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Islamic political thought/Afghani lecture

Content for the lecture:

In the lecture about Jamal al-din al-Afghani, I plan to address a few topics. First, I will address the problems that Afghani saw as the cause of the decline of Islam. I will further elaborate on those problems by explaining what it was that Afghani thought to be the solution. This solution includes his development of Pan-Islamism and his thoughts in his Refutation of the Materialists. Also, by way of that writing, he also exhibits his disagreement with Sayyid Ahmad Khan, which I will address at the end of the lecture.

Learning goals for the day:

As a result of the lecture, I anticipate that students will understand what it was that Afghani holds accountable for the decline of Islam, as well as have an understanding of what he suggests is the proper solution to halt the decline. I also think that students should be able to link how Afghani’s ideas still apply to Islam in today’s world.

Lecture:

Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was born in 1838, but his place of birth is unknown. What is known is that he attended religious schools in Afghanistan and Iran early in his childhood. At age seventeen or eighteen, he went to India to continue his studies. While in India, Afghani became closely acquainted with the ideas of Sayyid Ahmad Khan and wrote his famous work, later to be titled Refutation of the Materialists, in 1881. This work was written in rejection of Khan and his followers. Further detail of this will be addressed later in the lecture. Afghani is considered to be the founding father of Islamic modernism. In his expression of the necessity of modernism, he states:

“With a thousands regrets I say that the Muslims of India have carried…their fanaticism to such an evil extreme that they turn away with distaste and disgust from sciences and arts and industries. All that is associated with the enemies of Islam…they regard as inauspicious and unwholesome…Alas, this misuse of religious orthodoxy will end in such weakness and disaster that, I am afraid, the Muslims of India will some day find themselves annihilated (Ahmad, 59—quoted by Afghani).

One of Afghani’s most noted works was Refutation of the Materialists. In this work, he argues against all aspects of materialists, including the fact that they believe that the world is a being independent of any outside power (God), or a self-regulating structure. One of his fairly less noted works, but mentioned in this lecture, is Why Has Islam Become Weak. This piece primarily describes the Muslims’ decline throughout history, and especially during his time. Afghani then goes on to elaborate on the cause of possible outcome in the decline of Islam. He views the British with suspicious eyes, and once described the country as “a dragon which had swallowed twenty million people, and drunk up the waters of the Ganges and the Indus, but was still unsatiated and ready to devour the rest of the world and to consume the waters of the Nile and Oxus (Ahmad, 66—quote by Afghani). He also blamed the decline on the fact that Islam was no longer politically integrated and all-embracing. He thought that it had been reduced to religious dogmas and that the ulama, people of religious education and background, had lost mutual contact because of it. To solve this part of the problem, Afghani proposed that the ulama should build up their regional centers in various lands and guide the commoners by ijtihad baed on the Quran and the Hadith (Ahmad, 70). In his Why Has Islam Become Weak, Afghani describes the lament and demise of the Muslims during his time. His reasoning for such events is that Muslims have lost their courage and strength and can no longer fight. He believed that the rulers humbled themselves before non-Muslim (Ottoman) kings in order to survive a few days more. He further asserts that the decline results from the Muslims failure to keep with the right path and places the responsibility on the Muslims themselves because they had, and still have, the power to reverse the situation. On other occasions, as stated prior, Afghani sometimes place the blame mostly with the British, and even the French, the Netherlands, Russia, and China in some instances: the British occupied Egypt, Sudan and the Indian peninsula; the French had taken possession of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; the Netherlands had become a tyrannical ruler of Java and the Oceanic Islands; Russia had captured West Turkistan; and China had taken East Turkistan. On this, he elaborates in that the Islamic states are pillaged and their property is stolen. Also, their territory is occupied by these foreigners as well as their wealth. He asserts that out of fear, the Muslims do what they can to survive, but no more (H—ir-, 122-124). As a remedy for such oppression, Afghani regards it as the religious duty of Muslims to reconquer any territory taken away from them. He adds that resistance, by violence if necessary, to non-Muslim aggression and reconquest is the duty not merely of the Muslims in the particularly affected region, but of all Muslims (Ahmad, 69). Afghani believed that religious reform was the key to subsequent European progress and power and such a reformation was also needed for the Islamic world to achieve the same goals (Keddie, 141). He brought the modernist message to Egypt. One of his greatest contributions to Islam political thought was his belief that Islam could be used as a sociopolitical ideology to unite the Muslim world against imperialism; he saw Islam as a civilization. He found that the only way to achieve lasting social, political, and economic reform would be to contemporize the values that found the Muslim community. He joined with the Young Ottomans, who developed a reformist agenda that fused Western democratic ideals with traditional Islamic principles. These ideas resulted in what is referred to as Pan-Islamism. Its principle goal was to encourage Muslim cultural, sectarian, and national unity (Aslan, 229-231). Unfortunately, it was tough for Pan-Islamism to gain popularity because of it diversity. Groups of secular nationalists found these ideas to be incompatible with their goals of modernization: political independence, economic prosperity, and military power. This ultimately was the basis for the ideology referred to as Pan-Arabism. The goal of this movement was to battle European colonialism through a secular countermovement that would replace Pan-Islamism ideas of religious unity with a more practical goal of racial unity. Beginning with Refutation of the Materialists, Afghani presents himself to Muslims more and more as a defender both of Islam and Pan-Islam, according to Keddie (Keddie, 129). In this writing of his, Afghani considers philosophy essential for the revival of Islamic civilization. His Pan-Islamism sought to mobilize Muslim nations to fight against Western imperialism and gain military power through modern technology. It is believed that his call of the independence of the Muslim nations has been a key factor in the development of Islamic nationalism (cis-ca.org, 2). In Refutation of the Materialists, Afghani criticizes the naturalist/materialist position and identifies people with this view as the epitome of evil intent on destroying human civilization. He completely rejects their idea of the universe as a self-regulating structure without a higher intelligence operating on it. He then moves to his social and ethical criticisms of the materialists. He claimed that they were intent on destroying the castle of happiness based on the six pillars of religion. These six pillars are divided into three beliefs and three qualities. The first belief is that man is a terrestrial angel; he is God’s vicegerent on earth. Secondly, one’s community is the noblest one both in the human world and in the human and religious society. The third belief teaches that man is destined to reach the highest world. The first of the three qualities, modesty, is what Afghani refers to as the modesty of the soul to commit sin against God and his fellow men. The second quality if trustworthiness; the survival of human civilization is contingent upon mutual respect and trust. Without these traits, he believes no society can have political stability and economic prosperity. The final quality produced by religion is truthfulness and honesty. He believes this is the foundation of social life and solidarity. Through these six pillars, he established religion as the foundation of civilization and denounced materialism as the enemy of religion and human society (cis-ca.org, 3). In the Refutation, Afghani’ main target was Sayyid Ahmad Khan (cis-ca.org, 4). Khan founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College where youths were educated on western lines and then sent out to various districts in the country to convince fellow-Muslims of the merit and utility of this approach. This college was the most important source of diffusion of western traits and ideas for the followers of Khan (Malik, 221). In that as well as other articles, he violently attacked Khan’s religio-political approach to the problems facing Muslim India. The disagreement was based primarily on three major points: first, Afghani did not agree with the extremist rationalism of Khan and regarded one of his writings as a heresy as it seemed to falsify the words of the Quran. Secondly, he regarded Khan’s religious views and educational program as supplementary to his political servitude to British interests in India; Afghani was extremely anti-British. Third, as an expansion of point number two, Kahn was opposed to Pan-Islamism (Ahmad, 55-56). Reading requirement:

-Afghani’s Refutation of the Materialists -Afghani’s Why Has Islam Become Weak

Recommended reading list:

-Nikki Keddie’s Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afhani --pay particular attention to Chapter 6 (pg. 129-142)

Discussion questions:

-What is it that Afghani sees as the cause for the decline of Islam? -What does he critique about materialists? -What does he suggest Muslims do to end the decline of Islam?

