text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Stress and emotional health

Introduction
"the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it - Seyle"

This chapter addressed two focus questions:
 * 1) What is the effect of stress on emotional health and well-being?
 * 2) How can the negative effects of stress be avoided and minimised?

Stress is best described as being the lowest common denominator in an organism’s reaction to any kind of strain (Cooper, 2005). Stress varies on a case by case basis, but it may be found on some level in all living organisms. If stress is present in every case, is it harmful? This depends on the context of the stress. Stress can be good and bad, and fortunately for humans, can not be biologically switched off (Lovallo, 1997). Stress is a necessity for life and is a primary biological incentive for all. In order to live a happy and productive life, attention needs to be directed towards questions such as; How great is it? or Should I react like this in this situation? Emotional wellbeing is dependent on ones control over stress, as stress can be seen as a challenge instead of a threat. When one lacks this sense of control, stress can be bad news, causing health issues and community concerns (Levi & Levi, 2000). When humans are exposed to “stressors” such as excessive demands, over stimulation, financial hardship, under stimulation and broken relationships, most people experience negative emotional reactions that effect our emotional wellbeing such as; anxiety, depression, uneasiness, apathy, alienation, and hypochondriasis (Cooper, 2005). These negative emotional reactions affecting emotional wellbeing can also contribute to behavioural reactions. Stress affected people might start smoking or overeating, find comfort in alcohol, and take unnecessary risks at work (Cooper, 2005). Stress not only affects ones psychological health but also initiates a physiological reaction in your body, which can cause serious health issues. For example, imagine you are at basketball practice and your coach has stopped training and unfairly criticises you in front of the team by yelling at you. Your typical reactions would include increased blood pressure, increased or irregular heart rate, muscular tension, dryness of throat and mouth, and over production of acid gastric juice. Of course, not everyone’s reactions are the same to these sorts of situations, so one might ask, Who is most at risk? The answer is simple, people higher at risk are those who are highly competitive, over achieving type personalities, impatient, and those who try to fit in more and complete more in less tme and who also do not make time for relaxation and periods of rest (Karasek & Theorell, 1990).

Stress and emotional well-being
Can stress really affect my Emotional Wellbeing? Most people might think that stress can only affect them physiologically; however, this is not the case. Self-esteem is used to refer to a sense of positive regard. In other words self-esteem is a level of how positive or negative you feel about yourself. If your self-esteem is high your emotional wellbeing and mental state aligns itself accordingly and vice versa. When someone displays low level of self-esteem they are more likely to have negative thoughts about their abilities with education, self appearance and self confidence (Rice, 1992). Stress, believe it or not, impacts ones self esteem, and emotional wellbeing by allowing thoughts of failure and anxiety to take control of their thoughts in threatening or stressful situations. According to Rice, people who have high levels of self esteem are less likely to respond or perceive an event as emotional or stressful. Low self-esteem contributes to a lack of coping abilities when one is confronted with stressors. When self-esteem is low, the ability to deal with stressful situations diminishes, as individuals believe they cannot do anything ‘right’ to escape the situation or avoid it in the future (Rice, 1992). Low self-esteem shares a close relationship with such mental illnesses and disorders as depression and anxiety (Durand & Barlow, 2010). It is when self-esteem arrives at such a low point that a person must seek professional help or advice.

The stress response theory
Theories of stress began with the ‘Stress Response Theory’, introduced by a medical student Hans Seyle. Seyle proposed that three elements (adrenal cortex hypertrophy, thymicolymphatic atrophy, and gastrointestinal ulcers) were the basis for his stress response pattern (Rice, 2000). It was these three elements that Seyle thought to be interpendent as they seemed to accompany most illnesses and were provoked no matter the stimulus or illness (Rice, 2000). Seyle came at his theory from a backwards approach and chose to conceptualise stress as what it was not. Seyle wrote that stress is not:

 * Simply nervous tension: It can occur in organisms without nervous systems or in anesthetised or unconscious patients
 * An emergency discharge of hormones from the adrenal medulla: Although catecholamines are a part of the stress reaction, they are not the only hormones activated, and they play no role in generalised inflammatory diseases or local stress reactions
 * Everything that causes a secretion of the adrenal cortex (i.e. corticoids): Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) can stimulate the release of corticoids without producing a stress response.
 * Always the nonspecific result of damage: Normal activities, such as tennis or a passionate kiss, can produce a stress response without conspicuous damage.
 * The same as a deviation from homeostasis, the body’s steady state: Reactions to loud noises, blinking of the eye, or contracting a muscle may cause deviations from the resting state without evidence of a generalised stress reaction.
 * Anything that causes an alarm reaction: It is the stressor that is the stimulus not the stress itself.
 * Identical with the alarm reaction: These reactions are characterised by certain end-organ changes caused by stress and, hence, cannot be stress.
 * Nonspecific reaction: The pattern of the stress response is specific, although its cause and effects may vary.
 * Necessarily bad: The stress of success, challenge, and creativity is positive, whereas that of failure, anxiety and infection can be negative.
 * To be avoided: Stress cannot be avoided. It is ubiquitous; it is an essential ingredient of life. Selye viewed stress as the common denominator of all adaptive reactions in the body and complete freedom from stress as death.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye was also the pioneer for the General Adaption Syndrome (GAS). GAS is a general physiological response when an organism experiences threat (Cooper, 2005). Selye divided GAS into three stages; Alarm Stage, Resistance Stage, and Exhaustion stage. The Alarm Stage involves activation of certain cells in the hypothalamus to a state of emergency and the autonomic nervous system is stimulated during this shock phase (Rice, 2000). This shock phase can last from a few minutes to 24 hours depending on the severity of the situation. The Resistance Stage is a dramatic reduction in the alarm reaction as the body readies itself to transcend the stressor (Rice, 2000). The Resistance Stage is viewed as a survival attempt from the body in order to defend itself from the stressor (Rice, 2000). The Exhaustion Stage is the final stage in the GAS theory. Human resources become depleted and the initial insult or injury is too overwhelming for the body to repair. Since the introduction to GAS, research has outgrown Selye's initial theory and focus has been directed towards: Lazarus and Folkman, also added to this theory by stating that individuals can engage in a process or primary appraisal when confronted with a new or changed situation and in a secondary appraisal when assessing their coping abilities required to meet the challenge or possible harm of the potential event (Rice, 2000).
 * Stimulus factors
 * Response factors
 * An interactive process

Physiological impacts stress has on health and emotion well-being

Stress has multiple physiological reactions and affects the bodies brain function, immune system, digestive system, respiratory system, and the cardiovascular system. Early literature and biomedical research has directed more attention to the physical origins of the heart, however, the recent rise of psychological research has broadened their views and shifted their attention towards psychosocial and lifestyle factors that contribute to cardiovascular problems (Rice, 1992). One of the major focuses for this shift in attention to research is stress. As mentioned previously, stressful and emotionally heavy situations can cause problems in the rate and intensity of the cardiovascular system and respiratory system. From research conducted, stress does have severe impacts on the cardiovascular system. Stress can cause hypertension, cardiomyopathy, and atherosclerosis (Rice, 1992). Other physiological reactions one may experience when exposed to stressful situations include: muscular tension or pain; gastrointestinal symptoms; indigestion; heartburn; vomiting; constipation; depressive reactions;, insomnia; weakness; faintness; headaches; and sexual dysfunctions. Females may also experience a disturbance with their menstrual cycle.

Cortisol
Cortisol, also known as the “Stress Hormone”, plays an integral part in motivation and emotion (Reeve, 2009). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system reacts within ones brain, and releases the hormone cortisol from the adrenal glad when one is exposed to a stressor. Cortisol is most likely to be activated when a person is placed in a situation to be socially judged or evaluated (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004). Cortisols' activation with stressful events should not be ignored as high levels of cortisol is associated with poor intellectual functioning, negative affect, and poor health. (Brown & Suppes, 1998).

According to Lovello, higher and more prolonged levels of cortisol in the bloodstream are found with those suffereing from Chronic Stress. Sufferers of chronic stress may have negative effects from said levels of cortisol, such as:
 * Impaired cognitive performance
 * Suppressed thyroid function
 * Blood sugar imbalances
 * Decreased bone density
 * Decrease in muscle tissue
 * Higher blood pressure
 * Lowered immunity and inflammatory responses in the body, slowed wound healing, and other health issues
 * Increased abdominal fat, which is associated with a greater amount of health problems than fat deposited in other areas of the body, which can lead to heart attacks, strokes, and the development of metabolic syndrome.

Psychological impacts stress has on health and emotional well-being
According to Cooper, stress and mental illness is a controversial area of study, as it depends on your perception of how mental ill health arises. Stress is particularly involved in the beginning steps of symptoms for mental disorders (Rice, 2000). The DSM-IV-TR states that Major Depressive Disorder episodes usually follow a stressful situation. From this information, studies have proven that stress plays a pivotal role in the episodes associated with depression, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and Anxiety.

