license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Sampling.2.B.BandPass.20120308.pdf


title: File:VHDL.Signal.1.A.20120308.pdf


text:
Nuclear power greener/A Critique of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors

(Review Paper) Cited in

Points Made
This article studies the condition and outlooks of Ukrainian nuclear-power energy 25 years after the accident on the Chernobyl NPS and the recent accidents at Fukushima nuclear plant.

Methods
Research is being conducted on the following areas: •Prospective deep burial place for wastes •Metallic corps—the critical element of a nuclear reactor which determines term of exploitation and expiration dates. Experimental research is performed by developed countries to estimate the state of the metallic corps and predict terms of exploitation •Main ways of nuclear power developments are analyzed •Issues related to Nuclear Fuel Exhaust (NFE) are analyzed •Problems dealing with radioactive waste

Results
•Experimental research proved that the exploitation term of the metallic corps can be prolonged from 10 to 20 years. Ukraine would benefit if its corps of reactors had the same characteristic to allow for the prolongation of exploitation.

•Some of the main ways that Ukraine should implement for its nuclear power developments were identified to be the following -In order to increase the level of nuclear safety, reconstruction and modernization of its operating units is needed -An extension of exploitation of operation power units -Action of new reactor options -Ukraine should create its own NFC -Infrastructure is needed to deal with radioactive waste -Creation of an ecologically safe system -Development and production of systems that deal with atomic-industrial complexities

•In order for Chernobyl NPS to improve its growth and success in the future implementation of the steps to improve usage time and plant development is needed.


text:
Talk:Tarot

Tarot
I've revised this tarot article as it was too narrow in scope. Readers are mislead into believing the card reading is the only use of tarot cards. For one thing it makes no mention of the fact that tarot cards were really made for card games still played today in some countries. Tarot articles for something like Wikiversity should take a more global perspective and not simply give interpretations of the cards. The older version has been preserved with a more appropriate title. A Psychological Interpretation of the TarotSmiloid (talk) 20:43, 8 March 2012 (UTC)
 * I've decided to merge the two articlesSmiloid (talk) 21:00, 8 March 2012 (UTC)

Okay.--Nobody60 (talk) 09:26, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

Numbering wrong and system only let me fix 1st 3 cards
I was able to fix the numbering of the 1st 3 cards but it will not let me fix the rest. Wikipedia works fine but Wikiversity works crappy. Somebody fix the numbering. DErnestWachter (discuss • contribs) 21:01, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

Except first few cards system let me fix, all major arcana are 1 number too high DErnestWachter (discuss • contribs) 00:47, 6 October 2019 (UTC)

Except first few cards system let me fix, all major arcana are 1 number too high DErnestWachter (discuss • contribs) 00:47, 6 October 2019 (UTC)

Justice/Strength numbering controversy needs mentioned
This system will not let me edit and I am an expert Tarologist. I tried to explain the controversy around major arcana numbers 8 and 11. Wtf is wrong w/ this system? This controversy over the ordering needs discussed. DErnestWachter (discuss • contribs) 21:05, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

 * You need to slow down and take time to learn more about Wikiversity. If you continue at this pace, your account will be blocked for a period of time to force the opportunity to slow down and learn. -- Dave Braunschweig (discuss • contribs) 21:15, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tarot


text:
User:Marshallsumter/Radiation astronomy/Electrons

Although electron astronomy is usually not recognized as a formal branch of astronomy, the measurement of electron fluxes helps to understand a variety of natural phenomena.

""[E]lectron astronomy" has an interesting future".

Astronomy
With respect to the rocky-object Earth, between the surface and various altitudes there is an electric field induced by the ionosphere. It changes with altitude from about 150 volts per meter at the suface to lower values at higher altitude. In fair weather, it is relatively constant, in turbulent weather it is accompanied by ions. At greater altitude these chemical species continue to increase in concentration. To dissipate the accumulation of greater charge differential between the surface and the ionosphere, the gases between suffer breakdown (ionization) that permits lightning to be either a draw of negative charge, usually electrons, upward from the surface or a transfer of positive charge to the ground.

Radiation
Def. "the non-linear scattering of radiation off electrons" is called induced Compton scattering.

"The effect of scattering is to move photons to lower frequencies." "[T]he fact that the radio pulses [from a pulsar] are not suppressed by induced scattering suggests that the wind's Lorentz factor exceeds ~104.

The Lorentz factor is defined as:

 * $$\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \beta^2}} = \frac{\mathrm{d}t}{\mathrm{d}\tau} $$

where:

 * v is the relative velocity between inertial reference frames,
 * β is the ratio of v to the speed of light c.
 * τ is the proper time for an observer (measuring time intervals in the observer's own frame),
 * c is the speed of light.

As an example, "[t]he power into the Crab Nebula is apparently supplied by an outflow [wind] of ~1038 erg/s from the pulsar" where there are "electrons (and positrons) in such a wind". These beta particles coming out of the pulsar are moving very close to light speed.

Electrons
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative charge, equal to -1.60217646x10-19 C. Current, or the rate of flow of charge, is defined such that one coulomb, so 1/-1.60217646x10-19, or 6.24150974x1018 electrons flowing past a point per second give a current of one ampere. The charge on an electron is often given as -e. Note that charge is always considered positive, so the charge of an electron is always negative.

The electron has a mass of 9.10938188x10-31 kg, or about 1/1840 that of a proton. The mass of an electron is often written as me.

When working, these values can usually be safely approximated to:

 * -e = -1.60x10-19 C
 * me = 9.11x10-31kg

It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half-integer value in units of ħ, which means that it is a fermion.

As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."

Delta rays
A delta ray is characterized by very fast electrons produced in quantity by alpha particles or other fast energetic charged particles knocking orbiting electrons out of atoms. Collectively, these electrons are defined as delta radiation when they have sufficient energy to ionize further atoms through subsequent interactions on their own.

"The conventional procedure of delta-ray counting to measure charge (Powell, Fowler, and Perkins 1959), which was limited to resolution sigmaz = 1-2 because of uncertainties of the criterion of delta-ray ranges, has been significantly improved by the application of delta-ray range distribution measurements for 16O and 32S data of 200 GeV per nucleon (Takahashi 1988; Parnell et al. 1989)." Here, the delta-ray tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for "[d]irect measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei above 1 TeV/nucleon ... in a series of balloon-borne experiments".

Epsilon rays
Epsilon radiation is tertiary radiation caused by secondary radiation (e.g., delta radiation). Epsilon rays are a form of particle radiation and are composed of electrons. The term is very rarely used today.

Antimatter
The brightest feature corresponds to the nucleus of the Galaxy. The horizontal structure lies along the plane of the Galaxy. The antimatter "cloud" is located above the Galactic center.

Def. an elementary subatomic particle which forms matter is called a quark.

Note: quarks are never found alone in nature.

Def. the smallest possible, and therefore indivisible, unit of a given quantity or quantifiable phenomenon is called the quantum.

Def. one of certain integers or half-integers that specify the state of a quantum mechanical system is called a quantum number.

Def. a quantum number that depends upon the relative number of strange quarks and anti-strange quarks is called strangeness.

Def. symmetry of interactions under spatial inversion is called parity.

Def. "the quantity of [unbalanced] positive or negative ions in or on an object; measured in coulombs" or "a quantum number of some subatomic particles which determines their electromagnetic interactions" is called an electric charge.

Def. the mean duration of the life of someone or something is called the mean lifetime.

Def. a quantum angular momentum associated with subatomic particles, which also creates a magnetic moment is called a spin.

Def. the "quantity of matter which a body contains, irrespective of its bulk or volume" or a "quantity of matter cohering together so as to make one body, or an aggregation of particles or things which collectively make one body or quantity" is called mass, or a mass.

Def. a subatomic particle corresponding to another particle with the same mass, spin and mean lifetime but with charge, parity, strangeness and other quantum numbers flipped in sign is called an antiparticle.

Def. matter that is composed of antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter is called antimatter.

A positron differs from a quark by its lack of strong interaction.

Def. "[t]he antimatter equivalent of an electron, having the same mass but a positive charge" is called a positron.

Nuclear transmutations
If the proton and neutron are part of an atomic nucleus, these decay processes transmute one chemical element into another. For example:

^A_ZN \rightarrow ~ ^{A}_{Z-1}N' + e^+ + \nu_e, $$

where A = 22, Z = 11, N = Na, Z-1 = 10, and N' = Ne.

Beta decay does not change the number of nucleons, A, in the nucleus but changes only its charge, Z. Thus the set of all nuclides with the same A can be introduced; these isobaric nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay. Among them, several nuclides (at least one) are beta stable, because they present local minima of the mass excess: if such a nucleus has (A, Z) numbers, the neighbour nuclei (A, Z−1) and (A, Z+1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (A, Z), but not vice versa. For all odd mass numbers A the global minimum is also the unique local minimum. For even A, there are up to three different beta-stable isobars experimentally known. There are about 355 known beta-decay stable nuclides total.

Radioactivity
In decay, or "positron emission", the weak interaction converts a nucleus into its next-lower neighbor on the periodic table while emitting an positron  and an electron neutrino :

^A_ZN \rightarrow ~ ^{A}_{Z-1}N' + e^+ + \nu_e. $$

decay cannot occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy due to the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. decay can only happen inside nuclei when the value of the binding energy of the mother nucleus is less than that of the daughter nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles.

Positron emission or beta plus decay' (β+ decay) is a type of beta decay in which a proton is converted, via the weak force, to a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.