Works cited:

Ahmad, Aziz. “Sayyid ahmad Khan, Jamal al-din al-Afghani and Muslim India.” Studia Islamica, No. 13 (1960), pp. 55-78. Aslan, Reza. (2006). No god but God. New York: Random House. H—ir-, Abdul-H-d-. “Afghani on the Decline of Islam.” Die Welt des Islams, New Ser., Vol. 13, Issue ½ (1971), pp. 121-125. Keddie, Nikki. (1972). Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani. Berkeley: University of California Press. Malik, Hafeez. “Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan’s Doctrines of Muslim Nationalism and National Progress.” Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3 (1968), p. 221-244 www.cis-ca.org/voices/a/afghni-mn.htm. pp. 1-7.


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8:00 class/3 June 2007

This is an archive of Wikiversity current events from 3 June 2007.

Colloquium summary
Short summaries of active discussions at Colloquium.
 * Wikipedia Learning - Proposals for new project names. Related discussion at: Wikiversity as a brand|.

Internet Relay Chat topics of the day
Re-cap of topics discussed in #wikiversity-en.
 * School:Media Studies
 * Dynamic page lists; related page: Request for dynamic page list.
 * Wikimedia brand survey

Email discussions and blogs
Summaries of Email discussions and blogs with relevance to Wikiversity participants.
 * Creative Commons 3.0 - is the Creative Commons licenses Attribution-ShareAlike license not a "free license"?

Recent changes
Today's trends in active editing efforts.
 * The GFDL and you
 * Bloom clock project/2007 part one
 * Lesson:Mad Max:Spy Story:Pop Quiz
 * Elementary Typing
 * Afghani lecture

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 8:00 class/3 June 2007


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Philosophy of infinity

Welcome to the Wikiversity learning project about the Philosophy of Infinity.

Introduction
Infinity is a useful concept for mathematicians and some philosophers have imagined that there are actual infinities such as infinite time, infinite space and an infinite god. Ludwig Wittgenstein had reservations about the existence of actual infinities. "Let's imagine a man whose life goes back for an infinite time and who says to us: 'I'm just writing down the last digit to Pi and it's 2. Every day of his life he has written down a digit, without ever having begun; he has just finished. This seems utter nonsense, and a reductio ad absurdum of the concept of infinite totality." (Philosophical Remarks, p. 166)

Discussion
The Pythagoreans imagined that numbers constitute the true nature of things. Max Tegmark has explored the idea that "all structures that exist mathematically exist also physically". What form might experimental evidence for infinity take?

If all structures that exist mathemmatically also exist physically; coulnt the nonphysical represent infinity? - Jas.

title: Philosophy of infinity


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Web Design/Web design challenges

These challenges are designed to be completed in around 3 hours, preferably as a small group activity (2-3) in a classroom situation where groups can compare their designs and coding during the review. The aim is that those people who are not confident can work together with those who are confident - even if it just means watching for the first few challenges - seeing a small project from idea to html/css prototype. Try to nurture each other and help each other learn wherever possible.

The challenges themselves are based around annual events so that they can be re-used while still remaining relevant. If you have any ideas, please add them!

Scope
Due to the limited time, the scope of the exercise will only include the following:
 * Design sketches (annotated with structural info such as divs)
 * Prototype graphics production where required,
 * HTML/CSS prototype of 1 or 2 pages (depending on challenge), including dummy content (lorem ipsums).

 * The following will be defined for you for each challenge:

 * The purpose of the site
 * The primary target user audience

After completion, prototypes will be reviewed in a meeting.

Project plan
A suggested time-plan was put together by some students as:
 * Quick team meeting: 15mins (decide on a leader who will have the final call on decisions).
 * Sketch design: 10-15mins
 * Photoshop mockup (optional): 30mins
 * Plan page structure (in terms of divs/layout)
 * HTML + CSS coding 1.5hrs
 * Team review: 10mins
 * Validating + cross browser: 5mins (phew!)

Resources

 * Flickr's advanced search allows searching of only Creative Commons images that you can modify.
 * lorum ipsum generator for creating dummy paragraphs of text.

Drug Action Week - Local group awareness
When: End of June (In 2007 it's 18-22 June)

Background: Drug Action Week is a national event in Australia, but your local city is preparing it's own advertising/marketing on the councils website with local events, posts by local celebrities, etc.

Purpose: Engage local youth and business with local drug action week activities.

Example goals:

 * Increase physical participation in local Drug Action Week events by 15% over two year period.
 * Increase business sponsorship by 30% over two year period.

Targeted audiences:

 * Youth at risk of peer drug use,
 * Local business owners who might consider sponsoring events
 * Youth/Social workers who can contribute engaging content.

 How should users perceive the site

 * Fun, healthy, "no need for drugs" feel (whatever that means)

 Content

 * The Drug action week logo should be prominent but blend in with the design (the colours can be changed).
 * The title/banner of the site is to include "Drug Action Week [your city's name]" in a fun, healthy font (not Comic Sans!), perhaps with an appropriate background of youthful fun.
 * The navigation is to include home, local events, testimonies, sponsors (note: prototypes required for home and testimonies pages only).
 * The footer area is to include a copyright statement as well as links to a privacy policy and terms of use.
 * The home page is to include three main content areas:
 * A brief summary of the site consisting of one short sentence (strong type), followed by a single paragraph with more detail (Just use lorem ipsums)
 * A main content area with the latest 3 posts (each post is just a heading, a date-posted timestamp such as "Published April 15th, 2007 by James" and a few paragraphs of formatted text.
 * A small local-sponsors area with space for three logos of local sponsors (linked to their websites).
 * The testimonies page is to include only one content area which will display 3 testimonies of local celebrities. Each testimony consists of a heading, a few paragraphs of text and a suitably placed image of the celebrity. At the bottom of the page is to be a form that allows readers to with the following fields: Name, email, message (a text area) as well as a check box that is checked by default with the label "Subscribe me to Drug Action newsletter".

Software Freedom Day - Your local city
When: 3rd Saturday of September (in 2007: 15th Sept)

Background: Software Freedom Day is a global, grassroots effort to educate the public about the importance of software freedom and the virtues and availability of Free and Open Source Software. Local teams from all over the world organise events on the third Saturday in September. The most recent event involved over 200 teams from all over the world.

Vision: The vision of software freedom day is: "to empower all people to freely connect, create and share in a digital world that is participatory, transparent, and sustainable."

Website goals:

 * Establish a local free software group that meets up quarterly in your area for software reviews and business applications.
 * Establish a support network for new free software users in your area.

Targeted audiences:
 * Beginner computer users who may benefit from free software such as Firefox and OpenOffice.
 * Intermediate computer users who would benefit from free software such as Gimp, Inkscape and the Ubuntu operating system.
 * Users of free software who might be able to help with local support.

 How should users perceive the site

 * Polished (definitely not tacky-free), vibrant and full of people (you might want to browse the 2006 Gallery for photos.

