding that salvation is a gift which is available to all through faith in Christ, Paul’s doctrine of salvation encompasses various theological concepts. A familiarity with some of these concepts helps us to better understand the nature of salvation as it is presented in Paul's epistles. The next few sections will deal with the major themes.

Regeneration
In his letter to Titus, Paul writes:
 * Not by works of righteousness which we have done, but according to his mercy he saved us, by the washing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit, whom he poured out on us abundantly through Jesus Christ our Savior. (Titus 3:5 6)

Regeneration, or rebirth, happens at the time of conversion. The necessary conditions are faith and repentance. Having faith means trusting in the grace of God for salvation, and acting upon that faith. Repentance is the decision to redirect our lives away from materialism and toward God, with Christ as our guide. When these conditions have been met, spiritual growth begins. Jesus said, “Unless one is born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God” (Jn 3:3). Just as we were once born into the physical world, at the time of conversion we are born into the spiritual world. We begin the path toward spiritual maturity, just as a child is born and grows towards physical maturity.

Justification
Justification, in this context, is a legal term, related to the word "justice". To "justify” means to "make just” or, in more familiar terms, to "make innocent" -- in effect, to receive a verdict of "not guilty." The standard by which our guilt is measured is the Law of Moses, from the last four books of the Torah (books 2-5 of the Hebrew scriptures, or Old Testament). According to Paul, we have been redeemed by Christ, allowing us the status of "not guilty", even though in reality we are guilty of failing to live up to God's standards as expressed in the "Mosaic Law". Paul writes, “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus” (Rom 3:23 24). Two basic concepts are apparent here:
 * 1) We all fall short of God’s standard of righteousness (as it is represented in the Law of Moses), and are therefore guilty of wrongdoing (sin).
 * 2) We are justified (exonerated of any wrongdoing) as a result of “the redemption that is in Christ Jesus.”

To illustrate the concept of redemption: we can obtain a loan from a pawnbroker by leaving an object of value in his possession, but in order to get the object back, we have to redeem it, which means that we have to pay a price. Similarly, Christ paid a price to redeem us. He did this by sacrificing his own life in place of ours. Since atonement has already been made, we are justified (i.e. adjudged "not guilty") in the sight of God and will not be subject to the final judgment. (For more on the final judgment, see the lessons on Revelation.)

Sanctification
To “sanctify” is to “make holy or pure.” Some people believe that sanctification happens instantaneously at the time of conversion, like regeneration and justification. But it is also seen as a progressive process which begins at the time of conversion and continues throughout the believer’s life. It is really a matter of how one defines the word, for there is a scriptural basis for both views.

In the Old Testament, when something was sanctified, whether it was a person, a place, an object, or a day in the calendar, it was set apart for God and henceforth belonged to him. Sanctification took effect immediately and completely. This definition can be applied to the believer, who from the time of conversion belongs to God completely and eternally, even though he or she is not yet perfected. Therefore, if one defines the word to mean “set apart for God,” sanctification is immediate rather than gradual, taking place at the time of conversion.

According to the second definition, sanctification means, to quote Paul, “to be conformed to the image of his Son” (Rom 8:29). It does not merely mean to set apart, but to make holy and pure. This is a process which begins at the time of conversion, but is ongoing throughout the believer’s life. This is why some people talk in terms of progressive sanctification.

Faith in Christ
Foremost among the principles of salvation expounded in Paul’s epistles is the need to have faith (trust) in Christ. It is an ever-present theme and Paul uses the word "faith" about a hundred and forty times. In Paul's view, we cannot have access to justification (see above) or the grace of God except through faith:
 * Having been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we also have access by faith into this grace in which we stand. (Rom 5:1-2)

While Paul exhorts believers to adhere to a moral lifestyle and believes such a life is a consequence of faith, he emphasizes that good deeds do not have any saving grace in and of themselves. While good deeds are desirable, righteousness (i.e. rightness with God) comes through faith alone:
 * But now the righteousness of God apart from the law is revealed, being witnessed by the law and the prophets -- even the righteousness of God, through faith in Jesus Christ, to all and on all who believe... We conclude that a person is justified by faith apart from the deeds of the law. (Rom 3:21-22, 28)

While a number of themes related to salvation arise in the writings of Paul, they all hinge on faith in the grace of God, through which justification, regeneration, sanctification, and salvation itself are possible. Through faith in God, Paul anticipates a rich reward at the end of his life, as we see in these words to the church at Corinth: "Eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor have entered into the heart of man, the things which God has prepared for those who love him" (1 Cor 2:9).

