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Draft:Original research/Creationism

Creationism appears to be a system of interpreting scientific evidence which uses the Bible as a basis for interpretation. This can be contrasted with evolution which apparently uses methodological naturalism as its basis for interpretation.

Huitzilopochtli on the right was the patron god of the Mexica tribe. Originally he was of little importance to the Nahuas, but after the rise of the Aztecs, Tlacaelel reformed their religion and put Huitzilopochtli at the same level as Quetzalcoatl, Tlaloc, and Tezcatlipoca, making him a solar god.

Religions
"The religions of all ancient nations ... associate the abode of the supreme God with the North Pole, the centre of heaven; or with the celestial space immediately surrounding it."

Radiation
In 1960, with respect to the theory of evolutionary progressivism, Huxley wrote "Improved organization gives biological advantage. Accordingly, the new type becomes a successful or dominant group. It spreads and multiplies and differentiates into a multiplicity of branches. This new biological success is usually achieved at the biological expense of the older dominant group from which it sprang or whose place it had usurped."

Astronomy
In Radiation astronomy/Astronomy, cosmogony refers to the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used in reference to the origin of the solar system.

Cosmogony is any scientific theory concerning the coming into existence, or origin, of the cosmos or universe, or about how what sentient beings perceive as "reality" came to be.

The hominins of Earth may have observed and recorded a genealogy, or a begetting, of astronomical objects. Such a begetting may be called an astrogony.

Their astronomical observations may have suggested a genealogy, a progression from one astronomical object to another from the point of view of Earth. These objects may have been recorded and perhaps regarded based on what was observed.

Planetary sciences
At least in the northern hemisphere of Earth, the local hominins may have observed, recorded, and regarded a progression of astronomical objects in the sky.

These objects have been remarkable enough that they have made their presence known to the locals of Earth. The time frame could be as short as 10,000 years or as long as a million.

From the current state of knowledge about astronomical objects around other stars, especially nearby, it may be possible to imagine similar objects in the solar system to account for these observations.

Since hominins are recording these phenomena, it is reasonable that these phenomena occurred during an oral history into a written history in some form.

Minerals
"At the end of the Pleistocene era around 13,000 years ago, North America lost most of its megafauna—including mastodons, giant ground sloths, saber-toothed cats, and short-faced bears. Some researchers think the mass extinction was caused by climatic changes or maybe even humans; others think it was the abrupt environmental changes resulting from a comet collision with Earth that led to the Younger Dryas period of global cooling just a couple centuries later."

The "same cosmic impact that took out the Pleistocene megafauna may have also created tiny diamonds across at least three continents around 12,800 years ago."

"Cosmic collisions such as these produce a type of material called nanodiamonds. To date, the only other layer where more than one nanodiamond has been found is the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (now known as the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary) from 65 million years ago, famous for the extinction of dinosaurs."

At "32 sites in 11 countries [...] an abundance of nanodiamonds distributed over 50 million square kilometers across the Northern Hemisphere at the Younger Dryas boundary (YBD)—a carbon-rich layer that appears as a thin black line just a few meters below the surface [has been found]."

"We conclusively have identified a thin layer over three continents, particularly in North America and Western Europe, that contain a rich assemblage of nanodiamonds, the production of which can be explained only by cosmic impact."

"These are exotic conditions that came together to produce the diamonds from terrestrial carbon. [...] The diamonds did not arrive with the incoming meteorite or comet."

Theoretical creationism
Def.
 * 1) the "doctrine that each individual human soul is created by God [in Christianity, Judaism, Islam and the Baha'i Faith], as opposed to traducianism",
 * 2) "a belief that the origin of things is due to an event or process of creation brought about by the deliberate act of any divine agency, such as a Creator God (creator god)",
 * 3) the "belief that a deity created the world, especially as described in a particular religious text, such as the Quran or the Book of Genesis", or
 * 4) any belief of "or relating to"

is called creationism.

Entities
Def. a "conjecture claiming that biological life on Earth, or more broadly, the universe as a whole, was created by a unspecified intelligent agent rather than being the result of undirected natural processes" is called intelligent design.

"Anaxagoras (500–428 B.C.) was the first of the Greeks "to attribute the adaptations of Nature to Intelligent Design, and was thus the founder of Teleology," an idea that has played a retarding function in the history of evolution."

"Intelligent design means that the various forms of life began abruptly through the agency of an intelligent creator with their distinctive features already intact—fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc."

Def. "the belief that the soul or spirit is inherited from ones parents" is called traducianism.

Def. the "spirit or essence of a person usually thought to consist of one's thoughts and personality" or the "spirit or essence of anything" is called a soul.

Def.
 * 1) the "main religious text in Christianity",
 * 2) the "Jewish holy book that was largely incorporated into the Christian Bible",
 * 3) the "analogous holy book of another religion", or
 * 4) a "specific version, edition, translation, or copy of any of the above or one of the [below]-mentioned texts"

is called a Bible.

Coordinate terms

 * "scripture, religious text; Adi Granth, Aqdas, Avesta, Bible, Book of Shadows, Dianetics, Geniocracy, Liber AL vel Legis, Ofudesaki, Qur'an, Satanic Bible, Tao Te Ching, Torah, Tripitaka, Veda"

Objects
It is possible that at some point in hominin existence, the Sun with the Earth in orbit around it was in a binary system with a second star. With the orbit of the Earth around the Sun being similar to what it is now, the axial tilt of the Earth being similar to what it is now, the Earth-Sun system may in turn have been in such an orbit around the second, probably smaller star, that this star was a northern hemisphere pole star for the Earth.

Def. "God, in Islamic or Arabic contexts" is called Allah.

"We are too much men and women; we are yet formed in the image of the Creator, and what can we say of Him with any certainty except that He, whoever He may be—Christ, Yahweh, Allah—He made us, did He not, because even He in His Infinite Perfection could not bear to be alone."

Usage notes

"While the Arabic الله is used generically to refer to God in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic contexts, current English usage almost always restricts the corresponding term Allah to Islamic contexts only. Various newspaper style manuals recommend translating the Arabic word in English as God, as this better reflects Arabic usage, but the term is often left untranslated in Islamic contexts. Thus either “Allah is great” or “God is great” may be seen."

Def. the "single deity of various monotheistic religions",

is called God.

Usage notes

"God is often referred to by masculine pronouns, not necessarily implying that the speaker believes God to be male. God is also referred to by pronouns that begin with a capital letter, as a sign of respect, in many languages written in Latin script. In English, these include He, Him, His and Himself. Many Jews follow a prohibition in their tradition against using this term and other equivalents in writing (see G-d)."

Synonyms

 * "Allah, Almighty, cosmocrat, Divine Father, G-d, god, Jah, Jehovah, Lord, LORD, Most High, Yahweh, Brahman, Ahura Mazda, Ra, Waheguru, Sage, Odin, Zeus"

"Saturday is the day of Saturn, and the color of Saturn, according to astronomers, is said to be black".

There is some resemblance between the color of God in Michelangelo's "The Creation" and that of Saturn.

Strong forces
Def. "[t]he action of making or becoming" "[n]o longer in existence; having died out" is called extinction.

Def. the apparent percentage (not the absolute number) of marine animal genera represented by those that are readily fossilized becoming extinct during any given time interval is called the genus extinction intensity.

Evolution
Def.
 * 1) a "turning (rolling or revolving) motion" or
 * 2) a "single turn of a coil"

is called a volution.

Def. "gradual directional change especially one leading to a more advanced or complex form" is called evolution.

Def. "[t]he change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations" is called evolution.

Def. any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations is called evolution.

Modern evolutionary synthesis: "Other previously dominant groups of organisms that also became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous are many marine taxa, such as most nautiloids and the ammonities, both of whom had been previously highly successful organisms." Page 320 of the 2001 book: "Ernst Mayr is the biologist largely responsible for shaping the modern synthesis of genetics and evolutionary theory."

"The central problem with the synthesis is its failure to show (or to provide distinct signs) that natural selection of random mutations could account for observed levels of adaptation."

Weak forces
On page 212 of a 1944 book by Simpson is "[i]n the history of life it is a striking fact that major changes in the taxonomic groups occupying various ecological positions do not, as a rule, result from direct competition of the groups concerned in each case and the survival of the fittest, as most students would assume a priori. On the contrary, the usual sequence is for one dominant group to die out, leaving the zone empty, before the other group becomes abundant." "Simpson noted that major extinctions provide opportunities (space, ecological niches, etc.) for later diversification by the survivors."

Def.
 * 1) a "state of nature; conformity to nature",
 * 2) the "doctrine that denies a supernatural agency in the miracles and revelations recorded in the Bible, and in spiritual influences",
 * 3) any "system of philosophy which refers the phenomena of nature as a blind force or forces acting necessarily or according to fixed laws, excluding origination or direction by a will",
 * 4) a "doctrine which denies a strong separation between scientific and philosophic methodologies and/or topics", or
 * 5) a "movement in theatre, film, and literature that seeks to replicate a believable everyday reality, as opposed to such movements as Romanticism or Surrealism, in which subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic, or even supernatural treatment"

is called naturalism.

Meteors
Some objects seem to wander around in the night sky relative to many of the visual points of light. At least one occasionally is present in the early morning before sunrise as the Morning Star and after sunset as the Evening Star, the planet Venus. These wanderers and related objects are subjects for observational astronomy and some are meteors.

“The earth was chaotic and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep; and God’s wind moved upon the face of the fluid.” Book of Genesis.

“Nor is this world inhabited by man the first of things earthly created by God. He made several worlds before ours, but he destroyed them all.”

Liquid objects
"According to another tradition, several heavens were created, seven in fact. Also seven earths were created: the most removed being the seventh Erez, followed by the sixth Adamah, the fifth Arka, the fourth Harabbah, the third Yabbashah, the second Tebel and our own land called Heled, and like the others, it is separated from the foregoing by abyss, chaos, and waters.(2)"

Rocky objects
Marrella, an example of which is shown in the image at the right, is the most abundant Burgess Shale organism.