Depression
Most humans can say they have experienced some type of depressive mood or feeling. At one stage in our lives something or someone has affected our thoughts and feelings, so that we feel down or negative towards ourselves. But most of us have had the ability to pull ourselves out of this dark state with either help from a friend or another social or environmental influence creating happiness in our lives again. For the other "not so lucky" people, this turn to happiness may not be so easy to accomplish. According to the DSM-IV-TR, there are several types of depressive disorders affecting ones psychological well-being. The most prevalent and easily recognised depressive disorder is the Major Depressive Disorder (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Major Depressive Disorder episodes are often caused by severe psychosocial stressors. A devoted attention towards depression is due to the frightening rise of depression and as a consequence suicide (Durand & Barlow, 2010). The average age of onset of Major Depressive Disorder is 22 years, however, it has become more prevalent in young adolescents in the past ten years and has been proven by researchers that onset of depression before 21 years of age can be linked to three characteristics; 1 – It lasts longer (greater chronicity), 2 – poor response to treatment, and 3 – likelihood of the disorder running in the family (hereditary) (Cooper, 2005). The lengths of depressive episodes vary depending on each individual case. Some may last up to 2 weeks, with others lasting several years or for their entire life (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Although some people may suffer from depression their entire life, due to hereditary reasons, many can recover from this state with the help of ongoing psychological treatment (CBT, and ECT), and medicinal products such as; monoamine oxidase inhibitors, Trycyclics, and selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitors (Durand & Barlow, 2010).

PTSD
True to its name PTSD is caused by one or more stressor/s that sufferers must have been exposed to, witnessed, or been confronted with during a traumatic event (Cooper, 2005). Sufferers of PTSD are confronted with feelings of helplessness, fear, or horror when experiencing their traumatic event. Afterward, memories or nightmares of this traumatic event are relived and the event is seen by the sufferer as a flashback (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Sufferers of PTSD avoid anything that reminds them of the trauma, whether it is particular noises, smells, people or places. It is most common for sufferers of PTSD to repress their memories to avoid reliving or gaining information about their traumatic event. Memory repression in PTSD victims usually occurs automatically and unconsciously. PTSD can be subdivided into acute and chronic and cannot be diagnosed until a month after the traumatic event (Albano, Miller, Zarate, & Barlow, 1997). Acute PTSD can be diagnosed a month after the traumatic event and is associated with mild avoidance behaviours. When PTSD continues over 3 months and longer it is considered to be chronic. Chronic PTSD is also associated with more dominant avoidance behaviours. It is clearly known to researchers that PTSD is triggered by a traumatic event; however, depending on whether or not someone develops PTSD is due to biological, psychological and social factors (Durand & Barlow, 2010). So if people try to avoid memories and familiarities of this disorder, how do we treat PTSD? Well according to Durand and Barlow, the psychological approach is to have victims of PTSD face their original trauma to develop effective coping strategies. Creating these strategies will help dissolve the effects of PTSD and overcome the disorder. When undergoing treatment the repressed memories of the victims may flood back (this is called a flashback) causing the patient to relive the event. This can be quite frightening for both the patient and the therapist; however, it is an important part of successful therapy (Durant and Barlow, 2010).

Anxiety
Anxiety is a negative mood state characterised by physical symptoms such as tension and apprehension about future events (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Like stress, anxiety is necessary for human performance, as long as it is controlled and does not overwhelm emotional state. Anxiety is hard to study in humans, as it can be brought on by many contributing factors and can be expressed by facial expressions, biological factors, and behavioural changes (Durand & Barlow, 2010). Anxiety is a very complex issue and is becoming more difficult to determine as research continues.

Self help and avoidance
Are you being affected by Stress or Emotional Stress?

Avoiding stress is not always easy. As humans cannot get rid of stress they must find ways around it, by taking control. Firstly one needs to recoginise and see what stress is to them, and how it affects them individually. There are many ways of knowing if you're displaying signs of emotional stress. It’s a matter of focussing your attention that is more important. According to Lovallo, signs of stress can be in the form of;
 * Apathy – lack of energy
 * Difficulty making decisions
 * Feeling on edge
 * A change in eating habits
 * Sleeping more than usual, or disturbed sleeping patterns
 * Displaying more states of emotion
 * Use of alcohol or drugs to relieve or forget stress

If you are displaying any of these signs of stress you should talk to your local GP or Health practitioner as early as possible.

Tips to help you de-stress?

There are many ways to avoid stress and control an oncoming stressful disaster. It all depends on the individual and the situation one is in. It is extremely important that sufferers seek social support as it is a necessity to helping anyone through stressful situations (Rice, 1992). Just as biological equilibrium is important for the bodies existence, it is also as important to uphold equilibrium in your day-to-day life. Everyone should display good levels of ‘work-life-balance’, by ensuring they make time away from work to experience and participate in enjoyable activities and hobbies (Lovallo, 1997). Below are five quick and easy ways to regain clarity and your calm when confronted with stress; (Rice, 1992).

 * Take a walk – Exercise can be a great stress reliever, as it helps you blow off steam and releases endorphins into the body. Going for a walk removes you from the situation but also provides you with a clearer frame of mind.
 * Take a Breath – This is useful when you cannot leave the situation. Using breathing exercises, you can get more oxygen into the body and relieve tension.
 * Take a Mental Break – When you have the chance to steal away a few minutes of peace, do so! Visualising and imagining a peaceful mind set not only relaxes you mentally but it relaxes you physically too.
 * Reframe Your Situation – You may over intensify your situation at first glance. By looking at the situation differently you may be able to put it into a less stressful perspective.
 * Muscle Relaxation – Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is a great tool to use to help you de-stress. PMR involves tensing all of your muscle groups and then letting them go.  Any stress that was in your body decreases within seconds.

Summary
Stress is a biological factor that has positive and negative effects on humans. As explored throughout this chapter it can affect ones health and emotional wellbeing in many ways. In this chapter we have discussed the complex ways in which stress effects the bodies make up, with particular devotion towards psychological and emotional wellbeing and brief attention directed towards the physiological effects. Stress is a major contributor, to triggering such mental illnesses as; depression, anxiety, and PTSD. These illnesses need immediate medical attention and must be successfully managed and treated before any attention is directed towards stress, and how to manage it. Although physiological effects were touched on lightly in this chapter they are not to be ignored. Stress still has pivotal impacts on ones respiratory and cardiovascular system, and if the symptoms are present then you should seek professional help.

Quiz
{What is known as the "Stress Hormone"? - Prozac - Epinephrine + Cortisol - Melatonin
 * type=""}

{Is Stress a biological factor that can be turned off by a living organism? + No, stress is a biological necessity and cannot be switched off. - Yes, stress can be biologically switched off and control with professional help.
 * type=""}

{Which theorist introduced the General Adaption Syndrome (GAS) theory? - Cooper - Lazarus + Seyle - Mills
 * type=""}

{People who have high levels of self esteem, are less likely to respond or perceive an event as emotional or stressful? + True - False
 * type="[]"}


text:
User talk:Scientistbygnome

WHAT I PLAN TO STUDY HERE AT WIKIVERSITY

 * ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE EDUCATION (GRADES 6-12)
 * EARTH/SPACE SCIENCE/ EARTH/SPACE SCIENCE EDUCATION (GRADES 6-12)
 * EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

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title: User talk:Scientistbygnome


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Exercise motivation

History of motivation
William James was the first to introduce motivation as a psychological concept in 1890 (Deci & Ryan, 1985). James believed that when an individual is motivated towards a task their attention is more drawn to it and in turn that amplified attention affects how that activity is undertaken. In 1918 Woodworth then learnt the concept that someone can be extrinsically motivated as well as intrinsically (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Despite the importance of this major finding, due to the fact that it occurred at the same time as both Watson and Thorndike’s major studies which were not in the field of motivation. Due to this there was inadequate research undertaken following this finding.

What is motivation?
Motivation is the process of starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities. Motivation is what gives actions energy and direction. To describe someone as motivated is to say that they are willing to do something. Concepts such as desire (an unsatisfied longing or craving) and wish (to have or express a desire) tend to be relevant when it comes to motivation as well.

Motivation is the driving force behind all our actions, and is the reason why we do anything at all. If there was no form of motivation present a person would not even perform everyday tasks such as getting out of bed in the morning. Motivation starts our drives and is a function that allows us to undertake tasks throughout life (Velez, 2008). Things that effect our motivations range from emotional and social cues to cognitive and even biological ones.

Motivation consists of 3 main areas: foundation, determination and passion (Cherry, 2010). Foundation of motivation is when a deliberated decision is made to begin behaviour. Foundation would be shown in the decision to buy a gym membership or attend a boot camp. Determination in this instance would be taking advantage of the gym membership and going to the gym. Dependant on the intended goals of attending the gym, this would mean that you would become stronger or fitter from the gym sessions. In order to do this though you have to invest a large amount of time to do so. Passion is the level of effort that is applied to each individual session that you spend in the gym. This is not something that will always remain a constant. Individuals may perform a session with extreme intensity one day but not the next due to variations in the person’s passion.

There are two main types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic. At least one of these motivators is the reason why any task is performed, ever.

 * Extrinsic motivation is when there is a reinforcer for a particular task in the form of either a reward of punishment. This type of motivating force only occurs with the addition of something that is external to the activity itself, such as prize money. (Deci & Ryan, 1985) this type of motivation is encountered on a daily basis in the form of people going to work for money.