Test Your Knowledge
{What does the word “epistle” mean? -Story -Historical account +Letter -Theological treatise
 * type=""}

{Which of the following churches was not founded by Paul? +Rome -Ephesus -Philippi -Corinth
 * type=""}

{What was the city of Corinth most famous for? -Its Roman baths +The temple of Aphrodite, goddess of love -Its synagogue -Its amphitheater
 * type=""}

{In his epistle to the Galatians, Paul addressed the problem of the Judaizers. What were the Judaizers doing? -Trying to convert people to Judaism. -Trying to replace Roman law with Jewish law. -Promoting a literal understanding of “an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth.” +Insisting the converts to Christianity needed to follow the laws of Moses, especially circumcision.
 * type=""}

{Which of the following could be found in Ephesus: -An amphitheater which seated 24,000 people -A main street which was lined with columns and paved with marble -The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the world +All of the above
 * type=""}

{Where was the first church founded by Paul in Europe? +Philippi -Corinth -Rome -Thessalonica
 * type=""}

{There was a problem at Colossae with people blending other doctrines (such as Jewish legalism, pagan religion, and Greek philosophy) with Christianity. The word for this blending of doctrines is: -Diversity +Syncretism -Heresy -None of the above
 * type=""}

{The epistle to the Romans appears first in the New Testament order, but which epistle was actually the first to be written? -1 Corinthians -Ephesians +1 Thessalonians -Colossians
 * type=""}

{Which of the following epistles is included in the “Pastoral Epistles”? -1 Timothy -2 Timothy -Titus +All of the above
 * type=""}

{In which of the epistles does Paul request clemency for a runaway slave? -Titus -Ephesians +Philemon -1 Timothy
 * type=""}

{Which of the following best describes Paul’s attitude toward the churches he established? -Christian duty -Paternal love and concern -Emotional involvement +All of the above
 * type=""}

{What was Paul’s attitude toward governing bodies? -He submitted to them as instruments of God’s will. -He boldly claimed the rights due to him under the law. -He rebelled against the authorities because he believed they were unchristian. +a and b
 * type=""}

{In Paul’s doctrine of salvation, how can we be saved? -By doing good deeds +By grace, through faith -By going to church regularly -Through an extensive knowledge of the scriptures
 * type=""}

{What is the theological name given to the internal change which happens at the time of conversion (sometimes known as being "born again")? +Regeneration -Sanctification -Justification -A change of heart
 * type=""}

{Paul’s concept of “justification” means: -Being proved right when everyone thought we were wrong. -We can be saved by doing good deeds. +Even though we are imperfect, we are blameless in God’s sight because Christ redeemed us. -None of the above.
 * type=""}

{What does the word “sanctification” mean? -To be pious in looks and attitudes. +To gradually become more Christlike. -To be blessed by the priest. -To place an object in the inner sanctum.
 * type=""}

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Biblical Studies (NT)/The Epistle of James: Faith and Action

 NEW TESTAMENT

 Lesson 10

 THE EPISTLE OF JAMES   Faith and Action

The Author
The first fourteen of the twenty-one epistles in the New Testament are referred to by the names of the addressees. The last seven, beginning with the epistle of James, are referred to by the names of their authors. James identifies both himself and the people to whom he is writing in the first verse of his epistle. He writes, “James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad” (1:1).

There are actually four individuals called James mentioned in the New Testament, but it has been accepted since the earliest days of the church that this is the brother of Jesus, which means that he was also the brother of Jude, the writer of the epistle of the same name. James had a reputation as an unusually good man, so much so that he was referred to as “James the Just” by his contemporaries. According to one early church writer, he spent so much time kneeling in prayer that his knees became hard and calloused like those of a camel!