 Content
 * One of the 2007 Software Freedom Day logos should feature prominently on all pages (you can download the large versions from the 2007 logo page).
 * There will only be three pages: the home page, an events and a "join us" page. You can place the navigation as you see fit.
 * All pages are to include:
 * A footer area with links for a copyright statement, privacy policy and terms of use (as well as valid XHTML/CSS if you're keen).
 * 3 of the primary sponsors from the main site.
 * Some kind of local feel for your city (maybe a prominent landmark)

 * The home page needs to:
 * reach the three targeted audiences, directing them to either the events page or the support us page, depending on the user. For example "Do you want a better browsing experience? Then come along at 11am for the Firefox demo to see ... " Appropriately sized images may be important here.
 * fter the above introduction to meet target users, the most recent blog post will be displayed (with a title, a date posted, followed by one paragraph and a "more" link which will go to the blog when it's created.)
 * The events page will include:
 * an intro sentence "Check out the details below to find out what's happening where!"
 * a table with the first column containing the times of the events (11am, 12:30pm, 2pm, 4pm), second column will be the location and the third the description of the event (Events in your city are yet to be decided, just use dummy text for the descriptions).
 * The "Join Us" page will include:
 * An introductory paragraph along the lines of: "Are you new to free software and keen to find out more from locals here in [your city]? Sign up below to receive our occasional newsletter." followed by a small form containing a text field and a submit button with the text "Sign up!"
 * An introductory paragraph along the lines of: "Perhaps you're already up to speed with free software and might want to join our support network to help locals in the area, or contribute a review to an occasional gathering here in [your city]? Add your details below and we'll contact you after the event" Followed by a form with name, email and 'particular interests' fields.

Pink Ribbon day
When: October each year (Pink Ribbon day is 20th Oct. in 2007)

Background: Breast cancer month is part of PinkRibbon, which is itself the official trademark of the National Breast Cancer Foundation.

 * Pink Ribbon Day is the signature day of the NBCF and is officially the fourth Monday in October. October is also internationally known as Breast Cancer Month.

Redesign Problem: The current Pink Ribbon site is excellent, but your client is keen to know whether it's possible to have a design that isn't so pink - perhaps being a little more vibrant (and perhaps not so similar to White Lady Funerals).

It's also been mentioned to your client on a number of occasions that the information/navigation of the site could be vastly improved to help people find what they're after when they hit the home page.

 Redesign Goals:

 * Find or create a colour scheme that is still has the correct pink as the dominant colour but uses complimentary or contrasting colours to bring more vibrancy to the site.
 * Re-architect the site around the things that the identified audience might want to be able to do. This is particularly important on the home page, which is currently quite cluttered visually. Your client would like visitors to have three large visual options to choose from when they hit the home page (but he's not sure what they should be).
 * In addition to the three un-changing options on the home page, the client would like just one prominent space for a featured campaign or product (such as the current pink mobile phone cover) rather than adding to the page every time there is a new campaign or product. If possible (ie. depending on the skills of your team), he'd like this to change when the page is reloaded.

Your team's task is to come up with a new home page design that incorporates the above goals. It must use the current branding (Pink ribbon logo, prominent link to national breast cancer foundation), but everything else is up to you.

 Breaking down the tasks:

It's up to your team (your nominated leader) how you approach this challenge - you may all work together on each task or break up to get things done. The following task breakdown is just for reference.
 * Create two or three options for the colour scheme (?? mins).
 * Brainstorm what visitors might want to be able to do when they visit the site (?? mins)
 * Define new site architecture (even though you're only prototyping the home page, your client still needs to know how users will get to the content through your new and improved home page) (?? mins)
 * Sketch new and improved home page design (?? mins)
 * Create required graphics / source images for home page prototype (?? mins)
 * Code HTML/CSS for home page prototype (?? mins)
 * Optional (depending on your teams skills): Research and integrate (or write) Javascript or PHP code for the rotating featured campaign/product (?? mins)

November
When: During the month of November each year

Background: From What is Movember?: At the start of Movember guys register with a clean shaven face. The Movember participants known as Mo Bros then have the remainder of the month to grow and groom their moustache and along the way raise as much money and awareness about male health issues as possible.

Design problem: [Fictitious] As successful as Movember is for raising money, it is currently quite a one-sided affair. Where Pink-ribbon raises money for breast cancer and anyone can be involved, purchase/wear a pink-ribbon or organise fund-raising, in Movember only the males can actively participate. There is a page on the site devoted to 'Mo sistas':
 * Whilst growing a Mo is left to the guys, Mo Sistas (ladies that support their guys or just love Mo's!) form an important part of Movember by recruiting Mo Bros, helping to raise funds and attending the highly anticipated Gala Partés.

Mo sistas can take part by:
 * Helping your Mo Bro to raise some awareness and money for men's health

Hmm. Can the females among us call out if you want to be involved as a support? The board has realised this and is actively after a way to modify the 'Movember' concept so that those who can't or don't want to grow a mo can actively participate in raising money and awareness for prostate cancer and male-depression without being reduced to a support role.

Your task: In your medium-sized groups of 4-6 people:
 * 1) Develop a number of concepts for inclusively raising money and awareness of prostate cancer and male-depression. You might want to consider both complete re-brands (pros and cons) as well as adding or updating the current 'Movember' brand. It's important at this stage that everyone gets to express their ideas and is heard.
 * 2) Decide together on your winning concept (either take a democratic vote, or leave the decision to your group's leader).
 * 3) Work together to create a list of content/functionality that will enable your site to involve and encourage involvement from both those with mo's and those without. (The current site has a competition where mo-sisters can write why they are the best mo-sister to win a car).
 * 4) Next, individually take your group's content/functionality ideas and take 30 mins or so to group the content (keeping your target audience in mind) and then design sketches (paper is fine or photoshop if you prefer) for all your significant/interesting concepts (home page, competition page etc.).
 * 5) Coming back to your group, share and combine your ideas. Once decided you'll then create your final prototype (paper - large post-it notes or a photoshop prototype) for a number of your pages to communicate your concept back to the class.
 * 6) Finally, decide how you will present your concept. For example, one person might introduce the concept, another outline the detailed thinking behind the concept, another demonstrate the concept, another summarise the pros and cons or even potential risks etc.

title: Web Design/Web design challenges


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File:Wachapon2 Sample Frame Thumbnail.png

Lesson:Thumbnail Storyboard


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File:Wachapon2 Seduced Storyboard.png

Lesson:Thumbnail Storyboard

title: File:Wachapon2 Seduced Storyboard.png


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Probability

Probability theory is the study of uncertainty.

The mathematical theory of probability is very sophisticated, and delves into a branch of analysis known as measure theory.

Free Probability Textbooks

 * http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/book.html
 * Probability and Statistics EBook

title: Probability


text: Category:Media production

title: Category:Media production


text: Category:Events

title: Category:Events


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Wikiversity:Threaded discussions with NavFrames with subst/20070604063208

perhaps not too effectively, when a node has many subnodes... See category:threads 20070604
20070604063503 --Hillgentleman|Talk 06:35, 4 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment: See category:threads 20070604.  This may be an idiosyncracy of this model...
 * reply[]

What links here

But it is still okay; just check the time stamp on each reply...
20070604063925 Suggestions for improvements, folks? --Hillgentleman|Talk 06:39, 4 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment: For example, from category:threads 20070604 -->Threaded_discussions_with_NavFrames_with_subst/20070522105803 --> look through the time stamps --> find the thread "We really can track new threads with category! " with time stamp 20070604063208.
 * reply[]

What links here

And, of course, if the flow is sufficiently big, we may even use categorytree.
20070604064957 --Hillgentleman|Talk 06:49, 4 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment: To use the mw:extension:CategoryTree, we need to have the category created in the first place.
 * reply[]

What links here


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Wikiversity:Threaded discussions with NavFrames with subst/20070604064957

Not quite; Categorytree doesn't take a dynamical variable ...
20070604065253 --Hillgentleman|Talk 06:52, 4 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment: (
 * reply[]

What links here


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Topic talk:Italian Language

Hi, just a note of encouragement! I will be very interested in your courses when you have them ready! Thehalfone 07:10, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Topic talk:Italian Language


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Category talk:Portal

The P section is a mess. please to fix.