Isotopes which undergo this decay and thereby emit positrons include carbon-11, potassium-40, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15, fluorine-18, and iodine-121. As an example, the following equation describes the beta plus decay of carbon-11 to boron-11, emitting a positron and a neutrino:

^{11}_{6}C \rightarrow ~ ^{11}_{5}B + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma {(0.96 MeV)}. $$

Annihilations
The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1e, a spin of ½, and has the same mass as an electron. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, annihilation occurs, resulting in the production of two or more gamma ray photons.

Def. the process of a particle and its corresponding antiparticle combining to produce energy is called annihilation.

The figure at right shows a positron (e+) emitted from an atomic nucleus together with a neutrino (v). Subsequently, the positron moves randomly through the surrounding matter where it hits several different electrons (e-) until it finally loses enough energy that it interacts with a single electron. This process is called an "annihilation" and results in two diametrically emitted photons with a typical energy of 511 keV each. Under normal circumstances the photons are not emitted exactly diametrically (180 degrees). This is due to the remaining energy of the positron having conservation of momentum.

Electron–positron annihilation occurs when an electron and a positron (, the electron's antiparticle) collide. The result of the collision is the annihilation of the electron and positron, and the creation of gamma ray photons or, at higher energies, other particles:

 * + →  +

The process [does] satisfy a number of conservation laws, including:

 * Conservation of electric charge. The net charge before and after is zero.
 * Conservation of linear momentum and total energy. This forbids the creation of a single gamma ray. However, in quantum field theory this process is [described]; see examples of annihilation.
 * Conservation of angular momentum.

As with any two charged objects, electrons and positrons may also interact with each other without annihilating, in general by elastic scattering.

The creation of only one photon can occur for tightly bound atomic electrons. In the most common case, two photons are created, each with energy equal to the rest energy of the electron or positron (511 keV). It is also common for three to be created, since in some angular momentum states, this is necessary to conserve C parity. Any larger number of photons [can be created], but the probability becomes lower with each additional photon. When either the electron or positron, or both, have appreciable kinetic energies, other heavier particles can also be produced (such as D mesons), since there is enough kinetic energy in the relative velocities to provide the rest energies of those particles. Photons and other light particles may be produced, but they will emerge with higher energies.

At energies near and beyond the mass of the carriers of the weak force, the W and Z bosons, the strength of the weak force becomes comparable with electromagnetism. It becomes much easier to produce particles such as neutrinos that interact only weakly.

The heaviest particle pairs yet produced by electron–positron annihilation are – pairs. The heaviest single particle is the Z boson.

Annihilation radiation is not monoenergetic, unlike gamma rays produced by radioactive decay. The production mechanism of annihilation radiation introduces Doppler broadening. The annihilation peak produced in a gamma spectrum by annihilation radiation therefore has a higher full width at half maximum (FWHM) than other gamma rays in [the] spectrum. The difference is more apparent with high resolution detectors, such as Germanium detectors, than with low resolution detectors such as Sodium iodide. Because of their well-defined energy (511 keV) and characteristic, Doppler-broadened shape, annihilation radiation can often be useful in defining the energy calibration of a gamma ray spectrum.

Pair production
The reverse reaction, electron–positron creation, is a form of pair production governed by two-photon physics.

Two-photon physics, also called gamma-gamma physics, [studies] the interactions between two photons. If the energy in the center of mass system of the two photons is large enough, matter can be created.

 * → +

In nuclear physics, [the above reaction] occurs when a high-energy photon interacts with a nucleus. The photon must have enough energy [> 2*511 keV, or 1.022 MeV] to create an electron plus a positron. Without a nucleus to absorb momentum, a photon decaying into electron-positron pair (or other pairs for that matter such as a muon and anti-muon or a tau and anti-tau can never conserve energy and momentum simultaneously.

These interactions were first observed in Patrick Blackett's counter-controlled cloud chamber. In 2008 the Titan laser aimed at a 1-millimeter-thick gold target was used to generate positron–electron pairs in large numbers. "The LLNL scientists created the positrons by shooting the lab's high-powered Titan laser onto a one-millimeter-thick piece of gold."

Planetary sciences
The image at right represents "[t]he Jovian magnetosphere [magnetic field lines in blue], including the Io flux tube [in green], Jovian aurorae, the sodium cloud [in yellow], and sulfur torus [in red]."

"Io may be considered to be a unipolar generator which develops an emf [electromotive force] of 7 x 105 volts across its radial diameter (as seen from a coordinate frame fixed to Jupiter)."

"This voltage difference is transmitted along the magnetic flux tube which passes through Io. ... The current [in the flux tube] must be carried by keV electrons which are electrostatically accelerated at Io and at the top of Jupiter's ionosphere."

"Io's high density (4.1 g cm-3) suggests a silicate composition. A reasonable guess for its electrical conductivity might be the conductivity of the Earth's upper mantle, 5 x 10-5 ohm-1 cm-1 (Bullard 1967)."

As "a conducting body [transverses] a magnetic field [it] produces an induced electric field. ... The Jupiter-Io system ... operates as a unipolar inductor" ... Such unipolar inductors may be driven by electrical power, develop hotspots, and the "source of heating [may be] sufficient to account for the observed X-ray luminosity".

"The electrical surroundings of Io provide another energy source which has been estimated to be comparable with that of the [gravitational] tides (7). A current of 5 x 106 A is ... shunted across flux tubes of the Jovian field by the presence of Io (7-9)."

"[W]hen the currents [through Io] are large enough to cause ohmic heating ... currents ... contract down to narrow paths which can be kept hot, and along which the conductivity is high. Tidal heating [ensures] that the interior of Io has a very low eletrical resistance, causing a negligible extra amount of heat to be deposited by this current. ... [T]he outermost layers, kept cool by radiation into space [present] a large resistance and [result in] a concentration of the current into hotspots ... rock resistivity [and] contact resistance ... contribute to generate high temperatures on the surface. [These are the] conditions of electric arcs [that can produce] temperatures up to ionization levels ... several thousand kelvins".

"[T]he outbursts ... seen [on the surface may also be] the result of the large current ... flowing in and out of the domain of Io ... Most current spots are likely to be volcanic calderas, either provided by tectonic events within Io or generated by the current heating itself. ... [A]s in any electric arc, very high temperatures are generated, and the locally evaporated materials ... are ... turned into gas hot enough to expand at a speed of 1 km/s."

Colors
Notation: WN5 is a component of V444 Cygni, with its Wolf-Rayet (W) spectrum dominated by NitrogenIII-V and HeliumI-II lines and WN2 to WN5 considered hotter or "early".

"The color temperature of the central part of the WN5 disk for λ < 7512 Å, where the main source of opacity is electron scattering, is Tc = 80,000-100,000 K. This high temperature represents the electron temperature slightly below the surface of the WN5 core--the level at which the star becomes optically thick in electron scattering."

Minerals
"Many samples of fluorite exhibit fluorescence under ultraviolet light, a property that takes its name from fluorite. Many minerals, as well as other substances, fluoresce. Fluorescence involves the elevation of electron energy levels by quanta of ultraviolet light, followed by the progressive falling back of the electrons into their previous energy state, releasing quanta of visible light in the process. In fluorite, the visible light emitted is most commonly blue, but red, purple, yellow, green and white also occur. The fluorescence of fluorite may be due to mineral impurities such as yttrium, ytterbium, or organic matter in the crystal lattice. In particular, the blue fluorescence seen in fluorites from certain parts of Great Britain responsible for the naming of the phenomenon of fluorescence itself, has been attributed to the presence of inclusions of divalent europium in the crystal.

Theoretical electron astronomy
"We now assume that the γ-rays are produced [from 3C 279] by relativistic electrons via Compton scattering of synchrotron photons (SSC). In any such model, the fact that the γ-ray luminosity, produced via Compton scattering, is higher than that emitted at lower frequencies (1014 - 1016 Hz), supposedly via the synchrotron process, implies a radiation energy density, Ur, higher than the magnetic energy density, UB. From the observed power ratio we derive that Ur must be one order of magnitude greater than UB, which may be a lower limit if Klein-Nishina effects reduce the efficiency of the self-Compton emission. This result is independent of the degree of beaming, which, for a homogeneous source, affects both the synchrotron and the self-Compton fluxes in the same way. This source is therefore the first observed case of the result of a Compton catastrophe (Hoyle, Burbidge, & Sargent 1966)."

Here's a theoretical definition:

Def. an observational astronomy that primarily detects electron fluxes to study their production and sources is called an electron astronomy.

Strong forces
Here, following a collision of two protons, a Higgs boson is produced which decays into two jets of hadrons and two electrons. The lines represent the possible paths of particles produced by the proton-proton collision in the detector while the energy these particles deposit is shown in blue.

"The idea behind baryon matter is that a macroscopic state may exist in which a smaller effective baryon mass inside some region makes the state energetically favored over free particles. [...] This state will appear in the limit of large baryon number as an electrically neutral coherent bound state of neutrons, protons, and electrons in β-decay equilibrium."

Continua
The X-ray continuum can arise from bremsstrahlung, black-body radiation, synchrotron radiation, or what is called inverse Compton scattering of lower-energy photons by relativistic electrons, knock-on collisions of fast protons with atomic electrons, and atomic recombination, with or without additional electron transitions.

Cosmic rays
Aluminium-26, 26Al, is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the modes beta-plus or electron capture, both resulting in the stable nuclide magnesium-26. The half-life of 26Al is 7.17 years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons.

Beta particles
Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40. The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also known as beta rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay. They are designated by the Greek letter beta (β).

