text:
Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming

(from Controversies in Science)

Are humans causing global warming?

Increase In Global Average Temperature
Several studies on species and their effect on global warming has shown 0.6°C increase in the global average temperature and also estimated to increase at a rapid rate. This rapid change is the primary concern for species.

Tree Ring Data Says Humans are Causing Global Warming
By measuring tree rings we can estimate temperatures for the past 600 years and show that human pollution is causing the world's temperature to rise. Research has proven that the tree rings expanded, just like a thermometer, based on the temperature through the years and were also affected by the level of CO2 in the environment.

Global Warming Occurring Long Before Industrial Revolution
Ever since the human race invented agriculture around 11,000 years ago, concentrations of methane and CO2 have been steadily increasing. This is more so due to the innovations of deforestation and rice irrigation.

Human generations are accumulating CO2 at an increasing rate which is causing global warming
The past 150 years of CO2 emissions have been analyzed and monitored to project future trends. A generation is defined in 25 year increments which has provided this study with six samples. From these six samples it is noted that CO2 emissions rise over each generation. The cause for concern is the continued increase of CO2 in the seas and in the atmosphere. That being said, CO2 does not decrease as quickly as it rises thus causing implications for an overabundance of CO2 in the future.

New models indicate that humans impact on environment is more drastic than previously thought
Current models fail to acknowledge the fact that CO2 concentration is a part of a cyclical model in which it moves through land and the atmosphere. With a new model in place, the effects on the climate are considered even more damaging than previously thought.

The model used in the research, is based on the assumption that CO2 emissions remain at a constant level. If CO2 emissions were to increase, the overall long term effect would be compounded.

In order to accurately predict climate change in the next 100 years we would have to go back and analyze all the data using the model currently used in this research.

As the population increases, so does the surface temperature.
In 1996, Hingane compared two industrialized cites with two non industrialized cities. This study lead to a conclusion that the more industrialized cities with the higher population have a higher surface temperature compared to the small non industrialized towns for many reasons. The main reason being that when the population of the more industrialized cities increases, CO2 emissions increase as well. These emissions are then absorbed by the ocean and land, which affects the climate.

N2O have similar characteristics to chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)
CFC's have been banned because of their contributions to global warming. N2O and CFC’s (both man made chemicals) are stable gases when they are emitted but once they reach the stratosphere they release ozone depleting chemicals. N2O’s release chemicals including: akin and methyl bromide, which is directly linked to ozone depletion.

Global Warming Affects Species.
Research indicates that due to changes in habitat, rapid temperature rise, and other stresses, species may be changing their physical characteristics. Each species is becoming less connected, and possibly even extinct. There is a projection that the average global temperature will continue to rise, as it has already risen 0.6 degrees Celsius in the last 100 years; causing continued concerns for species and their ecosystems.

Global Warming is Already Happening
Plant growth in size (40%) and amount (2400%) have made a significant increase in the arctic.

Global Warming and the Export of Dissolved Organic Carbon from Boreal Peatland
In addition to changes in temperature, global warming also affects water –table levels and discharge from peatlands. Consequently, this affects the delivery of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to downstream ecosystems where the productivity control is held along with biochemical cycles and reduction of visible and UV radiation. In conclusion, an increase in temperature has many effects because of the regional carbon resources and the ecology of boreal and arctic surface waters. Global warming is due to the reduction of dissolved organic carbon export from peatlands under warm climates.

Global Warming & Human Activity
There is a link between carbons released due to human activity and a shift in the global climate.

Global Warming is Affecting the Polar Bears
Polar Bears are under a lot of stress due to the prolonged ice-free period which lasts four months. This in turn increases nutritional stress on the polar bear population. This affects Polar Bears in numerous ways such as declining body conditions, lowered reproductive rates, reduced survival of cubs, and cause of collapse when it comes to polar bear maternity dens, which causes the deaths of the occupants.

Changes Humans can make to Limit their Carbon Footprint
Due to our growing population, individuals can make subtle changes to their lifestyle which will impact the amount of carbon released into the environment in an effort to limit their negative impact.

Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases have Little Impact in the Warming of the Earth.
CO2 is the major gas that contributes in the heating of our planet. Humans add to the CO2 production but the environmental causes are higher compared to the humans. The increase of those gases accelerates the climate rate.

Space Observations of Cold-Cloud Phase Change
The increased effects of cloud glaciations due to dust aerosols is causing the greenhouse effect; however, the increased reflectivity of the clouds has proven to be equal on both sides, and therefore the net thermal effect is relatively the same, keeping the system in equilibrium.

Not so Simple!!!
The argument made by scientists are that global warming is not as simple as the formula where an increase in Co2 leads to an increase in greenhouse effect which leads to an increase in temperature. The problem with this formula is that the concept of global warming is in fact not this simple but instead is a complex system made of 5 subsystems (atmosphere, hydrosphere, ect...) which have their different temperatures as well as multiple factors that compose their own individual climates.

Coral Reef Depletion is NOT caused by Global Warming
People have linked the depletion of the Great Barrier Reef to Global Warming. Research done by PANS claims that the Great Barrier Reef is 28-36% extinct due to Global Warming. This statistic is exaggerated due to inaccurate mathematic calculation. Other research shows other causes to depletion of Barrier Reefs.