P section has been cleaned. 74.245.112.85 07:50, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Portal


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BCP/Pieris japonica

Pieris japonica

title: BCP/Pieris japonica


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BCP/Prunus persica

Prunus persica

title: BCP/Prunus persica


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BCP/Prunus serotina

Prunus serotina

title: BCP/Prunus serotina


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BCP/Oxalis corniculata

Oxalis corniculata

title: BCP/Oxalis corniculata


text: Template:Film Scoring for Musicians:Sound of Fear:Completed Assignments


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Template:Film Scoring for Musicians:Other simple sounds:Completed Assignments

 * May 15, 2008

 * Tonto Silver has created this assignment.

 * [[Image:Face-sad.svg|32px]] [[Media:Harp magical.ogg|Sad]] - 10 points.

 * [[Image:Face-surprise.svg|32px]] [[Media:Harp magical.ogg|Magic]] - 10 points.

 * [[Image:Face-plain.svg|32px]] [[Media:Tonto Silver Tuba tired&lazy.ogg|Tired and Lazy]] - 10 points.

 * }


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title: File:Rainerpusch surprise 2.ogg


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Template:Bcp-nav

(Return to current main clock page)

title: Template:Bcp-nav


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Template:Contact your instructor: Film scoring for musicians

Contact your instructor

 * Your instructor for this course is Robert Elliott.   You can send me a quick email by @undefined.

 * NOTE : To submit assignments
 * [[Image:Crystal Clear app xfmail.png|24px]] To submit assignments, attach your completed assignments to an email and send it to me at " r_elliott [[Image:AROBAZE.png|16px]] innercite.com ".


text: Category:Black flowered plants

title: Category:Black flowered plants


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Talk:Tourism/Introduction

The tourism industry is emerging to be the largest money genarating industry in the world.This is not so far as the the infrastucture for the development of this industry is devolping at devastating phase.tourism with the right ethics and culture has a great effect in the human civikization as whole as its the opertunity of the humans to see and understand the mere co-Existence of same species

title: Talk:Tourism/Introduction


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Metaphysics (Alternate View)/Creation/Gyroscope

(An alternative view by Calgea 19:49, 6 June 2007 (UTC))

Conical Pendulum
Think of a gyroscope sitting on a frictionless pedestal. Let the wheel rotate at a constant rate on its vertical axis. The only energy in this state is the angular energy in the wheel.

Now displace the axis from the vertical, say ten degrees. As the gyro precesses, the viewer is looking at an upside down conical pendulum.

../Conical Pendulum/

Simple Pendulum
Arrange the gyro so that its axis is horizontal, and it precesses in the horizontal plane. Let the viewer be on a rotating platform that turns at the precession rate. In this state, the axis is always pointing to the right of the viewer. Hit the axis so that it starts to nutate, i.e., bob up and down.

The viewer is looking at a horizontal simple pendulum.

../Simple Pendulum/

Field View
Stop the gyro from nutating and start over. Place the gyro on two pedestals, one at each end. The only energy in this state is the vertical field of Spin energy due to the rotating wheel.

Remove the pedestal on the right. At the instant of removal, the gyro begins to fall due to gravity. At this instant, there is a displacement angle. This displacement angle means there is a new and different field of Spin. There is also a field of Linear motion as in the simple pendulum. Because of the catalytic action of the field of Spin, this inward Linear motion translates to a perpendicular outward Linear motion and the gyro precesses.

Energy Circles
There are three energy circles related to this gyro. The first is the circle in the plane of the rotating wheel and representing the energy in the wheel. The second is a vertical circle in the plane of the axis and representing the Spin energy due to gravity. The third circle is in the horizontal plane of precession. It represents the Linear motion energy due to the precession of the gyro.

The third energy circle appears to be a field of Spin energy. This cannot be. Energy of one type cannot change to energy of the same type without a catalyst.

Note: This above is not the accepted view.


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Islamic political thought/Islamic Feminism - Historical Context

Goals

 * 1) To understand the debate over Islamic Feminism; the debate whether it is an authentic and new feminism or not a true feminism at all.
 * 2) To recognize the influence of national, political, and social contexts, particularly nationalism and imperialism, on Islamic feminism.
 * 3) To engage in the debate over Islamic feminism through discussion questions and recommended readings.

Required Reading
Moghadam, V. M. (2002). Islamic Feminism and Its Discontents: Toward a Resolution of the Debate. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 27 (4), 1135-1171.

Discussion Questions

 * 1) Is Islamic feminism truly feminism?
 * 2) Do nationalism and the reaction against Western imperialism affect Islamic feminism?
 * 3) The role of clothing and the body are focused on in the media, for example the veil and the hijab; are these symbols? Distractions? Legitimate concerns?

Introduction
Valentine M. Moghadam’s “Islamic Feminism and Its Discontents” provides an outline of the debate which is found throughout the development of feminism in Islamic places in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Moghadam points out the questions at the crux of the conflict:

“Can there be such a thing as feminism that is framed in Islamic terms? Is Islam compatible with feminism? Is it correct to describe as feminist or even Islamic feminist those activists and scholars, including veiled women, who carry out their work toward women’s advancement and gender equality within an Islamic discursive framework?”

The goal of this lecture is to engage further with these questions and to explore the contexts in which Islamic feminism has formed. Leila Ahmed discusses the rise of an Islamic feminism in Egypt alongside the nationalist movement, while Moghadam identifies the Islamic feminist movement within the Iranian context, and Rebecca Foley reports that the conservative interpretation of Islamic feminism has been relatively successful in Malaysia. To begin to answer the questions these authors raise within this debate, we must understand the contexts they study and then attempt to synthesize to find hopefully some answers and certainly more questions.

Historical Context
In Leila Ahmed’s Women and Gender in Islam we can learn about the early feminists in Egypt and see that this debate over an Islamic feminism has been around for at least a century, and that the historical context of the debate is crucial. Early twentieth century Egyptian feminists like Malak Hifni Nassef argued that the veil should not simply be abandoned in favor of Western dress (as the veil was, even then, a symbol for both Orientalists and nationalists), but should be a secondary concern to the education of men and women and reinterpretation of the texts of Islam. Coming from an European education, Huda Sha’rawi stood on the other end of the discourse from Nassef, advocating a secular feminism taken from her studies in France. Sha’rawi’s opinion that veiling was uncivilized and her “valorization of the European,” Ahmed feels, was influenced by the psychological effects of coming from a European colony to then study in Europe; “the internalization of colonialism and of notions of the innate superiority of the European over the native- the colonization of consciousness, in short- could complicate feminism.” With this period, 1900s-1910s, we begin to see what is a dominant discourse both against Western definitions of feminism and towards an authentically Islamic feminism. The debate changes from the times of Nassef and Sha’rawi, certainly as post-colonial nationalist movements arise. The debate lies in whether feminism can be redefined in the context of and in fact derived from Islam, or whether the historical patriarchy of Islamic nations, legitimized by Islamic texts and law, is inherent in Islamic politics.