At right is a graph or block diagram that shows the boundaries for nuclear particle stability. The boundaries are conceptualized as drip lines. The nuclear landscape is understood by plotting boxes, each of which represents a unique nuclear species, on a graph with the number of neutrons increasing on the abscissa and number of protons increasing along the ordinate, which is commonly referred to as the table of nuclides, being to nuclear physics what the more commonly known periodic table of the elements is to chemistry. However, an arbitrary combination of protons and neutrons does not necessarily yield a stable nucleus, and ultimately when continuing to add more of the same type of nucleons to a given nucleus, the newly formed nucleus will essentially undergo immediate decay where a nucleon of the same isospin quantum number (proton or neutron) is emitted; colloquially the nucleon has 'leaked' or 'dripped' out of the target nucleus, hence giving rise to the term "drip line". The nucleons drip out of such unstable nuclei for the same reason that water drips from a leaking faucet: the droplet, or nucleon in this case, sees a lower potential which is great enough to overcome surface tension in the case of water droplets, and the strong nuclear force in the case of proton emission or alpha decay. As nucleons are quantized, then only integer values are plotted on the table of isotopes, indicating that the drip line is not linear but instead looks like a step function up close.

Beta particles (electrons) are more penetrating [than alpha particles], but still can be absorbed by a few millimeters of aluminum. However, in cases where high energy beta particles are emitted shielding must be accomplished with low density materials, e.g. plastic, wood, water or acrylic glass (Plexiglas, Lucite). This is to reduce generation of Bremsstrahlung X-rays. In the case of beta+ radiation (positrons), the gamma radiation from the electron-positron annihilation reaction poses additional concern.

Muons
"TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."

Muon decay produces three particles, an electron plus two neutrinos of different types.

Gamma rays
Most astronomical gamma-rays may be produced from the same type of accelerations of electrons, and electron-photon interactions, that produce X-rays in astronomy (but occurring at a higher energy in the production of gamma-rays).

A number of different processes occurring in the universe may result in gamma-ray emission. These processes include the interactions of energetic electrons with magnetic fields.

The correlations of the high energy electrons energized during a solar flare and the gamma rays produced are mostly caused by nuclear combinations of high energy protons and other heavier ions.

X-rays
X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this X-ray heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant.

In an X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated in a vacuum by an electric field and shot into a piece of metal called the "target". X-rays are emitted as the electrons slow down (decelerate) in the metal. The output spectrum consists of a continuous spectrum of X-rays, with additional sharp peaks at certain energies characteristic of the elements of the target.

Ultraviolets
This is the first laser spectrum from the Chemistry and Camera (ChemCam) instrument on NASA's Curiosity rover, sent back from Mars on August 19, 2012. The plot shows emission lines from different elements present in the target, a rock near the rover's landing site dubbed "Coronation" (see inset).

ChemCam's detectors observe light in the ultraviolet (UV), violet, visible and near-infrared ranges using three spectrometers, covering wavelengths from 240 to 850 nanometers. The light is produced when ChemCam's laser pulse strikes a target, generating ionized gases in the form of plasma, which is then analyzed by the spectrometers and their detectors for the presence of specific elements. The detectors can collect up to 16,000 counts produced by the light in any of its 6,144 channels for each laser shot.

The plot is a composite of spectra taken over 30 laser shots at a single 0.016-inch (0.4-millimeter) diameter spot on the target. An inset on the left shows detail for the minor elements titanium and manganese in the 398-to-404-nanometer range. An inset at the right shows the hydrogen and carbon peaks. The carbon peak was from the carbon dioxide in Mars' air. The hydrogen peak was only present on the first laser shot, indicating that the element was only on the very surface of the rock. Magnesium was also slightly enriched on the surface. The heights of the peaks do not directly indicate the relative abundances of the elements in the rock, as some emission lines are more easily excited than others.

A preliminarily analysis indicates the spectrum is consistent with basalt, a type of volcanic rock, which is known from previous missions to be abundant on Mars. Coronation is about three inches (7.6 centimeters) across, and located about 5 feet (1.5 meters) from the rover and about nine feet (2.7 meters) from ChemCam on the mast.

Carbon has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 229.687 nm from C III, 227.089, 227.727, and 227.792 nm from C V, 207.025, 208.216, 313.864, and 343.366 nm from C VI.

Argon has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 333.613, 334.472, 335.211, 335.849, and 336.128 nm from Ar III.

Visuals
Chemicals in the rocks absorb the ultraviolet light and emit visible light of various colors, a process called fluorescence.

Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation. However, when the absorbed electromagnetic radiation is intense, it is possible for one electron to absorb two photons; this two-photon absorption can lead to emission of radiation having a shorter wavelength than the absorbed radiation. The emitted radiation may also be of the same wavelength as the absorbed radiation, termed "resonance fluorescence".

Violets
Hydrogen has two emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas at 397.007 nm of the Balmer series (Hε) and 434.05 nm Hγ.

Oxygen has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 406.963, 406.99, 407.22, 407.59, 407.89, 408.51, 435.12, 441.489, and 441.697 nm from O II, and 434.045 nm from O VIII.

"Electron temperatures are generally derived from the ratio of auroral to nebular lines in [O III] or [N II]." "[B]ecause of the proximity of strong night-sky lines at λ4358 and λλ5770, 5791, the auroral lines of [O III] λ4363 and [N II] λ5755 are often contaminated."

Argon has several emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas: 426.653, 428.29, 433.12, 434.8064, 437.075, 437.967, 442.60, and 443.019 nm from Ar II.

Greens
"On February 25th 2014 a violent X4.9-class solar flare erupted from a large sunspot group which had just rotated into view around the SE limb of the solar disk. The CME it unfurled was a massive full halo feature in the form of an expanding cloud of highly charged particles and plasma en route to the inner planets at a staggering velocity of over 2000km/sec. At this speed the CME would sweep across 93 million miles of space and impact planet Earth in only two days. However there was bad news as the source of this flare - and subsequent CME event - was located so close to the limb of the sun that the CME was very unlikely to impact Earth because it was located too far from the meridian and hence was not termed geoeffective which meant there was no chance of any Earth directed component at all. A few hours later a more detailed look by spaceweather scientists followed which offered some cautious optimism for in some of their forecasting models there was a slight chance that the CME could hit Earth a glancing blow with a possibility of minor geomagnetic storms on Feb 27th however the consensus was that the CME would probably miss entirely or if there was a hit then it wasn't expected to be significant."

Yellows
"The temperature of yellow coronal regions is ... about 2.5 [x] 106 [K]. ... although some ions Ca XV will exist at lower, as well as higher temperatures."

"The AS prominences [AS in Menzel-Evans' classification [4];] move with velocities exceeding by far the velocities of other types of prominences [7], [8]. As short-living phenomena, they are condensed quickly and the temperature of the coronal gases should rise in the early stages of their condensation. Indeed, the AS prominences use to be allied with yellow line emission (λ 5694)."

"The yellow line is namely due to the ion Ca XV, according to Edlen's and Waldmeier's identification. ... the line λ 5694 is emitted by 3P1 - 3P0 transition of Ca XV."

"The solar corona is not in thermodynamical equilibrium. In particular, the photo-recombination is compensated with electron impact ionization, while the reverse processes viz. the photoionization and recombination by impact with two electrons are there negligible."

Reds
The image on the right contains yellow aurora that is closer to true yellow with red next to it.

Infrareds
In infrared astronomy, the cosmic infrared background (CIB) causes a significant attenuation for very high energy electrons through inverse Compton scattering, photopion and electron-positron pair production.

Submillimeters
Radio observations at 210 GHz taken by the Bernese Multibeam Radiometer for KOSMA (BEMRAK) of high-energy particle acceleration during the energetic solar flare of 2003 October 28 at submillimeter wavelengths reveal a gradual, long-lasting (>30 minutes) component with large apparent source sizes (~60"). Its spectrum below ~200 GHz is consistent with synchrotron emission from flare-accelerated electrons producing hard X-ray and γ-ray bremsstrahlung assuming a magnetic field strength of ≥200 G in the radio source and a confinement time of the radio-emitting electrons in the source of less than 30 s. There is a close correlation in time and space of radio emission with the production of pions".

Superluminals
There is a cut-off frequency above which the equation $$\cos\theta=1/(n\beta)$$ cannot be satisfied. Since the refractive index is a function of frequency (and hence wavelength), the intensity does not continue increasing at ever shorter wavelengths even for ultra-relativistic particles (where v/c approaches 1). At X-ray frequencies, the refractive index becomes less than unity (note that in media the phase velocity may exceed c without violating relativity) and hence no X-ray emission (or shorter wavelength emissions such as gamma rays) would be observed. However, X-rays can be generated at special frequencies just below those corresponding to core electronic transitions in a material, as the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonance frequency (see Kramers-Kronig relation and anomalous dispersion).

"Throughout the shower development, the electrons and positrons which travel faster than the speed of light in the air emit Cherenkov radiation."

"High energy processes such as Compton, Bhabha, and Moller scattering, along with positron annihilation rapidly lead to a ~20% negative charge asymmetry in the electron-photon part of a cascade ... initiated by a ... 100 PeV neutrino".

"The tachyonic spectral densities generated by ultra-relativistic electrons in uniform motion are fitted to the high-energy spectra of Galactic supernova remnants, such as RX J0852.0−4622 and the pulsar wind nebulae in G0.9+0.1 and MSH 15-52. ... Tachyonic cascade spectra are quite capable of generating the spectral curvature seen ... Estimates on the electron/proton populations generating the tachyon flux are obtained from the spectral fits"

Plasma objects
"Plasma is the fourth state of matter, consisting of electrons, ions and neutral atoms, usually at temperatures above 104 degrees Kelvin."