 * Intrinsic motivation is when behaviour is undertaken as a part of enjoyment, exploration and personal interest when it does not require the use of a reinforcer to complete the activity. (Deci & Ryan, 1985) When someone performs a task based on their own level of self-satisfaction in the absence of an external reinforcer. There is still the presence of a reinforcer, but it is internal and gained from purely performing the activity. (Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997)

What is exercise?
Exercise is activity requiring physical effort, carried out in order to sustain or improve health and fitness. Exercise is performed with the goals to increase muscle strength and the abilities of the cardiovascular system, refine skills and abilities, personal enjoyment and weight loss.

Regular exercise is also a major positive factor in maintain good health. It has been shown to reduced risk of obesity, certain cancers, adult onset of diabetes, heart diseases, and most recent findings include it being linked to a reduced risk of metabolic syndrome (Wilson, Mack, & Grattan, 2008). Receiving enough exercise is a worldwide problem in today’s society when in America it was found that over 50% of the adult population does not regularly exercise (Stevenson & Lochbaum, 2008).

There are many different forms of exercise; flexibility, aerobic, anaerobic, strength training, and agility training. All of which are designed to improve different categories of physical skill; Cardiovascular endurance, Stamina, Strength, Flexibility, Power, Speed, Coordination, Agility, Balance, and Accuracy.

Exercise itself is also very dependent on the individual’s needs, desires and goals. A person that is training to run a marathon requires a much larger amount of exercise than someone that is just looking to lose weight for their wedding.

The common purpose of exercise is to achieve physical fitness as it raises your heart rate and works your muscles to a more intense degree (Glanville, 2009).

In the world today there are multitudes of ways in which someone can exercise. People exercise by attending a gym or pool to walking or running outside and even joining a sports team. The way in which each person exercises is completely a personal decision but the most effective form of exercise is one that is enjoyable and fun for them, this will ensure that it is more likely to be undertaken on a regular basis.

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory ("SDT") the theory of human motivation and personality. It is concerned with the motivation behind the choices that people make without any external influence. SDT mainly focuses on the importance that intrinsic motivation has on the driving forces of human behaviour. Intrinsic motivation is the internal energising force that compels someone to engage in an activity such as exercise. SDT also covers people's inherent tendencies towards growth and any inherent psychological needs. It is important to understand that when motivation is linked with physical exercise, SDT can be both intrinsically motivated (enjoyment of running) or extrinsically motivated (need to lose weight).

Another important part of SDT is amotivation, or lack of motivation. (Ryan et al., 2009) This is something that affects a large number of people when it comes to exercise. Amotivation coincides with a sincere lack of self-determination in individuals (Wininger, 2006).This lack of motivation can arise from a number of sources, such as a lack of self-confidence due to a negative past experience or even lack of experience itself.

Intrinsic motivation is a more common factor in SDT than extrinsic motivation as it is connected with a person who is engaging in a particular action. People that are participating for internal reasons of their own enjoyment and in turn are not as worried about the outcomes of the activity are more motivated to to continue over those that have external reasons, or extrinsic motivations. (Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumani, 2006).

SDT is a major contributing factor in people’s success in both the results of physical activity, and the continuation of it. SDT plays a part in all exercise that people participate in, ranging from walking a few times a week to elite athletes. When someone is intrinsically motivated and self-determined they are able to gain greater satisfaction from an activity.

 * Applying Self-determination/ Intrinsic Motivation to exercise

When choosing a form of exercise, the best way to decide is to pick something that you derive some enjoyment from already. If you enjoy doing it, you are more likely to continue doing it in the future. When someone hates running but decided that they are going to run to get fit they are going to find it harder to stick to their training program than if they did something that they enjoyed, like swimming.

Incentive theory
Incentive theory of motivation, unlike SDT, is largely associated with external rewards and extrinsic motivation. A reward is presented after an action or behaviour with the intention to cause that behaviour to occur again. Extrinsic motivation is defined as participating in a behaviour or action in order to gain a preferred outcome which is completely detached from the activity itself (Deci & Ryan 1985). Extrinsic motivation occurs when there is the presence of an external reinforcer in the environment that motivates an individual to perform a task. An example of this would be when someone allows themselves to have a food reward, like a chocolate muffin, after attending the gym. This form of reward is called a primary reinforcer. (Stevenson & Lochbaum, 2008) It is possible that there is both internal and external motivation on an activity. When someone has an internal dive to do something, but the main reason that they are doing it is for the prize money that is available, the secondary reinforcer is the internal drive with the prize money being that primary reinforcer.

 * Applying Incentive Theory/ Extrinsic Motivation to exercise

Preferable motivation for exercise should come from intrinsic motivation but if extrinsic motivation is needed, then setting personal improvement goal as rewards rather than positive reinforcement with things such as food.

Practical application
When applying motivational theories practically to exercise motivation a few things need to be established; goals, the area of exercise and deadlines for those goals. The goals that are set need to be set by the individual that is undertaking them, they need to be meaningful to the person setting them and they need to be challenging but achievable. Then it is important, as previously stated, that the area in which to achieve these goals of exercise is one that can be enjoyed intrinsically by the person. It is difficult for a person to remain motivated in an activity that they are not originally motivated to do. If an area with this desired motivation cannot be found then extrinsic motivation can be applied through a series of reinforcers such as rewards for work done, but this is not ideal. Then when setting deadlines for your goals, it is almost never effective to set an ultimate deadline way off in the future and work towards just that. The most efficient way of setting deadlines is to have an ultimate goal, but to also have smaller short term goals along the way to ensure that you are remaining on track to achieve your overarching goal.
 * Hint: Having a single phrase that is meaningful to you on a card with you at all times that you refer to on a regular basis each day is helpful in making smaller short term changes to everyday living and increase your level of exercise.

Summary
The motivation behind an individual’s actions to exercise plays a large role in their continuation of that effort in the future. It is fairly common for those that wish to be healthier than they are to want to make a change, and often to begin to make that change but find it hard to stay motivated in their endeavours. The problem that is arising in this situation is almost always because they have developed and fostered the wrong type of motivation initially. Although internal and external motivation does play large roles in peoples actions on an everyday basis, it is those actions that are intrinsically motivated and are wholeheartedly enjoyed that are the most likely to be continued. With making this realisation it becomes apparent that motivation to exercise needs to be as intrinsic as possible at all times. If an individual is able to follow this they are more likely to remain with their program, reach their goals and being fitter and healthier as a result.


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Violent video games

Relevance and significance of violent video game debate
In today's society, children are spending increasing amounts of time consuming various forms of media. Carnagey, Anderson, and Bartholow (2007) reported that children spend more than 5 hours per day interacting with media. Considering children spend on average 6 hours at school, this is a concerning statistic. In a world dominated by technology (e.g., Iphones, computers, television) it is no wonder that the debate surrounding violent video games (VVG's) is so prevalent. The video game industry is a multi-billion dollar industry that continues to prosper and grow. Some of the most popular video games call of duty, grand theft auto, and halo, have a common characteristic, violence|violence.

As the interest in violent games increase, so do the concerns for possible negative implications associated with the VVG's. The debate surrounding violent games motivating aggressive behaviour is particularly important to young children and adolescents who are most vulnerable to the potential negative effects of violent games. This concern is based on their susceptibility to violent content due to underdeveloped cognitive, emotional, social, psychological and neurological states. Consequently, the government and social scientists have invested significant resources and effort into ultimately determining whether VVG's motivate aggressive behaviour or are simply a scapegoat for more deep-seeded social issues (Ferguson, 2008).

Irrespective of the influence of violent games, the claim by Carnagey and Anderson (2005) that a clear consensus has already been reached in support of VVG's leading to aggression, is far from accurate (Williams & Skoric, 2005). Therefore, the present chapter aims to explore whether VVG's motivate aggression by examining the differing theoretical models in an attempt to reach a conclusion. Additionally, a self-help guide to practically decrease VVG consumption will be provided.

Definitions

 * Violent video games

Violent video games refer to an electronic game played on the television or computer that consists of violent graphics and content.

 * Aggression

Aggression has been defined by English and English (1958) as a hostile action which causes fear and in turn brings an aggressor into forceful contact with another organism or psychological equivalent.

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Columbine high school massacre
On Tuesday, April 20, 1999, at Columbine high school, one of the worst massacres in American history was committed. Two students, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, attended their high school where they proceeded to shoot their fellow students. In the course of the 45-minute massacre, the shooters managed to kill 13 people, including one teacher. Similarly, 21 students were seriously injured as a result of the shootings. Harris and Klebold used pistols, shot guns, rifles and homemade explosives to carry out the attack.

