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User talk:Codesigningcertificates

Problem with user name and first edit
I've deleted your first edit, which was, on its face, an article about Code signing certificates. The edit may be seen at. That possible educational resource contained three links to a particular web site which might not be linked from a neutral article.

Here is what I want to see for this resource to go "live." I'd like the user behind this account to register as a *person,* and disclose, on the user page, any conflict of interest. Also disclose that your first edit was as this editor (User:Codesigningcertificates). I'm blocking this account as a "role account," which is generally deprecated. However, I am leaving talk page access open and email open for now. Please do not repost links at this point, without agreement from neutral Wikiversity editors.

Wikiversity will allow, immediately, a resource on the topic that doesn't refer to or favor a specific commercial web site. Later, with the resource in place and some acceptance of it, a link to any site may be proposed by a COI (conflict of interest) user on the resource Talk page. If that's accepted, then it can go in the resource.

Please be careful with this. Placing commercial links like this can be considered linkspam and the web site might be blacklisted, here or globally (all WMF wikis). By paying careful attention to proper process, to preserve WikiMedia Foundation neutrality, it can be done safely and correctly. The work on this resource by whoever is behind this account is appreciated. That's why I left this page undeleted, in fact. Anyone can read the page in history as linked above and decide to create an actual resource from it, with caution as mentioned. --Abd 18:56, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Codesigningcertificates


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Competitiveness and happiness

Comments
Hello Rednoodles 08:06, 24 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Hi! -- Jtneill - Talk - c 14:24, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

Hi we both have similar topics and I found an article you might find useful. It's called 'The dark side of competition: How competitive behaviour and striving to avoid inferiority are linked to depression, anxiety, stress and self harm.'Rednoodles 07:26, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Heya! I am really looking forward to your take on this topic. I was wondering if you had looked at social media and competitiveness/happiness. Because I remeber hearing somewhere that the more time you spend on sights like facebook the more envious you are of others and the more unhappy you can become. I know its a bit late in the piece to be throwing ideas at you. Good luck!! Claremw 06:18, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

I am looking forward to reading the finished product - keep going - your topic sounds interesting - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 12:03, 8 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 06:42, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


title: File:RAND.1.A.Spectra.20110824.pdf


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Relationships and happiness

Introduction
"Of all the things which wisdom provides to make us entirely happy, much the greatest is the possession of friendship - Epicurus"

What is happiness? Is there a relationship between your level of happiness and the quality of your social relationships? Whilst many of us may not have thought specifically about how happiness is categorically defined, it is almost certain that when we are unhappy, we know about it! Contrastingly, when we are happy with who we are and how our life is going, we’re much more inclined to want to hang out with friends and foster new social relationships. So what is this happiness concept, and how do our social relationships play a role in our own level of happiness?

The American Psychological Association (APA) Dictionary of Psychology (APA, 2007) defines happiness as “an emotion of joy, gladness, satisfaction and well-being.” With happiness defined as an emotion, this implies the emotion is subjective and can change depending on how we pursue it. Interestingly, some studies have found that the pursuit of happiness itself paradoxically leads to unhappiness (Mauss, Tamir, Anderson & Savino, 2011). Therefore, this suggests happiness may be an outcome of the pursuit of other aspects in life. The Dalai Lama says happiness arises in the context of our relationships with others (Uchida & Kitayama, 2009).

If you read further today, this book aims to demonstrate the role social relationships play in determining one's level of personal happiness. Metaphorically speaking, a ship changing its course by even one degree can cause a total change in its final sailing destination. Similarily, a change in the way you foster and cultivate relationship with yourself and others may change your sailing destination from an unhappy life to one filled with eudaimonia.

Early social relationships and personality traits

Many studies suggest our ability to foster a happy life begins with the quality of our social connections right from infancy (Mumme & Fernald, 2003; Taumoepeau & Ruffman, 2006; Vaish, Grossman & Woodward, 2008). Beginning in infancy, social influences play a part in developing our personality constructs (Furnham & Cheng, 1999).

A meta-analysis by Steel, Schmidt and Shultz (2008) examined the relationship between a range of personality traits and the ability to foster happiness (defined as subjective well-being) across the lifespan. Steel et al., (2008) conducted a literature review of 347 samples which used the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Inventory (NEO) (all versions) as measures of personality constructs. A total of 122 588 participants were included in the samples, predominately from Western countries. Whilst the mostly Western focus of the study could be considered a limitation, critically reviewing happiness and relationships outside of the Western focus is beyond the scope of this project. The sample was 45% male, and the research methodology was almost exclusively self-report.

Results from the NEO scales showed strong correlations between happiness and almost all of the personality constructs (neuroticism, r = -.46; extraversion, r = .49; agreeableness, r = .30; conscientiousness, r = .25; and openness to experience, r = .13). Results from the EPI also showed strong correlations with happiness and most of the personality constructs (neuroticism, r = -.44; extraversion, r = .41; psychoticism, r = -.10; and defensiveness, r = .12). This suggests the relationship between personality and happiness is much stronger than previously thought and reported in the literature (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998).