Plasma is a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. Heating a gas may ionize its molecules or atoms (reduce or increase the number of electrons in them), thus turning it into a plasma, which contains charged particles: positive ions and negative electrons or ions.

For plasma to exist, ionization is necessary. The term "plasma density" by itself usually refers to the "electron density", that is, the number of free electrons per unit volume. The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and is controlled mostly by the temperature. Even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma (i.e., response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity). The degree of ionization, α is defined as α = ni/(ni + na) where ni is the number density of ions and na is the number density of neutral atoms. The electron density is related to this by the average charge state  of the ions through ne =  ni where ne is the number density of electrons.

Gaseous objects
Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (this is about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level; however, photosphere particles are electrons and protons, so the average particle in air is 58 times as heavy).

Materials
Def. an object, usually made of glass, that focuses or defocuses the light or an electron beam that passes through it is called a lens.

Coronal clouds
Helmet streamers are bright loop-like structures which develop over active regions on the sun. They are closed magnetic loops which connect regions of opposite magnetic polarity. Electrons are captured in these loops, and cause them to glow very brightly. The solar wind elongates these loops to pointy tips. They far extend above most prominences into the corona, and can be readily observed during a solar eclipse. Helmet streamers are usually confined to the "streamer belt" in the mid latitudes, and their distribution follows the movement of active regions during the solar cycle. Small blobs of plasma, or "plasmoids" are sometimes released from the tips of helmet streamers, and this is one source of the slow component of the solar wind. In contrast, formations with open magnetic field lines are called coronal holes, and these are darker and are a source of the fast solar wind. Helmet streamers can also create coronal mass ejections if a large volume of plasma becomes disconnected near the tip of the streamer.

In the corona thermal conduction occurs from the external hotter atmosphere towards the inner cooler layers. Responsible for the diffusion process of the heat are the electrons, which are much lighter than ions and move faster.

Solar winds
Particles such as electrons are used as tracers of cosmic magnetic fields.

"From a plasma-physics point of view, the particles represent the correct way to identify magnetic field lines." "The suprathermal electrons in the solar wind and in solar particle events have excellent properties for this application: they move rapidly, they remain tightly bound to their field lines, and they may arrive "scatter-free" even at low energies, and from deep in the solar atmosphere (Lin 1985)."

"Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids."

Mercury
Mariner 10 has aboard "one backward facing electron spectrometer (BESA). ... An electron spectrum [is] obtained every 6 s, ... within the energy range 13.4-690 eV. ... [B]y taking into account [the angular] distortion [caused by the solar wind passing the spacecraft] and the spacecraft sheath characteristics ... some of the solar wind plasma parameters such as ion bulk speed, electron temperature, and electron density [are derived]." Mariner 10 had three encounters with Mercury on March 29, 1974, September 21, 1974, and on March 16, 1975. The BESA measurements "show that the planet interacts with the solar wind to form a bow shock and a permanent magnetosphere. ... The magnetosphere of Mercury appears to be similar in shape to that of the earth but much smaller in relation to the size of the planet. The average distance from the center of Mercury to the subsolar point of the magnetopause is ∼ 1.4 planetary radii. Electron populations similar to those found in the earth’s magnetotail, within the plasma sheet and adjacent regions, were observed at Mercury; both their spatial location and the electron energy spectra within them bear qualitative and quantitative resemblance to corresponding observations at the earth."

"[T]he Mercury encounter (M I) by Mariner 10 on 29 March 1974 occurred during the height of a Jovian electron increase in the interplanetary medium."

Venus
The first ever X-ray image of Venus is shown at right. The "half crescent is due to the relative orientation of the Sun, Earth and Venus. The X-rays from Venus are produced by fluorescent radiation from oxygen and other atoms in the atmosphere between 120 and 140 kilometers above the surface of the planet. In contrast, the optical light from Venus is caused by the reflection from clouds 50 to 70 kilometers above the surface. Solar X-rays bombard the atmosphere of Venus, knock electrons out of the inner parts of atoms, and excite the atoms to a higher energy level. The atoms almost immediately return to their lower energy state with the emission of a fluorescent X-ray. A similar process involving ultraviolet light produces the visible light from fluorescent lamps."

Earth
"[L]ow-altitude regions of downward electric current on auroral magnetic field lines are sites of dramatic upward magnetic field-aligned electron acceleration that generates intense magnetic field-aligned electron beams within Earth’s equatorial middle magnetosphere."

The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules that surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of about 50 km to more than 1000 km. It owes its existence primarily to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

The images are superimposed on a simulated image of the Earth. The color code represents brightness, maximum in red. Distance from the North pole to the black circle is 3,340 km.

"Auroras are produced by solar storms that eject clouds of energetic charged particles. These particles are deflected when they encounter the Earth’s magnetic field, but in the process large electric voltages are created. Electrons trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field are accelerated by these voltages and spiral along the magnetic field into the polar regions. There they collide with atoms high in the atmosphere and emit X-rays".

At left is a composite image which contains the first picture of the Earth in X-rays, taken in March, 1996, with the orbiting Polar satellite. The area of brightest X-ray emission is red.

Energetic charged particles from the Sun energize electrons in the Earth's magnetosphere. These electrons move along the Earth's magnetic field and eventually strike the ionosphere, causing the X-ray emission. Lightning strikes or bolts across the sky also emit X-rays.

Van Allen radiation belts
The Van Allen radiation belt is split into two distinct belts, with energetic electrons forming the outer belt and a combination of protons and electrons forming the inner belts. In addition, the radiation belts contain lesser amounts of other nuclei, such as alpha particles.

"The large outer radiation belt extends from an altitude of about three to ten Earth radii (RE) or 13,000 to 60,000 kilometres above the Earth's surface. Its greatest intensity is usually around 4–5 RE. The outer electron radiation belt is mostly produced by the inward radial diffusion and local acceleration due to transfer of energy from whistler mode plasma waves to radiation belt electrons. Radiation belt electrons are also constantly removed by collisions with atmospheric neutrals, losses to magnetopause, and the outward radial diffusion. The outer belt consists mainly of high energy (0.1–10 MeV) electrons trapped by the Earth's magnetosphere. The gyroradii for energetic protons would be large enough to bring them into contact with the Earth's atmosphere. The electrons here have a high flux and at the outer edge (close to the magnetopause), where geomagnetic field lines open into the geomagnetic "tail", fluxes of energetic electrons can drop to the low interplanetary levels within about 100 km (a decrease by a factor of 1,000).

Moon
The Moon where a prediction of a lunar double layer was confirmed in 2003.

In the shadows, the Moon charges negatively in the interplanetary medium.

The electron reflectometer (ER) [aboard the Lunar Prospector determines] the location and strength of magnetic fields from the energy spectrum and direction of electrons. The instrument [measures] the pitch angles of solar wind electrons reflected from the Moon by lunar magnetic fields. Stronger local magnetic fields can reflect electrons with larger pitch angles. Field strengths as small as 0.01 [nanotesla] nT could be measured with a spatial accuracy of about 3 km (1.9 mi) at the lunar surface.

"[T]he shadowed lunar surface charges negative."

Jupiter
"Field-aligned equatorial electron beams [have been] observed within Jupiter’s middle magnetosphere. ... the Jupiter equatorial electron beams are spatially and/or temporally structured (down to <20 km at auroral altitudes, or less than several minutes), with regions of intense beams intermixed with regions absent of such beams."

"Jovian electrons, both at Jupiter and in the interplanetary medium near Earth, have a very hard spectrum that varies as a power law with energy (see, e.g., Mewaldt et al. 1976). This spectral character is sufficiently distinct from the much softer solar and magnetospheric electron spectra that it has been used as a spectral filter to separate Jovian electrons from other sources ... A second Jovian electron characteristic is that such electrons in the interplanetary medium tend to consist of flux increases of several days duration which recur with 27 day periodicities ... A third feature of Jovian electrons at 1 AU is that the flux increases exhibit a long-term modulation of 13 months which is the synodic period of Jupiter as viewed from Earth".

Jovian electrons propagate "along the spiral magnetic field of the interplanetary medium [from Jupiter and its magnetosphere to the Sun]".

Callisto
At right is a complete global color image of Callisto. Bright scars on a darker surface testify to a long history of impacts on Jupiter's moon Callisto. The picture, taken in May 2001, is the only complete global color image of Callisto obtained by Galileo, which has been orbiting Jupiter since December 1995. Of Jupiter's four largest moons, Callisto orbits farthest from the giant planet. Callisto's surface is uniformly cratered but is not uniform in color or brightness. Scientists believe the brighter areas are mainly ice and the darker areas are highly eroded, ice-poor material.

Callisto's ionosphere was first detected during Galileo flybys; its high electron density of 7–17 x 104 cm−3 cannot be explained by the photoionization of the atmospheric carbon dioxide alone.

Saturn
"[M]agnetospheric electron (bi-directional) beams connect to the expected locations of Saturn’s aurora".

Powered by the Saturnian equivalent of (filamentary) Birkeland currents, streams of charged particles from the interplanetary medium interact with the planet's magnetic field and funnel down to the poles. Double layers are associated with (filamentary) currents, and their electric fields accelerate ions and electrons.

Heliospheres
These electrons "provide remote-sensing observations of distant targets in the heliosphere - the Sun, the Moon, Jupiter, and various heliospheric structures."

Electron winds
"The power into the Crab Nebula is apparently supplied by an outflow [wind] of ~1038 erg/s from the pulsar" where there are "electrons (and positrons) in such a wind". These beta particles coming out of the pulsar are moving very close to light speed.