The two students arrived separately on the day and aimed to use the homemade explosives to blow up the school cafeteria during lunchtime, potentially killing hundreds of students, and gun-down any survivors fleeing the explosion. However, the explosives did not detonate, so the duo began to approach a school vantage point and shoot whomever they came across. After this, the shooters entered the school, shooting at will. Some students fled to the library where they were followed, and mercilessly killed at point-blank range. After this, the duo strolled around the school, terrorising those whom they could find, before finally committing suicide by shooting themselves in the head. The massacre provoked intense debate surrounding the potential influence of the violent video game Doom, which many believe may have been directly involved in motivating the sadistic and violent behaviour. The association between VVG's and the massacre was established due to Harris having an internet site that simulated levels of Doom. Furthermore, the duo made reference to the game in their final video before the massacre. The Columbine shootings are largely regarded, within the scientific literature, as the catalyst for the debate on the possible negative implications of violent video games.
 * }

Overview
Several theories have been developed to provide an explanation for how VVG's motivate aggressive tendencies in individuals. The primary model that has received most attention in support for the VVG-aggression hypothesis is the GAM. However, the desensitisation model is receiving increasing amounts of attention from psychologists as a possible determinant of how VVG's motivate aggression.

General aggression model (GAM)
The GAM proposes that VVG's influence aggressive behaviour through the way violent content affects an individual's internal state (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson & Dill, 2000). The internal structure of an individual includes interacting cognitive (aggressive scripts, hostile thoughts), affect (hostile feelings), and arousal states (heart rate, blood pressure; Greitemeyer, Osswald, & Brauer, 2010). Therefore, through altering an individual's internal state, the violent cues increase an individual's suceptability to aggression.

In addition to short-term effects, long-term exposure to VVG's is theorised to be responsible for an individual learning through continuous reinforcement of aggressive knowledge structures (Huesmann, 2010). That is, the aggressive content associated with a violent game increases an individual's susceptibility towards aggressive thoughts (e.g., priming). This in turn results in biased perceptions, interpretations, and behaviours of aggressiveness. Therefore, exposure to VVG's leads to the internalisation of the aggressive materials that constitute violent games. The GAM is generally considered the most prevalent theoretical model in support of the VVG-aggression hypothesis, as it incorporates themes from other major theoretical models (see Table 1).

Bluemke, Friedrich and Zumbach (2010) examined the effects of VVG's on aggressive cognition and arousal. Ninety-six undergraduate students at a German university were randomly assigned to three computer game groups (violent, peaceful, and abstract) or an alternative reading task group. The data was collected using a German aggression questionnaire, Implicit Association Test, and physiological arousal measurements. The results indicate that the participants who played VVG's recorded statistically significant increased levels of aggressive self-concept. Additionally, even brief exposure to the violent game resulted in greater accessibility to aggressive cognitive structures. In contrast, peaceful games reduced participant's susceptibility to aggressive cognitions. The arousal levels of participants were not associated with aggression as there was no significant differences in scores across all four groups.

The findings support the validity of the cognitive component of the GAM, although questions remain about the relevance of the arousal component. However, it must be noted that violent games alone motivated aggressive thoughts, while peaceful games failed to produce similar negative implications. Therefore, the differences in aggressive thoughts between the game conditions (violent vs. peaceful) can be attributed to the experimental manipulation. This suggests that there is evidence of a possible relationship between VVG's and aggression.

However, the Bluemke et al. (2010) study has a number of methodological limitations. These include a small and unrepresentative sample. As the sample only consists of German undergraduate students, the ability of the study to apply the results to the general population is restricted. This is supported by the fact that the experimenters used a German questionnaire that was specific to German culture. Furthermore, the long-term effects of VVG's on aggression were ignored, and consequently, remain unknown. Future research should seek to identify if there are any long-term effects of VVG exposure by utilising a longitudinal design

Desensitisation model
A specific model of the GAM, that has attracted substantial attention from researchers in understanding the relationship between VVG's and aggression, is the desensitisation model. Desensitisation to violence occurs when continual exposure to violent stimuli causes a lack of a response to violent cues (Krahѐ et al., 2010). Thus, when an individual plays a game with violent content, any subsequent physiological reaction to violence is decreased. This causes a 'hardening' of individuals and their beliefs about the severity and consequences associated with aggressive behaviours. Similarly, according to the model, exposure to VVG's decreases empathy and emotional responses (Weber, Ritterfeld, & Mathiak, 2006).

A study by Staude-Muller, Bliesener, and Luthman (2008) found support for the desensitisation hypothesis. Forty-two men were randomly assigned to a high or low-violence condition where participants were instructed to play a video game for 20 minutes. Arousal (heart rate and blood pressure) was measured throughout the experiment. Emotional responses to aversive pictures (e.g., mutilated bodies, accident victims) and aggressive pictures (e.g., weapons) were examined using additional self-report and physiological (skin conductance) measurements. The study found that participants in the high violent condition produced a weaker physiological reaction to the aversive stimuli.

This finding supports the desensitisation hypothesis, as the weaker physiological response is consistent with the 'hardening' that would be expected if desensitisation occurred. Consequently, the arousal component of the GAM, which predicts an increase in physiological responses, is not supported. Conversely, the strong reaction to the aggressive pictures supports the cognitive component of the GAM. This suggests that violent games are associated with the priming of aggressive knowledge structures. Therefore, the results of Staude-Muller et al. (2008), at least partially, provide evidence for the validity of the GAM. Although, of greater significance is the establishment of the desensitisation hypothesis as a credible model for attempting to explain how VVG exposure may motivate aggressive behaviour in indviduals.

The lack of a control group compromises the findings of the study by Staude-Muller et al., (2010). That is, the low-violence condition fails to describe if a non-violent game group would have reported different results. All that can be deduced from the study is that highly violent games demonstrate a significant influence on individuals when compared to low violent games. Therefore, the internal validity of the study is questioned as it becomes harder to determine if the VVG or an alternative onfounding variable is responsible for the results. Future studies should provide a control group so that any difference between the control and experimental conditions can be directly attributed to the experimental manipulation.

Neurology and violent games
In recent years, psychologists have focused their attention on the neurological basis for violent games motivating aggression. Specifically, Weber, Ritterfield, and Mathiak (2006) conducted a within-subjects design to examine the influence of violent and non-violent video games on 13 male participants. The functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study found that the violent content of the video games suppressed the affect areas of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala. Conversely, there was activity in the cognitive area of the ACC.

The results indicate that the neural patterns that are responsible for controlling aggressive cognitions and behaviours are directly altered in the presence of VVG exposure. The influence that VVG's have on aggression can be attributed to the role of the ACC. The ACC is the area of the brain that regulates an individual's decision-making, empathy, and emotion. Therefore, through influencing an individual's neural patterns, violent games determine how an individual reacts to violent cues. Consequently, when exposed to VVG's this alters the neurological structure by increasing areas associated with aggressive cognitions and behaviours, and by decreasing empathy (desensitisation). Accordingly, this finding supports the cognitive component of the GAM, in addition to the desensitisation hypothesis. However, there is the possibility that the neural activity demonstrated in the study is due to the presence of fear activating the amygdala and not aggression.

Further support by Hummer et al., (2010) provides incremental evidence of the significance of neurology in determining whether VVG's motivate aggressive behaviour. This study used an fMRI to examine neurological changes in men and women during violent or non-violent video games. The study found that VVG exposure resulted in a lower response in an individual's dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). This finding is significant as the DLPFC is responsible for an individual's executive functioning, including the suppression of unwanted thoughts and feelings. Consequently, the lower inhibition by participants results in a susceptibility to aggression through individuals not being able to control their thoughts and feelings.

The significance of these neurological findings are that they provide researchers with the ability to make casual inferences in support of the hypothesis that VVG motivate aggression. In demonstrating the physiological changes due to the violent content in video games, neurological studies challenge opposition to the connection. Subsequently, the more accurate question may be to what extent VVG's motivate aggression, rather than attempting to determine whether there is an association or not.

Summary
Overall the empirical evidence indicates that both the GAM and desensitisation model provide strong support for an association between VVG's and aggression. However, the literature only partially supports the GAM. That is, the efficacy of the arousal and affect components are weak. Consequently, only the cognitive component can adequately explain how and if VVG's cause aggression.

Potential for positive implications of violent video games?
In contrast to research which suggests that VVG's cause aggression, there is evidence to suggest that VVG's can have positive implications for individuals (Ferguson, 2007). Olson, Kutner, and Warner (2008) conducted a qualitative study to explore the potential positive outcomes of VVG's on young boys, aged 12 to 14 years. Firstly, the study discovered what aspects of the game that attracted the boys to VVG's (Table 2). Furthermore, the results indicate that the video games assisted the boys in gaining motivation and encouragement to think creatively in order to solve problems. Consequently, the results indicate that VVG's, and video games in general, can positively affect the psychological, emotional, and social development of young boys.

This finding identifies video games as a critical developmental tool that can be used to increase and nurture the development of the current, and any subsequent, generation of children. Furthermore, in regulating the emotions of individuals, the findings suggest that VVG's may not be responsible for increasing aggressive tendencies. Instead, VVG's may result in individuals been able to control their emotions and even project these emotions into prosocial behaviour.

Although these results suggest positive outcomes for VVG's, more research is required before conclusively determining whether there is an influence. Additionally, the qualitative and self-report nature of the study limits the ability of the study to make causal inferences regarding the relationship between VVG's and prosocial consequences. Further limitations of the study by Olson et al. (2008) include restrictions in generalisations to other groups of society (e.g., females, older/younger individuals). However, the suggestion that VVG's can help regulate and control aggression warrants further examination.