If the relationship between personality and happiness is significant, this provides strong empirical evidence for the importance of social relationships right from infancy. A number of meta-analyses show desirable personality traits are malleable during early developmental years (Card, 2010; Ferguson, 2010), indicating an infant’s personality can be developed during this sensitive period through positive social relationships (Steel et al., 2008).

Contrastingly, a meta-analysis by Kotov, Gamez, Schmidt and Watson (2010) demonstrated the negative influence social relationships can have on personality development, with common mental disorders strongly linked to negative personality traits. All diagnostic groups (depression, anxiety and substance abuse disorders) were high on neuroticism (mean Cohen's d = 1.65) and low on conscientiousness (mean Cohen's d = -1.01). The pattern illustrated by these meta-analyses is that social relationships play a vital role in the early development of personality traits, and desirable personality traits are essential for one to foster happiness across the lifespan.

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
If the development of desirable personality traits is correlated with happiness over the lifespan, how do we develop such traits? Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development posits desirable personality traits are developed in the context of learning how to be a social being, and this occurs right from infancy (Nosko, Tieu, Lawford & Pratt, 2011). Erikson’s theory posits such development unfolds in a series of predetermined stages over the lifespan, with an optimal time for the ascendancy of each stage, and resolution of the early stages greatly influencing the outcomes of later stages (Dunkel & Sefcek, 2009). Healthy psychosocial development at each stage is said to be based on proper resolution of the preceding stages (Whitbourne, Sneed & Sayer, 2009).

Schwartz (2001) states the first stage of Erikson’s theory is the development of trust, versus mistrust. If one develops a basic sense of trust, it is more likely the individual will develop along a path which establishes intimacy. The second stage is autonomy versus doubt, where one develops willpower and self-control. The third stage, of initiative versus guilt, becomes salient as the child is able to initiate a sense of purpose. The fourth stage is industry versus inferiority where children are challenged to develop a sense of competence. The fifth stage is identity versus role confusion. Here an adolescent is faced with the task of developing a sense of self-continuity.

The sixth stage of psychosocial development involves the challenge of attaining intimacy versus isolation, and represents the ability to share with and commit to another person. Resolution of this stage typically involves successful acquisition and maintenance of close relationships and the establishment of a sense of contentment in life through interconnection with others (Erikson, 1950). The seventh stage is generativity versus stagnation. At this stage, the adult is faced with the task of productivity and working to shape the next generation. The final stage is integrity versus despair, where in old age one looks back to see if life’s pathway was successful and filled with happiness (Schwartz, 2001).

Erikson’s Theory suggests happiness is an outcome of successful growth through the stages of psychosocial development, and this growth occurs in the context of fulfilling social relationships. A longitudinal study by Waldinger & Schultz (2010) support this idea, investigating day-to-day links between perceived happiness and time spent with others in 47 octogenarian couples over an eight day period. The study revealed significant results for men and women in terms of greater reported happiness based on time spent with others (friends and an intimate partner). The study did not investigate the quality of the intimate partner relationships, which may confound the significant results for happiness ratings. Erikson's theory demonstrates social relationships play a vital role in psychosocial development, and healthy psychosocial development is essential for one to foster happiness across the lifespan.

The psychological need for relatedness
The psychological need to feel connected, understood and appreciated by those close to us is a fundamental building block for human happiness (Duckworth, Steen & Seligman, 2005; Frederickson, 1998; Lyubomirsky, King & Diener, 2005; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Ryan, 1995). Considerable research supports the theoretical framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) which posits the psychological need for relatedness to others as a significant component of human happiness (Buss, 2000; Kasser & Ryan, 1999; LaGuardia, Ryan, Couchman & Deci, 2000).

In the context of SDT, relatedness can be defined as a human orientation towards forming strong and stable interpersonal bonds (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Whilst relationships between intimate partners and friends provide the most reciprocal facets (LaGuardia & Patrick, 2008), many studies show it does not make a difference what sort of relationships one has (for example, siblings, parent-child); rather, it’s the presence of strong interpersonal bonds which are linked to happiness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

As an expression of the human motivation towards strong interpersonal bonds, a study by Ackerman, Griskevicius and Li (2011) investigated whether men or women are more likely to express love first in romantic relationships. The study found significant results for the first confession of love coming from the male (61.5% of the sample size). Results from Ackerman et al., (2011) conflict with results from other studies investigating beliefs about which gender confesses love first; stereotypical beliefs are centered on a woman confessing love first (Fabes & Martin, 1991; Gonzalez & Koestner, 2006). The results from Ackerman et al., (2011) suggest despite the influence of stereotypical societal beliefs, both men and women are innately wired to make strong interpersonal connections. This suggests close personal relatedness is associated with high levels of happiness for both genders (Baumeister et al., 1995).

Positive psychology and relationships
At the individual level, positive psychology is the study of human happiness (Gable & Haidt, 2005). The theory of positive psychology was (allegedly!) conjured up during a holiday conversation in 1993 between two prominent psychologists; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman (Wong, 2011). Seligman’s (1998) primary reason for launching the positive psychology movement was to step away from what he saw as an excessive focus on psychopathology, towards a move into helping individuals develop happiness through a focus on four guiding “pillars” of aspiration. Wong (2010; 2011) describes the four pillars as; virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being.