Leila Ahmed presents this dichotomy again in a later historical period, beginning in the 1940s, with Zeinab Al-Ghazali and Doria Shafik representing Islamic and Western/secular interpretations of Arab feminism, respectively. It is important here to point out that the Western and secular feminist voices were dominant throughout most the twentieth century. It is only now, at the turn of the century, Ahmed says, that Islamic feminisms are becoming dominant in Egypt and that secular feminism is “becoming the marginal, alternative voice.” Zeinab Al-Ghazali was associated with Muslim Brethren in Egypt though she created an organization independent from them, the Muslim Women’s Association. Her interpretation of Islamic feminism was influenced by Islamist movements like the Brethren and was also a rejection of the dominant feminism of the West and of Huda Sha’rawi. Al-Ghazali felt that “women must be well educated, cultured, knowing of the precepts of the Koran and Sunna, informed about world politics, why we are backward, why we don’t have technology[…] and then raise her son in the conviction that […] he must rebuild the Islamic nation.” This was in line with the stance of the Muslim Brethren toward women at the time.

It is important to understand that the context of Egyptian nationalism affected feminism, and what could be called the Islamic feminism of Nassef and Al-Ghazali. The nation became independent in 1922 and resentment for colonial influence began long before that. According to Ahmed, over this early twentieth century period “a new discourse on women emerged, overlaying rather than displacing the old classical and religious formulations on gender and often linking issues concerning women, nationalism, advancement, and cultural change” [my emphasis]. Ahmed seems to believe that this overlaying was necessary to create a feminism that stood in difference to Western feminism and also was derived from traditional Islamic discourse. Notably, both Al-Ghazali and the Muslim Brethren emphasized the education of women (to advance Egypt and compete with Western dominance) and also accepted the right of women to enter professional fields. However a “woman’s natural place is still in the home,” according to Hasan Ismail Hudaybi, a leader of Muslim Brethren; this echoes the above quote from Al-Ghazali, a kind of balance of liberation and adherence to tradition. . Leila Ahmed’s exploration of the beginnings of Islamic feminism in Egypt is useful to understand rise of an Islamic feminism, its association with nationalism, and particularly its reaction against imperialism and Western feminism.

In this early period the veil became a symbol for the Orientalist representation of the status of women is Islamic places, and was reclaimed by early thinkers like Malak Hifni Nassef and by contemporary Islamic feminists. In Women and Gender in Islam, Ahmed devotes a chapter to the “Discourse of the Veil,” and clearly this discussion requires a lecture unto itself. I recommend reading this chapter, and will only say that Ahmed concludes that the vehement debate over veiling has been a troubling diversion and that the struggle over “not only the veil but also the struggle for women’s rights as a whole has become inscribed as a result of this history and as a result of the cooptation by colonialism of the issue of women and the language of feminism in its attempt to undermine other cultures.” The symbol of the veil is both a discourse unto itself and a symbol for the debate over Islamic feminism which Moghadam describes.

Recommended Reading
Ahmed, L. (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press [particularly Chapters 9 and 10].

Foley, R. (2004). Muslim Women’s Challenges to Islamic Law: The Case of Malaysia. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 6(1), 53-84.

Majid, A. (2002). The Politics of Feminism in Islam. In T. Saliba, C. Allen, & J. Howard (Eds.), Gender, Politics, and Islam (pp. 53-93). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Moghadam, V. (2001). Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism: A Secularist Interpretation. Journal of Women’s History, 13 (10), 43-45.

Saliba, T. (2000). Arab Feminism at the Millennium. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 25 (4), 1087-1092.


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User:Tony Blair~enwikiversity

Hello, I am the prime minister of the United Kingdom. Greetings. Tony Blair 16:47, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Sorry, Mr. Prime Minister. You've been blocked per Username policy. CQ 18:04, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

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Islamic political thought/Islamic Feminism - Contemporary Debate

Goals

 * 1) To understand the debate of Islamic Feminism; the debate whether it is an authentic and new feminism or not a true feminism at all.
 * 2) To recognize the influence of national, political, and social contexts, particularly nationalism and imperialism, on Islamic feminism.
 * 3) To engage in the debate over Islamic feminism through discussion questions and recommended readings.

Required Reading
Moghadam, V. M. (2002). Islamic Feminism and Its Discontents: Toward a Resolution of the Debate. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 27 (4), 1135-1171.

Discussion Questions

 * 1) Is Islamic feminism truly feminism?
 * 2) Is a conservative Islamic feminism, like that found in Malaysia which accepts prescribed gender roles to some extent; is this culturally specific feminism, or is it a regression?
 * 3) If so, is it legitimate to have a reactive feminism, which was created in part to stand in difference to the feminism associated with (and sometimes complicit with) imperialism?

Contemporary Debate
In the reading selected for this lecture, Valentine Moghadam discusses the evolution of Islamic feminism in Iran after the Islamic Revolution and formation of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In comparison with Leila Ahmed, Moghadam is critical of the formation of Islamic feminism, but also of its opponents and of supporters of an exclusively Western interpretation of feminism. Moghadam frames the debate with attention to the objections and assertions of both sides and in doing so places herself in the middle of debate, conceding neither that Islamic feminism is ideal nor that culturally specific feminism or feminism inspired by Islam is invalid.

Moghadam concludes her discussion by asking the question that this debate must ultimately decide: “whether Islamic feminism is indeed feminism.” Moghadam is a secularist and answers criticism on both sides of the debate by saying that “Islam, like other monotheistic religions […] may inspire civil codes, political processes, social policies, and economic institutions” [emphasis Moghadam’s]. She does not explain where the difference lies between Islam-inspired and Islam-derived nations and laws. She does make clear, however, that “it is not possible to defend as feminist the view that women can attain equal status only in the context of Islam” because this “is a fundamentalist view.” The answer is perhaps a vague one, but it establishes a secularist view which attempts to balance new feminisms with the dominant (and perhaps monopolistic) Western humanist feminism.

The Case of Malaysia
There are movements which complicate Islamic feminism as we have seen it discussed in Moghadam’s position and Ahmed’s discussion. In “Muslim Women’s Challenges to Islamic Law: The Case of Malaysia,” Rebecca Foley discusses the role of Islamic women’s movements in Malaysia. In Malaysia, women can work, can be a part of civil society, and can vote on equal terms with men. Foley describes Islam in Malaysia as a “softer” version than those found in the Middle East because it has been influenced by the native Malaysian custom of adat, which stipulates that descent and inheritance are equal for men and women. The Malaysian government, however, has pursued an authoritarian control of civil society and the interpretation of Islam, which limits feminist movements in the country. Foley claims that this has lead women’s organizations to accept conservative social norms, such as emphasis of a woman’s role in the family over her ability to work. Despite this, women’s movements are active in Malaysia, focusing on reinterpretation of Islamic doctrine and of state law because in they “are intertwined […] to argue for legal reform requires an interpretation of the religious texts to support arguments for change.” There are, however, different ways to engage in this reinterpretation.

Foley makes the distinction between equity and equality women’s movements in Malaysia. Equity movements seek to interpret the Qu’ran and the Sunnah in a way that recognizes women’s rights, but solely within the limits of the conservative framework the government has laid. This position acknowledges that women and men cannot play the same roles in society, kind of like separate but equal, and that a woman’s predominant duty is to her family. These groups are, not surprisingly, more successful in legal reforms and focus on reconciling women’s duty to family with the growing need for women to work. It is important to remember that despite these seemingly conservative goals, equity movements do argue that women are equal to men while accepting differentiated gender roles.

Equality movements are reinterpreting the Qu’ran and the Sunnah, but also assert that the Syar’iah (Islamic law) are man-made and therefore open to interpretation. These movements, such as the Malaysian group Sisters in Islam, advocate equal rights for men and women and do not accept the patriarchal interpretation of Islam taken by the government. Both equality and equity movements are fully engaged with interpretation and are inherently non-secular. However, equality movements are less successful than equity movements because they are seen as less focused on working within the existing theological framework.