Apparently, not even one modern species has been found to occur in the Burgess Shale.

"[In Aysheaia we have a form living under entirely different ecological conditions from those of the modern species, and at a very remote time, yet having an external appearance, which in life must have been extraordinarily similar to that of the living representatives of the group (1931, p. 18).] In spite of some recent contrary opinions, it appears that the head of the Middle Cambrian onychophora Aysheaia is equivalent in its segmentation to the embryo of the modern member of the group such as Peripatopsis capensis."

Wanderers
"The ages of the past, between the successive catastrophes, are called in many diverse sources “sun ages.” I have tried to show why this designation is meaningful.(1) But the ancients also maintained that the successive ages were initiated by planets: [Eretz,] Moon [Adamah], Saturn [Arka], Mercury [Harabah], Jupiter [Yabbashah], Venus [Tevel], Mars [Heled]. Therefore the sun-ages could also have been called planet ages."

An alternative succession may be Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, then Jupiter. The number of these ages or likely catastrophes was usually seven or less that have occurred and include the current period.

Mercury
"The sequence of events as presented in the Book of Genesis places the catastrophe of Babel [Harabbah] next after the Deluge."

"It can be assumed with a fair amount of probability that the planet that caused the disturbances described above was the planet Mercury, the Greek Hermes, the Babylonian Nebo."

Venus
"Ancient Mexican records give the order of the occurrences. The sun was attacked by Quetzal-cohuatl; after the disappearance of this serpent-shaped heavenly body, the sun refused to shine, and during four days the world was deprived of its light; a great many people died at that time [Tebel]. Thereafter, the snakelike body transformed itself into a great star. The star retained the name of Quetzal-cohuatl [Quetzal-coatl]. This great and brilliant star appeared for the first time in the east.1 Quetzal-cohuatl is the well-know name of the planet Venus.2"

Earth
"The Earth underwent re-shaping: six consecutive remouldings. Heaven and Earth were changed in every catastrophe. Six times the Earth was rebuilt—without entire extirpation of life on it, but with major catastrophes. Six ages have passed into the great beyond; this is the seventh creation, the time in which we live."

“The seven heavens form a unity, the seven kinds of earth form a unity, and the heavens and the earth together also form a unity.”

“The Universe is called by the Burmas Logha, which signifies successive destruction and reproduction.... The Burma writings do not conceive of one world, but of an infinite number, one constantly succeeding another; so that when one is destroyed, another of the same form and structure arises....”

Moon
"Many traditions persist that at some time in the past [Adamah] the Moon was much brighter than it is now, and larger in appearance than the Sun."

Mars
"If the commotion of the days of Uzziah [Heled] was of global character and was brought about by an extraterrestrial agent [Mars], it must have caused some disturbance in the motion of the earth on its axis and along its orbit. Such a disturbance would have made the old calendar obsolete and would have required the introduction of a new calendar."

Jupiter
"The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah took place in historical times [Yabbashah], according to my scheme in a catastrophe which caused also the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt. The geologists refer the upheaval which tore Syria in two to the end of the Tertiary period—long before human history began."

Saturn
"All that we have considered up to now indicates that Saturn [Arka] once exploded in a nova-like burst of light. The date of this event I would be hard-put to specify, even approximately, but possibly it took place about ten thousand years ago. The solar system and reaches beyond it were illuminated by the exploded star, and in a matter of a week the Earth was enveloped in waters of Saturnian origin."

Uranus
"The ancients’ religions and mythology speak for their knowledge of Uranus; the dynasty of gods had Uranus followed by Saturn, and the latter by Jupiter. In the clear sky of Babylonia the planet Uranus could have been observed by an unaided eye; but since it was known as a deposed deity, it would seem that at some later time the planet lost much of its brightness."

"The age of Uranus [Erez] preceded the age of Saturn; it came to an end with the “removal” of Uranus by Saturn. Saturn is said to have emasculated his father Uranus.(2) Behind this story there might have been a scene in the sky. In one theory of the origin of the solar system a sideswiping star tears out from the sun a long filament of gaseous material. Similarly Saturn may at one time have “emasculated” Uranus—Saturn was represented by the Romans with a sickle in his hands."

Neptune
Neptune is never visible to the naked eye, having a brightness between magnitudes +7.7 and +8.0.

Neptune was the Roman god of water and the sea in Roman mythology and religion. He is the counterpart of the Greek god Poseidon. In the [interpretatio graeca] Greek-influenced tradition, Neptune was the brother of Jupiter [Italic Neptune has been securely identified as a god of freshwater sources as well as the sea.]

“Syncretic traces of a Lybian/Punic agrarian god of fresh water sources, with the epithet Frugifer, "fruit-bearer"; have been enumerated”.

The German scholar H. Petersmann proposed an etymology from IE rootstem *nebh- related to clouds and foggs. The concept would be close to that expressed in the name of Greek god Uranus.

Indo-European people, having no direct knowledge of the sea as they originated from inland areas, reused the theology of a deity originally either chthonic or wielding power over inland freshwaters as the god of the sea. This feature has been preserved particularly well in the case of Neptune who was definitely a god of springs, lakes and rivers before becoming also a god of the sea, as is testified by the numerous findings of inscriptions mentioning him in the proximity of such locations. Servius the grammarian also explicitly states Neptune is in charge of all the rivers, springs and waters.

Locations on Earth
But asteroid impacts, though rare, occur once in a while, over very large areas, at aperiodic intervals such as the Chicxulub crater. Most scientists agree that this impact is the cause of the Cretatious-Tertiary Extinction, 65 million years ago (Ma), that marked the sudden extinction of the dinosaurs and the majority of life then on Earth. This shaded relief image of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula shows a subtle, but unmistakable, indication of the Chicxulub impact crater.

Prehistory
The prehistory period dates from around 7 x 106 b2k to about 7,000 b2k.

Saturn has been known since prehistoric times.

Ancient history
The ancient history period dates from around 8,000 to 3,000 b2k.

Apparently 5102 b2k (before the year 2000.0), -3102 or 3102 BC, is the historical year assigned to a Hindu table of planets that does include the classical planet Saturn. "Babylonian astronomy, too, had a four-planet system. In ancient prayers the planets Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, and Mercury are invoked; ... and one speaks of "the four-planet system of the ancient astronomers of Babylonia." "

Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.

Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the earth star.

In ancient Hebrew, Saturn is called 'Shabbathai'. Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is Agiel (layga) and its spirit (darker aspect) is Zazel (lzaz).

In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu and Malay, its name is 'Zuhal'.

Anu
Anu may be an early Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian name for Saturn.

"An, the oldest and highest of the Sumero-Babylonian gods, whose primordial age was "the year of abundance," signified Saturn, according to Jensen.6"

Baal-hamon
The potential cruelty of Saturn was enhanced by his identification with Cronus, known for devouring his own children. He was thus equated with the Carthaginian god Ba'al Hammon, to whom children were supposedly sacrificed. Saturn was also among the gods the Romans equated with Yahweh, whose Sabbath (on Saturday) he shared as his holy day.

Modern scholars identify Baal-hamon variously with the Northwest Semitic god El or with Dagon.

Ancient Greek writers identified him with the Titan Cronus. In ancient Rome, he was identified with Saturn.

Brahma
The Hindu Brahma, Yama, Vishnu, and Manu converge as representatives of a solitary supreme god and creator governing a lost paradise as the first king, setting forth the first moral codes, and imparting to mankind the fundamentals of civilization.

Cronus
The Greeks had made the outermost planet sacred to Cronus, and the Romans followed suit.

El
In the Canaanite religion, or Levantine religion as a whole, Ēl or Il was the supreme god, the father of humankind and all creatures and the husband of the goddess Asherah as recorded in the clay tablets of Ugarit ... The noun ʾēl was found at the top of a list of gods as the "Ancient of gods" or the "Father of all gods", in the ruins of the royal archive of the Ebla civilization, in the archaeological site of Tell Mardikh in Syria dated to 2300 BC.

Ēl (rendered Elus or called by his standard Greek counterpart Cronus) is not the creator god or first god. Ēl is rather the son of Sky and Earth.

Joseph Fontenrose first demonstrated that, whatever their deep origins, at Ugarit Dagon was identified with El,

Osiris
Osiris is the mythological father of the god Horus, whose conception is described in the Osiris myth, a central myth in ancient Egyptian belief. The myth described Osiris as having been killed by his brother Seth, who wanted Osiris' throne. Isis joined the fragmented pieces of Osiris, but the only body part missing was the phallus. Isis fashioned a golden phallus, and briefly brought Osiris back to life by use of a spell that she learned from [Geb] her father. This spell gave her time to become pregnant by Osiris before he again died. Isis later gave birth to Horus. As such, since Horus was born after Osiris' resurrection, Horus became thought of as a representation of new beginnings and the vanquisher of the evil Set.

"The Phoenician El - Saturn - has four eyes, as does the Orphic Kronos (Saturn)."

"The Chinese Yellow Emperor Huang-ti--identified as Saturn--is also four-eyed.74"

"Osiris, as the Ram of Mendes, is the god of "four faces on one neck."62"

Romulus
Def. in Roman mythology, "[t]he legendary founder of Rome and the twin brother of Remus" is called Romulus.

"Ioannes the Lydian, writing in the sixth century on the usage of his native town, says: "Our own Philadelpheia still preserves a trace of the ancient belief. On the first day of the month (sc. January) there goes in procession no less a personage than Janus himself, dressed up in a two-faced mask, and people call him Saturnus, identifying him with Kronos2.

"The twins [Romulus and Remus], as in the case of Janus, attach themselves to the Universal Monarch as his two faces, looking in opposite directions."