Hockey Stick Graph is Wrong
The data used to construct the hockey stick graph contains many errors that together create an incorrect graph that artificially shows a steep climb in temperature since the industrial revolution.

Is the Decline of Ice on Kilimanjaro Unprecedented in the Holocene?
The decline in the amount of ice on Mount Kilimanjaro is not due to global warming but is a feature of the current epoch- The Holocene.

GHG Not Destructive to Thermal Radiation
Lindzen argues that global warming is not primarily anthropogenic, and that greenhouse gas is not as detrimental to the Earth’s cooling as previously believed.

Trees Disprove Global Warming
Tree rings are often used to measure past climates which has been a focus especially in the last 1000 years. Divergences occur however, when a tree grows at an unusual rate outside of the calibration period. As a result of these divergences, trees are not a reliable source for comparing the climate in recent decades with the climate of historical decades. There are many factors that could have contributed to the divergences outside of climate.

Mount Pinatubo Eruption Caused Climate Change
In 1991 a sulfur dioxide cloud from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo was released into the stratosphere. It caused what is believed to be the largest aerosol disturbance of the stratosphere in the twentieth century. Three years after the eruption, the Earth's surface witnessed a climate change of 1.3 degrees.


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Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?

(from Controversies in Science)

Was there a mitochondrial Eve?

The Coalescence Theory
The Mitochondrial Eve is supported by the Coalescence Theory which is a group of branch processing theorems about genetic behaviour. The Coalescence Theory predicts the variation between descendants of a common ancestor after several generations. .

Did the Mitochondrial Eve live 200,000 Years Ago?
A study at Rice University, conducted sometime in 2010, determined/confirmed that the Mitochondrial Eve "Mother of all humans" lived 200,000 years ago. Scientist at Rice University have been comparing a number of human genetic models to determine Eve's genetic past and learn more about genetic mutations.

The theory of a Mitochondrial Eve is supported by anthropological evidence
However, it is a theoretical explanation to address current confusion between group genealogies and individual genealogies. More research needs to be conducted, but the evidence does seem to point to a specific point of divergence towards the evolution of modern human beings.

All living individuals originate from the same common ancestor
The Coalescence Theory provides more evidence that genetic behavior has a common ancestor from one original mother, dated back around 200,000 years ago. Through the rigorous study of mtDNA, there is strong mathematical evidence supporting that the mtDNA organisms are maternally transmitted and have common genetic behaviors. Essentially, humans have mutated from one being to the next carrying the same gene through each generation. .

We Are Not Diverse Enough
Humans do not come from multiple different origins, as research shows they are all very similar to each other. Years ago, there must have been one single origin for all human kind. There is a plethora of mathematical evidence to back this up. The lack of variation in the DNA indicates that humans come from a recent ancestor, not multiple ancestors. . The only differences between humans are superficial. The lack of differences amongst humans indicates that the most recent common ancestor was not that long ago. .

We Originated in Africa & We All Originated From The Same mtDNA
Modern day people orginated from Africa and travelled their way around the world. Paleobiological and archeological evidence support the argument that humans might have first originated approximately 196,000 years ago, in East Africa.

Neanderthal and Human mtDNA analysis shows variance in pairwise sequence
Distribution of human and Neanderthal Pairwise mtDNA Sequence Differences shows that humans and Neanderthals do not share similarities in mtDNA, suggesting that hominids originated from a single source and were not the product of human and Neanderthal cross-breeding. From this, they have determined that the two groups split 660,000 years ago (+ / - 140,000).

The orangutan and African apes separated over 13 million years ago. Humans and chimpanzees separated 4.9 million years ago.

Few synonymous changes among human mtDNA support mitochondrial Eve
There is strong evidence that the Mitochondrial Eve exists because comparison of synonymous changes between African, Japanese, European, orangutan, chimpanzee, and gorilla mitochondrial DNA points to a shallow human ancestry, which suggests that modern humans originate from Africa.

Tracing Origins of Mitochondrial Eve
Origins of modern day humans can be traced by examining the DNA of mitochondria. The University of California Berkley published a paper based on the premise that they could determine how closely people of different ethnic backgrounds are related by comparing mitochondrial DNA and creating ancestral branches.

Relationship Between Humans and Neanderthals
Mitochondrial DNA helps prove the relationship between human beings and Neanderthals. This DNA also proves important events in history, such as the expansion of the Neolithic farmers who expanded into Europe.

Steve Olsen and Mapping Human History
"Only about 6,000 generations separate everyone alive today from a common set of ancestors," -Steve Olsen. In Steve Olsens’ book, "Mapping Human History: Discovering the Past Through Our Genes", he interviews many scientists that add proof to the expansion over 4 continents. i.e.) Africa, The Middle East, Asia and the pacific ocean. The traveling our ancestors did is described through the several visits he takes to each continent. The study of genes proves the large quantities of important and historical information hidden inside each strand of DNA. He bring up the matter of identical twins; they may be identical but they both have differences in their genetic code due to mutations.