Foley then addresses the debate on whether these variations on what could be called Islamic feminism are actually feminism. Her stance does not address whether non-secular movements are valid as feminist movement, but she points to the ultimate goals of these groups. She asserts that “both Islamic equity and equality activists demonstrate an awareness that women have been and continue to be oppressed because of their gender and they are attempting to liberate women from this.” This is a very general way to define feminism, but Foley finds this adequate to claim these movements as feminist within this political, social, and cultural context.

Further, Foley sees that these movements are changing what feminism can be by building a feminist movement around an identity which includes religion. The fact that these movements use Islam to claim gender equality and actively reinterpret and reform their religion and its political aspects “provides food for thought for those feminists who consider religion as merely a private matter or outside the feminist framework.” This challenges both the dominant secular interpretations of feminism and Moghadam’s contextually interested but still steadfastly secular feminism. Foley takes us beyond simply asking if Islamic feminism is feminism. She asks whether conservative Islamic feminist movements, which accept the traditional interpretation of gender roles with women as primarily caregivers but attempt to achieve equal rights for men and women in Malaysia’s conservative political atmosphere, are truly feminist.

Islamic feminism in Iran
To return to Moghadam, we see Islamic feminism in Iran arising amid a stronger reaction to nationalism and to the reversion of gender roles after formation of the Islamic Republic. It is perhaps this context which creates a more liberal feminist reform movement to be successful in Iran in the 1990s and into the current decade. Within the spectrum of Iranian feminism, Moghadam finds that critics of Islamic feminism argue that an Islamic interpretation cannot be truly feminist within the socio-political history of Iran (especially the Revolution and its aftermath), and that in fact Islamic feminisms “unwitting delegitimize secular trends and social forces.” Further, the context of Iran provides a particularly debatable example because in Iran “Islam is not a matter of personal spiritual choice but rather a legal and political system.” For Haideh Moghissi and Hammed Shahidian, critics of Islamic feminism, the problem is that Islamic feminism works with the political system of Iran which they claim restricts personal freedom. Islamic feminism legitimizes this system, and ignores the repressive contexts of the social and political climate in Iran. Taking a different approach, Mahnaz Afkhami lays out an argument that Islam is fundamentally not feminist; “the epistemology of Islam is contrary to women’s rights […] I’m not an Islamic feminist – that’s a contradiction in terms.” Yet Foley’s work in Malaysia begs the question; what do you call movements, even ones which cooperate with conservative governments, which seek to advance the liberation of women within an Islamic political and/or religious context?

Supporters of Islamic feminism, as Moghadam presents it, focus on ijtihad, or the ability to use reason to interpret the texts of Islam, although that term is not always used, which allows for a reinterpretation of the Islam which presents it as supporting women’s rights. Afsaneh Najmabadi, whom Moghadam focuses on to describe the movement towards Islamic feminism notes that this “‘revisionist approach is a radical decentering of the clergy from the domain of interpretation, and the placing of woman as interpreter and her needs as ground for interpretation.’” This use of ijtihad not only reinterprets Islam, but also may create a new, culturally-specific kind of feminism. Nayereh Tohidi, another significant Iranian proponent of Islamic feminism, argues that this reinterpretation of both Islam and feminism allows women to, for example, “reappropriat[e] the veil as a means to facilitate social presence rather than seclusion, or minimize[e..] the compulsory hijab and dress code into fashionable styles.” In other words, Islamic feminism allows both for religious interpretation and subversion of the oppressive Islamist law and politics of Iran. This responds to the objections by opponents of Islamic feminism who claim it legitimizes oppresive Islamic regimes, while Tohidi would argue that Islamic feminists try to challenge Islamist interpretations which restrict the rights of women and others.

Reconciling the Discourse of Islamic Feminism
When it comes to synthesizing these views, Moghadam finds some difficult questions. The term “feminism” is not easily defined, and certainly political or religious affiliations have not prevented feminism movements from arising in the West. As Moghadam points out, feminism “‘is a contested term even in the present, and historical literature is full of kinds of feminists who would surely have had a hard time finding common ground: Nazi feminists and Jewish feminists, Catholic feminists and Islamic feminists, […] imperial feminists and national feminists’” Moghadam identifies the particularly important question to Islamic feminism; “is ‘feminism’ a Western ideology.” I would add to that, in light the other writings discussed here such as Foley’s case for Malaysian feminist movements. I would add: is feminism a necessarily secular ideology, or is it just Islam which some feel is contradictory to feminism? Moghadam somewhat answers this when she discusses her personal reasoning for secular feminism. Her assertion is that as long a feminist movements are ”focused on theological rather than socioeconomic and political questions, and so long as their point of reference is the Qur’an rather than universal standards, their impact will be limited at best.” However, the same could be said for movements which focus simply on political or just on social questions, and ignore their theological roots. Foley points out, as mentioned above, that it is significant that the feminist movements in Malaysia are reinterpreting the theology which as at the heart of their political system.

Moghadam addresses her own concerns when she discusses the fact that American liberal feminist movements, which work within the existing political and economic system, are not seeking radical change. Islamic feminists are seeking revolutionary change to political and social institutions by “question[ing] the exclusive right of clerics and the faqih to interpret the Islamic texts and to define and implement Islamic jurisprudence.” Moghadam, however, continues to assert that feminism needs to operate in a secular way in order to balance the tendency towards fundamentalism in social and political institutions. She even points out that it is particularly Islam which puts in danger feminist movements because Islam and the “Islamic state […] defines citizenship rights on the basis of sex and religion.”

Ultimately, Moghadam places herself comfortably, and perhaps necessarily, between the opposing sides of the debate, claiming the open discourse between new cultural feminisms and older feminism is more important than one side dominating the debate; in fact she asserts that this conflict is necessary for evolution of feminism around the world, and for arising, culturally-specific feminisms. She also points out that a tendency towards fundamentalism and discrimination within Islam is reason enough to support secular feminism. Moghadam does not, however, address the question of in-the-mean-time, as I would put it. What do feminist movements in Malaysia do if they are only successful in achieving change through Islamist movements? How do we provide women their day to day needs, like protections from unfair divorce and marriage laws, without engaging feminism in an Islamic context? Why should feminism not derive from an Islamic identity?

Foley’s study brings up other questions about feminism outside of the Islamic feminism debate. Is feminism necessarily an equality movement, or can it be an equity movement? The latter is difficult for Western feminists to accept; that a movement which accepts a separate but equal status for women would be called feminism. Yet perhaps this gets at the root of the debate over Islamic feminism, and to Moghadam’s ultimate position. Culturally specific feminist movements do not fit into pre-conceived ideas of feminism, or into Western feminist templates. Within their time and place, they are all achieving liberation goals for women, as Foley asserts. The global debate between placed-based or culturally-based feminisms serves to evolve feminism around the world, and new feminisms are necessary to bring up new questions and to make more inclusive the movement(s) for the liberation of women.

Recommended Reading
Ahmed, L. (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press [particularly Chapters 9 and 10].

Foley, R. (2004). Muslim Women’s Challenges to Islamic Law: The Case of Malaysia. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 6(1), 53-84.

Majid, A. (2002). The Politics of Feminism in Islam. In T. Saliba, C. Allen, & J. Howard (Eds.), Gender, Politics, and Islam (pp. 53-93). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Moghadam, V. (2001). Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism: A Secularist Interpretation. Journal of Women’s History, 13 (10), 43-45.

Saliba, T. (2000). Arab Feminism at the Millennium. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 25 (4), 1087-1092.