Knowing that he was the brother of Jesus gives us some knowledge of his background. Since Jesus was Mary’s firstborn, James was his younger brother. He was probably born in Nazareth, though it is possible he was born in Egypt where the family went after Jesus’ birth to escape the massacre of Bethlehem’s infants by Herod the Great. Either way, he will have grown up in Nazareth, where the family went on their return from Egypt after Herod’s death.

As brothers, James and Jesus had grown up together. Therefore, it is probable that few people had a more intimate knowledge of Jesus’ life. According to the Gospel of John, however, Jesus was criticized by his family: “Not even his brothers believed in him” (Jn 7:5). It appears, therefore, that James did not believe in his brother’s divinity initially. Once James was converted, however, he gave himself wholeheartedly and rose to a position of prominence in the early church. He eventually became the head of the church in Jerusalem and earned a position of respect throughout Christendom. His position of authority is first indicated in the twelfth chapter of Acts where Peter has just been miraculously freed from prison by an angel. Peter gives instructions to “tell these things to James and to the brethren” (Acts 12:17), which may imply that James was in a leadership position among them.

James appears to have been the overseer of the Jerusalem Council of 50 A.D., when the apostles came together to discuss the issue of whether non-Jewish converts should have to observe the laws of Moses, particularly circumcision. After hearing the testimony of Peter, Paul, and Barnabas, James proposed that non-Jewish believers should only be required to “abstain from things polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from things strangled, and from blood” (Acts 15:20) – things which were associated with the pagan practices of the time. The apostles and elders agreed and this policy was henceforth adopted.

Another evidence of his standing in the church is the opening of Jude’s epistle. Jude identifies himself as “a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James” (Jude 1), possibly indicating that James was a known and respected name in the early church. Therefore, when James introduces himself in the first verse of his epistle, the mere mention of his name gives weight to everything that is about to follow. He identifies himself quite simply as “James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (1:1). The recipients knew who he was, and the fact that the letter was from James guaranteed its acceptance.

According to the historians Josephus (ca. 37-100 A.D.) and Eusebius (ca. 263-339 A.D.), James was martyred in about 62 A.D. The high priest Ananus, with the support of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish leadership council), ordered him to proclaim in the temple that Jesus was not the Messiah, but instead he declared that Jesus was the Son of God and the judge of the world. His persecutors responded by dragging him from the temple and stoning him to death. Like Jesus and Stephen before him, his dying words were a prayer that his murderers would be forgiven.

Addressees and Date
James’ epistle is addressed to “the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad” (1:1). These were the Jews who were living outside of Palestine, often referred to as the Diaspora, a word which means dispersion. If this epistle was sent to all of the cities where there were Jewish Christians in the middle of the first century, it may have been read in such diverse places as Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete.

As James’ death was in 62 A.D., we know that this epistle was written before that date, but the exact year is unknown. As the epistle is addressed to “the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad,” it is likely that it was written after mid-century, for the Christian communities outside of Palestine did not begin to develop significantly until the late forties, when Paul began his evangelistic journeys. Therefore, it is likely that the epistle was written between 50 and 62 A.D.

The Importance of Faith
James could not have known that when the canon of the New Testament was settled (i.e. when the writings considered appropriate for inclusion in the New Testament had been agreed upon), his epistle would be placed immediately after the epistle to the Hebrews, yet it follows beautifully upon its heels. Both epistles are addressed to Jewish Christians, and the opening verses of James function like a bridge passage, binding the two epistles together. No sooner is this introduction complete than James dives into the theme of faith, picking up where the writer of Hebrews has just left off.

James writes, “My brethren, count it all joy when you fall into various trials, knowing that the testing of your faith produces patience” (1:2-3). In large part, James' comments are addressed to people who had compromised their faith as a result of persecutions which they had endured at the hands of their own people. James reassures them, saying:
 * If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all liberally and without reproach, and it will be given to him. But let him ask in faith, without doubting, for he who doubts is like a wave of the sea driven and tossed by the wind. Let not that man suppose that he will receive anything from the Lord” (1:5-7).

In making this statement, James emphasizes from the outset the importance of faith in the religious life. By placing this plainly stated message in his introduction, he lays the foundation for the moral and spiritual directions which follow. His message is loud and clear: to live a Christian life, a person must have faith.