Methodological flaws
Researchers who oppose the association between VVG's and aggression state methodological flaws as a strong point of contention. Unsworth, Devilly, and Ward (2007) suggest that the reason there is evidence to support the VVG-aggression hypothesis is due to the limitations in the reliability of the measurements in the studies. The majority of studies in the current literature generally adopt either self-report questionnaires or implicit measures of physiological responses. However, due to the inability of participants to accurately describe how they think and feel, socially desired responses, and other biases', the self-report measures are often considered inaccurate (Unsworth et al., 2007). Furthermore, questionnaires only establish correlations, not causations, between variables. Therefore, this minimises the ability of the research to conclusively determine whether violent games motivate aggressive behaviour or not.

In addition, there is evidence that measures of physiological responses (arousal) are erroneous (Arriaga, Esteves, Carneiro, & Monteiro, 2008). Consequently, the findings of the current research literature are compromised, as what researchers thought they were measuring might not necessarily be aggression. Therefore, the literature that supports the VVG-aggression hypothesis is questionable. Subsequently, the concern surrounding the influence of violent games on aggression may be unnecessary. The empirical research evidence by Ferguson and Rueda (2010) further supports the opinion that there is no causal relationship between VVG's and aggression. The 103 university students in the study were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no game, non-violent game, and violent game as either a good or a bad character. The results of the study indicate that short-term exposure to VVG's had no impact on aggressive behaviour. Long-term consumption found a decrease in hostile feelings and depression, but aggressiveness remained the same. These results challenge the assumptions of the GAM, by finding no support for the short-and-long-term implications associated with the model. Consequently, this suggestion is inconsistent with VVG-aggression hypothesis.

However, the same methodological flaws that limit the support for the VVG-aggression hypothesis also hinder those that oppose the connection. Firstly, as the majority of the sample is Hispanic, applicability to other ethnic groups should be considered when generalising the findings. Additionally, the external validity of the results is questionable. Therefore, the ability to apply the results from a laboratory experiment to a real-world situation is restricted.

Moral panic model
In addition to methodological flaws, the Moral Panic Model was devised by Ferguson (2008) to attempt to explain why there is academic support for the VVG-aggression hypothesis. The model states that biases' by politicians, social scientists, and the media contribute to the misconception of video games, which causes an unnecessary social panic. Consequently, this redirects the focus away from the other possible factors that could potentially explain what motivates aggression in individuals (see Table 3). That is, it is easier for organisations and individuals to blame VVG's for causing aggression, than attempt to address potential risk factors that are more controversial and require more resources and effort to correct.

Bushman, Rothstein, and Anderson (2010) concede that violent games are not as influential in motivating aggression as the literature surrounding the debate indicates. However, as VVG's do have some influence, they question if nothing should be done about the VVG-aggression relationship. This is an important argument as in order to address the issue of aggression, the government and social scientists have to start somewhere.

In addition, Huesmann (2010) argues that those who oppose the VVG-aggression association do so because their personal identities and self-interests are closely linked to VVG's. Furthermore, the moral panic model is founded upon a personal view, with no direct research evidence to support the hypothesis. Irrespective of the influence of VVG's, there is a strong need for social scientists, the government, and the media to maintain objectivity and professional integrity when reporting the findings instead of having personal motives and biases towards a particular view.

Quiz
Now for a quiz to test your knowledge on the chapter of violent video games.

{What 1993 video game was believed to be responsible for the Columbine high school massacre? -Pacman -Modern Warfare +Doom -Halo
 * type=""}

{Cognition is one of the three components that constitute the General Aggression Model (GAM)? +True -False
 * type=""}

{Exposure to violent cues causes a _ in physiological reaction to any subsequent violence which causes a _ in individuals. -decrease, weakening +Decrease, hardening -increase, hardening -increase, weakening
 * type=""}

{The anterior cingulate cortex is responsible for regulating decision-making, empathy, and emotions in an individual?. -False +True
 * type=""}

{Which of the following is NOT stated by Olson et al., 2010 as one of the reasons for why young boys are attracted to violent games? -Fantasies of power and fame -Sociability -Emotional regulation +Avoid homework
 * type=""}

{Which theoretical model suggests that biases' from politicians, social scientits, and the media is the cause of the association between violent games and aggression? -General aggression model +Moral panic model -desentisisation model -General learning model
 * type=""}

Summary and guidelines
There is strong support for, and opposition against, the belief that VVG's motivate aggression in individuals. Generally, the majority of the research evidence is supportive of the effect that VVG's have in motivating aggressive behaviours (Anderson et al., 2010). Specifically, having previously read the introductory segment about the Columbine high school massacre, you may be thinking that not only do VVG's motivate aggressive behaviour, but they are also a significant factor. However, is this case? Do VVG's really play a significant role in determining aggression?

Although there is a slight propensity for individuals who play VVG's to be more aggressive, there is strong evidence to suggest this effect is less significant than proposed (Kirsh, Olczak, & Mounts, 2005). In regards to the Columbine incident, it is important to realise that both individuals experienced mental health issues prior to the shooting. This finding exemplifies the fact that the debate surrounding VVG's is not as black and white as the literature suggests. This is due to the belief that there may be more important factors that need to be considered and prioritised when examining the affect that VVG's have. Therefore, to sum up the chapter, yes VVG's are responsible for motivating aggression, however the extent of this influence is less clear and warrants further investigation.

Guidelines for playing violent video games
'''Are your children obbsessed with violent games? Here are some take-home instructions of dealing with children who constantly play VVG's''':

 * Limit and restrict access to the violent games (the longer the exposure, the stronger the influence).
 * Promote the use of non-violent games (Positive games can have positive implications for children).
 * Suggest and explore alternative recreational activities (e.g., sports, reading, hobbies etc.).
 * Alter positive perception about how "cool" games with violent content are. This is hypothesised to disrupt the social acceptance of violent games.
 * Don't reward good behaviour with the promise of violent games.


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Category:Creative Commons templates

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title: Category:Creative Commons templates


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User talk:Bicedu

 Hello Bicedu, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! -- Ruy Pugliesi ◥ 13:42, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bicedu


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User talk:Zblaha2768/enes100/Tape Purge

10/10/10 .. nothing that I could replicate from what you wrote .. doesn't push the project forward ... wait you did write a problem statement 1sfoerster 13:46, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

10/10/10 .. same comments as above, no pictures, nothing that could be used to replicate your work .. all you wrote is a report .. this does not push the project forward .. looks like you may finish this without documenting anything .. 1sfoerster 18:31, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

10/10/10 ... same comments as above 1sfoerster 15:48, 8 November 2011 (UTC)

10/10/20 ... good transparency 1sfoerster 15:36, 15 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zblaha2768/enes100/Tape Purge


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User talk:Syoon9484/enes100/2ndEscher

0/0/0 .. don't see anything 1sfoerster 13:54, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

0/0/0 ... don't see anything to grade 1sfoerster 18:33, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

I need to see the autodesk drawing so maybe you can email me it when you finish.(Inmookchung27 15:53, 3 November 2011 (UTC))

10/5/10 .... need links to what you are talking about ... if you create electronic documents and don't link them up then it is as if they are not there ... otherwise is just a report 1sfoerster 15:46, 8 November 2011 (UTC)

0/0/0 ... nothing to grade 1sfoerster 15:48, 15 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Syoon9484/enes100/2ndEscher


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User talk:Dmoreno1899/ENES100/The Tin Can Band

10/10/60 .. keep working 1sfoerster 14:30, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

10/10/70 ... good work ... looks like you are having fun 1sfoerster 20:18, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

10/10/70 ... keep going 1sfoerster 17:35, 15 November 2011 (UTC)

0/0/0 .. nothing 1sfoerster 17:35, 15 November 2011 (UTC)


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User:Colibrix

Bonjour.

Je me nomme Pierre-Henry. Né en 1936. J'habite dans les Bouches-du-Rhône (France). Je suis retraité ce qui me permet de passer beaucoup de temps en votre compagnie. C'est à la demande d'un de mes grands amis que je dois ma présence ici. Il s'agit du peintre Raphaël Toussaint qui désire figurer dans cette grande encyclopédie qu'est Wikipédia. J'ai donc commencé par créer son article et depuis, bien d'autres ont suivi. J'ai un net penchant pour les peintres chinois et japonais en particulier, mais tout autant pour les peintres de tous pays et toutes époques, étant plutôt bien documenté. Je suis inscrit depuis le 4 novembre 2009 à 15h38.--Colibrix 15:58, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

title: User:Colibrix


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Java Tutorial/Intermediate GUIs/Why is Swing single-threaded?

Swing is single-threaded because the designers had no need for multi-threading and only to use one thread made the design simpler (so complexity and performance could be wasted in other places).

Of course the class does offer and, which can be used to communicate with the Swing user interface from other threads. Computationally intensive tasks should always be performed on other threads to allow the user interface to remain responsive.