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Introduction to Computers/System software

Course Navigation

System software is software designed to operate and control the hardware and to provide a platform for running application software. There are 5 main types of system software:
 * 1) Boot code
 * 2) Operating system
 * 3) User interfaces
 * 4) Widgets
 * 5) Utilities

Boot Code
Boot code is used to create a working environment for the operating system. The term, "boot" is a shortening of the term, "bootstrapping." Boot code consists of the programs parts of the hardware execute when the computer is turned on so that it can be in a working sate. Early computers required a complicated series of commands entered by hand on a switch panel followed by an "execute" command to create the system environment. Modern computers make use of boot code saved on semi-permanent memory (ROM).

A very small program, the code examines the system hardware; initializes environment variables such as date, time and device start order; identifies and starts the internal peripheral devices the computer uses, such as hard drives and video processors, and enables the various communication ports and executes the operating system. Booting

Starting a computer from a powered-off state is called, "cold-booting." If the computer is already running and is being restarted, it already has the environment parameters and settings loaded and will skip the initialization routines and perform a "warm boot" by only restarting the operating system.

Operating System
An operating system is the master program that a computer uses to execute both user-level programs as well as the environment routines and drivers necessary for the computer to run. Thus, on a standard personal computer, an operating system handles signals from input and output devices, manages memory usage and controls peripherals. Therefore, the operating system is the most important program a computer must run. An operating system has two jobs: to coordinate the computers resources and to service applications. Operating Systems were introduced in the 1950's. Operating system

MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, and macOS are some examples of personal computer operating systems. Server-level computers use operating systems such as UNIX and Microsoft Windows Server. LINUX and BSD are versatile enough to be used either in a personal computer or as an operating system in a server, depending on which components are installed.

With the large size of most present operating systems, a hard disk is required to store its the necessary files and programs. Should the operating system become inoperable, many offer a "boot disk" option where a simpler version of the operating system with only the necessary drivers and files are stored on removable devices, usually a CD/DVD-ROM, USB flash drive or floppy disk. Booting the computer with the boot disk allows the system to be accessed and repaired.

Portable devices, such as cellular phones and personal data assistants use specialized, "embedded" operating systems that enable them to do many tasks once only found in "platform" computers, such as email transactions, document operations and database management.

UNIX
Unix is an operating system. It was one of the first operating systems to be fully portable, meaning that it is written in a machine-independent programming language known as "C."

LINUX
Linux is the name of the kernel (the core) that make up many further Operating Systems, but briefly, a few systems that work on Linux are Android, Arch [Linux], Debian, Fedora, Gentoo and Slackware. Being built on Linux makes these operating systems Unix-like and mostly POSIX-compliant in regards to their low-level system software.

PC/Microsoft DOS
A command-line operating system, MS/PC DOS helped users in the microcomputer age by providing an operating system that would run on the limited resources of the 8086/8088-based personal computer. Wikipedia: MS-DOS

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is credited with enabling the non-technical user to operate a computer without having to learn too many complicated commands and settings, and has been instrumental to the increased popularity of the personal computer.

MS Windows versions 1.0 and 2.x

MS Windows version 3.x

MS Windows 9x

MS Windows NT

MS Windows XP

MS Windows Vista

MS Windows 7

MS Windows 8

MS Windows 10

Android
Android is an embedded operating system intended for use with mobile devices that runs on a modified version of the Linux kernel.

iOS
iOS is the embedded system for the iPhone.

Palm OS
The Palm OS was produced by the Japanese company PalmSource, and is the dominant operating system for hand-held devices. Over 30.1 million PalmOS units (including licensees), according to Sept 2003 Palm Inc. financial reports; with over 22 million total USR/3Com/Palm or Palm Solutions Group branded units shipped (over 4 million per year).  Palm has many security concerns due to it's mobility, such as if lost or stolen palms may have data that can retrieved by others. Also if Palm passwords are interconnected to your PC passwords, anyone has access to personal files on your PC. Palm (PDA)

Symbian OS
Symbian is the operating software which is mostly used by the mobile phones. Symbian is the biggest software producers for smart phones. There are the Symbian codes used by different companies as well, Mika Raento has huge examples of Symbian codes [] There are different companies that owns Symbian software : examples are Sony Ericsson,Ericsson and Nokia has the highest percentage ( 47.9%) Symbian

MS Windows CE
Though most versions of Microsoft Windows were developed for desktop applications, a simpler version was created for hand-held devices called, "Windows CE."

Windows Phone
Though discontinued, the Windows Phone is from the Metro Design Language, and was mostly aimed at the consumer. Like iPhone it's the embedded system for Windows Phone. Wikipedia: Windows Phone

Interfaces
How you work with the computer...

Interfaces are the functioning of two "things" with relation to the computer. For example, the way software and hardware interacts, or how either would interact with the user. Interface (computer science)

CUI/TUI
Character User Interface (CUI) or Text User Interface (TUI). Used originally for terminals to interface with a mainframe computer, but now used in virtual terminal software or server interfaces. You type specific commands depending on the shell system (the layer between the kernel and the user) and the command is interpreted on the computer and then run. It was not easy to remember all the commands and the commands could vary between system setups. The interface didn't allow for more exciting possibilities that a Graphical User Interface offers, such as art applications. However, text interfaces worked better in some cases, as they do not use as much computer processing time to show pretty icons and background images.

This is the precursor to GUI (graphical user interface).

Graphical user interface

GUI

GUI is an acronym for "graphical user interface". It allows people to interact with a computer and computer-controlled devices using graphical icons, visual indicators or special graphical elements called "widgets". These icons are used in conjunction with text, labels or text navigation. Practically every computer used today operates on a GUI. Graphical user interface

The history of the graphical user interfaces came from the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981 from PARC. GUI's familiar to most people today include Microsoft Windows and macOS. Graphical user interface

GUI's are important because they are more intuitive, more accessible, and easier to use than command driven interfaces.

Source: Graphical user interface

GUI shell
Graphical user interface (GUI) shells build on top of CUI. The GUI shell communicates visually-based operations in the GUI to/from the computer in a language the computer understands. The GUI instructs the CUI, and the CUI sends messages to the hardware. - Shell_(computing) GUI shells are very replaceable and software often allows users to create their own GUI to suit their personal need. The most active user generated GUI can be seen in games where users replace the original image with another GUI overlay to suit their personal style.

Graphical user interface

DOS Shell

This shell was one of the first successful attempts to create a basic graphical user interface (GUI) type file manager in MS-DOS

Dos Shell enables the user to type prompts and commands within a user interface. Shell (computing)

No longer in use, the DOS shell, stands for Microsoft disc operating system. Microsoft set up this 'shell'(program software), to enhance features of their system. Some of these features include: double clicking to open a file on the computer and copying, moving, and renaming files. Some of the benefits of the dos shell is that it did not require long file names to run and it could be used with Microsoft windows. One of the drawbacks to the dos shell was that it could not multitask. For this reason, it was replaced when more efficient programs were created.

widgets
Widgets are an interface that a computer user uses to communicate with the computer and its applications, such as a window or text box. Programmers use widgets to build GUI (graphical user interfaces). GUI widget A widget engine is a host software system for running and displaying desktop widgets. Widgets are downloadable interactive virtual tools. They help to show users things such as the latest news, time, or weather, among a variety of other things.

Widget engine

Files
A file is one of two things: 1) a data file, or a "named collection of data," or 2) a program file, or a program that exists in the secondary storage of a computer.

Computer files make it easier for the user to find and save their data. File system Computer files are like paper documents that used to be kept in libraries and offices Computer file.