Virtue is concerned with what kind of person one wants to be and what kind of values one wants to possess. Meaning is largely a focus on life purpose, finding intimacy and developing strong social relationships. Resilience is about how one copes when faced with challenges, and the psychology of well-being is about a motivation towards positive growth. An individual can live a life of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being by espousing these “pillars” in their social relationships (McNulty & Fincham, 2011). Many studies support the expression of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being in relationships as a strong predictor of human happiness and intrapersonal growth (Cohn, Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels & Conway, 2009; Krisjansson, 2010; Lambert & Fincham, 2011).

Eudaimonic happiness

Intrapersonal growth through the expression of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being in relationships can result in eudaimonic happiness (Wong, 2011). The concept of eudaimonia emerged from Aristotelian philosophy and in modern times has been translated to mean happiness and a flourishing life (Kristjansson, 2010). Aristotle defined human happiness as being centered on what it means to live a good life, a life representing human excellence (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2006).

Many studies have demonstrated eudaimonic happiness has a strong correlation with relatedness and a personal concern for others (Haybron, 2000). In fact, the development of strong interpersonal bonds of relatedness with others is one way in which an individual can find eudaimonic happiness (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2008).

A study by Braithwaite, Selby and Fincham (2011) found relatedness can be espoused in choosing to forgive others. The study hypothesised the tendency to forgive one’s intimate partner can influence relationship satisfaction through increased relationship effort and decreased negative conflict. Participants in the study completed an online survey designed to measure tendency to forgive, communication patterns, conflict tactics and behavioural self-regulation.

Findings showed a tendency to forgive one’s partner leads to a motivational shift towards the service of long-term relational improvement. This suggests learning to forgive others not only moves an individual towards happiness in relationships, but towards eudaimonic happiness in life (Paleari, Regalia & Fincham, 2009). These studies demonstrate a key component to the development of eudaimonic happiness is through fostering quality social relationships.

The psychopathology of fearful relatedness

"Happy indeed would be the condition of youth if they had one corrupter only, and all the rest of the world were their improvers - Socrates"

A large body of literature supports the notion that poor relationship functioning is correlated with depression and anxiety (Rowe, Doss, Hsueh & Libet, 2011; Whisman, Uebelacker & Weinstock, 2004). A study by Yeater, Austin, Green and Smith (2010) found mental health outcomes among survivors of complex trauma related to intimate partner violence were poor. Of the 23 participants, 56 per cent used alcohol as a coping mechanism and all participants received a diagnosis of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Most of the participants in the study were Native American, indicating cultural factors may confound the results. Notwithstanding cultural influences, Yeater et al., (2010) provides evidence that the quality of a relationship can strongly impact mental health and consequently the ability to feel happiness.

A survey study by Williams, Connolly, Pepler, Craig and Laporte (2008) examined physical dating aggression in adolescent relationships. Of the 621 participants, a significant result indicated nearly 15 per cent of participants reported recurrent dating across two or more aggressive relationships. A limitation of the study is that the (aggressive) partners were not administered the survey, indicating the self-report of the victim may not in all cases be an accurate reflection of the relationship.

Whilst recurrent adolescent dating patterns are not widely reviewed in the literature (O’Leary & Slep, 2003), the participants in the Williams et al., (2008) study who had multiple aggressive partners do not appear to make choices towards personal growth and well-being. This suggests eudaimonic happiness is not generated simply by the absence of psychopathology. Rather, eudaimonic happiness is shaped by the choices we make in our social relationships. This suggests the quality of our social relationships may be shaped by our ability to reflect and act upon Aristotle’s all-encompassing question; who ought I to be? (Ryan et al., 2008).

Summary

In summary, after reading this chapter it is hoped you see the vital link between the quality of your social relationships, and your own level of happiness. So what tips can you take away to help generate more happiness? Reflect on the personality traits that breed happiness - could you be more agreeable with others; how open are you to new experiences in your relationships?

Think about the course of your life to date, and ask yourself whether you’ve got some unmet challenges in terms of psychosocial development; do you need to learn to trust others more, and have you developed the interpersonal skills required to attain intimacy with another person? Reflect on the quality of your social relationships – do they have a sense of meaning for you, and do you offer the best of yourself in your social interactions?

The pathway to eudaimonia is not just the absence of psychopathology. Rather, relating and growing with others opens the door to a life of meaning and a sense of our own purpose. What can you start doing today to improve the way you relate to others? Learn to forgive, spend quality time with your friends, be kind to your partner and learn how to communicate with others more authentically. If you follow these tips as a starting point for personal reflection, eudaimonia may surely be the end result.