"An electron beam furnace (EB furnace) is a type of vacuum furnace employing a high-energy electron beam in vacuum as the mean for delivery of heat to the material being melted.

The source of heat that brings the coronal cloud near the Sun hot enough to emit X-rays may be an electron beam heating effect due to "high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside".

Interstellar medium
The "many other types of radio sources in our galaxy [...] include so-called radio stars, emission nebula, flare stars and pulsars. [...] Pulsars were first discovered in 1967 by Cambridge post-graduate student Jocelyn Bell as she processed charts associated with an unrelated project to study twinkling radio sources. She noticed recurrent signals when the antenna was pointed in a certain direction. Further study revealed a precise timing interval of about 1 second. It also was found that the pulses were dispersed such that the lower frequencies arrived later than the higher frequencies. This dispersion could be attributed to scattering of the radiation by interstellar electrons and, if so, could provide an indication of the pulsar distance."

"A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH3)nNH4+, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range." For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH3–H2O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."

"lnterstellar scintillation (ISS), fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of radio waves caused by scattering in the interstellar medium, is important as a diagnostic of interstellar plasma turbulence. ISS is also of interest because it is noise for other radio astronomical observations. [As a remote, sensing tool, ISS is used to diagnose the plasma turbulence in the interstellar medium (lSM). However, where ISS acts as a noise source in other observations, the plasma physics of the medium is only of secondary interest.] The unifying concern is the power spectrum of the interstellar electron density."

"From measurements of angular broadening of pulsars and extragalactic sources, decorrelation bandwidth of pulsars, refractive steering of features in pulsar dynamic spectra, dispersion measure fluctuations of pulsars, and refractive scintillation index measurements, [...] a composite structure function that is approximately power law over 2 x 106 m < scale < 1013 m [is constructed]. The data are consistent with the structure function having a logarithmic slope versus baseline Iess than 2; thus there is a meaningful connection between scales in the radiowave fluctuation field and the scales in the electron density field causing the scattering."

A "composite electron density spectrum [is] approximately power law over at least the ≈ 5 decade wavenumber range 10-13 m-1 < wavenumber < 10-8 m-1 and that may extend to higher wavenumbers."

Physics
Def. "a quasiparticle produced as a result of electron spin-charge separation" is called a chargon, or holon.

Def. a "quasiparticle [...] that electrons in solids are able to split into during the process of spin-charge separation, when extremely tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero," that carries away the spin is called a spinon.

Electron volts
Def. a unit for measuring the energy of subatomic particles; the energy equal to that attained by an electron moving through a potential of one volt is called an electron volt.

The electron volt (eV) is the energy gained (or lost) by an electron in passing through a potential difference of one volt. Since the charge on an electron is 1.60218 x 10-19 Coulombs, an eV is 1.60218 x 10-19 J. A keV is 1000 eV and a MeV is 1000 keV.

A photon with an energy of 1 eV has a frequency of 1 eV/h = 2.41799 x 1014 Hz or about 242 THz and a wavelength of c*h/1 eV = 1.23984 x 10-6 m or about 1,240 nm or 12,400 Å. That would put the photon in the infrared range. In practice, photon energies are seldom stated for such long wavelengths.

Generally, the energy E, frequency ν, and wavelength λ of a photon are related by

 * $$E=h\nu=\frac{hc}{\lambda}=\frac{(4.135 667 33\times 10^{-15}\,\mbox{eV}\,\mbox{s})(299\,792\,458\,\mbox{m/s})}{\lambda},$$

where h is the Planck constant, c is the speed of light. This reduces to

 * $$E\mbox{(eV)}=\frac{1239.84187\,\mbox{eV}\,\mbox{nm}}{\lambda\ \mbox{(nm)}}.$$

Electron density
Def. a measure of the number of electrons per unit volume of space is called an electron density.

Electron density is the measure of the probability of an electron being present at a specific location. In molecules, regions of electron density are usually found around the atom, and its bonds.

In quantum chemical calculations, the electron density, ρ(r), is a function of the coordinates r, defined so ρ(r)dr is the number of electrons in a small volume dr. For closed-shell molecules, $$ \rho(\mathbf{r}) $$ can be written in terms of a sum of products of basis functions, φ:

 * $$ \rho(\mathbf{r}) = \sum_\mu \sum_\nu P_{\mu \nu} \phi_\mu(\mathbf{r}) \phi_\nu(\mathbf{r}) $$

where P is the density matrix. Electron densities are often rendered in terms of an isosurface (an isodensity surface) with the size and shape of the surface determined by the value of the density chosen, or in terms of a percentage of total electrons enclosed.

Spin density
Spin density is electron density applied to free radicals. It is defined as the total electron density of electrons of one spin minus the total electron density of the electrons of the other spin. One of the ways to measure it experimentally is by electron spin resonance, neutron diffraction allows direct mapping of the spin density in 3D-space.

Electron temperatures
If the velocities of a group of electrons, e.g., in a plasma, follow a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, then the electron temperature is well-defined as the temperature of that distribution. For other distributions, two-thirds of the average energy is often referred to as the temperature, since for a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution with three degrees of freedom, $$\langle E \rangle = (3/2) \langle k_BT \rangle$$. The International System of Units (SI) unit of temperature is the kelvin (K), but using the above relation the electron temperature is often expressed in terms of the energy unit electronvolt (eV). Each kelvin (1 K) corresponds to 8.617343(15) x 10-5 eV; this factor is the ratio of the Boltzmann constant to the elementary charge. The electron temperature of a plasma can be several orders of magnitude higher than the temperature of the neutral species or of the ions. This is a result of two facts. Firstly, many plasma sources heat the electrons more strongly than the ions. Secondly, atoms and ions are much heavier than electrons, and energy transfer in a two-body collision is much more efficient if the masses are similar.

Technology
A cyclotron is a compact type of particle accelerator in which charged particles in a static magnetic field are travelling outwards from the center along a spiral path and get accelerated by radio frequency electromagnetic fields. Cyclotrons accelerate charged particle beams using a high frequency alternating voltage which is applied between two "D"-shaped electrodes (also called "dees"). An additional static magnetic field $$B$$ is applied in perpendicular direction to the electrode plane, enabling particles to re-encounter the accelerating voltage many times at the same phase. To achieve this, the voltage frequency must match the particle's cyclotron resonance frequency

 * $$f = \frac{q B}{2\pi m}$$,

with the relativistic mass m and its charge q. This frequency is given by equality of centripetal force and magnetic Lorentz force. The particles, injected near the center of the magnetic field, increase their kinetic energy only when recirculating through the gap between the electrodes; thus they travel outwards along a spiral path.

Cyclotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by moving charged particles deflected by a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on the particles acts perpendicular to both the magnetic field lines and the particles' motion through them, creating an acceleration of charged particles that causes them to emit radiation (and to spiral around the magnetic field lines). ... Cyclotron radiation is emitted by all charged particles travelling through magnetic fields, however, not just those in cyclotrons. Cyclotron radiation from plasma in the interstellar medium or around black holes and other astronomical phenomena is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields. The power (energy per unit time) of the emission of each electron can be calculated using:

$${-dE \over dt}={\sigma_t B^2 V^2 \over c \mu_o} $$

where E is energy, t is time, $$ \sigma_t $$ is the Thomson cross section (total, not differential), B is the magnetic field strength, V is the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, c is the speed of light and $$ \mu_o $$ is the permeability of free space.

"Electron beams can be generated by thermionic emission, field emission or the anodic arc method. The generated electron beam is accelerated to a high kinetic energy and focused towards the [target]. When the accelerating voltage is between 20 kV – 25 kV and the beam current is a few amperes, 85% of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into thermal energy as the beam bombards the surface of the [target]. The surface temperature of the [target] increases resulting in the formation of a liquid melt. Although some of incident electron energy is lost in the excitation of X-rays and secondary emission, the [target] material evaporates under vacuum."

Scintillation detectors
A scintillator is a material, which exhibits scintillation—the property of luminescence when excited by ionizing radiation. Luminescent materials, when struck by an incoming particle, absorb its energy and scintillate, i.e., reemit the absorbed energy in the form of light. Here, "particle" refers to "ionizing radiation" and can refer either to charged particulate radiation, such as electrons and heavy charged particles, or to uncharged radiation, such as photons and neutrons, provided that they have enough energy to induce ionization.

A scintillation detector or scintillation counter is obtained when a scintillator is coupled to an electronic light sensor such as a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or a photodiode. PMTs absorb the light emitted by the scintillator and reemit it in the form of electrons via the photoelectric effect. The subsequent multiplication of those electrons (sometimes called photo-electrons) results in an electrical pulse which can then be analyzed and yield meaningful information about the particle that originally struck the scintillator.

Galileo Orbiter
The Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter is designed to measure the numbers and energies of electrons whose energies exceed about 20 keV. The EPD can also measure the direction of travel of electrons. The EPD uses silicon solid state detectors and a time-of-flight detector system to measure changes in the energetic electron population at Jupiter as a function of position and time.

"[The] two bi-directional, solid-state detector telescopes [are] mounted on a platform which [is] rotated by a stepper motor into one of eight positions. This rotation of the platform, combined with the spinning of the orbiter in a plane perpendicular to the platform rotation, [permits] a 4-pi [or 4π] steradian coverage of incoming [electrons]. The forward (0 degree) ends of the two telescopes [have] an unobstructed view over the [4π] sphere or [can] be positioned behind a shield which not only [prevents] the entrance of incoming radiation, but [contains] a source, thus allowing background corrections and in-flight calibrations to be made. ... The 0 degree end of the [Low-Energy Magnetospheric Measurements System] LEMMS [uses] magnetic deflection to separate incoming electrons and ions. The 180 degree end [uses] absorbers in combination with the detectors to provide measurements of higher-energy electrons ... The LEMMS [provides] measurements of electrons from 15 keV to greater than 11 MeV ... in 32 rate channels."