Archeologists "working in the ruins of the ancient forum in Rome discovered what appeared to be the very shrine to Romulus, dating back 2,600 years, that so many people had written about. They decided to dig deeper and, on Friday, presented what is not quite a tomb—there are no bones— but instead a sarcophagus and altar that they believe was built as a shrine to Rome’s legendary founder."

"This is not the tomb of Romulus per se. It is a place of memory where the cult of Romulus was celebrated."

"Pagan rituals and sacrifices of all kinds were likely held at this site over the many centuries, based on preliminary evidence found, which backs up the theory that this was an historically important shrine. The lack of bones could be because, according to one version of events, Romulus was attacked and dismembered by senators of the time, meaning the body was not intact to be buried. Another version is that Romulus “ascended into heaven,” leaving no earthly remains."

"A lack of human remains makes it impossible to verify just who the tomb honors. But as sensational as it might seem to point to the funerary shrine of a mythical legend, the site needed further exploration before verifying or discounting any theories. You need to let us do our work, to continue excavating and discover more about this entire section of the Roman Forum. The suggestion that this is linked to Romulus is supported in literary documents, but only further study will reveal the truth."

"This is a great relief that this ruin is still intact and was not destroyed by work done during the Fascist era. Now we need time to tell the full story."

Saturnus
“In ancient Roman mythology, the god Saturnus, from which the planet takes its name, was the god of agriculture. The Romans considered Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus.

The Latins considered Saturn the predecessor of Jupiter. Saturn reigned in Latium during a mythical Golden Age reenacted every year at the festival of Saturnalia. Saturn also retained primacy in matters of agriculture and money. Unlike the Greek tradition of Cronus and Zeus, the usurpation of Saturn as king of the gods by Jupiter was not viewed by the Latins as violent or hostile; Saturn continued to be revered in his temple at the foot of the Capitol Hill, which maintained the alternative name Saturnius into the time of Varro.

Late prehistory
Late prehistory roughly coincides with the late or upper paleolithic between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene), with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of agriculture.

Ouranos
“Uranus was the Sky in Greek mythology, which was thought to be dominated by the combined powers of the Sun and Mars.

“Uranus ..., Ouranos meaning "sky" or "heaven") was the primal Greek god personifying the sky. His equivalent in Roman mythology was Caelus. In Ancient Greek literature, Uranus or Father Sky was the son and husband of Gaia, Mother Earth. According to Hesiod's Theogony, Uranus was conceived by Gaia alone, but other sources cite Aether as his father.

Caelus
Caelus or Coelus was a primal god of the sky in Roman myth and theology, iconography, and literature (compare caelum, the Latin word for "sky" or "the heavens", hence English "celestial").

“The name of Caelus indicates that he was the Roman counterpart of the Greek god Uranus, who was of major importance in the theogonies of the Greeks. Varro couples him with Terra (Earth) as pater and mater (father and mother), and says that they are "great deities" (dei magni) in the theology of the mysteries at Samothrace.

According to Cicero and Hyginus, Caelus was the son of Aether and Dies ("Day" or "Daylight"). Caelus and Dies were in this tradition the parents of Mercury. Caelus was the father with Hecate of the distinctively Roman god Janus, as well as of Saturn and Ops. Caelus was also the father of one of the three forms of Jupiter, the other two fathers being Aether and Saturn.

Sciences
"A hiatus of about 8 m.y. separates Late Cretaceous from Tertiary rocks in the [San Juan] Basin. Most of the missing strata are from the Maastrichtian Stage. The unconformity is overlain by the Ojo Alamo Sandstone in the south and underlain by the Kirtland or Fruitland Formation at most other places in the basin."

The right femur of the hadrosaurian dinosaur is shown at left where the bone is in place in A and after excavation, preparation, and mounting in B.

"[P]ollen was the more accurate age indicator and therefore the Ojo Alamo dinosaurs were Paleocene in age. The conclusion was tentative because Paleocene pollen nowhere occurred at exactly the same locality as dinosaur bone. Paleocene pollen is present, however, in the Ojo Alamo near Barrel Spring, within one mile of the Alamo Wash bone locality [...]."

Hypotheses

 * 1) It is possible that at some point in hominin existence, the Sun with the Earth in orbit around it was in a binary system with a second star.
 * 2) With the orbit of the Earth around the Sun being similar to what it is now, the axial tilt of the Earth being similar to what it is now, the Earth-Sun system may in turn have been in such an orbit around the second, probably smaller star, that this star was a northern hemisphere pole star for the Earth.
 * 3) Any nova-like pulses from the secondary star may have caused widespread death and destruction of life on Earth.
 * 4) Hominins in the northern hemisphere or with empires overlapping the equator into the northern hemisphere may have regarded the source of emanations they could see that killed many as one or more deities.
 * 5) Survivors who saw phenomena headed for Earth from the secondary star may have come to think of themselves as "chosen" for survival by this deity or deities.
 * 6) The approximate number of these major destructive events was probably six or seven.
 * 7) Peoples or hominins living in the southern hemisphere would have been spiritual but not have deities in the sky they could see or worship.
 * 8) In its orbit around the galaxy, the Sun slowly caught up to a smaller star, or it caught up to the Sun, the approach was such that for thousands and perhaps millions of years the smaller star was a north pole star for the Earth.

Equatorials
Studies of human mitochondrial DNA suggest that all humans share common ancestors from Africa, originated in the southwestern regions near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola at the approximate coordinates 12.5° E, 17.5°S with a divergence in the migration path around 37.5°E, 22.5°N near the Red Sea.

A particular haplogroup of DNA, haplogroup L2, evolved between 87,000 and 107,000 years ago or approx. 90,000 YBP. Its age and widespread distribution and diversity across the continent makes its exact origin point within Africa difficult to trace with any confidence, however an origin for several L2 groups in West or Central Africa seems likely, with the highest diversity in West Africa. Most of its subclades are largely confined to West and western-Central Africa.

Africans bearing the E-V38 (E1b1a) likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west, approximately 19,000 years ago. E-M2 (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.

Due to the large numbers of West Africans enslaved in the Atlantic slave trade, most African Americans are likely to have mixed ancestry from different regions of western Africa. 60% of African-Americans (in the study) were of the E1b1a haplogroup, within which 22.9% were particularly of the E-M2 haplogroup; they also possessed numerous Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) (e.g., U175, U209, U181, U290, U174, U186, and U247).

Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states. In contrast to most of Central, Southern and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by Bantu-speaking peoples.

Bingerville (13,000 BP) and Iwo-Eleru (11,000 BP) are the most early microlithic industries in West Africa.

In the 10th millennium BCE, there was development in pyrotechnics and employment of subsistence strategy at Ounjougou. Prior to 9400 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers used matured ceramic technology (e.g., pots) in their economy to cook their grain (e.g., Digitaria exilis).

During the Holocene, the Green Sahara underwent the process of becoming a desert and became the Sahara; this occurrence may have contributed to the start of domesticating field crops. Akin to the Fertile Crescent of the Near East, the Niger River region of West Africa served as a cradle for field crop domestication and agriculture in Africa. Yams, rice, sorghum. Pearl millet, and cowpea are field crops that originate in Africa. Taming of yams (e.g., D. praehensilis) likely began in the basin of the Niger River between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria (e.g., northern Benin). Taming of rice (e.g., Oryza glaberrima) likely began in the Inner Niger Delta region of Mali. Taming of pearl millet (e.g., Cenchrus americanus) likely began in the region of northern Mali and Mauritania. Taming of cowpeas likely began in the region of northern Ghana.

In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in expanding rainforest and wooded savannah from Senegal to Cameroon. Between 9000 and 5000 BCE, Niger–Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm. Two seed plants, black-eyed peas and voandzeia (African groundnuts) were domesticated, followed by okra and kola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.

During the Green Sahara, at Gobero, there were two groups: the Kiffian and the Tenerian. The Kiffian were hunters who lived approximately 8,000-10.000 years ago. The Tenerian hunted, fished, and herded cattle approximately 4,500-7,000 years ago.

In the steppes and savannah of the Sahara and Sahel, the Nilo-Saharan speakers started to collect and domesticate wild millet and sorghum between 8000 and 6000 BCE. Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication.

Between 8000 BCE and 5000 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers independently developed agriculture (e.g., yams - Dioscorea). Prior to 5000 BCE, their agricultural practices were spread throughout the woodland savanna, and afterward, were introduced southward into the West African rainforest belt.

By 8000 BP, canoes (e.g., Dufuna canoe) were being utilized in West Africa. While some Niger-Congo speakers may have utilized bows and arrows to hunt, other Niger-Congo speakers (e.g., Atlantic, Bak, Kru, Kwa, Ịjọ), who diverged from the hunters, may have utilized canoes to search for resources in river systems.

Due to the complexity of pottery patterns and vastness of the area, where interactions between peoples occurred during the mid-Holocene, specifying which linguistic group (e.g., Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, Afroasiatic) is the first settling population is challenging. In any case, pottery in Gajiganna shares cultural similarity, across nearby areas of the southern Sahara, most of all, with northwestern Niger and northwestern Sudan. Pottery from sites, dated to the second millennium BCE, close to the Mandara Mountains in Cameroon and Nigeria, also share affinity with the ceramics in Gajiganna.

By 6300 BP, pottery began to appear in Konduga. Occurring in the era of Mega Lake Chad, the pottery was decorated in the custom of Saharan ceramics.

Before Green Sahara (5,500 BP), Kordofanian hunters may have traversed from West Africa, along what is now the Wadi Howar, into the Nuba Hills.

The Korounkorokalé rockshelter was continually dwelled in by isolated Sub-Saharan Africans who kept a quartz microlithic tradition for a minimum of 5000 years and hunter-gatherer practices up until the mid to late first millennium CE (as asserted by MacDonald); the “little peoples” identified in the oral history of modern savanna residents when they first arrived in the area were used in reference to these Sub-Saharan Africans.