Quiz
{What is the fifth stage of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development? + Identity v role confusion - Autonomy v shame - Integrity v despair - Trust v mistrust
 * type=""}

{Which prominent psychologists were the pioneers of positive psychology? + Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman - Seligman & Bandura - Csikszentmihalyi & Skinner - Freud & Csikszentmihalyi
 * type=""}

{From which philosopher did the concept of eudaimonia emerge from? + Aristotle - Epicurus - Socrates - Plato
 * type=""}

Key terms
Eudaimonic happiness. ''The position that happiness (or eudemonia) is the ultimate ground of morality, so that what is good is what brings happiness. Eudaimonic happiness is considered as a criterion for what is moral and as a motivation for human action'' (APA, 2007).

Happiness. An emotion of joy, gladness, satisfaction and well-being (APA, 2007).

Positive psychology. A field of psychological theory and research that focuses on the psychological states (i.e. contentment, joy) individual traits or character strengths (e.g. intimacy, wisdom) that make life most worth living (APA, 2007).

Psychopathology. The scientific study of mental disorders, including theory, research, diagnosis and treatment (APA, 2007).

Psychosocial development. ''According to Erik Erikson’s theory, personality development as a process influenced by social and cultural factors throughout the lifespan. The development of normal social behaviour'' (APA, 2007).

Relatedness. The reciprocal relationship of empathy, trust and oneness between two or more people (APA, 2007).

Social Relationships. ''The sum of the social interactions between individuals over a period of time. A social relationship is the emergent quality from repeated interactions with another person'' (APA, 2007).


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sleep and happiness

"If sleep does not serve an absolutely vital function, then it is the biggest mistake the evolutionary process has ever made. - Allan Rechtschaffen University of Chicago Sleep Laboratory Smithsonian, November 1978 (Cited in Walker, 2009)"

Overview
Sleep is a part of everyday life for humans and is one of the basic needs that are required for survival. Sleep affects so many parts of our lives including our emotions, cognitions and behaviour. Problems with sleep can also lead to sleep disorders and psychological disorders. Some questions this chapter will seek to answer is what is sleep, how does it affect emotions, and overall what is the effect of sleep on happiness? This chapter will also seek to identify how we may improve sleep and in turn improve happiness.

Stages of sleep
Sleep in humans has been classified into 2 main categories, Non Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep and Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. NREM can be further broken down to four sub-stages from stages 1 to 4. In humans, sleep patterns cycle through REM sleep and the four stages of NREM sleep around every 90 minutes (See Figure 2). This cycle remains fairly consistent throughout the night, however NREM stages 3 and 4 will be prominent earlier in the night and NREM stages 1 and 2, and REM sleep will be more prevalent in the latter part of the night (Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009).

Sleep patterns are usually measured by the use of an electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG requires the use of electrodes being placed on an individual’s head, where brain activity can be measured. When an individual is awake 2 patterns of activity usually occur: alpha activity and beta activity. Alpha activity consists of activity of 8-12 Hz asssociated with rest and relaxation. Beta activity is activity of 13-30 Hz and is associated with individual's arousal and high mental activity (Vassalli & Dijk, 2009).

When NREM stage 1 sleep begins and EEG activity starts to show the presence of theta activity which has EEG activity of 3.5-7.5 Hz (See Figure 3). This stage is the transition from being awake and the beginning of sleep (Vassalli & Dijk, 2009).

Stage 2 of NREM sleep shows theta activity, sleep spindles and K complexes (See Figure 4). Sleep spindles are short burst of waves of 12-14 Hz that occur about every 2 to 5 minutes during stages 1-4 NREM sleep. Sleep spindles have been theorised to be the mechanism involved in keeping an individual asleep. K complexes are sudden short waveforms which are only found in stage 2 of NREM sleep. K complexes are said to be the precursor of delta activity seen in stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep. Stages 1 and 2 of NREM sleep have been less focused on and sleep deprivation does not differ much in these stages (Vassalli & Dijk, 2009).

Stage 3 NREM sleep is made up of 20%-50% of delta activity and Stage 4 is made up more than 50% of delta activity. Stages 3 and 4 are also referred to as Slow Wave Sleep (SWS). Delta activity are high amplitude waves that are slower than 3.5 Hz (See Figure 5). Stage 4 is our deepest level of sleep and if awoken in this stage we tend to act confused and hazy (Vassalli & Dijk, 2009).

REM sleep is a period of desynchronised sleep where theta activity occurs in combination with very high frequency of gamma activity which occurs at 30-80 Hz (See Figure 6). In REM sleep our bodies are paralysed while at the same time our brain is very highly active. If someone wakes up during REM sleep they are highly likely to recall what dreams were occurring and they will appear alert and active (Walker, 2009).

REM vs. NREM sleep
Throughout the changes of NREM and REM sleep alterations occur in neurochemistry. In NREM sleep subcortical cholinergic systems in the forebrain and brain stem become less active. Serotonergic Raphe neurons and noradrenergic locus coeruleus neuron are also reduced when comparing to levels when awake. In REM sleep aminergic systems are inhibited while cholinergic systems become more active even compared to levels when awake. This results in the brain being in a main state of being dominated by acetylcholine and deficient of aminergic modulation (Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009).