Faith and Action
The theme for which this epistle particularly stands out is its emphasis on the fact that faith does not stand alone; it is always accompanied by corresponding words and deeds in the life of the believer. It was James who coined the famous phrase, “Be doers of the word, and not hearers only, deceiving yourselves” (1:22).

This and other epistles suggest that there were people in the first-century church who taught that if we are saved by grace working through faith, our actions are irrelevant where salvation is concerned. James says that such believers are “deceiving themselves” and gives the analogy of a hungry man, who will not be satisfied merely by being told to be filled. He must have real, physical food in order for his hunger to be satisfied. In the same way, faith without action has no substance. James says, "Faith by itself, if it does not have works, is dead. But someone will say, 'You have faith, and I have works.' Show me your faith without your works, and I will show you my faith by my works" (2:17-18). To illustrate the point, James cites the example of Abraham:
 * Was not Abraham our father justified by works when he offered Isaac his son on the altar? Do you see that faith was working together with his works, and by works faith was made perfect? And the scripture was fulfilled which says, "Abraham believed God, and it was imputed to him for righteousness." (2:21-23)

James' statement that Abraham was justified by works has led some people to suggest that he contradicts Paul, who teaches that, while we have a responsibility to serve God with selfless actions, we are not saved by our actions, but by grace alone, a grace which works through faith. A closer examination, however, reveals that James and Paul are in agreement, for Paul says that "not the hearers of the law are just in the sight of God, but the doers of the law will be justified" (Rom 2:13). Paul applies this, not just to the Jews who were raised on the law of Moses, but to those Gentiles who "by nature do the things contained in the law" (Rom 2:14). The point, both for James and Paul, is that where true faith exists, it will be revealed in corresponding actions. James does not appear to believe that the actions in themselves have any saving grace, for he concludes that Abraham’s faith (not his action) is credited to him as righteousness.

James makes another important point in the above quote when he says: “By works faith was made perfect” (2:22). Putting this together with the rest of the quote, we see that, for James, faith produces action, and action, in turn, strengthens faith.

Examples of Faith in Action
James writes, “My brethren, do not hold the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Lord of glory, with partiality” (2:1). There are indications that discrimination was a problem in the early church, for Paul also addressed this issue in 1 Corinthians. For James, bigotry and faith are incompatible.

James also warns against the destructive power of negative speech: “Every kind of beast and bird, of reptile and creature of the sea, is tamed and has been tamed by mankind. But no one can tame the tongue. It is an unruly evil, full of deadly poison” (3:7-8). By contrast, “the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, willing to yield, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypocrisy” (3:17).

Where there is faith, there is also patience and perseverance. In this regard, James says that we can look to the lives of the prophets for inspiration and encouragement: “Indeed, we count them blessed who endure. You have heard of the perseverance of Job and seen the purpose of the Lord, that the Lord is very compassionate and merciful” (5:11).

In his closing verses, James writes, “The prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven. The effective, fervent prayer of a righteous man avails much” (5:15-16). An active prayer life gives evidence of an inner faith. As an example, “Elijah was a man with a nature like ours, and he prayed earnestly that it would not rain; and it did not rain on the land for three years and six months. And he prayed again, and the heaven gave rain, and the earth produced its fruit” (5:17-18). This drought was in punishment for the idolatry which had been promoted in the land by King Ahab and his wife Jezebel. But James’ point is that Elijah was just a normal person who, through faith, accomplished great things.

Test Your Knowledge
{Who was the author of the epistle of James? -James, the brother of John -James, the son of Alphaeus +James, the brother of Jesus -None of the above
 * type=""}

{How did James die? - In his sleep +Stoned to death for refusing to deny Christ - A chariot accident -Old age
 * type=""}

{James played a major part in the proceedings of which historic church council? +The Jerusalem Council -The Nicean Council -The Constantinopolitan Council -Vatican II
 * type=""}

{ What was the central issue of the Jerusalem Council in about 50 AD? -Malicious gossip among church members. -Widows and orphans were being neglected in the charitable work of the church. +Whether non-Jewish converts should be required to observe the laws of Moses, especially circumcision. -Whether church leaders should be permitted to marry.
 * type=""}