Modern Homo Sapiens lived in Africa at the same time as Neanderthals in other parts of the world
By analyzing the transformations and substitutions of the D-loop segment of mDNA we can see an overlap in time when Homo sapiens in Africa lived as well as the Homo Erectus in the rest of the world. Therefore, the Homo Sapiens in Africa were not a result of interbreeding.

Modern Day Humans Originate From Many Different Sources
Multiregional Evolution suggests that modern day humans originated from many different kinds of species. It has been shown that humans today have many different genetic characteristics, from many different sources. This also means, humans today have come from more than only early African heritage.

Multi Regional Theory
The multiregional theory argues that our earliest ancestors came from out of Africa. These ancestors then migrated from Africa to different parts of the world through gene flow and natural selection.

Diverse modern human immune systems have acquired characteristics from multi-regional descendence
A study into a specific leukocyte antigen shows that we inherited certain alleles from interbreeding with the Denisovan humans ( a sister group to the better known neanderthals) that has introgressed into the genome of modern Eurasians and Oceanians.

Multiple Sources of Genetic Information
There was restricted but recurrent gene flow among prehistoric human populations in various regions of the Old World, contradicting the theory that there was one single mother of all humans today.

There is fossil evidence to prove differences between date estimates for the Mitochondrial Eve
There are differences between information presented as "evidence" as to when the Mitochondrial Eve began and where it's origins are

Breaking News: Your data size is too small
The Monte Carlo simulation shows that the current data has been misinterpreted because the sample size is so small. Mitochondrial DNA can be interpreted and limited just to Africa; however, based under the assumption that there are multiple regions, the Monte Carlo simulation shows that this theory is flawed.

In addition, methods that prove the mitochondrial Eve are large in variation and accommodate several alternative matrices, as well as many revolutionary assumptions. The analysis has never been modified in any advanced aspect and is very basic in nature.

History shows that only heuristic run has ever been completed with a single variation of mtDNA restriction-site data, tried by Cann, Stoneking, and Wilson (1987). As a result, the maximum parsimony tree was not found giving less than credible data. Sequence data created by Vigilant et al. (1991) proved similar results.

Mit-no-chondrial
Mitochondrial Eve can be pushed back to two million years ago based on the findings of shared DNA with earlier species of humans. As much as 80% of our DNA is shared with them, which proves we have been interbreeding for longer than was originally thought.

One main source of error is the evolutionary process. The stochastic process was greatly affected by the genetic drift which directly related to a skewed genetic variation proving that mtDNA did not take all factors into consideration.

Evidence for mitochondrial DNA recombination in a human population of island Melanesia
Their DNA type was found to be a recombination of mtDNA types of individuals in other remote areas which is highly unlikely. .

Absence of Regional Affinities of Neanderthal DNA With Living Humans Does Not Reject Multiregional Evolution
The evidence for a Mitochondrial Eve neglect to consider migration and inter-marriage patterns.

Mitochondrial Eve Hypotheses Flaws
Mitochondrial Eve is a hypothesis, which states that humans today are created from a common female ancestor. This suggests that all modern humans are from the same geographical population as the common ancestor. The female ancestor is of African origin and lived 200,000 years ago. The phylogeny of mtDNA is also of that population; the modern human came from Africa and spread across the world to wipe out the homo humans to extinction. These hypotheses are wrong. .

Anatomical Evidence
Anatomical evidence for the multiregional theory suggests that human evolution evolved through genetic drift and natural selection. Different ancestors like the Neanderthal, which are found in Europe and Asia, had specific features such as larger brow ridges, massive facial skeleton, and long clavicles, just to name a few. This theory helps undermine the Mitochondrial Eve hypothesis.

===Archeological Evidence=== There was a diversity of stone tool technology found on different continents. There could of been interbreeding between populations.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Controversies in Science/What killed the dinosaurs

(from Controversies in Science) Did the meteorites kills the dinosaurs?

Catastrophes of the Asteroid
The Asteroid itself was not the sole cause of what killed the dinosaurs, but rather what occurred due to the asteroids impact. Not only did the asteroid's impact have enough force to cause serious damage, but the tsunami that followed also contributed to the death of wildlife in the immediate area. Thereafter, due to the amount of dust that lingered into the atmosphere as a cause of the impact, sunlight was blocked. This caused acid rains which further destroyed the earth. After this, with plant-life being damaged, herbivores began to die out, which in turn caused the death of the carnivores. With no leftovers to feast on carrions also began to die out from starvation. Finally, with no sunlight ecosystems were unable to produce oxygen and a cold "climate change" began to occur, explaining the possibility of an "ice age".

In other words, yes perhaps climate change was the eventual cause of the dinosaurs death, however the events of the climate changes only occurred because they were triggered by the main event of the asteroid that impacted the Earth 65 million years ago.

Proof in the Clay
The earth was impacted by a large asteroid that would send 60 times the asteroid's mass into the atmosphere in the form of dust. The dust would spread over the earth for several years, causing Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. When they found the increase in iridium in rocks in several parts of the world compared to the background rocks it was dated back and concluded the increase was caused by the meteorite effect and that killed the dinosaurs. .

Was an asteroid responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs?
An asteroid struck the earth sixty-five million years ago which caused the dinosaurs to disappear. When the asteroid hit the earth, it raised a massive cloud of dust that covered the earth and blocked out the sun. This cloud was composed of Iridium.