Different patterns of functioning also occur between NREM and REM sleep. In NREM SWS sleep the basal ganglia, brain stem, thalamic, prefrontal and temporal lobe region show significantly reduced activity. In REM sleep the parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate show to be least active. While regions that show significant increase in activity in REM sleep include pontine tegmentum, the occipital cortex, the thalamic nuclei and the mediobasal prefrontal lobes. REM sleep also affects regions related to affect such as the hippocampus, amygdala and the anterior cingulated cortex (Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009).

Optimal sleep
People vary with how much they sleep. The average person needs 7.5-8 hours sleep per night, however some people function well on 4-5 hours, and others may need 9-10 hours. The severity of the effects of sleep amount and quality one gets, is dependent on how well we can function with our daily tasks and responsibilities throughout the day. Good sleepers take usually less than 30 minutes to fall asleep and may wake up between once or twice a night (Centre for Clinical Interventions (CCI), 2011a).

Adequate sleep is an essential part of healthy human functioning and on the 75 trillion cells that the body comprises of. Optimal sleep patterns require the alternation of NREM sleep which comprises of about 75% of total sleep and REM sleep which comprises of about 25% which usually last for about 5 to 30min each 90 minute cycle. These sleep patterns are shown to be important in consolidation of memory processing, learning new tasks and brain restoration(Meletis & Zabriskie, 2008).

Such like the 90 minute cycles that are important in our sleep, humans also have a daily rhythm in behavior and physiological processes called circadian rhythms. In humans these rhythms are controlled by mechanisms labeled as our internal clocks which cycle approximately every 24-25 hours (See Figure 7).

Zeitgeber is a stimulus that resets our internal clock and in humans this is usually light from the rising of the sun. The benefits from modern technology and the use of artificial lighting and shading, allows us to delay our bedtime and waking time. This is important to optimal sleep as it recognizes the importance of a daily sleeping pattern (Carlson, 2005).

Dreaming
Dreaming occurs in both NREM and REM sleep, however recollection of dreams are more readily accessible when woken in REM sleep. Sigmund Freud, renowned psychoanalysist, proposed that dreaming occurred out of one’s inner conflict between our unconscious desires and prohibitions to act out these desires. This theory prescribed that content was hidden and disguised in our dreams (Carlson, 2005).

Dreams which largely emerge from REM sleep contain between 75% to 95% of emotional content. It has been proposed there may be a link between what is occurring in our day to day life and emotional concerns and themes one might have. Dreams have also said to have a connection to our neurological state and recovery from emotional conflict and trauma (Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009). Dreams occurring in REM sleep show an increased activation of our visual and sleep systems. During REM sleep muscular paralysis occurs, which stops our body from physically acting out our dream. This is why during our dreams we can see visual images and feel sensations of movement that feel very real (Carlson, 2005).

Definitions of happiness
Everyone talks about the concept of happiness, however what it is and how we define it is more difficult to explain. Two distinct definitions of happiness have been proposed (Jacobsen, 2007):
 * 1) Happiness as a brief state of mind which an individual may feel when their needs are fulfilled and goals have been reached.
 * 2) Happiness as a durable state of balance where an individual’s goals, needs and wishes are met in the culmination of their surroundings and external world.

The first definition describes moments such as joy and bliss that many people define as happiness. These are seen in individuals as our core emotions and daily moods. The second proposed definition seems to talk about happiness as a lifestyle. The Dalai Lama refers to this happiness as a lifelong process where we moderate emotions such as selfish desires, anger, greed and negativity and cultivate emotions of compassion, kindness and humility. This theory is closely related to the humanistic approach to happiness where theorists such as Abraham Maslow talk about the idea of self actualisation and hierarchy of needs.

In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, he proposes that we need to fulfil basic physiological needs such as sleep, before we can attain other needs such as safety or love and the end result of self actualisation (Jacobsen, 2007). This chapter focuses on happiness as defined by emotions and moods.

Core emotions and moods
The debate over emotions about what they are and how they are formed has a diverse history. Emotion is a multidimensional phenomenon and entails a number of elements and dynamics. Emotion is a combination of feelings, arousal, purpose and social expression as a reaction to some eliciting event (Reeve, 2009).

Happiness as joy is a core emotion that is seen as something people strive for and pursue throughout their life. Happiness is said to be universally expressed in the same way by all humans. However, what makes people happy changes from each individual. The main theory of happiness is when an individual achieves a desirable outcome such as personal achievement, receiving love and affection, pleasurable sensations, interpersonal pleasure, progressing towards ones goals (Ekman, 1993).

Happiness facilitates our social interaction through the way we behave and our facial expressions. This is a pattern as it creates an ongoing cycle of attracting more social interaction and becoming happier. Happiness also has a soothing effect on our psychological distress and we deal with situation more positively when we are happier (Reeve, 2009).

Moods are stated to be a long lasting version of emotions. This means that a person has a general long lasting affect over the day, while still having a number of different emotions throughout the day. In moods, happiness can be described as positive affect. When exploring psychological disorders and how it affects happiness, people’s moods are the focus (Reeve, 2009).