{ To whom was the epistle of James addressed? -The churches in Palestine -The churches outside of Palestine -Gentile Christians +Jewish Christians outside of Palestine
 * type=""}

{ What is the most striking message in the epistle of James? +That true faith is evidenced by our actions -That one must follow the Law of Moses to be saved -That Paul’s theology was erroneous on certain points -That Jewish Christians are better in God’s sight than non-Jewish ones
 * type=""}

{ According to James, how do we grow in faith? -We need do nothing; growth is automatic -By talking about it -By thinking about it +By acting on our faith
 * type=""}

{ Which of the following does James say is incompatible with faith? -Bigotry -Negative speech -Hypocrisy +All of the above.
 * type=""}

{ Which of the following does James say is evidence of faith? -Patience and perseverance -Peacefulness and gentleness -Regular prayer +All of the above.
 * type=""}

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Biblical Studies (NT)/The Epistles of Peter: Persecution and Heresy

 NEW TESTAMENT

 Lesson 11

 THE EPISTLES OF PETER   Persecution and Heresy

Authorship of 1 Peter
The first of Peter’s two epistles opens with this greeting, which states both the name of the writer and those to whom he is writing: “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to the pilgrims scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1 Pet 1:1). The second opens in a similar vein: “Simon Peter, a servant and an apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who have obtained like precious faith with us” (2 Pet 1:1). Nevertheless, a few scholars have asserted that these epistles were written by unknown persons who used Peter’s name to gain acceptance.

In the case of the first epistle, the major arguments put forth against Peter’s authorship are:
 * 1) The style of the Greek is too sophisticated for a first-century Galilean fisherman.
 * 2) The letter indicates persecutions which were more severe than those which occurred in Peter’s lifetime.

With regard to the first argument, Acts does indeed say, “When they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated and untrained men, they marveled” (Acts 4:13). However, by the time of this epistle, more than thirty years had elapsed since then. During this time, Peter had been engaged in full-time ministry and undoubtedly had acquired some sophistication as a writer and speaker. Also, when Peter wrote the epistle, he had the secretarial assistance of Sylvanus, a Greek-speaking Christian: “By Sylvanus, our faithful brother as I consider him, I have written to you briefly” (1 Pet 5:12). The argument with regard to style, therefore, is significant, but in itself is not conclusive.

CHRIST LIVES!!!

The second argument, that the letter indicates persecutions which were more severe than those which occurred in Peter’s lifetime, is unconvincing, however. We see in the Gospels and in Acts that the Jews persecuted Christians from the very beginning. The Romans also began to persecute Christians under Nero after 64 A.D. Peter himself was martyred in about 67 A.D., an event which in itself refutes the argument that there was no real persecution in Peter’s day.

The arguments in favor of the apostle’s authorship of 1 Peter are as follows:
 * 1) The writer introduces himself as “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ” (1 Pet 1:1).
 * 2) He was “a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pet 5:1).
 * 3) There is a similarity between the style of the epistle and Peter’s speeches in Acts.
 * 4) The early church fathers, who were historically much closer to the events of the time, testify to Peter’s authorship. It is quoted by Polycarp (c. 69-155 AD) and also by Irenaeus (c. 130-200 AD).

Authorship of 2 Peter
Scholars who question Peter’s authorship of the second epistle argue that:

 * 1) It is not known to have been quoted by any of the church fathers before Origen (185-254 AD).
 * 2) The style and quality of the Greek are different from Peter’s first epistle.
 * 3) There are similarities to Jude’s epistle, indicating that the author made use of that epistle for source material (compare 2 Pet 2:1-17 with Jude, verses 3-13).

The first of these arguments, that there are no recorded references to 2 Peter before Origen, is important, but others have used the same evidence to argue that such an early example of a church historian giving credit to Peter leans heavily in favor of the epistle's authenticity, so that in the end it is a matter of how we, as individuals, personally interpret the evidence.

The second argument, that there is a difference in the style and language to that of 1 Peter, is probably the most significant. As noted above, one possible explanation is that Peter had the secretarial assistance of Sylvanus on the first epistle (1 Pet 5:12).