Lunar Prospector
The electron reflectometer (ER) [aboard the Lunar Prospector determines] the location and strength of magnetic fields from the energy spectrum and direction of electrons. The instrument measures the pitch angles of solar wind electrons reflected from the Moon by lunar magnetic fields. Stronger local magnetic fields can reflect electrons with larger pitch angles. Field strengths as small as 0.01 nanotesla nT could be measured with a spatial accuracy of about {3 km (1.9 mi) at the lunar surface. The ER is located at the end of one of the three radial science booms on the Lunar Prospector.

Imaging Compton Telescope
For cosmic gamma-ray events, the experiment required two nearly simultaneous interactions, in a set of front and rear scintillators. Gamma rays would Compton scatter in a forward detector module, where the interaction energy E1, given to the recoil electron was measured, while the Compton scattered photon would then be caught in one of a second layer of scintillators to the rear, where its total energy, E2, would be measured. From these two energies, E1 and E2, the Compton scattering angle, angle θ, can be determined, along with the total energy, E1 + E2, of the incident photon. The positions of the interactions, in both the front and rear scintillators, was also measured. The vector, V, connecting the two interaction points determined a direction to the sky, and the angle θ about this direction, defined a cone about V on which the source of the photon must lie, and a corresponding "event circle" on the sky.

"COMPTEL's upper layer of detectors are filled with a liquid scintillator which scatters an incoming gamma-ray photon according to the Compton Effect. This photon is then absorbed by NaI crystals in the lower detectors. The instrument records the time, location, and energy of the events in each layer of detectors which makes it possible to determine the direction and energy of the original gamma-ray photon and reconstruct an image and energy spectrum of the source."

Hypotheses

 * 1) Superluminal electrons exist.


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Talk:Engineering Projects/StrandBeest/Howard Community College/spring2012/p1550MWSY

Here is the video of your presentation 3/6/12.

Really impressed by the effort you all have put forth towards this project. Also, The cutter was a great idea because of the precision necessary for the strandbeest to work. Good ideas here.--2jjones (talk) 00:14, 13 March 2012 (UTC)

project grading 1sfoerster (talk) 16:15, 20 March 2012 (UTC)
 * 100 points good job


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User:Anthroxous

Anthroxous is a reference to Psalm 103:14, that God remembers that we are merely dust. It is a portmanteau of the Greek words for "man" and "dust." It should be rendered in English "man of dust" but often Anthroxous simply explains it's meaning as "a reminder that I'm a dirtbag."

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A Linguistic Approach to Arabic Pronunciation/ي's short= ـِ

ِـ >  makes the "ee" sound in "greet" or the "ih" sound in "kit".

Previous || Top || Next

Ee
You know this sound already. Just say ي >. The difference is that ـِ >is pronounced much more quickly.

To understand this difference, say "I object!" Then say "My object!"

The significance of this exercise is that the verb in "I object!" has a short sound for the "o". The noun in " My object!" has a long sound for the "o". The difference between ـِ > and ي >is the same, respectively.

ـِ >is finicky. You'll need to hear the word out loud to know if the native speaker makes it an "ih" sound instead.

Ih
Sometimes, ـِ >takes on a "ih" sound, like "mit", "kit", "sip", or any other word with a short "i" sound.

ـِ >is finicky. You'll need to hear the word out loud to know if the native speaker makes it a short ي >sound instead.

The Linguist's Guide
This section will need help from a professional.

Additional Notes
This letter is written below any letter in the Arabic alphabet. It is not usually written in text.

Practice
Read the following out loud. Try to figure out what the English word would be. (For the purposes of this quiz, the ـِ should be pronounced as "ih" in "tip".)

{ (p) ي >(t) { Peet|Pete }
 * type="{}"}

{ (p) ـِ >(t) { Pit|Pitt|pit }
 * type="{}"}

{ ـِ ي >(p) { Yip|yip }
 * type="{}"}

{ (fl) ي >(t) { Fleet|fleet }
 * type="{}"}

{ (fl) ـِ >(t) { Flit|flit }
 * type="{}"}

{ (b) ـِ >(l) ي > { Billy|billee }
 * type="{}"}

Encouragement
Letter number two. That wasn't so bad, was it? You are well on track for learning Arabic sounds!

That enough for today? Come back tomorrow! Or you can keep going...


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Mergers and Acquisitions/Business Plan/Session 2

What to Include in Your Executive Summary

Below are several key points that your executive summary should include based on the stage of your business.

If You Are an Established Business If you are an established business, be sure to include the following information:

The Mission Statement – This explains what your business is all about. It should be between several sentences and a paragraph. Company information – Include a short statement that covers when your business was formed, the names of the founders and their roles, your number of employees, and your business location(s). Growth highlights – Include examples of company growth, such as financial or market highlights (for example, “XYZ Firm increased profit margins and market share year-over-year since its foundation). Graphs and charts can be helpful in this section. Your Products/Services -- Briefly describe the products or services you provide. Financial information – If you are seeking financing, include any information about your current bank and investors. Summarize future plans – Explain where you would like to take your business.


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Talk:Financial analysis

Formatting
If someone has the knowledge of the code for formatting, please help!

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Talk:What Matters/Love

Loving Kindness
When a Wikiversity course on loving kindness is developed, I would like to link to it from here. There is now a course on love but it is a stub. Perhaps someone can take the lead in developing it more fully. Some of the books in the suggested reading list for this course might be useful references. I would like to see an emphasis on developing the capacity to love, and exercising loving kindness day-to-day. Thanks! --Lbeaumont (talk) 13:24, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

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Talk:Healthy lifestyle/Love

Developing this more fully and linking from the What Matters course
When this course on loving kindness is more fully developed, I would like to link to it from the what matters module on love. Perhaps someone can take the lead in continuing to develop it more fully. Some of the books in the suggested reading list for the what matters/love course might be useful references. I would like to see an emphasis on developing the capacity to love, and exercising loving kindness day-to-day. Thanks!--Lbeaumont (talk) 13:28, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

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Adding What Matters
I propose adding a link to what matters to this template. I would be happy to do this, but yield to the original authors' concepts here. Thanks! --Lbeaumont (talk) 13:33, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

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User:Pfighter

ar:مستخدم:Pfighter cs:Uživatel:Pfighter de:Benutzer:Pfighter el:Χρήστης:Pfighter es:Usuario:Pfighter fi:Käyttäjä:Pfighter fr:Utilisateur:Pfighter it:Utente:Pfighter ja:利用者:Pfighter pt:Utilizador:Pfighter ru:Участник:Pfighter sv:Användare:Pfighter

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Chemistry (A-Level)/Rings, acids and amines

An arene is any aromatic hydrocarbon that contains at least one benzene ring.

Structure of benzene
A benzene ring is a cyclic hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C6H6. It's structure isn't what would be expected from generic organic compounds. The six carbons form a planar hexagonal ring with σ C-C bonds. Attached to each carbon is a hydrogen, bonded with a σ C-H bond. At each carbon, there are 3 σ bonds (two C-C and one C-H) in a trigonal planar shape with bond angles of 120°. Parallel to the carbon ring on either side is a ring of overlapping π orbitals where the electrons are delocalised. This gives a benzene ring a high electron density above and below the plane of the molecule.

Discovery
In 1825, Michael Faraday managed to isolate benzene and determined that it had an empirical formula of CH. Later in 1834, Eilhard Mitscherlich found that it had a relative molecular mass of 78 and thus a molecular formula of C6H6. Despite this knowledge, the structure of benzene remained unknown. Several structures were theorized but none matched benzene's chemical properties. It was in 1865 when Friedrich August Kekulé suggested that benzene had a cyclic structure with alternating double and single bonds. Kekulé claims that he thought of this structure while daydreaming about a snake biting it's own tail. However Kekulé's structure did not explain several chemical properties of benzene. This was proof that his structure needed to be expanded upon. Some of the proofs that Kekulé's structure was still flawed include:
 * Benzene's low reactivity
 * If benzene contained 3 double bonds as Kekulé suggested, it would be very reactive with bromine (Br2). Bromine will decolourise in the presence of C=C bonds, however when mixed with benzene, it is not decolourised.

 * The bond lengths of benzene
 * C-C and C=C bonds have different bonds lengths of 0.153nm and 0.134nm respectively. X-ray studies had shown that all of the carbon to carbon bond lengths in benzene are the same at 0.139nm.

 * Hydrogenation of benzene
 * The predicted enthalpy change for Kekulé's model is different from the actual change in the hydrogenation of benzene.
 * For the hydrogenation of carbon-carbon double bonds:
 * C=C + H2 → CH-CH    ΔH= -120kJmol-1
 * Therefore for Kekulé's model, ΔH= -360kJmol-1, however from experiment, ΔH= -208kJmol-1

Nitration of benzene (NO2+)
To form nitronium ions (NO2+), the following two reactions take place.
 * H2SO4 + HNO3 → H2NO3+ + HSO4-
 * H2NO3+ → NO2+ + H2O

For the nitration of benzene, the following reaction takes place:
 * C6H6 + NO2+ → C6H5NO2 + H+

The reagents for this reaction are benzene(C6H6), concentrated sulphuric acid(H2SO4) and concentrated nitric acid(HNO3). The reaction must take place up to 50°C. If it takes place at a higher temperature, more than one nitro group(-NO2) will substitute with a hydrogen. This type of reaction is called electrophilic substitution. The nitronium ion acts as the electrophile. In A-level Chemistry, you will need to know the mechanism for this reaction.