In the Aïr Mountains, present-day Niger, copper was smelted independently of developments in the Nile Valley between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process used was not well developed, indicating that it was not brought from outside the region; it became more mature by about 1500 BC.

In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred.

In the western Sahel, the rise of settled communities was largely the result of domestication of millet and sorghum. Archaeology points to sizeable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE. Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans-Saharan trade, in response to the opportunities afforded by north-south diversity in ecosystems across deserts, grasslands, and forests. The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads. The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands and from fishermen on the Niger River. The forest dwellers provided furs and meat.

Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were prominent among the early urban centres, dated to 2000 BCE, in present-day Mauritania. About 500 stone settlements littered the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples, who, according to their tradition, originate from Aswan, Egypt, were responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BCE, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. From the type of architecture and pottery, it is believed that Tichit was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Old Jenne (Djenne) began to be settled around 300 BCE, producing iron and with sizeable population, evidenced in crowded cemeteries. Living structures were made of sun-dried mud. By 250 BCE, Jenne was a large, thriving market town.

Two migrations occurred, from first millennium BCE to first millennium CE, likely due to aridification, resulting in significant contributions being made to the overall protohistoric peopling of the Niger Bend. One migration originated from the complex societies (e.g., Dhar Tichitt) of Mauritania and the other migration occurred with the iron metallurgists from Niger. Peoples of the Niger Bend practiced “fishing, hunting, herding, agriculture, iron metallurgy, interregional (or even long-distance) commerce, and sometimes-hierarchical social organization.”

Southern hemisphere
Botswana is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with up to 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast.

Archaeological digs have shown that hominids have lived in Botswana for around two million years. Stone tools and fauna remains have shown that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago.

Evidence left by modern humans such as cave paintings are about 73,000 years old.

The original inhabitants of southern Africa were the Bushmen (San people) and Khoi peoples. Both speak Khoisan languages and hunted, gathered, and traded over long distances. When cattle were first introduced about 2000 years ago into southern Africa, pastoralism became a major feature of the economy, since the region had large grasslands free of tsetse fly.

The endonyms used by the San themselves refer to their individual nations, including the ǃKung people, ǃKung (!Xuun) (subdivisions ǂKx'ao-ǁ'ae, ǂKx'ao-ǁ'ae (Auen), Ju,'hoan dialect, Ju 'hoan, etc.) the Tuu (subdivisions ǀXam language|, Xam, Nǁng language, Nusan (Nǀu), ǂKhomani, etc.) and Khoe languages, Tshu–Khwe] groups such as the Khwe language, Khwe (Khoi, Kxoe), ǂAakhoe dialect, Haiǁom, Naro language, Naro, Tshwa language, Tsoa, Gǁana language, Gǁana (Gana) and Gǀui dialect, Gǀu (Gwi).

Cagn is said to have created the moon which holds special significance to the San people; the phase of the moon dictated when rainmaking rituals were to be performed.

"[T]he notions of mantis [/Kaggen or Cagn ]and moon worship [by the Nharo, Bushmen, or San people] were European fabrications". Cagn is said to have created the moon. But, if these gods are European fabrications either by the San people for the Europeans, or by the Europeans of the San, then it may be unlikely that /Kaggen created the Moon. Or, perhaps that the Mantis created the Moon but neither, nor the Sun, are or were worshipped by the San.

It is unclear when Bantu-speaking peoples first moved into the country from the north, although AD 600 seems to be a consensus estimate. In that era, the ancestors of the modern-day Kalanga moved into what is now the north-eastern areas of the country. These proto-Kalanga were closely connected to states in Zimbabwe as well as to the Mapungubwe state. These states, located outside of current Botswana's borders, appear to have kept massive cattle herds in what is now the Central District--apparently at numbers approaching modern cattle density.

This massive cattle-raising complex prospered until 1300 AD or so, and seems to have regressed following the collapse of Mapungubwe. During this era, the first Tswana-speaking groups, the Bakgalagadi, moved into the southern areas of the Kalahari. All these various peoples were connected to trade routes that ran via the Limpopo River to the Indian Ocean, and trade goods from Asia such as beads made their way to Botswana most likely in exchange for ivory, gold, and rhinoceros horn.

title: Draft:Original research/Creationism


text:
User:S.A.A.RAJESWARMHURGAIYA

Hi,

I am S.A.A.RAJESWAR MHURGAIYA, SEO and IM Specialist from India.

I formerly owned elinkbox, work force social and pixiraid, now altogether we have transformed into Snipper Blogging. I am basically creative and opt to learn more. Enjoy learning and writing

new techniques. Also i love open-source, free to learn, wikipedia.org etc. I hope i can do my part by contributing the wikipedia.org. Currently woking with Smackcoders.

I wish to start a free SEO, social medial manager and Internet marketing training through wikiversity.

--Mhurgaiya 12:56, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:S.A.A.RAJESWARMHURGAIYA


text:
Draft talk:Original research/Creationism

This page was created to study the effects of Creationism, and the threats against this belief. Please add to this topic any material or information pertaining to the subjetc so that we can start a field of study on these. Its major goal is to compare and share theories between the different viewpoints ie creationism, evolution, new age etc.
 * "Creationism.....this belief" <-- If people just believe, without objectively verifiable evidence, that something was created by a deity, then the "threats against this belief" would seem to center on the idea that beliefs should either be supported by evidence or abandoned. Would you place Topic:Scientology in the category "new age"? --JWSchmidt 17:31, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

Propose Deletion
While the article itself doesn't provide much in the way of educational objectives, there is a good bit of other creationism content around Wikiversity that could be brought together into a learning project of some type. Also, this page has several inbound links that suggest a speedy deletion may be too hasty. Proposing deletion instead to give time to move or build something out of this before it is deleted. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 02:39, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Thanks for taking a look at this and for commenting. I've looked at the resources listed in the Category:Intelligent Design and most haven't been touched since 2010, except for a comment by Abd. Either the homeschoolers never spent much time at Wikiversity, or never made much of an impact. I'm not very familiar with the Creationism movement but would be willing to put these into something of a learning project if there's any interest. --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 03:21, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * That would work. Based on the Wikipedia entries, the overall project would be creationism, of which intelligent design is a form.  I don't know that we need to do too much with it beyond collecting it, moving the Science teaching materials for creationism page to a subpage of the project, etc., and some type of reference to evolution as the alternative, scientific understanding.  It doesn't appear as though naturalism, as indicated in the current article, is the appropriate alternative view.  -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 12:18, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Okay, I'll give it a shot by putting these resources under Creationism, with maybe a bit of scholastic polish. --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 22:31, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

Popularity
23 December 2019
 * Page views for last 30 days: 22. --Marshallsumter (discuss • contribs) 17:37, 23 December 2019 (UTC)

Wikiversity:Statistics/2019/07
 * 662. 352 - Draft:Creationism


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File:1That was a great movie.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:1That was a great movie.ogg


text:
File:2I did not understand.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:2I did not understand.ogg


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File:3What is that.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:3What is that.ogg


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File:4How can anyone.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:4How can anyone.ogg


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File:5Hum.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:5Hum.ogg


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File:6What computer home.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:6What computer home.ogg


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File:7Macintosh.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:7Macintosh.ogg


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File:8Computer at work.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:8Computer at work.ogg


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File:9Hum.ogg

Used with the WikiU Film School Lesson on how to do Animatic Dialog Recording.

title: File:9Hum.ogg


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Adobe Photoshop/Using Keyboard Shortcuts

Basic Keyboard Shortcuts

SHORTCUT KEYS - TOOLS

A	-	PATH / DIRECT SELECTION

B	-	BRUSH / PENCIL / COLOUR REPLACEMENT

C	-	CROP

D	-	DEFAULT COLOUR

E	-	ERASER

F	-	CYCLE SCREEN MODE

G	-	GRADIENT / PAINT BUCKET

H / Space bar	-	HAND TOOL

I	-	EYE DROPPER / MEASURMENT TOOL

J	-	PATCH / RED EYE

K	-	SLICE

L	-	LASSO

M	-	MARQUEE

N	-	NOTES / AUDIO

O	-	BURN / SPONGE

P	-	PEN

Q	-	QUICK MASK OR STANDARD MODE

R	-	SHARPEN / SMUDGE

S	-	STAMP / PATTERN / CLONE

T	-	TYPE TOOL

U	-	SHAPE TOOL

V	-	MOVE TOOL

W	-	MAGIC WAND TOOL

X	-	CLOUR CHANGE

Y	-	BRUSH TOOL

Z	-	ZOOM

Ctrl+Space 	-	ZOOM IN

Alt+Space	-	ZOOM OUT


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User talk:Einsmo

Hello Einsmo, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. When leaving comments for others to read, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone keep track of who is writing messages. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To help you get started:
 * Take a guided tour and learn how to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research pages; and
 * Read and help develop our community policies.

Also, don't forget to experiment with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 17:14, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Einsmo


text:
Introduction to Robotics/Project Ideas

This page is going to list some possible projects that students can do with BoeBots and various additions (such as sensors and actuators). Project ideas will be broken down into three categories: Class projects (for all students in a class), Group projects (for small teams of students) and individual projects. It will be up to the instructor to determine whether students can select their own ideas, or whether the projects will be assigned.

Follow the leader
Each student or each group of students must use Infrared sensors to develop a tracking robot. The robot must be able to track and follow a moving target. The professor will program a robot to move slowly but randomly around a small course. All the robots of the students will be lined up behind the teacher's robot. The test is to see if all the other BoeBots can follow the robot in front of them, creating a robotic conga-line.

Wired Controller
Use a cheap wired controller, such as a mouse, a keyboard, a joystick, or a game controller to create a "remote" for the BoeBot. BoeBot should be able to go forward, backward, left, or right on command. If additional buttons are available, you can use them to control actuators, or to alter the robot's speed.