The third point, that there are similarities with the epistle of Jude, is undeniable, and it is clear that either Peter or Jude made use of the other's material. This does not necessarily affect the issue of authorship, however. The real question here is who made use of the other, Jude or Peter? The issue can be argued both ways and there is no conclusive answer. The fact that one made use of the other is not exceptional in itself. Authors have made use of each other's material throughout history and still do so today. The difference now is that we would be expected to cite the source, but first century standards regarding plagiarism were not so strict, and methods of citation were not codified. There is no doubt that Peter and Jude knew each other and it is quite possible that whoever wrote first was aware of the use of his material by the other. It is also possible that the one who borrowed the other's material did so in the knowledge that his use of it would be recognized, given that copies of all of the New Testament epistles are believed to have been circulated among the churches.

Some of the arguments in favor of Peter’s authorship of the second epistle are:
 * 1) The author introduces himself as “Simon Peter, a servant and an apostle of Jesus Christ.”
 * 2) If this person were a deceiver, it is unlikely that he would write a letter to warn people against deception, as this letter does.
 * 3) The author alludes accurately to events in Peter’s life:
 * a) He mentions Jesus’ prophecy of Peter’s martyrdom, which was impending at the time of writing (1:14).
 * b) He mentions the Transfiguration (1:17), at which Peter was present.
 * c) He refers to his previous epistle (3:1).
 * d) He refers to Paul in a way that suggests that he knew him personally (3:15).

The Addressees
Peter’s first epistle is addressed to “the pilgrims scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1 Pet 1:1). The second epistle is believed to have been written to the same churches as the first, due to a reference in the epistle itself in which Peter says, “Beloved, I now write to you this second epistle, in both of which I stir up your pure minds by way of reminder” (2 Pet 3:1). These regions together roughly form the area which we know today as Asia Minor, or the western half of the modern nation of Turkey. The churches which Peter addressed were relatively young churches which had been mostly founded within the previous twenty years by Paul on his missionary journeys. It is likely that Peter had visited these churches, perhaps on several occasions. In particular, it is probable that he had spent some time in the province known then as Asia. It was the location of the city of Ephesus, which was an important commercial center, and by the time that these epistles were written, had become the main center of Christianity, surpassing Syrian Antioch and Jerusalem in importance as the church took another step in its gradual move toward the west.

Location and Date of Writing
In the conclusion of his first epistle, Peter writes, “She who is in Babylon, elect together with you, greets you; and so does Mark my son” (1 Pet 5:13). It is unlikely, however, that Peter was really in Babylon. It is more likely that Babylon in this case is referring to Rome; firstly, because there is no evidence that Peter was ever in Babylon, and secondly, the information we have about Peter’s life, as well as the theme of the letter, point to his having been in Rome at the time of writing. Why then did Peter say that he was in Babylon? Since the letter was written in times of persecution, it has been suggested that Christians used this name as a measure of prudence, to avoid potential conflict with the ruling authorities when speaking of Rome. It is more likely, however, that the name “Babylon” was used as an epithet for Rome because Babylon is a symbol of worldly influence and power, particularly when that power is in opposition to God’s people, as Rome was at the time.

If, as is commonly believed, the epistle was written during Nero’s persecution of the church following the Great Fire of Rome, it would have been written between 64 A.D., when the persecution began, and 67 A.D., when Peter was executed.

In the second epistle, Peter does not state his location, but he indicates that his martyrdom is very near. Therefore, the epistle was probably written in Rome in about 67 A.D.

Nero Persecutes the Church
When Peter wrote his epistles, the church had existed for more than thirty years and had become fairly well-established over a large portion of the Roman Empire. We know that there were Christian communities in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, some of the Mediterranean islands, and possibly in places farther afield also, so the church was by no means a local affair. This growth had, in large part, been made possible by the existence of the Roman Empire, which had provided unity, stability, transportation and communication throughout the Mediterranean regions.