Aftermath of the Asteroid that killed the dinosaurs
The asteroids impact created so much dust into the atmosphere that it plunged the earth into darkness and cold which in turn slowly killed approximately 90% of the wildlife. . The force of the asteroid hitting the earth was 100 megatons of force which is equivalent to a billion times more explosive than the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to the fossil record dinosaurs were found to have died relatively swift according to the geographical span and based on the differences in the jaws Org: National Geographic. (n.d.). Retrieved October 4, 2012, from National Geographic Website: http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/15/3/pdf/i1052-5173-15-3-4.pdf.

Quick Extinction
The dinosaurs were killed off in a relatively short time period, which appears to have been triggered by the period of global warming and devastation caused by a meteorite.

Post-impact Asteroid Conditions
The Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction is due to the post-impact ozone conditions from the asteroid collision in the Yucatan Peninsula in northeastern Mexico (The Chicxulub crater..

Most Species of Archaic Birds that Existed in the Cretaceous do not Appear in the Paleogene Era
The authors identify a total of 17 species that were present within 300,000 years of the Cretaceous - Paleogene era border. Fossil evidence claims those 17 species were not present in the Paleogene era. Dinosaurs became extinct after the Cretaceous period. Paleontologists have been studying fossil and rock formations for further evidence.

The meteor that killed the dinosaurs
As studies have shown, approximately 65 millions years ago a meteorite struck the earth causing a large dust cloud that lingered in the sky for years. The cloud acted as a barrier to the sun. The change in environment due to the cloud eventually led to the extinction of the dinosaurs, and the end of the dinosaur age.

Volcanic Eruptions May Have Caused the Deaths of The Dinosaurs
The Super Volcano Theory states that subsequent volcanic eruptions caused the death of the dinosaurs due to a significant amount of sulfur dioxide being released in the air which in turn affected the environment for the dinosaurs in a deadly way.

Research has shown that immense lava flows, rare metal, fractured crystals, and fossil records were found as evidence to support this theory.

Author Argues Against the Single-Cause Extraterrestrial Impact Hypothesis
E. J. Sargis from Yale University reviews the book Extinction and radiation: how the fall of dinosaurs led to the rise of mammals by Archibald, J. David and states that the author argues against the single-cause extraterrestrial impact of a meteorite theory, instead he suspects events such as impact, volcanoes, sea level and climate change. The author dedicates six chapters to the study of fossils from nonavion dinosaurs, Mesozoic mammals, and eutherian mammals, also of the study of origin mammals post extinction and the patterns of the K-T boundary.

The Cause of Dinosaur Extinction
Although there may have been a meteorite that started the extinction of dinosaurs, a meteorite was not solely the cause of dinosaur extinction. Climate change is the largest factor of killing off the dinosaurs. This was caused by volcanic eruption releasing sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere that changed the composition of the gases. Greenhouse gases control the weather on Earth and if there were no gases the Earth would be too cold to sustain life, but when greenhouse gases become too concentrated in the atmosphere there is a feedback loop characterized by an increase in temperature and increase in the production of greenhouse gases. Therefore; an eruption of volcanoes and possible increase in the production of greenhouse gases are two potential culprits that caused the climate to change significantly. These were the factors that led to the extinction of dinosaurs.

Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary Inconsistency
In examinations of ancient plankton fossils in various areas of the planet, the studies notice that large extinctions began happening ~300,000 yrs prior to, and ~200,000 - 300,000 yrs after the Chicxulub impact event. They also noticed a selective species extinction, Large species died first followed by small species which shows increased ecological stresses as a result rather than disruption in the food chain caused by the global dust.

Impact is not the Reason for Mass extinction
There is evidence of impact from the Chicxulub Crater. The data is dated back 300, 000 years before the dinosaurs.

The reason for the massive extinction must be a combination of the impact, volcanic eruptions, sea level and climate change, rather than the impact alone. This is an argument that has been made by Author David Archibald.

Gerta Keller is a geoscientist that has new evidence leaning toward the main factor that killed off dinosaurs being Volcanoes and not meteorites.

Dinosaurs STILL alive after Chicxulub
It has been previously determined that Dinosaurs were extinct due to the Chicxulub crater. This article supports findings of a deeper core that predates the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary by at least 300,000 years. The article also suggests that the mass extinction was a result of the K-T boundary impact and Deccan volcanism which eliminated all the dinosaurs including all other tropical and subtropical species and not just the Chicxulub crater as commonly believed. .

The Chicxulub impact predates the K/T mass extinction
Evidence was found that the Chicxlub impact predates the K/T boundary by about 300,000 years thus concluding the extinction of dinosaurs caused by meteorites an unlikely hypothesis. .

Massive Volcanic Erruptions and Extinction
Evidence has indicated a connection between the three largest Phanerozoic mass extinctions and the three largest continental igneous provinces (LIPs). LIPs comprise of basaltic lava and igneous rock formed over a relatively brief period of time.