Emotional regulation
A study completed by Yoo, Gujar, Hu, Jolesz and Walker (2007) looked at healthy young adults and the effects sleep deprivation on emotional brain reactivity. The study used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to see if there were any differences in participants who had one night of sleep deprivation compared to those who didn’t, the control group. The study looked specifically at whether there were differences in these groups were seen when aversive stimuli were presented through visual goggles.

Results showed that both groups had significantly increased activity in the amygdala when presented with the aversive stimuli. In the sleep-deprived participants the amygdala showed a 60% increase in activation than those in the control group. The volume of the amygdala activation was 3 times larger in the sleep deprived group compared to the control group. These results suggest that when presented with aversive stimuli those who are sleep deprived have a higher activation in the amygdala. The amygdala plays a large role in emotional reactivity (Yoo et al., 2007).

Yoo et al. (2007) extended this study to look at differences between the sleep deprived group and the control group in the amygdala’s connections to other part of the brain. The results showed when shown aversive stimuli, the control group there were significant stronger connections between the amygdala and the Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC), when compared to the sleep deprived group. While results showed the sleep deprived group showing stronger connections between the amygdala and the autonomic activating centre’s of the brainstem.

The MPFC plays a large role in learning of response to their outcomes and perceived control beliefs. Yoo et al. (2007) showed higher connectivity between the MPFC and amygdala when presented with aversive stimuli in participants who slept. This supports the idea that the sleep allows this connection to be reset and govern more appropriate decision making when the amygdala is activated. This was also supported by the increased connection between the amygdala and brainstem in sleep deprived participants. This supports the idea that with appropriate sleep our emotions are more regulated through learnt response-outcomes and we won’t be as quick to act when presented with aversive stimuli. This shows support for sleep and its effects on happiness (Yoo et al., 2007).

Emotional memory encoding
Recent investigations examined sleep and the formation of emotional and neutral memories. In this recent study participants slept normally or were sleep deprived for 36 hours (Walker & Tharani, 2009 cited in Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009). They were then presented with a learning session that was composed of emotionally negative, positive or neutral words. Results showed that the sleep deprived group showed a 40% deficit in memory encoding than the normal sleep group, when looking at all types of stimuli. When stimuli type was separated, as expected there was higher memory encoding in positive and negative stimuli on average in participants, when compared to the neutral stimuli. Results also showed that when looking at the positive stimuli group the normal sleep group showed 59% higher memory encoding when compared to the sleep deprived group. Interestingly there were no significant differences between the normal sleep and the sleep deprived group when presented with the negative stimuli (Walker & Tharani, 2009 cited in Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009).

This study supports the idea that with appropriate sleep, individuals are able to encode memories that are emotionally positive or negative better than neutral stimuli. While the evidence shown suggests sleep deprived individuals encode emotionally positive stimuli at a significantly lower effiency level than those in the normal sleep group (Walker & Tharani, 2009 cited in Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009). This evidence is linked in with the study by Yoo et al. (2007) as discussed in emotional regulation which shows the effects appropriate sleep and sleep deprivation and its effects on the amygdala and surrounding brain regions. REM sleep is seen to be particular important in emotional memory encoding and the particular brain regions that sleep effects. REM sleep also shows a link to emotional memory enhancement in the long term and neuroplasticity development in this area. This will be discussed in more detail in emotional memory consolidation and the link between the amygdala and the hippocampus which is important for emotional memory processing (Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009).

Emotional memory consolidation
Emotions are known to play not only a major role in memory encoding but also memory consolidation. The importance of REM sleep has been explored and is theorised to provide a therapy or recovery for achieving optimal affective states. This is shown particularly in the connection between the amygdala and hippocampus. It has been theorized that theta activity in REM sleep provides a network in our brain that allows our emotional events and memory to be processed and integrated harmoniously. As stated earlier REM sleep shows lower activity of aminergic systems, which is particularly important to emotional memory encoding and consolidation. This is because high aminergic activity, specifically noradrenergic input from the locus coeruleus has been linked to high levels of stress and anxiety. So during REM sleep our brains can process our emotions and memories in a constructive manner without the influence of aminergic systems (Walker, 2009). This shows how appropriate sleep can lead to more positive emotional memory processing.

A study by Hu, Stylos-Allan and Walker (2006) looked at differences between emotional memory consolidation with participants with 12 hour sleep deprivation and no sleep deprivation, the control group. Both groups were presented arousing and neutral stimuli before sleep deprivation or sleep. Twelve hours later after sleep deprivation or sleeping, participants were shown the same picture or a new picture. Results show that recognition accuracy was 42% higher in the control group than the sleep deprived group. This places more support towards how our sleep, particularly REM sleep plays an important role in emotional memory consolidation (Hu et al., 2006).

Sleep & psychological disorders
Sleep has a profound effect on emotions and happiness. Sleep can also get to a stage where it can become disordered due to certain issues and individuals sometimes meet criteria for a sleep disorder. In this section we will look particularly at primary sleep disorders. However, we will also look into sleep disorders related to another mental disorder. These are usually mood and anxiety disorders (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2000). This identifies how our moods can affect our sleep and our sleep can affect our moods.