Some operating systems (for instance QNX, Haiku or Mach) intensively use messages for the communication between processes. If you would prefer a more message-oriented design, that can easily be retrofitted to Swing: Just implement the following interface and you can send messages. One should remember, however, not to make any calls into Swing components that weren't designed to be multi-threaded from other threads than the Swing thread. For your own components, however, there is no such limitation as long as you remember to use the  keyword where it is required.

A MessagePort can easily send messages to the Swing thread by wrapping a call to with a  that knows what to do with the message. Of course other threads can also receive messages, which makes the design more consistent; your own Swing components can, of course, also send messages internally to cause computation on the Swing thread, when called from another thread.


title: File:Pea1.f11.mtg27.28.29.djvu


title: File:Pea1.f11.mtg30.djvu


title: File:Pea1.f11.mtg31.djvu


text: Basic English/Translations

title: Basic English/Translations


text: File:SANZAR broadcasting deals.png

title: File:SANZAR broadcasting deals.png


text: Basic English/able

title: Basic English/able


text: File:Poledancevideo onarchive.ogv

title: File:Poledancevideo onarchive.ogv


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User:Mplevey/The Introduction of "Financial Fair Play" in Football

UEFA’s new Financial Fair Play (FFP) policy has implications with regards to the business, politics and commodification of football. FFP encourages clubs to be self-sufficient by utilising income revenues it produces to compete, rather than income sourced from owners or debtors. There is little doubt that FFP is a positive step for the financial landscape of football, particularly the minimization of debt. But the initiative has already resulted in the further commodification of club assets, which has the potential to spiral out of control as club finances are pushed to the limit.

Essentially infrastructure funding and youth development are the only forms of direct investment allowable by club owners under FFP, making club growth a long-term project. Such development will positively impact the sport and community from local, national, and international perspectives.

The current inequality of revenue between top and bottom clubs may ultimately prove to be a fundamental flaw in UEFA’s plan, and prove a major stumbling block in closing the competitive gap that is so evident at present. The equal distribution of TV rights money by European leagues would go a long way to achieving this, further validating FFP.

It remains to be seen whether FFP is successful in bridging the competitive gap in football, or if instead the status quo is more strongly enforced.Football is a financial merry-go-round. More competitive leagues will result in a better quality football product, which attracts more people to the game and more money to the leagues and clubs. Thus it is UEFA’s vested interest to make football in Europe as competitive as possible, and Financial Fair Play could be a great way to start.

Introduction
In September 2009, the Executive Committee of UEFA, the governing body for football in Europe, approved a radical concept that would protect the well-being of the sport in Europe (UEFA website, 2010). This concept, named Financial Fair Play (or FFP), is heralded by UEFA as a necessary and crucial measure for the future of football.

As indicated by UEFA (UEFA Financial Fair Play, 2010), FFP aims to:
 * introduce more rationality and discipline regarding club finances;
 * limit inflationary effect and decrease pressure on transfer fees and salaries;
 * encourage clubs to compete using their own income revenues;
 * encourage long-term investments in the both infrastructure and youth development;
 * ensure clubs settle their liabilities on a timely basis;
 * protect the long-term viability of European club football.

Taking full effect in 2013, FFP and its objectives are dedicated to creating a more stable financial landscape within European Football. This initiative has implications for the business, politics, and commodification of football, and will impact on the local, national, and international perspectives of all European nations.

The impact of FFP on the business of football clubs
UEFA insist that FFP exists to discourage clubs from reckless or indulgent spending on transfer fees and player wages, while deterring club owners from injecting large amounts of cash into club affairs (Scuffham, 2011 ). Adhering to these strict financial rules has obvious implications for the way football clubs are run as a business.

No longer will clubs have the freedom to spend exuberant amounts of cash on transfer fees and salaries to obtain and retain players as they wish. And if they do so they will have to balance the book within their own means. This means that clubs will rely on income sources such as TV rights, ticket sales, sponsorship, commercial deals, merchandising, and competition prize money, rather than being financed by owners.

Simply put, under FFP football clubs will become effectively self-sufficient resulting in more financial stability, as the use of debt will no longer be an operational option.

Does FFP limit the potential financial growth of football clubs?
Essentially FFP will at first limit, and eventually eradicate, the huge amounts of debt that have been so prevalent in club football over the last decade. Clubs, as mentioned, will instead rely on the income that they bring in. This however, raises the question of growth, how are clubs able to progress if they can only spend what they earn?

Clubs would have to maximise income avenues such as sponsorship, merchandising, and ticketing. The problem with this is obvious, not all clubs have equal resources, fan bases, or commercial opportunities. For example; Club A has one-tenth of the fan base (merchandising) and a stadium half the size (ticketing) compared to Club B who are in the same league. This results in Club A having much less capability to attract sponsorship money than Club B, hence there is simply no chance of closing the gap between the clubs. Clubs will be forced to come up new and creative ways to increase their income.

It seems that the immediate answer to this question would be that the status quo or club pecking order would remain relatively unchanged under FFP rules, making it very difficult for clubs to become more successful.

Could FFP be a political vehicle in disguise?
Although UEFA clams to have the games best intrests in mind, there is a view, a misconception perhaps, that UEFA has a hidden agenda regarding the introduction of FFP. This view originates from the previously discussed question of progress and financial growth.

As highlighted by Cunliffe (2011 ), there is concern that FFP will only serve to augment the status quo in club football. Meaning the rich clubs are likely to stay rich and the not so rich will find it even harder to close the gap, as UEFA and certain other political powers perhaps, prefer to be the case. There are some (Murphy, 2011 ) who see no problem with this, and argue that a club’s status and resources should reflect its fan base and ultimately success.

Because FFP does not dictate the distribution of League income, namely the sale of TV rights, larger clubs still stand to make more money from these deals (Veysey, 2011 ). If it were enforced that such league income must be shared by clubs in equal amounts, then there would surely be less disparity between them making a league more competitive.

It remains to be seen whether or not FFP is a legitimate attempt by UEFA to bridge the gap between the haves and have-nots, or a ploy to keep the club status quo of and ensure the rich stay rich.

Will FFP accelerate the commodification of football?
FFP is widely regarded as “step in the right direction” (Fink 2011, Murphy 2011, Veysey 2011), and view as an adequate strategy preventing debt from becoming the norm in football business. However Clubs will be forced to push the limits of their existing sources of income allowable under FFP regulations in order to be competitive. Once clubs have pushed the limits of these avenues discussed by Scuffham (2011), they may seek out new sources of revenue, possibly by the further commodification of club assets.

FFP is not yet in full effect, but still some clubs have already moved to strike highly lucrative new sponsorship deals in preparation for FFP. The two most notable of these being Manchester United and the new four year deal with DHL worth £40 million (Gibson, 2011 ), and Manchester City selling the naming rights of the stadium they rent as part of a new sponsorship arrangement with Etihad Airways worth in the reign of £400 million over ten years (Taylor, 2011 ).

The effect of FFP on clubs outside of UEFA’s European competitions
All clubs, even those outside UEFA’s two European competions, the Champions League and Europa League, will have to comply with FFP rules to be eligible for a UEFA club licence (Veysey, 2011). Most major domestic leagues in Europe have voted to enforce UEFA’s initiative, meaning that clubs in those competitions will have to acquire the licence by meeting the requirements of FFP (Murphy, 2011). As Versey (2011) acknowledges, it won’t be long until all 660 top division clubs across 53 European countries will have to comply with FFP to gain a UEFA Licence.

For the commodification of football, FFP will not alter the current trickle down effect that is so evident within domestic leagues. In the long run this may have a negative affect as the already wealthy more popular clubs will still receive a much larger slice of the TV rights deals negotiated by the leagues. Some clubs are even free to negotiate their own TV deals. Lowe (2011 ) discusses Spain’s La Liga, pointing out that super clubs Real Madrid and Barcelona stand to make €135m during the 2011-2012 season on domestic TV rights alone. The next closest is Valencia with €48m, with clubs at the foot of the table set to make less than a tenth of the top two. Similar situations are present in nearly every other top European league.

The disparity in distribution of TV money, which is essentially League income, is alarming. However it is not within UEFA’s power to demand equality in such matters, the distribution of TV income is the responsibility of individual Leagues or in some cases teams. Despite this FFP will inadvertently make such TV revenue even more crucial to a club’s livelihood, and unless changes are made to the distibustion of this revenue, can only result in making the competitive gap even wider.

Given the current football climate, FFP will make it a more competitive market when it comes to securing long term sponsorship deals and other commodification opportunities.

How far will the commodification of football go?
One wonders what could be next in line for the commodification of football. Could it be possible that we see the full commodification of a club brand in Europe, with naming rights going to the highest bidder? An existing example of this is the New York Red Bulls who play in the America’s MLS (Jensen et al, 2008 ). How long until we see clubs adopt a corporate identity such as, for example, Northern Rock Newcastle United, or Sporting Bet Wolves in the EPL ?

This would surely be a step too far in the commodification of football, and would undermine club history and tradition. But it would be difficult to say whether fans of a club would be opposed to such a deal if it subsequently save their beloved team from relegation for example.

Such extreme commodification may be considered as selling the clubs soul, but as the gap between the “haves” and the “have nots” continues to grow, and financial pressures increase, FFP may unintentionally drive some clubs to such ends.