Maze Navigation
Using a sensor such as an ultrasonic sensor, create a robot that can navigate a maze. The paths in the maze should all be wide enough so that the robot can easily fit down any path. Robot should navigate the maze using sensor data, not preprogrammed maps.

title: Introduction to Robotics/Project Ideas


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User:Slgant

Hello! My interest in participating in Wikiversity is for my students at Hellgate High School, where I teach English (9-12) in Missoula Montana. Our school website is at

Learning Goals:
1. Promoting reading, writing, and performing poetry 2. Participation in the Bloom Clock Project 3. Setting up Book Group Discussions for Freshmen and Seniors 4. Showing students how to set up their own wikis 5. Providing poetry links for other teachers to use

Slgant 17:45, 19 July 2007 (UTC) Shaun Gant

title: User:Slgant


text:
User talk:Slgant

Hello Slgant, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. When leaving comments for others to read, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone keep track of who is writing messages. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To help you get started:
 * Take a guided tour and learn how to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research pages; and
 * Read and help develop our community policies.

Also, don't forget to experiment with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 17:54, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Slgant


text:
User:MaxP~enwikiversity

Hello world!

title: User:MaxP~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:MaxP~enwikiversity

Hello MaxP, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. When leaving comments for others to read, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone keep track of who is writing messages. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To help you get started:
 * Take a guided tour and learn how to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research pages; and
 * Read and help develop our community policies.

Also, don't forget to experiment with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --HappyCamper 18:10, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called MaxP. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name MaxP~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:43, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:15, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:MaxP~enwikiversity


text: Introduction to Robotics/Control Flow/Assignment


text:
Introduction to Robotics/Control Flow/Lab/Teachers

The final result will be a program that can follow a complicated path without needing to be entirely reprogrammed. We will use this program, or modified versions of it in later labs. Ensure that all students properly save their files and notes so that they can be used later. If necessary, ask your students for a digital copy (either saved on a disk, or sent to you via email) for safekeeping.

Pre-Lab Preparation

 * 1) Ensure that all the students have their BoeBots.
 * 2) Check that all the computers in the lab are operational, turned on, and have the Basic Stamp software loaded on them
 * 3) Draw a 12-foot straight line on the ground, using chalk or tape for the robots to follow.

Lab Assignment
The students are going to do many exercises that are the same from the previous lab, but using different method. It is important that when you check an accomplishment, that you look at the code to make sure that the students used the correct techniques. If the student uses the wrong code techniques, you can say "this is good, but I want to see if you understand the other techniques".

Here is a checklist, you can print out a copy for each group and check them off individually as they complete tasks.

Checklist
For the last item, Check the code to ensure that the student has not deleted or modified the lines from the provided code, but instead that the student has only added new code to make the robot work.


text:
User:Guitargodconnor

Hello, my name is Connor and I am an aspiring physicist/musician. I mainly do minor edits, so if you need major help with something, I might not be the best choice. I try my best to give correct, concise and useful information, so please correct me if I am wrong.

A little more about me

Music
I prefer rock, I am quite partial to to anything from 60s to 90s. I find today's music is a little disorganized. I also enjoy old country, 60s pop, Mississippi blues, Zydeco jazz, and 80s hip hop.

Movies
Not much of a movie buff. If I like it, I like it. If I don't, I don't.

Books
I enjoy Dan Brown books, Brian Greene books, and Dantean literature.

Political/Religious Stands
I identify myself as a liberal democrat. I am very open minded, and I love a good debate/open-discussion. I identify myself as an open agnostic. I am very open. I do believe in the Big Bang. I also believe in reincarnation.

title: User:Guitargodconnor


text:
Template:Bcp3-categorizing

[[Category:Incomplete BCP pages|
 * Step Two: This page needs at least a minimal amount of information added to the bottom template. Please add the following:
 * Taxa level (answer "genus", "species" or "variety")
 * At least one color the plant may flower in (add "y" after all appropriate colors)
 * The Family name (if you don't know it, try looking it up on Wikipedia)
 * The Genus name

title: Template:Bcp3-categorizing


text:
BCP/Testing page

(this page is used or testing bloom clock templates)

title: BCP/Testing page


text:
User talk:Banerjee

Hello Banerjee, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. When leaving comments for others to read, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone keep track of who is writing messages. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To help you get started:
 * Take a guided tour and learn how to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research pages; and
 * Read and help develop our community policies.

Also, don't forget to experiment with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --HappyCamper 21:48, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

Thank you
Thank you for the formula boxYourdeadin 04:09, 19 August 2007 (UTC)Yourdeadin

Checkuser discussions
Hi Banerjee. If you can spare the time, your opinion would be greatly appreciated in the discussion currently going on about getting local Checkuser permissions here on Wikiversity. As an active user here, you're probably familiar with the "quiet, behind the scenes" way that we introduce new Custodians, but requesting Checkuser actually requires a "show of support" for the foundation stewards to give us this tool.

If you're not familiar with Checkuser, it's a tool we can use to find the source IP address (and/or alternate accounts) of vandals and others who mean harm to the project. This allows us to both "stop the problem at the source", or in some cases lets us know we can't stop something at the source if an IP is shared by one or more constructive contributors. --SB_Johnny | talk 11:01, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

Schematic diagrams
Hi. I've been reading through a lot of stuff you have contributed here. It's great stuff—thanks for all your hard work here.

You seem to have produced a lot of high-quality structural/mechanics diagrams for use in your resources. I'm curious what tools and techniques you use to create them. Is there any change you could explain a little?

Thanks—Papna 20:47, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your interest. The figures were mostly drawn using XFig and then saved as EPS files for my courses.  I used the ImageMagick "convert" utility to convert them into png or jpg for use in the wikis. -- Banerjee 21:14, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the information and again for all your hard work on Wikiversity. I installed and am playing with XFig. Hopefully I can get to a point where I can make diagrams as effective as yours. Papna 15:46, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Superplasticity
First of all, thank you for your great and very interesting work on FEM.

I'm interesting on superplasticity and FEM, and large deformations of superplastic plates and shells.

Can you help me? Thanks! --Accurimbono 20:47, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

Internal links
Hi, I am looking at Waves in composites and metamaterials/Point sources and EM vector potentials and wondering, why there are links like "Chew95". What did you wonted to place there? Refernceces? Citation? Other content?--Juandev 08:19, 2 January 2009 (UTC)

 * These pages were translated automatically from my lecture notes written in LaTeX. I haven't had the time to go through all the pages to correct errors and inconsistencies that remain.  I am hoping that you and others will be able to fill in the gaps when you discover them.  Chew95 refers to "Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media" by Weng Cho Chew .  Details of the references are given at the end of each lecture (in most cases). Banerjee 21:19, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

Introduction to Elasticity/Compatibility
Banerjee,

I came over your article on Introduction to Elasticity/Compatibility, which was interesting, especially I liked the short notion for the compatibility equation: $$\ \nabla\times\nabla\times\epsilon=0\ $$. However I am a bit confused about the definition of  $$\ \times\ $$. I thought it meant curl, but I am not sure how it works on the 2nd order elasticity tensor $$\epsilon$$. It is usually just defined between 3D vectors. Could you please specify this or give me a reference? Thanks

Files Missing Information
Thanks for uploading files to Wikiversity. All files must have source and license information to stay at Wikiversity. The following files are missing and/or License tags, and will be deleted if the missing information is not added. See Uploading files for more information.

 * File:NFE Homework1 2.jpg

MaintenanceBot (discuss • contribs) 15:19, 16 April 2016 (UTC)

title: User talk:Banerjee


text:
Template:Introduction to Robotics/Visual

[ Edit] — [ Print] — Visuals


text:
User talk:Guitargodconnor

Hello Guitargodconnor, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. When leaving comments for others to read, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone keep track of who is writing messages. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To help you get started:
 * Take a guided tour and learn how to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research pages; and
 * Read and help develop our community policies.

Also, don't forget to experiment with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --JWSchmidt 21:58, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Guitargodconnor


text:
Introduction to Robotics/Control Flow/Lecture/Teachers

Control Flow
A computer can only perform one instruction at a time. In a program, we write the instructions that we want the computer to perform, starting at the top of the page. The processor reads each instruction at a time and performs that action before moving down to the next instruction. The order in which instructions are performed is known as the control flow of a program. The regular control flow of a program is from the top of the code to the bottom. However, there are several tools we can use to change the control flow, so that the robot can do more complicated things. An example of this is the FOR / NEXT loops that we saw in the first lab. A FOR / NEXT loop allows us to move the control flow back to the top of a block of code, so that we can repeat it multiple times. There are other control flow tools that we can use, such as nested loops, branches, and subroutines.

FOR / NEXT Loops
We have already seen the FOR / NEXT loop in the previous lab, but what does it do? A FOR / NEXT loop uses a counter variable to count the number of loops. Each time we perform the loop, we increase the value of the counter variable. The NEXT keyword moves the control flow back to the top of the loop. If your loop does not have a NEXT keyword, it will not repeat. Once the counter variable reaches the TO value, the loop exits, and the control flow continues after the loop.

We can “nest” FOR / NEXT loops. “nesting” means that we put one loop inside another loop. When we nest FOR / NEXT loops, we need to use different counter-variables for each loop.

If we use the same counter-variable, the variable will be changing in the inner loop, and the outer loop will not work correctly:

How it Works
A FOR / NEXT loop does several things:

 * 1) Set the counter variable to the starting value.
 * 2) perform the instructions inside the loop.
 * 3) Increment the counter variable by 1.
 * 4) Check the counter variable. If it is equal to the TO value, the loop ends.
 * 5) If the counter variable is not equal to the TO value, go to #2

Labels and GOTO
Labels are like destination points. When we put a label in our code, we can jump to it using a GOTO statement.