Placental Mammals
Leigh Van Valen and Bob Sloan’s theory is that due to the earth moving and continents forming, this caused mountains to form which in turn made seas to dry up and caused the climate to change. The fossil plant evidence in Montana suggests that there was a temperature decrease by approximately ten centigrades which could have occurred in the late Cretaceous period. This would have been able to cause a massive temperature decrease in the mountains which could affect the world. This also would have caused a major migration current because the dinosaurs would have headed to warm climates; such as the tropics. This theory relates to the idea that this allowed placental mammals to grow and live in the mountains, then they escaped and caused the extinction of Dinosaurs.

Global Temperature Change Skews Sex Ratio
Studies show in current extinction patterns, that the sex ratio changes for TDS (Temperature-Dependent sex determination) animals changes based on significant climate change. This could also be true for the extinction pattern of dinosaurs which may have resulted in the preponderance of males.


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Controversies in Science/RNA world vs metabolism first

(from Controversies in Science)

Did the RNA world pre-date metabolism?


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Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness

Comments
Great information Laura and excellent links - well done - Magnolia

Rfoster 07:41, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 05:00, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth

Comments
Excellent information - very interesting - well done - Magnolia

Rfoster 08:57, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 06:40, 14 December 2011 (UTC)


title: File:Pea1.f11.mtg42.djvu


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User:OpenScientist/DataONE Workshop on Data Governance 2011

Contributions to this page are licensed under a CC0 Public Domain Dedication.

Background
On Dec 14-15, DataONE hosted a workshop on data governance in Washington, right after CNI 2011 and aimed at providing research funders like NSF-OCI with recommendations regarding the sharing of data related to the research they fund.

The ca. 25 participants were "asked to provide a brief, one-page position paper on data governance barriers and challenges they have experienced or would like to be addressed, such as: license choice (or copy/data rights, contracts, and public domain dedications), attribution, publishing, citing, provenance, metadata, and standards adoption (e.g. for ontologies)."

This page hosts the drafting of that position paper from the perspective of the Open Knowledge Foundation and has been updated with some of the points that have been discussed during the workshop. Anyone is still invited to join in to make this document useful for further activities in this area.

Timeline

 * Storify

Lack of incentives

 * Researchers typically receive no rewards for sharing data
 * Data sharing requirements (e.g. Data management plan) published by research funders so far had no teeth, as they were not enforced

Attitudes towards data sharing

 * Due to the closed nature of most research projects, data sharing typically takes places considerable time after data acquisition and is often perceived as a burden. For projects conducted in the open, data sharing is mostly part of the routine of taking lab notes.
 * Employment contracts often expressly forbid data sharing
 * I get the feeling (difficult to evidence), that some people mistakenly assume their employers don't want data shared (even if this isn't actually the case)
 * Exploitation of reusers by requiring co-authorship on more than one paper using the data (e.g. ADNI)
 * What researchers want is credit, what scientific norms usually give them is citations, what the law requires is attribution. The latter does not guarantee any of the former.
 * Funding contracts from industry may impose restrictions on data sharing

Technical difficulties with data sharing

 * Large file sizes e.g. >1GB tend to pose a problem for some people. But this still isn't a 'real' technical barrier, it just requires strategy/knowledge to overcome.

Lack of standards for data sharing

 * Counterexample

Legal issues
''There are three main legal formats that could be used to share data - contracts, licenses and waivers. In the following, these are loosely lumped together under "licensing".''

 * People who generate raw data often don't care for or understand data licencing. Therefore, they either neglect to explicitly do anything to licence their data, or if they do actively choose a licence, they may choose an inappropriate licence because of a lack of understanding if its implications.

Labeling
If it is not clear under what terms public data is available for reuse, it is effectively not available for reuse.

License incompatibility

 * Public data available under incompatible licenses (e.g. CC BY-SA and CC BY-NC-SA) cannot be mashed up in a way that would allow resharing the resulting mashup.
 * Licenses are not necessarily compatible with things like patient privacy restrictions

License stacking
If a project reuses public data available under different but compatible licenses (e.g. CC BY and CC BY-SA), any resulting mashup would have to be released under the more restrictive license (in this case, CC BY-SA). Large-scale reuse will thus benefit most from the least restrictions on data reuse, but it will contribute to spreading these restrictions.

Legitimate reasons for withholding data

 * Privacy (patients, survey respondents etc.)
 * Endangered species or artwork

Institutional practices

 * Not really geared towards data sharing yet

Data processing
In many circumstances, the raw data is useless if not accompanied by the protocols and code used to process it.

Data publishing

 * Data sharing statements

In the references
This is the usual way to give credit for a dataset, but may be too crude to allow for proper citation of a particular piece of information. Also, if the data is only in the paper and not posted in a dedicated database, it is likely in a format that impedes reuse (e.g. a table in a PDF document).

Via supplementary materials

 * Data re-use in papers, particularly (but not solely) meta-analyses, is often not properly counted as the references to the datasets used are put in supplementary materials. Authors of those original data then don't get citation credit (Seeber, 2008; Kueffer, 2011).
 * A few journals like Nature have taken steps to rectify this problem. Nature index references supplied in a special Methods Supplementary information section, however many articles can still be found even in this journal with un-indexed 'hidden citations' (see Piwowar, 2011 and comments).