Potential Impacts of Financial Fair Play at Local, National, and International Levels for European Nations
The introduction of FFP has the potential to have a very positive effect at a local and national level for all European nations. Club owners will be more frequently investing in more lasting contributions to the club, rather than funding the team itself. The funding of club resources and initiatives such as community development, club infrastructure, and youth development are allowable exceptions of expenditure under FFP regulations (Veysey, 2011).

FFP has the potential to make a positive impact on a local level, with club initiated community development programs resulting in improving community relations and local recognition. This may encourage the community to get behind their local team, and even attract new fans from the local area. Youth development programs will also contribute to the local community, by providing promising young local players a platform for success.

Expenditure in development might not have an immediate impact on team success, and therefore have a low appeal for owners, but there are evident rewards for those that do engage in such long-term projects. For example, the owner of Club A wants to put money into the club to try and close the competitive gap between Club B. Unless the club was profitable, and the profit was used to strengthen the team, injection of money directly into the team would ultimately result in a breach of FFP (Cunliffe, 2011). However, the owner would be allowed to fund a new stadium that dramatically increases the clubs ticketing income, which in turn can be put into the team.

Similarly if club owners wish to improve the performances of the team, then they can invest in upgraded training facilities, medical facilities that treat injuries, sports science facilities that prevent injuries, or perhaps even staff.

On a national level this would be very positive, as the new club infrastructure would serve to strengthen the sport, and provide the nation with bigger and better stadiums and sporting facilities. Also increased youth development funding would pave the way for a stronger national leagues and National Team.

This development would also have an impact on an International level, as it steadily increases the quality of football and the league in each European nation. Thus making both of UEFA’s European competitions and International Football much more competitive.

It must be noted however, that not all clubs would have the means to fund such development, or perhaps the club owners would not be willing to do so. Many larger European Clubs already possess very good infrastructure and youth development programs and the deep pockets of many owners should allow for continual development in these areas. It is the smaller clubs which struggle to stay competitive that may find it difficult to fund such club development, unless they had a club owner who was willing to cover the cost.

Conclusion
This article has examined the implications of UEFA’s Financial Fair Play policy, with regards to the business, politics and commodification of football. There is little doubt that FFP is a positive step for the financial landscape of football, particularly the minimization of debt. But the initiative has already resulted in the further commodification of club assets, which has the potential to spiral out of control as club finances are pushed to the limit.

The current inequality of revenue between top and bottom clubs may ultimately prove to be a fundamental flaw in UEFA’s plan, and prove a major stumbling block in closing the competitive gap that is so evident at present. The equal distribution of TV rights money by European leagues would go a long way to achieving this, further validating FFP.

Essentially infrastructure funding and youth development are the only forms of direct investment allowable by club owners under FFP, making club growth a long-term project. Such development will positively impact the sport and community from local, national, and international perspectives.

It remains to be seen whether FFP is successful in bridging the competitive gap in football, or if instead the status quo is more strongly enforced.

Presentation
The Introduction of Financial Fair Play in Football - Part 1 of 2

The Introduction of Financial Fair Play in Football - Part 2 of 2


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger

Overview

We have all seen and experienced the effects of anger at some point in our lives, We have all been angry at others, ourselves, or had people angry at us. At times, we may have felt driven or empowered by our anger (Berkowitz & Harmon-Jones, 2004); conversely it may have led to consequences that later made us feel regretful, embarrassed or despondent. Anger is a powerful emotion often associated with fury, conflict and aggression and being on the receiving end of it at times can be confronting and frightening. For these reasons, anger is often seen as a “negative emotion”, however this is an over simplification (Izard, 1982), as anger is an essential emotion for dealing with physical and social changes in our environment (Keltner & Gross, 1999), such as potential threats (Reeve, 2009), and can be a useful drive for enforcing social norms and for informing people when their behaviour is not okay (Reeve, 2009; Wright, Day & Howells, 2009).

With that said, anger can also be problematic when it is poorly or not managed (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002; Wright, Day & Howells, 2009) and in such circumstances, it is a contributor to physical health problems such as coronary heart disease (Glazer, Ruiz & Gallo, 2004) and high blood pressure (Everson, 1998), as well as social problems such as aggression (Cornell, Peterson & Richards, 1999), family violence (Wolf and Vangie, 2003), violent crime (Smith & Thomas, 2000)and substance abuse (Eftekhari, Turner & Larimer, 2004).

Focus
It will be the focus of this textbook chapter to discuss some psychological theories as to the cause of anger, the effects anger causes on the body, ways in which we can measure and understand anger, and finally, discuss techniques in which anger can be managed based on psychological research.

"Anybody can become angry - that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way - that is not within everybody's power and is not easy. ~ Aristotle"

Definitions
Aggression: Aggression is a motor behaviour that is expressed as a physical action intended to hurt or harm another person, or to destroy a property (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002).

Anger: An emotion usually triggered in response to situations that are perceived as threatening, harmful, unjust (Keltner & Gross, 1999) or an obstacle (Reeve, 2009), eliciting behaviours that are seen as destructive such as biting or hitting (Reeve,2009).

Cortisol: is an adrenal hormone produced in response to stress (Elseiver, 2005).

Rumination: is denoted by uncontrollable repetitive thoughts in regards to a distressing occurrence (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

Self-focused rumination: is when the result of a distressing situation gets an individual to focus inwards, and evaluate their current situation with their personal standards, when a discrepancy arises and the individual is unable to reduce it, it results in negative feelings (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

Provocation-focused rumination: occurs when an individual repeats an anger inducing incident in their mind, focusing on the angry feelings from the event with thoughts of revenge (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

Why we get angry - Theory meets science
Like many things, it is difficult to understand something complex by looking at it on a single level, the cause of Anger, its effects on the body and its expression is no different. Many theories on the causes of Emotions such as anger, and the stages in which it occurs exist. These theories can be better understood by dividing them into two types: these are Cognitive explanations, which state that cognition is the first step to experiencing emotion and Biological explanations which dictate that biology occurs before Cognition.

It will be the focus of this part of the textbook chapter to explain broadly a few of these different theories and the criticisms associated with them. These explanations will be used to provide you with an understanding of the different ways we can experience Anger so that later in the chapter we can build on these theories to provide useful techniques in its management.

Biological explanations
With the biological explanation for emotions, it is claimed that the physiological effects of an emotion are experienced before cognition. One example of a biological theory for emotion is Facial Feedback Hypothesis.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Facial Feedback Hypothesis can be understood in four steps:
 * 1) The effects of emotions are first started by movements of the facial musculature. In the case of anger three key muscles areas of the face are used. These are: the Corrugator (draw eyebrows in and down), Orbicularis Oculi (tensing lower eyelids upward) and the Orbicularis Oris (pressing lips firmly together) (Reeve, 2009).
 * 2) This expression of anger then results in increased skin temperature (Martin, Stepper & Strack, 1988; Reeve, 2009).
 * 3) And activity in the glands follow (Reeve, 2009). In the case of anger higher levels of cortisol may result (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009) from production of the adrenal gland (Elseiver, 2005).
 * 4) Finally it is hypothesised by FFH that we become aware of our facial expression which results in us feeling we are experiencing a current emotion (Reeve, 2009).

Criticisms

 * 1) Facial Feedback Hypothesis experimental procedures tend not to discriminate between physiological and cognitive feedback mechanisms. Meaning it is unclear whether or not facial expressions result in cognitions that influence physiological activity or if facial expressions directly result in physiological activity followed by cognition (Martin, Stepper & Strack, 1988).
 * 2) Tends to rely on self-report measures where it is common for participants to recognise facial expressions they are told to display, potentially biasing their reports (Izard, 1981; Martin, Stepper & Strack, 1988).

Role of the Autonomic Nervous System
Some theorists believe that the Autonomic Nervous System may play a role in triggering emotions in response to environmental events that pose a threat to a person or organism (Levenson, 1988). The Autonomic Nervous System, responsible for the monitoring and functioning of circulation, respiration, digestion, metabolism, secretions, body temperature and reproduction (Lundy-Ekman, p.169, 2007), has been thought to have distinctive patterns of activity associated with certain emotions considered beneficial for survival (Levenson, 1988; Reeve, 2009; Sinha, 1996).

Recent research suggests this may be the case for certain core emotions such as fear, disgust, sadness and anger (Reeve, 2009), though not all emotions have such distinctive ANS activity. In the case of anger eliciting situations or events, heart rate is recorded to significantly increase (Sinha, 1996) as well as systolic blood pressure (Sinha, 1996). It is hypothesised that this increase in blood pressure boosts isometric muscle strength and the accuracy of sensory intake which in turn helps prepare the body for physical altercation (Schwartz, 1981 cited in: Sinha, 1996).

Criticisms:

 * 1) Isolating specific emotions by monitoring ANS activity is difficult as Emotions are short-lived lasting only seconds (Ekman, 1984 cited in: Levenson, 1992).
 * 2) This is further made more difficult by trying to pin-point specific ANS activity patterns amongst other processes regulated by the ANS such as homeostasis and metabolic demands (Levenson, 1992).