Branches
Computers can compare numbers together, to determine if they are equal, greater then, or less then. Using an IF / THEN, we can jump to different locations if the comparison is true. If the comparison is not true, then the IF / THEN does nothing, and the control flow moves to the next instruction.

Subroutines
Subroutines allow us to reuse code so that we can avoid having to copy + paste things that need to be repeated.


text:
Introduction to Robotics/Control Flow/Lab/Students

Note
This lab will use the same constant values for "Left", "Right", "LeftStop", "RightStop", "EndLoop1", "Turn", and so on. In each program you write in this lab, you should define all these values.

FOR / NEXT Loops
To move our BoeBot in a square, we could write a nested FOR / NEXT loop. Remember to define your constants from the previous lab!

FOR MyTurns = 0 TO 4 FOR MyCount = 0 TO EndLoop6 PULSOUT Left, LeftStop + 50 PULSOUT Right, RightStop – 50 PAUSE 20 NEXT FOR MyCount = 0 TO Turn PULSOUT Left, LeftStop + 50 PULSOUT Right, RightStop + 50 PAUSE 20 NEXT NEXT

This code uses a loop to move the BoeBot forward, and a loop to turn the BoeBot to the right. The outer loop repeats this process 4 times. When nesting loops, you must use different counter variables.

Problems
Do these exercises and demonstrate them for your teacher.

 * 1) Use Nested FOR / NEXT loops to move the Robot along a square 3 times.
 * 2) Use nested FOR / NEXT loops to move the Robot in a zig-zag pattern (forward, right, forward, left, forward...)

Branches
Do these exercises and demonstrate them for your teacher.

 * 1) Use branches, labels, and GOTOS to make the robot move forward for 6 inches without using any FOR / NEXT loops. Is this easier or harder then using loops?
 * 2) Our BoeBot is lazy and needs to take a break. Write a program using both FOR / NEXT loops and IF / THEN branches that lets the BoeBot take a 1 second break every inch for 6 inches.

Subroutines
Write subroutines for each of the following manuevers:
 * Move forward 1 inch
 * Move forward 6 inches
 * Move forward 12 inches
 * Turn 90° to the right
 * Turn 90° to the left
 * Move in a 6 inch right-handed square
 * move in a 6 inch left-handed square

Use your subroutines from above to make your BoeBot move in the following patters:
 * 1) 3 laps of a square (either direction)
 * 2) A figure 8
 * 3) A 4-leaf clover shape, or a 2 × 2 checkerboard.

Demonstrate these patterns to your teacher.

Putting it Together
Our BoeBots don't always move in a straight line, and sometimes we need to correct them. The Instructor will draw a 12-foot straight line on the ground. Your job is to write a program that tries to follow this line, even if your robot does not move straight. Write the following program:

FOR MyCount = 0 TO EndLoop12 * 12 PULSOUT Left, LeftStop + 65 PULSOUT Right, RightStop + 50 PAUSE 20 NEXT RETURN Notice the "+ 65" on the left wheel, which means the BoeBot will not be moving in a straight line. Using Branches, loops, or subroutines (or a combination of all 3), try to find a way to follow the straight line that the Instructor has drawn. You may only add new code to this program, you may not delete or change the code that is given. You may add code inside the loop, after the loop or before the loop, but you may not change or delete these lines.

Demonstrate this for your instructor. The instructor may want to check your code to ensure that you have not changed or deleted any of the above code.


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Elasticity

Welcome to the Introduction to Elasticity learning project. Here you will find notes, assignments, and other useful information that will introduce you to this exciting subject.

Learning Project Summary
course in mechanics of materials]].
 * Project code:
 * Suggested Prerequisites:
 * [[Strength of materials|A
 * Partial differential equations.
 * Time investment: 6 months
 * Assessment suggestions:
 * Portal:Engineering and technology
 * School:Engineering
 * Department:Mechanical engineering
 * Stream:Applied mechanics
 * Subject Area:Elasticity
 * Level:First year graduate or higher

Objectives
The theory of elasticity deals with the deformations of elastic solids and has a well developed mathematical basis. This course will deal with applied engineering aspects of the theory and will include :

 * 1) Definition of stresses, strains, equilibrium and compatibility.
 * 2) Derivation of the governing equations.
 * 3) Solution of problems in plane stress, plane strain, torsion, bending.
 * 4) Introduction to three-dimensional problems.

Vectors and tensors will be discussed and used to enhance understanding of the theory where necessary. The course intends to provide the student with the tools and an understanding of the use of vectors and tensors in describing the deformation and motion of elastic solids, the formulation of the governing equations using physical laws, and the solution of simple linear elasticity problems using various analytical techniques.

Syllabus

 * 1) Vectors, tensors and index notation
 * 2) Vectors
 * 3) Tensors
 * 4) Coordinate transformations
 * 5) Sample homework problems
 * 6) * Example 1
 * 7) Kinematics - deformation, strain measures, strain-displacement relations
 * 8) Kinematics: Strains and Strain-displacement relations
 * 9) /Homogeneous and inhomogeneous displacements/
 * 10) /Rigid body motions/
 * 11) /Principal strains/
 * 12) /Antiplane shear/
 * 13) /Plane strain/
 * 14) Examples
 * 15) * Example 1
 * 16) * Example 2
 * 17) * Example 3
 * 18) * Example 4
 * 19) Kinetics - stress measures and stress-traction relations
 * 20) Kinetics: Stress-force relations
 * 21) /Principal stresses/
 * 22) /VonMises stress/
 * 23) /Plane stress/
 * 24) Examples
 * 25) * Example 1
 * 26) * Example 2
 * 27) * Example 3
 * 28) * Example 4
 * 29) Constitutive equations - Hookes's law, linearized elasticity
 * 30) Constitutive laws: Stress-strain relations
 * 31) Examples
 * 32) * Example 1
 * 33) * Example 2
 * 34) * Example 3
 * 35) * Example 4
 * 36) * Example 5
 * 37) * Example 6
 * 38) Equilibrium and compatibility, superposition, uniqueness
 * 39) /Equilibrium/
 * 40) * Example 1
 * 41) * Example 2
 * 42) * Example 3
 * 43) /Compatibility/
 * 44) * Example 1
 * 45) Two-dimensional solutions - Plane stress and plane strain, St. Venant's principle, Airy stress function, Beam bending, Edge dislocation
 * 46) /Antiplane shear/
 * 47) * Example 1
 * 48) Plane strain
 * 49) * Example 1
 * 50) /Plane stress/
 * 51) St Venant's principle
 * 52) Beam bending examples
 * 53) * Example 1
 * 54) /Stress functions/
 * 55) Airy stress function (without body force)
 * 56) * Example 1
 * 57) Using the Airy stress function
 * 58) /Polynomial solutions/
 * 59) /Fourier series solutions/
 * 60) Problems in polar coordinates
 * 61) Two-dimensional problems - Michell solution, hole in a plate
 * 62) Disk with a circular hole
 * 63) * Example
 * 64) ** Plate with a circular hole in shear
 * 65) General stress functions in polar coordinates (Michell's solution)
 * 66) * Example
 * 67) ** Plate with a circular hole in tension
 * 68) Two-dimensional problems with body forces - rotating beam, circular disk
 * 69) Airy stress function with body force
 * 70) Determining the body force potential
 * 71) Examples
 * 72) *Rotating rectangular beam
 * 73) */Spinning disk/
 * 74) Two-dimensional problems - William's solution, Wedges
 * 75) /Wedge with boundary tractions/
 * 76) Williams' asymptotic solution
 * 77) * Example 1: Axially loaded wedge
 * 78) /Flamant solution/
 * 79) * Example 1: Transversely loaded wedge

 * 1) Axisymmetric problems
 * 2) Torsion - Prandtl stress function, membrane analogy
 * 3) /Torsion of circular cylinders/
 * 4) /Torsion of noncircular cylinders/
 * 5) /Warping functions/
 * 6) * /Warping of circular cylinder/
 * 7) * /Warping of elliptical cylinder/
 * 8) * /Warping of rectangular cylinder/
 * 9) /Prandtl stress function/
 * 10) * /Solution strategy for Prandtl stress function/
 * 11) * Example 1: Torsion of triangular cylinder
 * 12) * Example 2: Torsion of thin walled open sections
 * 13) * Example 3: Torsion of thin walled closed sections
 * 14) * Example 4: Torsion of rectangular sections

 * 1) Special problems - contact, dislocations, antiplane shear

 * 1) Contact
 * 2) * /Concentrated force on half plane/
 * 3) * /Distributed force on half plane/
 * 4) * Indentation due to a flat punch
 * 5) * Hertz contact - indentation due to a cylinder
 * 6) Thermoelasticity
 * 7) Variational methods and energy principles
 * 8) Energy methods in elasticity
 * 9) /Minimizing a functional/
 * 10) Kinematically admissible displacement field
 * 11) Principle of minimum potential energy
 * 12) Statically admissible stress field
 * 13) Principle of minimum complementary energy
 * 14) More variational principles
 * 15) Hu-Washizu variational principle
 * 16) Hellinger-Reissner variational principle
 * 17) Approximate solutions
 * 18) /Rayleigh-Ritz method/
 * 19) Examples
 * 20) * Example 1
 * 21) * Example 2
 * 22) * Example 3: Torsion of a cylinder
 * 23) * Example 4: Bending of a cantilever beam

Quizzes and Exams

 * Quizzes
 * Sample quiz 1
 * Sample quiz 2
 * Sample quiz 3
 * Sample quiz 4
 * Sample quiz 5

 * Sample Midterm Exam
 * Sample midterm problem 1
 * Sample midterm problem 2
 * Sample midterm problem 3
 * Sample midterm problem 4
 * Sample midterm problem 5

 * Sample Final Exam
 * Sample final problem 1
 * Sample final problem 2
 * Sample final problem 3
 * Sample final problem 4
 * Sample final problem 5
 * Sample final problem 6