Halogenation of benzene
This is the reaction between benzene and a positive halogen ion. This is another example of electrophilic substitution. In the reaction between benzene and chlorine, the Cl+ ion acts as the electrophile. To get the positive ion needed for the reaction, a halogen carrier is required. Some some possible halogen carriers are:
 * Fe
 * FeBr3/FeAl3
 * AlBr3/AlCl3

The following reaction can take place to form the necessary ion:
 * Cl2 + FeCl3 → FeCl4- + Cl+

The reaction for the chlorination of benzene is as follows:
 * C6H6 + Cl+ → C6H5Cl + H+

The mechanism for this reaction is very similar to the nitration of benzene After these reactions, the products FeCl4- and H+ react.

 * FeCl4- + H+ → FeCl3 + HCl

This means that the halogen carrier acts as a catalyst in this set of reactions. These reactions all work the same with bromine(Br) in the place of chlorine(Cl).

Carbonyl Compounds
Able to be reduced to their respective alcohols

Links
Back to Chemistry (A-Level) Further reading on: Organic chemistry Benzene Phenol


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Draft:Original research/Repellor vehicles

A repellor vehicle is a vehicle (with human driver or virtual operator) that steers away from obstacles so as to arrive at a destination safely. A military vehicle, on the contrary, may wish to move toward an obstacle so as to remain undetected by keeping that object between its ultimate destination and those at the destination that may want to detect it. Overall there are three main techniques of driver interaction:
 * 1) direct user interaction,
 * 2) physical controls, and/or
 * 3) virtual controls.

Attractors
“An attractor is an object which draws the user [or vehicle] towards itself ... such as a planet with a simulated [or real] gravity”. “[A] planet revolving around the [S]un” is an autonomous attractor. “Attractors and repellors may be ... under user”, driver (or virtual operator) control.

Def. "[a]n object which draws the user [or vehicle] towards itself" is called an attractor.

Attractor dynamics
“[T]he dynamic approach to path planning ... can be implemented on simple autonomous vehicles using only low-level sensory information such as distances sensed by infra-red or sonar detectors. Each sensor is assumed to contribute a repulsive force-let to a dynamical system, which generates a trajectory of heading direction.” “The repulsion force is a decreasing function of sensed distance. This leads to obstacle avoidance.”

This “approach ... employs the heading direction, phi, relative to some external world axis, as the planning variable. The path plan is a time course of this variable ... obtained from a differential equation of heading direction.” “The sensors are arranged such that their sensitive cones just touch, thus covering completely the forward 180° semicircle.”

Repellors
“A repellor pushes [a vehicle or] the user away from itself, for example, in a direction of motion which extends radially from the center of the repellor.”

In the image at right, a small (~6 mm wide) piece of pyrolytic carbon is pushed away from an array of neodymium magnets with alternating polarity; i.e., diagonally identical magnetic orientation (two with north poles up and two with south poles up). The repellor vector is vertical from the central hole.

Magnetic materials and systems are able to attract or press each other apart or together with a force dependent on the magnetic field and the area of the magnets, with a defineable magnetic pressure.

The "directions in which obstacles are detected are [referred to as] local repellors.

Repellors can also be unstable fixed points.

A repellor either the driver or virtual controller must guard against is the formation of spurious attractors (or repellors).

Transport platforms
For a pilot or driver, the vehicle needs to contain or be part of the pilot or driver transport.

Probably the most common pilot or driver transport is an automobile or car. It usually has an internal combustion engine that uses the expansion of burning gases to mechanically propel the transport platform.

For such a platform to leave the roadway requires additional support for the driver/pilot to survive the rugged terrain.

Occasionally automobiles are propelled above the ground for brief periods using ramps. The return usually requires reinforced suspension systems to handle the acceleration downward.

For this type of platform to remain aloft would require separate propulsion and suspension for the descent.

These platforms are often used and kept running for decades. After such lengthy periods components are likely to fall off. Some include mufflers, hub caps, mud flaps, trim, and even tires. Depending on the climate, hot, dry deserts at sufficient elevation will cause the outer paint to bleach and peel off.

An older standard-size automobile is shown in the top image at the right. Its larger size allows for passengers. It is front-wheel drive with the engine compartment (shown in the second image at the right) above the front wheels. The transmission is approximately below the battery platform (red and black terminal covers).

Maintenance of the transmission, brakes, fuel line, oil and oil filter systems usually requires undercarriage access on a lift or jacks.

The rear compartment behind the passenger cabin houses a temporary spare tire and room for luggage.

The third image at the right is a passenger's side view of the front portion of the passenger cabin. The dashboard has a relatively open vertical area in front of the stick shift mechanism. Earlier models also had a shifting lever on the steering mechanism.

The large volume in front of the stick shift may be a likely location for additional cockpit controls.

Driverless cars
At left is an image of a Volkswagen Passat that drives itself. The roof is festooned with spinning LIDAR and cameras, feeding into the server farm in the trunk. This driverless car dates from October 24, 2009.

On the right is a trunk image of the hardware needed for the Volkswagen Passat that drives itself. For this car, Junior 3, the sensors are discrete rather than festooned on the roof. This image also dates from October 24, 2009.

A driverless car is a vehicle equipped with an autopilot system, and capable of driving from one point to another without aid from an operator.

Autonomous vehicles
“An autonomous vehicle is a virtual object, such as an elevator, which, once entered by the user, automatically moves the user to a new location in the virtual world.”

Notation: let the symbol AUV stand for autonomous underwater vehicle.

An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is a robot which travels underwater without requiring input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of undersea systems known as unmanned underwater vehicles, a classification that includes non-autonomous remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) – controlled and powered from the surface by an operator/pilot via an umbilical or using remote control. In military applications AUVs more often referred to simply as unmanned undersea vehicles (UUVs).

Driver assistive technologies
"There's adaptive cruise control, which keeps an eye on the car ahead and maintains a steady separation. Another system warns the driver if the car begins to stray outside its proper lane. And a few models even offer hands-free parallel parking."

Pilotless hovering vehicles
At right is a digitized photograph of a micro air vehicle designed to fly over a combat area during flight. As of November 14, 2006, the MAV is in the operational test phase with military Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) teams to evaluate its short-range reconnaissance capabilities.

The small craft allows remote observation of hazardous environments inaccessible to ground vehicles. MAVs have been built for hobby purposes, such as aerial robotics contests and aerial photography.

The range of Reynolds numbers at which MAVs fly is similar to that of an insect or bird (103 - 105). Thus, some researchers think that understanding bird flight or insect flight will be useful to designing MAVs. The flapping motion used by birds and insects to produce lift involves aeroelasticity, which introduces structural considerations. Unsteady aerodynamics [may] also [be] present in this type of motion.

Pilotless aerial vehicles
The V-1 flying bomb the Fieseler Fi 103 is an early pulse-jet-powered predecessor of the cruise missile. In late 1936, Argus Motoren company had already developed a remote-controlled surveillance aircraft, the [Argus As 292] AS 292 (military designation FZG 43).

A culmination of the flying bomb effort is the SM-62 Snark shown in flight at right which is "an early-model intercontinental cruise missile that could carry a W39 thermonuclear warhead. The Snark has an operational range of 10,200 km.

After the successful development of the intercontinental ballistic missile (a pilotless rocket), the Snark and its kindred are replaced by the ~1,000 km ranged cruise missile.

Sense around systems
A sense around system is one that relates to the vehicle driver or operator information from all around the vehicle so that driving or operating decisions can be made.

Collision avoidances
In spaceflight, collision avoidance is the process of preventing a spacecraft from colliding with any other vehicle or object.

A launch window is said to have a [collision avoidance, or COLA] COLA blackout period during intervals when the vehicle cannot lift off to ensure its trajectory does not take it too close to another object already in space.

A collision avoidance manoeuvre  or Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre  (DAM) is an orbital manoeuvre conducted by a spacecraft to avoid colliding with another object in orbit. One is most commonly used in order to avoid a piece of space junk.

An airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) is an aircraft system that operates independently of ground-based equipment and air traffic control in warning pilots of the presence of other aircraft that may present a threat of collision. If the risk of collision is imminent, the system indicates a manoeuvre that will reduce the risk of collision. ACAS standards and recommended practices are mainly defined in annex 10, volume IV, of the Convention on International Civil Aviation.

A distinction is increasingly being made between ACAS and ASAS (airborne separation assurance system). ACAS is being used to describe short-range systems intended to prevent actual metal-on-metal collisions. In contrast, ASAS is being used to describe longer-range systems used to maintain standard en route separation between aircraft (5 nm {9.25 km} horizontal /1000' {305 m} vertical).

A collision avoidance system is a system of sensors that is placed within a car to warn its driver of any dangers that may lie ahead on the road. Some of the dangers that these sensors can pick up on include how close the car is to other cars surrounding it, how much its speed needs to be reduced while going around a curve, and how close the car is to going off the road. The system uses sensors that send and receive signals from things like other cars, obstacles in the road, traffic lights, and even a central database are placed within the car and tell it of any weather or traffic precautions.

Toyota Motor Corporation's Pre-Collision System (PCS), the first production forward warning collision system, is used on the manufacturer's Lexus and Toyota brand vehicles. It is a radar-based system which uses a forward-facing millimeter-wave radar. When the system determines a frontal collision is unavoidable it preemptively tightens the seat belts removing any slack and pre-charges the brakes using brake assist to give the driver maximum stopping power instantly when the driver depresses the brake pedal.