Sleep disorders
Sleep disorders are divided into 2 main categories: Dyssomnias and parasomnias (APA, 2000).

Dyssomnias are defined by disturbances in the amount, timing and quality of sleep. Dyssomnias include:
 * Primary Insomnias
 * Primary hypersomnia
 * Narcolepsy
 * Breathing-related sleep disorder
 * Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

Parasomnias are defined by abnormal behaviour and physiological events during sleep. These include:
 * Nightmare disorder
 * Sleep terror disorder
 * Sleepwalking disorder

It is recommended if anyone has significant symptoms to see a physician or sleep specialist and have a polysomnography completed. A polysomnography, also known as a sleep study, includes an EEG and other instruments that measure eye movement, skeletal muscle activity, heart rhythm, leg movement, air flow and snoring.

Mood disorders
Depressive disorders The most commonly diagnosed and severe depressive disorder is called major depressive episode. The Diagnostic and Statstical Manual of Mental Disorder, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) criteria for major depressive episode describe a depressed mood lastly for at least 2 weeks cognitive symptoms such as low concentration and worthlessness, physical symptoms such as changes in appetite, energy levels and sleep patterns (APA, 2000). This is also accompanied by loss in interests in things, not experiencing pleasure from life and decreased interaction with people. The specific symptom we want to focus on is the sleep changes which the DSM-IV-TR states as: insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day. The DSM-IV-TR prescribes that for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder that this may be one of the symptoms, but is not necessary for a diagnosis (APA, 2000).

Other depressive disorders such as major depressive disorder (recurrent), dysthymic disorder and double depression have similar diagnostic criteria but differ in number of depressive episodes, severity of symptoms and length of symptoms (APA, 2000).

Other mood disorders Some of the other mood disorders that include disordered sleep in their criteria, which you may have heard of, include (APA, 2000):
 * Bipolar disorders
 * Substance-induced mood disorder
 * Moods disorder with post partum onset
 * Mood disorder with seasonal pattern

Anxiety disorders
Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) The DSM-IV-TR defines GAD as when an individual finds it difficult to control their worry, excessive worry or anxiety occurs more days than not for at least 6 months and this excessive worry cause’s significant impact on social, occupational and daily life. Symptoms include some of the following: restlessness, easily fatigued, difficulty concentration, muscle tension, irritability and sleep disturbance. Sleep disturbance in this criterion is defined as difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep or restless sleep. Again sleep disturbance may present in GAD, but is not mandatory in its diagnosis (APA, 2000).

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) PTSD is a long lasting emotional disorder that can occur after a variety of traumatic events including physical assaults, car accidents, natural disasters or death of close relation. Symptoms may include flashbacks, avoiding any details of the traumatic event, physiological reactivity to cues of the traumatic event, feeling of detachment, irritability, difficulty concentrating and hyper vigilance. One symptom is difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, but again this can be a symptom of PTSD but is not a requirement in diagnosis (APA, 2000).

Psychological treatments
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) involves correcting cognitive errors, substituting negative thoughts to more realistic thoughts and looking at cognitive appraisals and schemas to the way we behave. CBT has seen to be effective in the treatment of depression, anxiety and insomnia (Barlow & Durand, 2005).

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a new wave that has come out of development of CBT. ACT is based on the notion of acceptance and mindfulness. More research is currently being completed on its effectiveness in treatment with psychological disorders. There has been some research to suggest that ACT is effective in treating depression and anxiety (Chapman, 2006).

Sleep hygiene strategies are incorporated into some therapies; however this is something we can improve on our own. Sleep hygiene is the term that describes good sleeping habits. There is research that suggests that good sleep hygiene can lead to long term solutions in sleep difficulties. These strategies include (CCI, 2011b):
 * Regular patterns and routine of sleep.
 * Avoid stimulants such as alcohol, nicotine and caffeine.
 * Don’t clock watch. We tend to worry more when we constantly check the clock which creates more sleep difficulties.
 * Have relaxing sleep rituals and no highly stimulating activities before bed time.
 * Don’t have naps.
 * Eat healthy. A good diet helps with sleep. Also a warm glass of milk helps some people as the tryptophan in warm milk acts as a sleep inducer.
 * Bed is for sleep and sex only. When we do other stimulating activities in bed we associate this high stimulation to where we are supposed to sleep.
 * Use a sleep diary. This is a work sheet that allows us to track our sleep. See link of sleep diary for example.

Medication
There are a range of medication use include anti-depressants, anti-anxiety drugs and anti-psychotics. These have seen to help with depression, anxiety and some sleep disorders. These drugs have different side effects and precautions should be taken when taking them (Peterson, Rumble & Benca, 2008).

Alternative approaches
Alternative approaches that people use include (Bootzin & Epstein, 2011):
 * Herbal remedies e.g. Camomile tea
 * Light therapy. Used to treat some sleep disorders and depression.
 * Exercise
 * Meditation and relaxation techniques. Mindfulness is form of meditation. Another technique is progressive muscle relaxation techniques.
 * Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP). Used to treat specific breathing related sleeping disorders such as sleep apnea.