Seeber, F. Citations in supplementary information are invisible. Nature 451, 887 (2008). URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/451887d Kueffer, C. et al. Fame, glory and neglect in meta-analyses. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 493-494 (2011). URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.07.007 Piwowar, H. (2011) Indexing citations. http://researchremix.wordpress.com/2011/08/17/indexing-citations/

Via accession numbers
Another common way of citing data, and also not commonly indexed by bibliometrics and other scientometric tools.

Via Data DOIs

 * Fits in with classical citation tracking
 * Examples

Via short-lived websites
Many authors who do share their data use their personal or institutional websites for this purpose, and as a consequence, the datasets are often lost a few years down the line, e.g. when the researchers moved elsewhere or when the server or content management system received an upgrade.

Metadata
Data unaccompanied by proper and consistent metadata is effectively not useable.

Ontologies
Ontologies exist for a huge variety of applications, but most of them are not widely used, not even in the primary area for which they were designed. Ontologies with a more general scope often have compatibility issues with more specialized ones.

Scaling issues
Beyond a certain scale (which varies according to circumstances), the sharing of data becomes difficult to manage. Automation is an obvious solution if the kind of data and its processing is fairly established, but not always achievable for new kinds of data.

Persistence
Permanent archiving is a problem for anything digital, and no widely applicable solution exists. The scale and diversity of datasets (e.g. as compared to papers) make them especially vulnerable to loss or damage. Part of these problems can be remedied by sharing data openly and encouraging mirrors and other ways of systematic copying, indexing and reuse. A complicating factor is that, as mentioned above, data alone is useless, unless accompanied by metadata, protocols and tools for processing and visualization, all of which will have to be preserved in some form as well.


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User:Latinlucius

My goal: Create free and easy to use learning for all. I'm starting here on Wikiversity because I see a project that has lots of potential.

I don't have much to say here, because I'd rather be working in one of these areas:

Game Design Computer Science

title: User:Latinlucius


text:
User talk:Latinlucius

 Hello Latinlucius, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.
 * Explore Wikiversity with the links to your left.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.
 * Follow Wikiversity on twitter (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and identi.ca (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).

You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 03:59, 23 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Latinlucius


title: User:Magnolia28


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User:Micki/common.css

@import "//meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Micki/global.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css";

title: User:Micki/common.css


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Sleep

Sleep is necessary for both humans and animals. Night is considered to be best for good sleep. Particularly dreamless sleep restores and recovers health more effectively than dreamy sleep does. Dreamless sleep is also called deep sleep. Adult humans need 6-8 hours of sleep per day. However, children and infants need more sleep than adults and elders do. Sleep deprivation causes many types of illnesses which result in a loss of efficiency and a deterioration in quality of life. Therefore, causes of sleep deprivation need be diagnosed and proper remedial/curative measures need be ensured.

It is believed that good dreams foretell the future in addition to replaying our past. But, unfortunately, very few people are able to interpret dreams. In the same way, very few people are able to forecast the future. Scientific and technological data may help improve interpretations regarding the near future.

Stages
Further information: Neural oscillation

 * Stage 1 (NREM): Stage between sleep and wakefulness, muscles are active and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately.

 * Stage 2 (NREM): Theta activity; in this stage, it becomes harder to wake up the sleeper. In this stage, the alpha waves of the previous stage are interrupted by abrupt activity called sleep spindles and K-complexes.

 * Stage 3 (NREM): This stage is called slow-wave sleep (SWS). SWS is initiated in the preoptic area and consists of delta activity. The sleeper is less responsive to the environment. Many environmental stimulations no longer produce any reactions.

 * Stage 4 (REM): The sleeper now enters rapid eye movement (REM) where most muscles are paralyzed. An adult reaches REM approximately every 90 minutes. REM sleep occurs as a person returns to stage 1 from a deep sleep. The function of REM sleep is uncertain, but a lack of it will impair the ability to learn complex tasks.

title: Sleep


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Period (physics)

A period T is the time required for one complete cycle of vibration to pass a given point. As the frequency of a wave increases, the period of the wave decreases. Frequency and Period are in reciprocal relationships and can be expressed mathematically as: Period equals the Total time divided by the Number of cycles.

Other pages

 * Amplitude
 * Resonance

title: Period (physics)


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Resonance

In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to vibrate with increasing amplitudes at some frequencies of excitation. These are known as the system's resonant frequencies (or resonance frequencies).

An example of useful effect of resonant frequency is a guitar string which makes a characteristic noise when it is touched. The noise depends on how thick or slack the string is.

In earthquake engineering, on contrary, any possibility of a resonance is detrimental for the building structure.

Other pages

 * Vibration control

title: Resonance


text: Template:Software engineering

title: Template:Software engineering


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User talk:Kemozave

 Hello Kemozave, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Mathonius 17:34, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Talk pages
Dear Kemozave, welcome to the English Wikiversity. The talk pages are meant for discussing the content and layout of this project. Please don't post promotional content or commercial links (i.e., spam). Thanks, Mathonius 17:34, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kemozave


text: User talk:Trent hop/Why GWS will win the battle of Western Sydney


text: User talk:NHHowell/Alcohol and Sport

title: User talk:NHHowell/Alcohol and Sport


text: User talk:GHorto91/Women in Football

title: User talk:GHorto91/Women in Football


text: User talk:Matt Irons/BPS2011 Essay

title: User talk:Matt Irons/BPS2011 Essay


text: User:MagnoliaK

title: User:MagnoliaK


text:
User talk:MagnoliaK

 Hello MagnoliaK, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! Jtneill - Talk - c 11:01, 23 November 2011 (UTC)