Propulsion systems
A propulsion system is a machine or system of machines that produces thrust to push or pull a vehicle from a position of relative rest into motion or to provide an acceleration or deceleration for a vehicle already in motion. The objective of a propulsion system is to maintain the vehicle’s ability to propel itself and maneuver. Current propulsion systems are often some form of internal-combustion engine combined with aerodynamic lifting mechanisms.

Rocket engines such as the Pixel rocket shown at right have been developed which can hover a vehicle for brief periods.

On the ground and in the air the Waterman Aerobile at left is powered by a water-cooled 120 hp (89 kW) Tucker-Franklin engine. It can fly at 112 mph (180 km/h), cruise speed of 164 km/h, maximum speed of 193 km/h, and drive at 56 mph (90 km/h), with a maximum of approximately 113 km/h.

"Japanese electronics maker NEC Corp. on Monday showed a "flying car," a large drone-like machine with four propellers that hovered steadily for about a minute [in the second image down on the right]."

"The test flight reaching 3 meters (10 feet) high was held in a gigantic cage, as a safety precaution, at an NEC facility in a Tokyo suburb."

"The Japanese government is behind flying cars, with the goal of having people zipping around in them by the 2030s."

"Among the government-backed endeavors is a huge test course for flying cars that's built in an area devastated by the 2011 tsunami, quake and nuclear disasters in Fukushima in northeastern Japan."

"Similar projects are popping up around world, such as Uber Air of the U.S."

"The goal is to deliver a seamless transition from driving to flight like the world of "Back to the Future," although huge hurdles remain such as battery life, the need for regulations and safety concerns."

"Often called EVtol, for "electric vertical takeoff and landing" aircraft, a flying car is defined as an aircraft that's electric, or hybrid electric, with driverless capabilities, that can land and takeoff vertically."

"All of the flying car concepts, which are like drones big enough to hold humans, promise to be better than helicopters. Helicopters are expensive to maintain, noisy to fly and require trained pilots. Flying cars also are being touted as useful for disaster relief."

Capacitors
In the simple, ideal circuit on the right there is a capacitor (two equal parallel plates) with a resistor (rectangular box) and ammeter (A) in series, a voltmeter (V) in parallel, a switch (at the top) and a cell (two different length parallel plates) for charging.

A device that stores charge on one plate (thereby one charge carrier, say electrons) would first be charged by a cell using the left hand portion of the ideal circuit. When the switch is thrown to the right, electrons travel through the resistor and the ammeter (A) to neutralize the positive charge on the other parallel plate.

To prevent or greatly slow down charge drain the resistance of the resistor must be high. To have charge storage of electrons only, the positive plate must be reduced to neutral and the negative plate needs to be isolated from it.

Wound and stacked supercapacitors
Supercapacitors are constructed with two metal foils (current collectors), each coated with an electrode material such as activated carbon, which serve as the power connection between the electrode material and the external terminals of the capacitor. Specifically to the electrode material is a very large surface area. In this example the activated carbon is electrochemically etched, so that the surface of the material is about a factor 100,000 larger than the smooth surface. The electrodes are kept apart by an ion-permeable membrane (separator) used as an insulator to protect the electrodes against short circuits. This construction is subsequently rolled or folded into a cylindrical or rectangular shape and can be stacked in an aluminum can or an adaptable rectangular housing. Then the cell is impregnated with a liquid or viscous electrolyte of organic or aqueous type. The electrolyte, an ionic conductor, enters the pores of the electrodes and serves as the conductive connection between the electrodes across the separator. Finally the housing is hermetically sealed to ensure stable behavior over the specified lifetime.

Supercapacitor uses
"So far, supercapacitors have been good at providing quick bursts of power – to start a car engine, for example, or to give trains a boost when accelerating. They’re also suited to harvesting energy from vehicles when they brake, making them an important EV component."

"PSA Peugeot Citroen has been using [supercapacitors] in its cars since 2010."

"Supercapacitor maker Maxwell Technologies says more than a million vehicles now incorporate its products."

"Skeleton Technologies incorporates layers of graphene – a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice – and other carbon-based materials in its supercapacitors."

"These layers have a huge surface area – just 1g of graphene can cover 2000 sqm."

"Short-term, combining supercapacitors with lithium-ion batteries is probably the way to enjoy the best of both worlds, particularly in EVs."

Automobiles
"Application of power electronics in automotive applications plays a major role in controlling automotive electronics. Automotive electronics include modern electric power steering, HEV main inverter, central body control, braking system, seat control, and so on."

"Applications of power electronics in automotive electrical and electronic systems includes high voltage systems, automotive power generation, switched mode power supply (SMPS), DC to DC converters, electric drives, traction inverter or DC to AC converter, power electronic component, high temperature requirement, application of SMPS in power train system, and so on. For example, consider a modern car, in which we can find many power electronic components such as ignition switch, control module, vehicle speed sensor, steering sensor and other components, as shown in [the figure on the right]."

Automobile Electric Power Systems
"Energy storage systems assisted by super capacitor have been widely researched and developed to progress power systems for the electronic vehicles."

The "system is able to perform adequate charge and discharge operation between low-voltage high-current super capacitor side and high-voltage low-current side with drive train and main battery."

Conduction "losses and voltage/current surge are drastically reduced by [zero voltage switching] ZVS operation with loss-less snubber capacitor in high voltage side as well as the synchronous rectification in low-voltage high-current super capacitor side."

"For these applications, bi-directional DC-DC converters to transfer the electric energy between low voltage S.C. based energy storage system and the high voltage drive train including three phase inverter-motor system and the main batter, are required as shown in [the diagram on the right]."

Batteries
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices.

When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal as in the diagram on the right is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.

The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver electrons to an external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver electrons to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature.

Farads
The scale behind the one farad modern super-capacitor in the image on the right is in inches (top) and centimetres.

One farad (F) is defined as the capacitance across which, when charged with one coulomb, there is a potential difference of one volt. Equally, one farad can be described as the capacitance which stores a one-coulomb charge across a potential difference of one volt.

 * $$\text{F}

= \dfrac{\text{C}}{\text{V}} $$

The size of commercially available capacitors ranges from around 0.1 pF to 5 000  F (5 kF) supercapacitors.

The capacitance of the Earth's ionosphere with respect to the ground is calculated to be about 1 F.

For q = FV, 5000 * 1000 = 5,000,000 coulombs.

One coulomb is equivalent to the charge of approximately $6.242$ ($1.036$ mole protons, and −1 C is equivalent to the charge of approximately $6.242$ electrons.

So 5,000,000 coulombs = $3.1$ electrons.

Self-capacitance
In electrical circuits, the term capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. However, for an isolated conductor there also exists a property called self-capacitance, which is the amount of electric charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its electric potential by one unit (i.e. one volt, in most measurement systems). The reference point for this potential is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, with the conductor centered inside this sphere.

Mathematically, the self-capacitance of a conductor is defined by
 * $$C = \frac{q}{V},$$

where
 * q is the charge held by the conductor,
 * $$V = {1\over 4\pi\varepsilon_0}\int {\sigma \, dS\over r}$$ is the electric potential,
 * σ is the surface charge density.
 * dS is an infinitesimal element of area,
 * r is the length from dS to a fixed point M within the plate

Using this method, the self-capacitance of a conducting sphere of radius R is:

 * $$C=4\pi\varepsilon_0R \,$$

Example values of self-capacitance are:
 * for the top "plate" of a van de Graaff generator, typically a sphere 20 cm in radius: 22.24 pF,
 * the planet Earth: about 710 µF.

The inter-winding capacitance of an electromagnetic coil is sometimes called self-capacitance, but this is a different phenomenon. It is actually mutual capacitance between the individual turns of the coil and is a form of stray, or parasitic capacitance. This self-capacitance is an important consideration at high frequencies: It changes the electrical impedance of the coil and gives rise to parallel electrical resonance. In many applications this is an undesirable effect and sets an upper frequency limit for the correct operation of the circuit.

Electrostatic suspensions
Electrostatic suspension can occur whenever a voltage difference exists between two locations and a charged mass is within the space separating the two locations, where the amount of charge is sufficient to allow suspension or prevent contact with either location. The potential gradient is the local space rate of change of the electric potential, usually in units of volts per meter (V/m). An electric field is an electric potential of opposite sign. The Earth, for example, has a natural electric field.

"The upper electrodes are used to apply control voltages (228 V in nominal conditions). The lower electrode voltages are controlled to Vp [a dc voltage of about 10 V], so that no force attracts the mass toward the bottom."

For a gap of 0.00206 m, a proof mass of 5.40 g is successfully suspended against 1 G (of gravity) with a field of 7.7 x 106 V/m. The voltage on the proof mass is nominally 10 V.

A thin gold wire is attached at the bottom of the proof mass to allow charge or voltage to be added of removed from the proof mass. The mechanical core apparently including the proof mass is made of gold coated fused silica.

Hypotheses

 * 1) A supercapacitor-like device can be built and loaded aboard a platform to contain about 3300 coulombs of charge to allow the platform to be repelled from the Earth's surface.

Proof of mechanism
"Incorporating tracking studies into clinical trials of cell-based therapy at the earliest stage can provide proof of mechanism of the therapy and permit evaluation of the many contributory variables, even on a patient-by-patient basis."

"[B]iochemical markers [may be used] for early proof of mechanism"

"One early “proof of mechanism” study of farglitazar, a non-TZD PPARγ agonist, assessed 24-h insulin and glucose profiles in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in patients with type 2 diabetes."