Sleep scales
Please click on a scale to find out how your rate on these sleep scales.
 * The Epworth Sleepiness scale
 * The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index

Summary
Overall this chapter discusses the differences in REM and NREM sleep. We have talked about the neurophysiology of sleep, optimal sleeping patterns and dreaming states. The chapter describes happiness, emotion and mood. We discussed sleep and its effects on emotions and what problems can arise with disordered sleep. Lastly, strategies have been provided for anyone that has trouble with sleep and sleep scales have been linked into the page which helps people identify sleep problems. Links have been provided to other pages for information on sleep, strategies and sleep services. Good night!


text:
User:Scarney1290

Hello all,

My name is Sam and I am currently an exchange student here from North Carolina. I'll be at the uni for one semester, but I plan to learn and experience a lot! I enjoy learning about psychology and hope to get a degree in counseling one day. Other than that, I really enjoy traveling, spending time with loved ones, and being adventuresome. I am looking forward to a great semester!

title: User:Scarney1290


text: User:Skachwalla

title: User:Skachwalla


text:
User:A-bryant

I will be looking at the power of thought! I've always been interested in how the way we think affects the way we feel. In addition, how the way you think has the power to change your life.

title: User:A-bryant


text: User:Mlac

title: User:Mlac


text:
User talk:Mlac

 Hello Mlac, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 14:08, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
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text: User:Momentai

title: User:Momentai


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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
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User talk:Scarney1290

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Chapter feedback
FYI, I've left some feedback about the Self-image chapter here: Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-image -- Jtneill - Talk - c 20:16, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

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text:
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 14:41, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

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text:
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 14:42, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
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Rednoodles' chapter topic
FYI, I've replied to your student email, with details of the book chapter contents edit history, showing what you signed up for and unsigned from. Let me know what you'd like to do. Sincerely, James. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:39, 31 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Please see your student email - we need to discuss a different path. I am concerned that you are going ahead with editing Motivation and emotion/Book/Competitiveness, even though you unsigned from this topic and someone else signed up to it. Sincerely, James. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 03:09, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi James, I just emailed you. When I look at the book chapters I am next to the motivation/competitiveness option not the relationships one someone else is. Maybe your screen is different to mine. Plus I'm confused what your saying doesn't match to the email you sent me where you said I enrolled in this one and unenrolled from the other so how am I developing a source that I'm not signed up for?Rednoodles 03:21, 31 October 2011 (UTC)
 * OK, great, that makes sense. You are editing the right page, don't worry, it seems we just need to tweak the title on that page (I've done that) and you're fine, working on the right topic and page. Thanks for helping sort this out. Sincerely, James. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 03:51, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Great work so far but watch out for overly long paragraphs. Miz.mira 10:47, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rednoodles


text:
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User talk:Amolthefriend

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text:
User:MrFidaAliEngr/Manthal

Manthal is located on Sadpara road some 6 km from Skardu town. It is awsomely beatiful in summer and it attracts visitors in good numbers. It is an ancient place which holds ancient carvings on very large stones. According to folk tales there existed an ancient civilisation. It is said that Sadpara lake was miraculously formed when a saint visited there and asked for food in ancient times but none helped him except an old lady who presented food to him. The saint advised the old lady to climb the nearby mountain and not to see back untill she reached the top which did with her grandaughter on her back but saw back after reaching some height. Meanwhile a lake was formed in her village. She wished herself to become stone which soon happened. Please do not believe. It is only myth and there is no factual account of the later part of this story.

title: User:MrFidaAliEngr/Manthal


text:
Interlingua

Benvenite!

Interlingua is an international auxiliary language (IAL), developed between 1937 and 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). It ranks among the top three most widely used IALs (after Esperanto and perhaps Ido), and is the most widely used naturalistic IAL: in other words, its vocabulary, grammar and other characteristics are largely derived from natural languages. Interlingua was developed to combine a simple, mostly regular grammar with a vocabulary common to the widest possible range of languages,making it unusually easy to learn, at least for those whose native languages were sources of Interlingua's vocabulary and grammar. Conversely, it is used as a rapid introduction to many natural languages.Interlingua literature maintains that (written) Interlingua is comprehensible to the hundreds of millions of people who speak a Romance language,though it is actively spoken by only a few hundred. The name Interlingua comes from the Latin words inter, meaning between, and lingua, meaning tongue or language. These morphemes are identical in Interlingua. Thus, Interlingua would be "between language", or intermediary language.

Readings

 * Interlingua
 * Interlingua grammar
 * Interlingua E-book
 * Concise English-Interlingua Dictionary

Ressources

 * Parlator de Interlingua - parlator.org

Lessons

 * Prefacio.
 * Lesson 1:
 * Lesson 2:
 * Lesson 3:
 * Lesson 4:
 * lesson 5:
 * lesson 6:
 * lesson 7:
 * lesson 8:
 * lesson 9:
 * lesson 10:
 * 1-me lection:
 * 2-nde lection:
 * 3-tie lection:
 * 4-te lection:
 * 5-te lection:
 * Grammatica:
 * Clave:
 * Vocabulario:

title: Interlingua