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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
Hi. Welcome to the unit and to Wikiversity! I look forward to learning with you and I hope that you find the topic and the unit rewarding. Please feel free to let me know if you have any suggestions or would like help at any point along the way. Sincerely, James Neill, -- Jtneill - Talk - c 11:01, 23 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:MagnoliaK


text: File:ReDistribution.2.A.Idea.20111123.pdf


text: User:Beat Estermann/sandbox

title: User:Beat Estermann/sandbox


text:
TAO/How to create a learning and/or research module?/Getting started

Step 1

 * Briefly describe the topic you are going to focus on as well as the approach you are intending to take.
 * Describe your target group(s): What are their characteristics, motivations, needs, and interests? What do you already know about them? What do you still need to find out? How are you planning to go about to find out?

Step 2

 * Describe the processes by which you are going to generate, assemble, and transfer know-how.
 * Describe the way you are going to validate your approach with the target group(s), involving them at an early stage of the development of your learning and/or research activity.
 * Sketch out the form of the presentation and documentation (and possibly the illustration) of your learning and/or research activity.

Step 3

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 * Analyze the resource situation in your team as well as the availability of the representatives of your target group(s), adapt your "project plan" accordingly.
 * Ask what it would take for your learning activity to be sustainable; take the necessary measures to ensure its sustainability.

Step 4

 * Document steps 1 to 3 on Wikiversity by starting your own activity description page and add it to the list of activities.

Step 5

 * When you are done (or if you are stuck): Send us a short e-mail to community(at)thirdageonline.eu.


text:
User talk:Sandeep18194

 Hello Sandeep18194, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our Privacy policy, Civility policy, and the Terms of Use while at Wikiversity.

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 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
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 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
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You don't need to be an educator to edit. You only need to be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage. See you around Wikiversity! --Ottava Rima (talk) 19:51, 23 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sandeep18194


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User:Buckesfelder/common.js

mw.loader.load("//de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer:Der_Buckesfelder/global.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript");

title: User:Buckesfelder/common.js


text:
Topology/Lesson 4

Introduction to Limits
This lesson will introduce the notion of a limit.

Definition (sequence)
A sequence on a topological space $$X$$ is a function $$f:\mathbb{N}\to X$$. Alternatively, it is a list $$x_1,x_2,x_3,\ldots$$ where $$x_i\in X$$ for all $$i$$. The sequence is often denoted as $$\{x_n\}$$

Definition (limit of a sequence)
The point $$x\in X$$ is a limit of the sequence $$\{x_n\}$$ if for every neighborhood $$N\ni x$$, there is $$K\in \mathbb{N}$$ such that $$x_n\in N$$ for all $$n\ge K$$. In this case, we write $$x_n\to x$$ and say that $$\{x_n\}$$ converges to $$x$$.

Note that a sequence might have multiple limits. For example, in any space with the indiscrete topology, every sequence converges to every point of the space!

Example
Let $$X=\mathbb{Z}$$ be the set of integers with the topology where $$U\subset X$$ is open if $$|U^c|<\infty$$ (called the finite complement topology). Let $$x_n=n$$. Then we see that $$x_n\to x$$ for any $$x\in X$$. Indeed, note that given any neighborhood $$N\ni x$$, $$N$$ contains all but finitely many points of $$X$$. Let $$K$$ be the maximum of all of the numbers not contained in $$N$$. Then for all $$n>K$$, we see that $$x_n=n\in N$$, hence $$x_n\to x$$.

Theorem
If a space $$X$$ is Hausdorff and the sequence $$\{x_n\}$$ in $$X$$ has a limit, then that limit is unique.

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise to the student. The hint is to assume that there are two distinct limits and show that this leads to a contradiction.

Theorem
If $$f:X\to Y$$ is a continuous function and $$x_n\to x$$ in $$X$$ then $$f(x_n)\to f(x)$$ in Y.

Proof
Let $$N\ni f(x)$$ be an open neighborhood of $$f(x)$$. Since $$f$$ is continuous, $$N^\prime=f^{-1}(N)$$ is open in $$X$$ and, by definition, contains $$x$$. Therefore, there is $$K\in \mathbb{N}$$ such that $$x_n\in N^\prime$$ for all $$n>K$$. Therefore, $$f(x_n)\in f(N^\prime)=N$$. Thus, $$f(x_n)\to f(x)$$.