However, the same empire which had enabled such rapid growth was now threatening the church with extinction. The trouble began after the Great Fire of Rome, which occurred in 64 A.D. One rumour has it that Nero, who became increasingly insane in the years before his death, started the fire so that he could build a new, more beautiful Rome. According to later accounts which have never been proven, when it was suspected that Nero was responsible, he used the Christian community as a scapegoat. Christianity was a new and unusual sect which was looked upon suspiciously by much of the population, and it would have been easy to pass the blame to them. Whether Nero was responsible or not, a tragic persecution of Christians ensued which lasted for several years and in which untold numbers were tortured and killed in the most cruel ways. They were crucified or fed to wild beasts, sometimes for entertainment in arenas filled with thousands of people. Tacitus, who claimed that Nero did not start the fire, admitted that Nero took pleasure in the persecution of Christians, and that he used Christians as human torches at night by covering them in pitch and setting them alight.

That 1 Peter was written to comfort and reassure a church under persecution becomes evident early on in the epistle. Peter writes, “In this [salvation] you greatly rejoice, though now for a little while you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials. These have come so that your faith - of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire - may be proved genuine and may result in praise, glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed” (1 Pet 1:6-7). Peter then speaks of the great reward which awaits the faithful, showing how the present sufferings are nothing compared to the destiny which God has in store for those who love him. The believers are reminded that they were not redeemed with silver or gold, but with the blood of Jesus, and they are urged to be faithful to their calling.

Even in the face of persecution, the believers are called to be law-abiding and respectful of authority. Peter writes, “Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord’s sake, whether to the king as supreme, or to governors, as to those who are sent by him for the punishment of evildoers and for the praise of those who do good” (1 Pet 2:13-14). They should accept their undeserved suffering with the same love and humility with which the innocent Christ suffered, who, “When he was reviled, did not revile in return; when he suffered, he did not threaten, but committed himself to him who judges righteously” (1 Pet 2:23).

Peter continues, “Let none of you suffer as a murderer, a thief, an evildoer, or as a busybody in other people’s matters. Yet if anyone suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God in this matter” (1 Pet 4:15-16). If we suffer as a result of our own wrongdoing, we have no one to blame but ourselves and we deserve our punishment. But if we suffer innocently, we are undeserving of our punishment and have nothing of which to be ashamed. Peter concludes his first epistle with a note of comfort and reassurance: “The God of all grace, who called you to his eternal glory in Christ, after you have suffered a little while, will himself restore you and make you strong, firm and steadfast” (1 Pet 5:10).

Peter’s Courage
Peter places great emphasis on suffering in his epistles, urging the church to be strong in the face of it, as though it were an inevitability. He writes, “Beloved, do not think it strange concerning the fiery trial which is to try you, as though some strange thing happened to you, but rejoice, insofar as you are partakers of Christ’s sufferings, that when his glory is revealed, you may also be glad with exceeding joy” (1 Pet 4:12-13). It is interesting to see this strong and brave Peter, the same individual who once denied three times, in the courtyard of the high priest, that he even knew Christ. Even in the face of death, he continues to encourage the believers, urging them to be steadfast, pure, and full of faith.

In his second epistle, knowing that he is about to be put to death, he writes, “I think it is right, as long as I am in this tent, to stir you up by reminding you, knowing that shortly I must put off my tent, just as our Lord Jesus Christ has shown me. Moreover I will endeavor that you always may be able to have a reminder of these things after my decease” (2 Pet 1:13-15). The same man who was once too frightened to admit that he even knew Jesus, now sacrifices his life for him and urges others to be strong and steadfast under the same trials. We are reminded of an incident in Acts, where Peter and the other apostles had been imprisoned and beaten for preaching Christ in Jerusalem. Luke writes, “They departed from the presence of the council, rejoicing that they were counted worthy to suffer shame for his name” (Acts 5:41).

Sylvanus
In the conclusion of his first epistle, Peter writes, “By Sylvanus, our faithful brother as I consider him, I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God in which you stand” (1 Pet 5:12). The name Sylvanus is a Latin form of Silas. The Sylvanus of 1 Peter and the Silas of Acts are probably one and the same person. If this is so, Sylvanus was in a position of leadership in the Jerusalem church and was a prophet. Luke writes, “It pleased the apostles and elders to send chosen men of their own company to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas, namely, Judas, who was also named Barsabas, and Silas, leading men among the brethren. Now Judas and Silas, themselves being prophets also, exhorted the brethren with many words and strengthened them” (Acts 15:22,32). Clearly, Sylvanus was more than just a letter-carrier for Peter, but was himself a gifted individual.