Cognitive Explanations
Appraisal Theory is used to explain emotions that may occur due to cognitions. Appraisals are a form of judgment made in regards to a situation or event that occurs, this event may be seen as either 'good' or 'bad'. In order for a judgment to be formed the event must have some sort of significance to the individual, such as implications for their well-being (Reeve, 2009).

According to Reeve (2009) cognitive emotion theorist agree that:
 * 1) In order for an appraisal to occur it relies on an antecedent to occur.
 * 2) And that the appraisal itself creates the emotion not the event.

Example of an Appraisal: A co-worker has accused you of using a mobile phone during work hours. Your boss has already made it clear to all employees that this interferes with your job role and therefore is not allowed. You are shocked to receive an email from your boss warning you that if you continue to use your phone during office hours you will have to find a new job.

Upon receiving the email the following happens:
 * 1) The situation is seen as significant to your well-being.
 * 2) You automatically judge the situation to be bad or disliked.
 * 3) Physiological changes may then occur after these cognitions such as the adrenal gland producing cortisol (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell and Pedersen, 2009).

Measuring problematic anger
Unlike anxiety and depression disorders, Anger related problems are under-researched and under-defined (DiGiuseppe & Tafrate, 2003), this makes it difficult to diagnose problematic anger, as it may take on many forms. Nevertheless, the purpose of this part of the textbook chapter will be to give a brief summary of the ways in which anger can be measured, in order to help you become more aware of your anger and to judge yourself, whether or not your anger is problematic.

Duration and rumination
Rumination is characterised by uncontrollable repetitive thoughts towards a distressing event or situation (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009) and is considered a form of coping style which serves to increase the length (or duration) of time in which we experience Anger (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009). Anger rumination can be understood by looking at the focus of Anger. As Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen (2009) see it, two potential such focuses exist, these are Self-focused rumination and 'Provocation-focused rumination'.

Self-focused rumination is described to occur when an a distressing situation gets an individual to turn their anger inwards and focus on the self, which in turn is thought to increase self-awareness. It is hypothesised by self-awareness theory, that this causes individuals to initiate a process where they compare their current state with their personal standards (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009). When an inconsistency arises and the individual is unable to reduce it, this results in negative feelings and thoughts (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

On the other hand, people may also ruminate Angry thoughts towards events or people that have made them angry, this is know as Provocation-focused rumination and is usually accompanied by thoughts of blame towards those that are seen to have made us angry (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

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Think about it
''Have you ever felt angry at a person, situation or event long after it has occurred? Did you fuss over it, re-living the circumstances that made you angry, only to find that you couldn't let it go.'' If so, you may have ruminating.
 * }

Findings of Anger Rumination
In a study by Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell and Pedersen (2009) those who used Self-focused rumination as style of coping where found to have higher cortisol levels (a hormone typically linked to stress (Elseiver, 2005)) at the end of the study than those who where told to perform distracting tasks after being provoked. It was also found that those in the Provactation-focused rumination condition had higher levels than those in the distraction condition, however this seemed to be dependent on the processing style of the individuals.

At the end of the provocation stage of the experiment, participants in where told to write an essay where their attention was either directed to the experimenter who had provoked them (Provocation-focused rumination condition)or towards how they felt they had gone in the test (Self-focused rumination condition). Those in the distraction condition where told to visualise and write about their post office. All essays where then appropriately analysed.

It was found that those in the Provocation-focused condition did not all have higher cortisol levels than those in the distraction condition. The discrepancy found in the participants of the Provocation-focused condition was attributed to the processing style of the individuals in writing the essay. Analysis on the essays revealed that those who used more distanced descriptions of the experimenter and the process involved where found to have similar cortisol levels to those in the distraction condition, whereas those who were more emotionally reactive in the provocation-focused condition had higher levels of cortisol.

Implications of Rumination research
The experiment by Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell and Pedersen (2009) indicates the following:
 * 1) Self-focused rumination can lead to higher levels of cortisol.
 * 2) Provocation-focused rumination can also lead to higher levels of cortisol, but this can very depending on the level of which we distance ourselves to a situation that has provoked us. More distanced accounts of the Provocation-focused rumination condition indicate that cortisol levels are lower in these participants when compared to their counterparts in the same condition.
 * 3) Pre-occupying ourselves with other tasks, rather than ruminating may decrease cortisol levels and subsequently stress experienced.
 * 4) This study indicates that cognitions can affect the duration in which we experience Anger and more directly the bodies physiology.

Frequency
In understanding Anger it is also important to understand how frequently Anger occurs. Whilst some people may experience Anger quite frequently, in many different situations and circumstances, others will not (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002).

One way to understand the frequency in which Anger occurs is to look for common situations or factors that occur when we get Angry. These common influences are typically called 'Triggers' (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002).

Intensity and disproportion
In order to understand problematic Anger it is important to measure the intensity of Anger. The intensity of Anger can be measured as mild to strong (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002), and depend on several factors.

Those who experience strong intense levels of Anger may do so due to distorting cognitions. For example they may personalise feedback to see it in a perspective that serves to invigorate that Anger (Kassinove & Tafrate, 2002). For this reason, it is important to become aware of thoughts and cognitions that may increase levels of anger. This will be covered in the textbook chapter under Cognitive Behaviour Therapy.

The Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Approach
The aim of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is to provide people with both Cognitive and Behavioural Strategies to deal with maladaptive thinking and behaviours. This approach has been especially successful with Anger problems (Beck & Fernandez, 1998; DiGiuseppe, Tafrate, 2003), with some researchers arguing that the rates of success are higher than those seen in depression (Beck & Fernandez, 1998). Cognitive behavioural therapy uses a variety of methods to deal with problematic behaviours such as relaxation techniques, cognitive re-structuring, problem-solving and stress inoculation, using principles of learning theory and information processing to achieve its means (Beck & Fernandez, 1998).

One particular form of CBT that has been particularly successful with anger is that of Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) (Beck & Fernandez, 1998). This platform originally developed for anxiety uses three phases to deal with problematic behaviours (Meichenbaum, 1975 as cited in: Beck & Fernandez, 1998). These phases are cognitive preparation, skill acquisition and application training (Beck & Fernandez, 1998). It will therefore be the purpose of this part of the textbook chapter to give a brief overview of these phases and draw on the research covered to give it an application to problematic Anger.

Cognitive Preparation

 * 1) One of the first steps needed in order to manager our Anger is to think about situations or circumstances that make you angry (Beck & Fernandez,1998)  This is known as looking for 'triggers'.
 * 2) Following this it is important to re-frame the situation, which can be done using self-statements. For example: "By getting angry at this situation I will only lose any possible benefits", "Relax, don't take it so personally" (Beck & Fernandez,1998), "I can handle this" (Beck & Fernandez,1998).

Skill Acquisition
According to Beck & Fernandez (1998) in the skill acquisition stage people can be taught relaxation skills which in turn can then be coupled with their self statements.

 * 1) One way of dealing with the situation might be to distance yourself from it, this could be done by watching the exchange that made you angry from third person, and help to see the situation from another perspective (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).
 * 2) If the situation continue to anger you, due to rumination, involving yourself in another task may help to cut off the effects of rumination (Denson, Fabiansson, Creswell & Pedersen, 2009).

Application Training
In this final stage, the new skills acquired from the two initial stages are tested by exposing individuals to their anger triggers through role-play (Beck & Fernandez,1998).

Quiz
This section will offer a quick quiz in order to aid recall and retainment of chapter information on Anger. {A few hours ago, a co-worker of yours implied in a condescending manner that you were stupid due to some grammatical mistakes you made in a report you had written. You've just spent the past few hours annoyed at yourself, thinking that 'it must be true'. What would be the psychological term used for this sort of rumination?
 * type=""}

+ Self-focused rumination. - Inner-focused rumination. - Outward-focused rumination. - Provocation-focused rumination.

{Facial Feedback Hypothesis is said to begin as a result of?
 * type=""}

- Activation of the Autonomic Nervous System in response to an evironmental event deemed 'threatning'. - Cognitions followed by physiology. + Movement of the facial musculutatre, which is then said to trigger changes in skin temperature and cause stimulation of the glands. - Cognitive judements which asses a situation as 'good' or 'bad'.

{How do Anger and Aggression differ? (2 Answers)
 * type="[]"}

-They are exactly the same thing, any difference is arbitrary. -Aggression is an Emotion whilst Anger is a behaviour. +Aggression is characterised as a motor response with the intent to harm whereas Anger is not. +Anger is an Emotion whereas Aggression is not.

{In what two ways previously discussed is reducing severe Anger important? (2 Answers)
 * type="[]"}

-Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering. -Angry people are less likely to make friends. +Reducing Anger can reduce negative health outcomes such as heart disease. +Anger can lead to social problems such as family violence and substance abuse.

{What is the cognitive theory of Emotion in regards to Anger mentioned in the above text? -Self Determination Theory. +Appraisal Theory. -Facial Feedback Hypothesis. -Social Learning Theory.
 * type=""}

{Provaction-focused Rumination is typically said to be directed at? -The Self. -Both at yourself and another. +A person who you beleive to be the cause of your Anger. -Anger at inanimate objects.
 * type""}

title: Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger


text: Basic English/again

title: Basic English/again