Textbooks

 * The Linearized Theory of Elasticity by William S. Slaughter, Publisher: Birkhauser, Boston; ISBN 0-8176-4117-3
 * Elasticity: Second Edition by J.R. Barber, Publisher: Kluwer Academic Publishers; ISBN 1-4020-0966-6; (2002)
 * Elasticity in Engineering Mechanics: Second Edition by Arthur P. Boresi and Ken P. Chong

Additional References

 * Elasticity
 * Journal of Elasticity by Springer Science+Business Media
 * Theory of Elasticity : Third Edition by S. P. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970. This book is an excellent reference of the theory of elasticity.
 * Theoretical Elasticity  by A. E. Green and W. Zerna, Dover Publications, New York, 1992. This is a paperback edition of the original. Students interested in a mathematical approach may wish to consult this book.
 * A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity : Fourth Edition by A. E. H. Love, Dover Publications, New York, 1944. Another older but excellent reference on elasticity.
 * Mechanics of Materials
 * Mechanics of Materials : Fifth Edition by J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 2001. An excellent introduction to mechanics of materials.
 * Mechanics of Materials : Second Edition by F. P. Beer, E. R. Johnston, Jr., and J. T. DeWolf, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1992. Another widely used introduction to mechanics of materials.
 * Vectors and Tensors
 * A Brief on Tensor Analysis : Second Edition by James G. Simmonds, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994. A brief introduction to tensors designed for undergraduates. A must read if you wish to introduce yourself to tensors.
 * Vectors, Tensors and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics by R. Aris, Dover Publications, New York, 1962. An excellent introduction to vectors and tensors.
 * Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids : Volume 1 : Second Edition by R. B. Bird, R. C. Armstrong, O. Hassager, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987. The appendix contains a brief introduction to tensors and their transformations in various coordinate systems.
 * Engineering Mathematics
 * Foundations of Applied Mathematics by Michael D. Greenberg, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984. A wonderful text on applied mathematics - great for Fourier series, complex variables and ordinary and partial differential equations.
 * Advanced Engineering Mathematics : Eighth Edition by Erwin Kreyszig, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1999. An updated version of the classic text on engineering mathematics.

Resources
Below is a list of potentially useful links to mathematical, symbolic computing and other resources.

 * Maths Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Mathematics dictionary from Wolfram Research
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Rebecca Brannon's tutorials on vectors, tensors and a lot more

 * Unix Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Unix tutorial from the Univeristy of Utah
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Unix tutorial from University of North Carolina

 * Emacs Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Emacs tutorial from the University of Chicago
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Emacs tutorial from Temple University

 * LaTeX Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Latex tutorial from UC Davis
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Latex tutorial from UMIST

 * Maple Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Maple tutorial from Indiana
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Maple tutorial from MapleSoft
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Maple tutorial from the University of Utah

 * Maxima Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] The Computer Algebra Program Maxima - a Tutorial
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] wxMaxima (a nice Maxima GUI) and Maxima tutorials list
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Minimal Maxima - tutorial

 * Matlab Tutorials
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Matlab tutorial from Michigan Tech
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Matlab tutorial from the University of British Columbia
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Matlab tutorial from the University of Waterloo
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Matlab tutorial from the University of Utah

Brief History of Experimental Linearized Elasticity
The historical information presented here has been taken from The experimental foundations of solid mechanics by J.F. Bell in Handbuch der Physiks, Volume VIa/1.

On Solid Mechanics: That this branch of physics remains a vital and provocative subject for fundamental study nearly three fourths of the way through the 20th century, is one of the lessons to be learned from perusing the 300 year history of the growth of the experimental foundations of solid mechanics since the inaugural measurements of Robert Hooke in the 17th century. J.F. Bell, 1973.

On Linear Stress-Strain Response For Small Deformations: ''The dilemma of Leibniz in the 17th century over the apparently conflicting experiments of Hooke and James Bernoulli has been resolved in favor of the latter. The experiments of 280 years have demonstrated amply for every solid substance examined with sufficient care, that the strain resulting from small applied stress is not a linear function thereof.'' J.F. Bell, 1973.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1678 : Robert Hooke
 * Discovers that force is a linear function of elongation based on expeiments on long, thin wires and springs. His anagram for this law was "ceiiinosssttuu" (published 1676) which was deciphered as "Ut tensio sic vis" in his 1678 paper.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1720 : Jordan Ricatti
 * Proposes that elastic properties of a body could be inferred from the frequency of vibration. The first experimental study of elastic E-moduli.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1729 : Pieter Van Musschenbroek
 * Publishes the first book showing testing machines for tension, compression, and flexure.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1766 : Leonhard Euler
 * Introduces the concept of "Young's modulus" eighty years before Thomas Young popularized Euler's concepts of the "height of the modulus" and the "weight of the modulus".

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1780 : Charles Augustin Coulomb
 * First to measure the shear modulus in the modern sense.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1787 : Ernst Chladni
 * Calculates ratios of the velocity of sound in air to that in various solids. This work provided a major impetus for 19th century continuum mechanics.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1807 : Thomas Young
 * Publishes his "Lectures on Natural Philosophy". This work led to the popularization of the "height of the modulus". The units were in feet.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1809 : Jean Baptiste Biot
 * First direct measurement of the velocity of sound in a solid.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1813 : Alphonse Duleau
 * First quasi-static experiments for small deformation linear elasticity (by design). This work provided experimental evidence for numerous theoretical developments in elasticity, including St Venant's principle and the theoretical work of Cauchy, Poisson and Navier.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1841 : Guillaume Wertheim
 * Presents first definitive study of elastic properties of solids under various conditions to the French Academy. This study included results from Jean Victor Poncelet, Thomas Tregold, Antoin Masson, Felix Savart among others. Linear plots of stress versus strain begin to be widely used.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1848 : Guillaume Wertheim
 * First experiments showing that the Poisson's ratio of a solid does not have the constant value of 0.25.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1859 : Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
 * First measurement of Poisson's ratio indepenedent of the elastic modulus and specimen diameter.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1869 : Marie Alfred Cornu
 * First direct optical measurement of Poisson's ratio.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1882 : Woldemar Voigt
 * Performs experiments to prove the isotropy or otherwise of solids.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1904 : Arnulph Malloc
 * Devises a method to determine the quasi-static bulk modulus based on the theory of linear elasticity.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1908 : Eduard August Gruneisen
 * The Poisson's ratio is first determined experimentally as ratio of lateral and longitudinal strains. Uses Malloc's method to determine the compressibility of solids.

Brief Early History of Theoretical Linearized Elasticity

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] c 1630 : Isaac Beeckman
 * Realizes that strain (change in length/length) should enter an elastic law.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1687 : Isaac Newton
 * Publishes "Principia" which provide the laws of motion : inertia, conservation of momentum, and balance of forces, though inertia and momentum remained undefined.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1684 : Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
 * Finds the relation between bending moment and the moment of inertia of a linear elastic beam.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1691-1704 : James Bernoulli
 * Derives the general equations of equilibrium using different methods : balance of forces, balance of moments, and the principle of virtual work.
 * Finds that the stress (force/area) as a function of strain characterizes a material and thus proposes the first true stress-strain relation and a material property.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1713 : Antoine Parent
 * Determines the position of the neutral fiber and postulates the existence of shear stresses.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1736 : Leonhard Euler
 * Publishes "Mechanics" where he defines a mass-point and acceleration. Also introduces vectors. Most of the equations in mechanics in use today can be traced to the work of Euler.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1742 : John Bernoulli
 * First to refer all positions to a single, rectangular Cartesian co-ordinate system.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1743 : Jean le Rond d'Alembert
 * First to derive a partial differential equation as the statement of a law of motion.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1750-1758 : Leonhard Euler
 * Formulates the principles of conservation of linear momentum and moment of momentum. Distinguishes mass from inertia.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1773 : Charles Augustin de Coulomb
 * Proved that shear stresses exist in a bending beam.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1788 : Joseph Louis Lagrange
 * Publishes "Mechanique Analitique" which contains much of the mechanics known until that time.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1822 : Augustin Louis Cauchy
 * Discovers the stress principle - relating the total forces and total moment to internal and external tractions. Cartesian co-ordinate system. This is basically the first description of the stress tensor. Cauchy also presented the equations of equilibrium and showed that the stress tensor is symmetric.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] 1833 : Siméon Denis Poisson
 * Publishes statement and proof that a system of pairwise equilibriated and central forces exerts no torque. This is fundamental to the principle of conservation of moment of momentum.

More details can be found in the books by Timoshenko and Love.

People
Here are some people whose work you will encounter in engineering elasticity.