The converse of this theorem is, in general, false. However, it is true for metric spaces. (In fact, it holds for any first-countable space.)

title: Topology/Lesson 4


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User:KYPark/Sandbox2

honey bee

 * 꿀벌 #Korean
 * 꿀 (kkul, "honey") + 벌 (beol, "bee")

 * 蜜蜂 #Chinese
 * 蜜 (mì, "honey") + 蜂 (fēng, "bee")

 * 蜜蜂 #Japanese
 * みつ (mitsu, "honey") + ばち (bachi, "bee")

 * bal arısı #Turkish
 * bal (bal, "honey") + arısı (arısı, "bee's")

 * Honigbiene #German
 * Honig (Honig, "honey") + Biene (Biene, "bee")

 * honingbij #Dutch
 * honing ( honing, "honey") + bij (bij, "bee")

 * abeille à miel #French
 * abeille (abeille, "bee") + à + miel (miel, "honey")

 * abeja de miel #Spanish
 * abeja (abeja, "bee") + de + miel (miel, "honey")

 * beach mheala #Irish
 * beach (beach, "bee") + mheala (mheala, "honey's")

 * shellan molley #Manx
 * shellan (shellan, "bee") + molley (molley, "honey's")

It is quite a mystery that the honey that is so appetizing in itself renders such nauseating compounds as "honey bucket" and "honey wagon". The key may be that "honey" means "Hunnish" in origin. This etymological view shall remain valid until it is duly fully falsified.

*horse bee

 * 말벌 #Korean
 * 말 (mal, "horse") + 벌 (beol, "bee")

 * 馬蜂 #Chinese
 * 馬 (mǎ, "horse") + 蜂 (fēng, "bee")

 * морин зөгий #Mongolian
 * морин (morin, "horse") + зөгий (zögij, "bee")

 * eşek arısı #Turkish
 * eşek (eşek, "mule") + arısı (arısı, "bee's")

 * ձիաբոռ #Armenian
 * ձի (ji, "horse") + ա (a, interfix) + բոռ (boṙ, "bee")

 * lódarázs #Hungarian
 * ló (ló, "horse") + darázs (darázs, "bee")

 * פֿערדבין #Yiddish
 * פֿערד (ferd, "horse") + בין (bin, "bee")

 * *pferdebiene #German
 * Pferd (Pferd, "horse") + e + Biene (Biene, "bee")

 * shellan cabbyl #Manx
 * shellan (shellan, "bee") + cabbyl (cabbyl, "horse")

horse leech

 * 馬蛭 #Chinese
 * 馬 (mǎ, "horse") + 蛭 (zhì, "leech")

 * pijavka koňská #Czech wp
 * pijavka (pijavka, "leech") + koňská (koňská, "horse")

 * hobukaan #Estonian wp
 * hobu (hobu, "horse") + kaan (kaan, "leech")

 * hevosjuotikas #Finnish wp
 * hevos (hevos, "horse") + juotikas (juotikas, "leech")

 * Pferdeegel #German wp
 * Pferd (Pferd, "horse") + e + Egel (Egel, "leech")

 * lópióca #Hungarian wp
 * ló (ló, "horse") + pióca (pióca, "leech")

 * 馬蛭 #Japanese
 * ウマ (uma, "horse") + ビル (biru, "leech")

 * 말거머리 #Korean
 * 말 (mal, "horse") + 거머리 (geomeori, "leech")

 * hesteigle #Norwegian wp
 * hest (hest, "horse") + eigle (eigle, "leech")

 * pijawka końska #Polish wp
 * pijawka (pijawka, "leech") + końska (końska, "horse")

 * ко́нская пия́вка #Russian
 * ко́нская (kónskaja, "horse") + пия́вка (pijávka, "leech")

 * hästigel #Swedish wp
 * häst (häst, "horse") + igel (igel, "leech")

 * đỉa trâu #Vietnamese
 * đỉa (đỉa, "leech") + trâu (trâu, "water buffalo")

title: User:KYPark/Sandbox2


text: User talk:Magint/FIFA: Corruption, The Modern Game And The World Cup


text: User talk:UC3025323/The Evolution of Alcohol and Tobacco Sport Sponsorship Agreements Essay


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ru:Шаблон:Здоровый образ жизни

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text: User talk:NathanOConnor/Sport Ethics Still an Issue


text:
Physical exercising

Physical exercising means moving the human body regularly and repeatedly to make it stronger and better at some physical activity. People do physical exercises as a part of their healthy lifestyle to get stronger and healthier or stay strong and healthy or to improve their body image. There are three basic modes of physical exercises:
 * Flexibility exercises help the human body in general or its part in particular to be able to reach farther and bend better.
 * Aerobic exercises help the body work hard for a long time.
 * Anaerobic exercises, like lifting weights, make the arms and legs stronger.

Exercises can be an important part of physical therapy, weight loss, physical fitness in general or sports performance.

Exercise can be fun, but it is important for the exercisor to do what he likes and eat enough calories, so when he exercises he is building up muscles, not just breaking them down for fuel. Carbohydrates are muscle-sparing; and if one does not get enough calories overall, there is the risk of burning muscles up with the fat to make up the deficit.

Benefits of exercise for all ages have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: “It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor.”

Regular exercise has been shown to help high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and depression, among others.

title: Physical exercising


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ru:Шаблон:Физические упражнения

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text: User talk:Antperry/The Intersection of Politics and Business in Rugby Union


text: User talk:Thomas.Purcell/Dodgeball: A legitimate sport?


text: User talk:Caitlin~enwikiversity/BPS2011 Essay


text: User talk:Alex.Timms/Action Sports and their Rise to Popularity


title: File:DigitalDesign.20111121.pdf


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text: File:Hailong.2011 11 24 08 13 27.pdf

title: File:Hailong.2011 11 24 08 13 27.pdf