In addition to going with Paul to Antioch after the Jerusalem Council, Silas was also with Paul on his second missionary journey. He shared in the beating Paul received at Philippi after casting out a fortune-telling demon from a slave girl. The girl’s fortune-telling had made much money for her master, who complained to the authorities, resulting in Paul and Silas being whipped and imprisoned (Acts 16:23). During this incident, a comment of Paul’s tells us one of the few things we know about Sylvanus: “They have beaten us openly, uncondemned Romans, and have thrown us into prison” (Acts 16:37). From this, we know that Sylvanus was a Roman citizen. Beyond this, however, we know nothing of his background.

False Teachers
The special emphasis of Peter’s second epistle is to warn believers against what he believed were false teachers who had found their way into the church. These were individuals who had no real faith or understanding, but had twisted the Gospel message for personal gain. With Paul dead and Peter’s own martyrdom fast approaching, the leadership of the church would be greatly weakened. Under these circumstances, Peter sought to warn the church against these individuals, urging the believers to hold fast to what they had been taught and not allow themselves to be led astray by greedy and immoral deceivers.

As an eyewitness of the events described in the Gospels, Peter reassures his readers of the authenticity of the Gospel message and the true identity of Jesus: Son of God and prophesied Messiah. He warns that those who bring destructive heresies into the church will not succeed in leading the true believers astray, but will only bring destruction on themselves. Illustrating his point with examples from the Hebrew scriptures, he warns, “The Lord knows how to deliver the godly out of temptations and to reserve the unjust under punishment for the day of judgment” (2 Pet 2:9). The teachers of whom he spoke were saying that it was acceptable for the believers to engage in licentiousness. While promising freedom, they were slaves of corruption. Peter writes, “If, after they have escaped the pollutions of the world through the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and overcome, the latter end is worse for them than the beginning” (2 Pet 2:20).

The Last Days
In the third and last chapter of his second epistle, Peter turns to the future, warning of scoffers that will come in the last days, who will say, “Where is the promise of his coming? For since the fathers fell asleep, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation” (2 Pet 3:4). Peter’s response is that the Lord “is not slack concerning his promise, but is longsuffering toward us, not desiring that any should perish but that all should come to repentance.” Furthermore, he says that the day of the Lord “will come as a thief in the night, in which the heavens will pass away with a great noise, and the elements will melt with fervent heat; both the earth and the works that are in it will be burned up” (2 Pet 3:9-10). The end of the world, according to Peter, will come at a time when we are least expecting it.

Test Your Knowledge
{In all likelihood, who wrote the epistles of Peter? -Paul +Peter, the apostle -Barnabas -Sylvanus
 * type=""}

{When were Peter’s epistles written? -Between the death and resurrection of Jesus -During the Jerusalem Council -After the conversion of the first non-Jewish people to Christianity +During the persecution of Christians by Nero
 * type=""}

{To whom were Peter’s epistles written? +The Christians in Asia Minor -The church at Jerusalem -The emperor Nero -The Roman authorities
 * type=""}

{ Where was Peter when he wrote these epistles? -Babylon -Jerusalem +Rome -Athens
 * type=""}

{ Which emperor participated in, and perhaps even instituted, the persecution of Christians in the 60s AD? -Claudius +Nero -Caligula -Domitian
 * type=""}

{ What did Peter urge Christians to do in response to being persecuted? - Fight to the death - Assassinate Nero - Retaliate with acts of terrorism +Continue to be law-abiding and respectful of authority
 * type=""}

{ What do we know about Peter’s letter carrier, Sylvanus? -He was a leader in the church -He was described as a prophet -He was a Roman citizen +All of the above
 * type=""}

{ What problem most concerned Peter in the second epistle? +That corrupt leaders were leading people astray -That Jewish believers were still attending religious festivals in Jerusalem -That Gentile believers were failing to observe the laws of Moses -None of the above
 * type=""}

{ Why, according to Peter, is Christ delaying his second coming? -He is busy helping the inhabitants of other planets -He is angry at human beings +He is waiting for the right time, so that more people can be saved -He is in Hades, helping those who died without God
 * type=""}

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text: Biblical Studies (NT)/The Epistles of John: The Spirit of Antichrist