 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Abel (Abel integral equations)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Airy (Airy stress function)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Bernoulli, James (Beam bending)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Bernoulli, Daniel (Superposition)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Betti (Betti's theorem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Boussinesq (Boussinesq solution)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Burger (Burger's vector)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Carter (Carter's problem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Castigliano (Castigliano's theorem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Cattaneo (Cattaneo's problem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Cauchy (Cauchy-Green deformation tensor)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Christoffel (Christoffel symbols)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Collins (Collins' method)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Cosserat (Cosserat elasticity)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Coulomb (Coulomb friction)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] D'Alembert (D'Alembert's principle)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Descartes (Cartesian coordinates)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Dirichlet (Dirichlet boundary conditions)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Duhamel (Rational mechanics)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Dundurs (Dundurs' theorem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Euclid (Euclidean geometry)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Euler (Equations of equilibrium)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Flamant (Flamant solution)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Fourier (Fourier series)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Louis Fredholm (Fredholm integral equations)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Galileo (Bending of a beam)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Galerkin (Galerkin finite element method)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Gauss (Divergence theorem, potential theory)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Green, George (Green's function)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Hadamard (Elastodynamics)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Hankel (Hankel transform)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Helmholtz (Helmholtz potential)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Hertz (Hertzian contact)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Hooke (Hooke's law)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Jacobi (Jacobian)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Kirchhoff (Kirchhoff stress)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Kronecker (Kronecker delta)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Lagrange (Green-Lagrange strain tensor)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Lamb (Elasticity solutions)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Lame (Lame's constants)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Laplace (Laplacian)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Legendre (Legendre polynomials)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Love (Mathematical thoery of elasticity)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Maxwell (Maxwell's theorem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Mellin (Mellin transform)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Michell (Michell's solution)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Mindlin (Mindlin's problem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Mohr (Mohr's circle)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Navier (Navier's equation)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Neumann (Neumann boundary condition)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Newton (Laws of motion)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Noether (Invariants)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Ockham (Occam's razor)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Papkovich (Papkovich-Neuber solution)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Pascal (Pascal's triangle)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Poisson (Poisson's ratio)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Prandtl (Prandtl's stress function)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Rodrigues (Euler-Rodrigues formula for rotation)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Saint-Venant (Saint-Venant's principle)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Stokes (Stokes theorem)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] von Mises (von Mises failure criterion)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Taylor (Taylor series expansion)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Taylor, Geoffrey (Dislocations in metals)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Williams (Williams' solution)
 * [[Image:redball.gif|o]] Young (Young's modulus)

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Introduction to Robotics/Electrical Components/Assignment/Teachers

Ohm's Law

 * 1) Calculate using ohm's law:
 * $$v = ir$$
 * $$5 = (2 \times 10^{-3})r$$
 * $$r = \frac{5}{(2 \times 10^{-3})} = 2.5 k\Omega$$
 * 1) Ohm's law is linear. Compare v = ir with y = mx, which is the equation for a line. If r is a constant like m, then y is v and i is x.


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European History/Class Structure

Team Nova Gaming Voic Andrei Popa Cristi Marc Rareș Nastase Alexandru Popa Tudor

Current Proposal
It has been proposed that the following categories be adopted to divide projects into:
 * Primary/Elementary
 * Secondary/High School
 * Beginning University/College (AA Level)
 * Advanced University (BA Level)
 * Superior University | Thesis-level | Honors Project (MA Level)
 * Graduate (PHD Level)

Proposed Home Page Layout for Policy
Welcome to the Wikiversity! This policy concerns the class structuring for easy navigation. The classes within the European and American History Departments have a special designated title and class level. The title of the class allows you to quickly understand the course material while the level will help you gauge your possible ability to complete the class. All classes have no minimum requirements; however, some professors will suggest that some classes be take in a certain order to maximize your learning experience. Listed below are the Class Level and their appropriate level in the normal scholastic institutions.

 * Primary/Elementary
 * Secondary/High School
 * Beginning University/College (AA Level)
 * Advanced University (BA Level)
 * Superior University | Thesis-level | Honors Project (MA Level)
 * Graduate (PHD Level)

title: European History/Class Structure


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Talk:European History/Class Structure

Structuring Proposal*
I'm going to propose that we impliment the following general levels of study:

 * Primary/Elementary
 * Secondary/High School

 * Beginning University/College
 * Advanced University
 * Superior University | Thesis-level | Honors Project

 * Graduate

The idea is that there are broad brackets for what pre-college material we come up with (which can be further subdivided later if we got more materials in these areas), three divisions among undergraduate university courses, along the lines of basic/survey courses, specialized/intermediate & advanced courses, and senior-level coursework and research which requires a much more advanced grounding in history. Finally, there is graduate-level stuff. The third university tier could perhaps simply be amalgamated in with graduate level. And there will probably be some courses which span categories, and we can deal with those as they arise. Anyway, what do you think? The Jade Knight 09:04, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Make it simpler, ie.
 * Primary/Elementary
 * Secondary/High School
 * Beginning University/College (AA Level)
 * Advanced University (BA Level)
 * Superior University | Thesis-level | Honors Project (MA Level)
 * Graduate (PHD Level)
 * The G 16:44, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * That's essentially how I've broken it down. However, the references to degrees may be helpful  (I'd say "advanced university" should be labeled "advanced BA level", though).  Also, an MA is generally seen as a graduate degree, but that's mostly just a quibble.  The Jade Knight 22:48, 16 July 2007 (UTC)
 * My question is whether or not people know what an AA degree is. Because many people go to a four year institution, they don't normally receive a degree after their two year mark as student attending a Community College (2 year school).The G 16:43, 17 July 2007 (UTC)
 * True. Well, the "equivalent degree level" parts that you've added could be listed next to the other equivalents, for the maximum amount of clarity.  What do you think?  And do you think these divisions are appropriate?  The Jade Knight 02:20, 18 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I like it, its better than what is started as. The question is who decides what a class is or should the be a numbering or letter system that defines what it is. Ie...
 * Russian Revolution (AU) (AU representing Advance University)The G 16:10, 18 July 2007 (UTC)
 * That's a good question. Well, now that we have our general divisions figured out, we should come up with names.  I think, however, that all projects should avoid having any numbers or letter abbreviation in the project names:  Russian Revolution, even if it were to have some sort of course number, should remain titled Russian Revolution, etc.  But what do you think the best way to institute these gradations would be?  Letter abbreviations (like your example of "AU")?  Numbered levels?  (like "Level 2" for secondary materials?)  Or simply descriptive titles?  ("This is an Advanced University-level course.")  Or perhaps something else entirely?  I think our goal is to be as transparent and easy to understand as possible.  The Jade Knight 21:45, 18 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Here's another consideration: some projects may be suitable for different levels (ie, introductory and advanced university) at the same time—consider, for example, the Bloom Clock Project, which even children could contribute to, and more advanced students could turn into articles or even perhaps eventually base a thesis on. I think whatever system we devise should be flexible enough to consider such possibilities.  The Jade Knight 21:53, 18 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Simple answer, same portal different paths. In any class there needs to be a direction for the 'class'; therefore, you just create separate paths from each of the school levels and then have them point to the same source, ie:

 * Russian Revolution AA, Perfect for those want to learn more in general about the Russian Revolution.
 * Russian Revolution MA, An in depth look in the Russian Revolution but with an emphasis on the People of the Revolution.
 * Russian Revolution MA, An in depth look in the Russian Revolution but with an emphasis on the Economics of the Revolution.
 * What do you think?The G 17:44, 20 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Could you maybe provide more of an example of how this would work? I'm not sure I entirely understand.  The Jade Knight 11:49, 21 July 2007 (UTC)
 * For example, my friend wants to be a physics major; therefore this requires him to take Physics 1, 2, and 3 before he can start taking some upper level classes. After he takes these classes, he'll be taking several more classes at the 3-400 levels. Even though he is taking all physics classes, they are all specific classes. As he moves on into more MA and PhD classes, he'll be more focused in one specific area of the broader scope. Classes on the Wikiversity can be like these classes if people decide to create them. However, there should be a general class that look at the whole picture. If someone wants to go into more detail, they can create a separate page and refer back to a main source for the class but direct the class into the more focused part. Does this help?The G 21:10, 21 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I think so. So you're saying that every project should start at a general level, and then narrow down as it gets "filled in", as it were, and where appropriate sub-projects/pages could be created from there?  The Jade Knight 05:06, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

General Categories
Perhaps we could generalize it further:
 * Pre-College (levels 1 & 2)
 * College/University (levels 3 & 4)
 * Graduate (levels 5 & 6)

While there would be some overlap in some of these, this may be a convenient way to have even more broad categories that could be used to designate projects which span a broad level of interest (which have not been significantly narrowed). The Jade Knight 05:10, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Indeed, I like it... simple... yet complete. Maybe this should be the general grand view structure. Meaning, those who create and actively edit classes know of the more specific points of the policy, but for the general lay user (those who take classes only or do minor editing) would be able to understand this policy. Of course all users should be aware of the specifics of the policy but maybe some just want the general picture.The G 02:14, 23 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Now the question is how would we incorporate these divisions? It would be easy enough to have a page that categorizes projects offered by the School listed under such divisions, but should anything else be done?  The Jade Knight 20:22, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Wikiversity Levels?
I just found this: Help:Resources_by_educational_level. They seem to use 5+1 categories, being preschool (0), primary (1), secondary (2), teriary (3, 4, and 5), research (5 and 6), and non-formal (which really could fall under any of these). Essentially, they turn our system of 6 into 5, lumping all tertiary education together except for "research", which is its own category, and adding an extra one for preschool. What do you think? The Jade Knight 07:24, 3 September 2008 (UTC)
 * The categories mentioned by Jade Knight are fine. However, there must be sub-categories just for the benefit of those who wish to learn/prepare material at Wikiversity . That is, in tertiary level, one can create/learn the same course material for at least four different levels: introductory, intermediate, advanced, research.
 * In the introductory level the reading material as well as the level of questions asked may be kept to a basic level as the idea may be to introduce s’body to the topic. As the level of previous knowledge increases, the amount and depth of reading etc must be increasing. The system I propose is the following:
 * Basic (undergraduate)
 * Intermediate (undergraduate)
 * Advanced (undergraduate)
 * Research I (graduate, master’s level)
 * Research II (graduate, doctoral level)
 * Dilos1 09:03, 10 November 2008 (UTC)
 * In my experience, advanced undergraduate work is quite similar to MA work. The Jade Knight (d'viser) 09:52, 12 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, that might be correct to some point. An advanced undergraduate course will have a lot of specialized reading and writing, an MA course will have more specialized reading and definitely writing of a higher quality compared to the undergraduate course. On the other hand, my experience has shown that I can have in the same class both advanced undergraduates and MA students, ask from both the same quantity of work but expect higher quality of writing from the MA students and myself apply stricter grading. Well, for the beginning one can use the three undegrad. categories plus one general research. Dilos1 09:13, 14 November 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:European History/Class Structure


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User:Megoeggo

current studies in language arts, social sciences and fine arts

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