Exporting files turn files into readable format so that it can be use with another program. Importing files gets data from another source and converts it to a compatible format. EXAMPLE:
 * IMPORTING FILES- You could write a word program and import it to a column of number from your spreadsheet program.
 * EXPORTING FILES- You could could write a list of names or addresses in a database program and export it to a word program.

Example: Certain networks are created to allow users to share files, such as audio, video and pictorial images. Networks like Limewire use a peer-to-peer file sharing method.

Tasks

A computer may perform many different tasks at the same time. Tasks include storing, printing, and calculating. Multitasking is when a computer operates more than one task at a time with one central processor.

A task is a set of instructions (like a plan) that is brought out from memory to execute certain functions. Task (computers)

In order to allow your computer to multi-task, the processor should have high speed (frequency). This will allow you to run more applications at once without affecting your computer's performance. Nowadays, multicore processors which combine two(dual core) or four(quad core) processors are coming, which have more speed than ones with only one processor.

[|podcast]

Task is a real time application which is the study of hardware and software that are subject to real time constraint Task (computers)

Security
Security could mean confidentiality, integrity, or availability of electronic information that is processed by or stored on computer systems. "The only truly secure system is one that is powered off, cast in a block of concrete and sealed in a lead-lined room with armed guards - and even then I have my doubts. ”

Eugene H. Spafford, director of the Purdue Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security  Computer security

EXAMPLE: FIREWALL A system that prevents unauthorized access to/from a private network. Can be implemented in both hardware and software, or both. This form of security can be used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet/inappropriate networks. Internet Firewalls

Utilities
Also known as service programs, utilities perform a variety of functions like disk defragmenting or data compression. When a utility becomes popular, it is usually incorporated into future versions of the operating system.

Driver

A computer driver is a program that controls a device. There are device drivers for printers, displays, graphics cards, CD-ROM readers, diskette drives, and so on. For other devices, you may need to install a new driver when you connect the device to your computer. In DOS systems, drivers are files with a.SYS extension. In Windows environments, drivers often have a.DRV extension.

A driver acts like a translator between the device and programs that use the device. Each device has its own set of specialized commands that only its driver knows. In contrast, most programs access devices by using generic commands. The driver, therefore, accepts generic commands from a program and then translates them into specialized commands for the device.

Backup
Making copies of data in case the original data is lost or destroyed.

The two reasons for backing up your files are; a) disaster recovery - to restore the files to an operational state following a disaster, and b) to restore small numbers of files after they have been corrupted or accidentally deleted.

Do not confuse backups with archives or fault-tolerant systems. Archives are the first copy of data and back ups are a second copy of data. Also back up systems assume that fault will cause data loss and fault-tolerant systems will not assume fault.

A popular backup utility is Norton ghost, where a user can make an image copy of their files in case of a system crash.

A common method of backup for isolated systems without high-speed network or backup devices is to maintain the system and applications software installation disks locally, near the system, and backup only user data. In the event of a crash one then reinstalls system and application software from scratch and then restores the user data. When using this method one should not neglect to make off-site backups of the commercial software and user data so that in the event of a local disaster such as fire, flood, or earthquake that crunches the system, rapid recovery is still possible if desirable.

A backup allows the user to make a duplicate copy in case the hard-disk drive fails.

Virus
A virus is a program that can destroy and corrupt data on a computer. It can come physically through a floppy disk, CD, or USB, but now usually comes virtually through email or pop-up advertisements.

Viruses are programs that can copy themselves and create problems in one computer without the user ever knowing or authorizing it. Virus can only be spread when they are taken to an uninfected computer. Viruses are commonly confused with computer worms and Trojan horses. A worm has the capabilities to spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host. Trojan horses are files that appear to be harmless until they are executed.

Anti virus software is a computer program that attempts to identify and eliminate computer viruses. There are two different techniques to accomplish this, examining (scanning) data, and identifying suspicious behavior

Defrag
The hard drive is divided into sectors that can hold files. If a file is bigger than a section (which it usually is) it is stored on the next sector. If the next sector is already being used, then it has to store it on a sector farther away, but the address of the new sector is stored so that the computer knows where all the parts of the file are. But if parts of the file are ALL OVER THE PLACE (aka "fragmented") then it takes a long time to find and make changes to it.

That's where defragmenting can help. It dutifully finds sectors that are next to each other big enough to hold a file and copies the file there, then deleting it form the fragmented sectors where it used to be. Defrag

Defragmentation reduces the amount of space or "fragmentation" in a file space. By using compaction, it creates larger regions of free space. The image to the side of the text represents the allocation of the free space as well as the combining of the files in order to defragment the hard drive.

Fragmentation occurs when the operating system cannot or will not allocate enough contiguous space to store a complete file as a unit, but instead puts parts of it in gaps between other files (usually those gaps exist because they formerly held a file that the operating system has subsequently deleted or because the operating system allocated excess space for the file in the first place). Larger files and greater numbers of files also contribute to fragmentation and consequent performance loss. Defragmentation attempts to alleviate these problems.

Scandisk
This is a utility program originally used by DOS and Microsoft Windows that checks and repairs file systems and bad clusters within the system. Previous versions were simple text-based program called CHKDSK. Subsequent versions of the scandisk were still referred to as CHKDSK, but different from the earlier version. The recent versions are now integrated in Disk Properties as "error-checking."

One of the main functions with scandisk is that it can identify and repair physically damaged hard drives by quarantining the damaged area, to avoid files being written in that area, thus avoiding damaged and lost data.

Application
Applications are referred to as a type of computer software where the computer's capabilities directly reflect that of the task. Application software

Custom

Custom software is under the category of application software. The word custom means that the software is specially made for the individual and/or company needs. This software is created by the programmers and software engineers. Custom software can be very expensive since it is only developed on demand. A very good example of a custom soft ware is the application of it in space crafts, ATM'S, and super market check out machines. Custom software, which can also be called bespoke software, is only created for individual companies to be used for research and other things. It is also a risk for a company to develop custom software since it is very expensive or demands huge sums of money to develop.

Custom software

Commercial
Commercial Software, also known as Proprietary Software or Packaged Software, is software that can be bought and sold. Commercial Software is copyrighted, so you must pay for it in some respect. Examples of this are Microsoft Excel or Adobe Photoshop.

Commercial software is generally bought in retails stores in a physical form. However, in some cases you can download the program you desire over the internet for a lesser fee. Commercial software programs uses things such as passwords and user registrations to make sure only paid customers are using the program. Commercial software such as Norton AntiVirus uses thirty day free trials to familiarize the user with the product before they purchase it.

Shareware
Shareware is basically "try before you buy" software. Unlike most software where you have to buy the software before you can actually use it, the concept of Shareware lets you try a program for a short period of time before you buy it. This gives the consumer an opportunity to test out the software and see if it suits their needs or not. This not only helps the consumer get a feel for the product but is also beneficial to the company providing the Shareware Software to market their product. Shareware has the ultimate money-back guarantee - if you don't use the product, you don't pay for it!

Examples of shareware software would be a trial version of Fracture. It is a screensaver software for macOS. In order to use the full version of the software, a ten dollar ($10) registration fee must be paid.

Open Source
Open-Source software is software that you can download the source code of and change privately to suit your own needs. There are restraints on the redistribution of the new software which is made from open source software.

Free Source
Free Software that you can download the source code of and modify and redistribute without any restraints making your modifications public as opposed to open source.

What Free/Open Source Does?
By making source code available freely it has allowed the rapid development of software as requesting for software is not required and is made available on some online repository for download. One example below is how one group of developers have worked more on free source software than it's own developers.

Viro has contributed 1,571 changes to the kernel, which sits at the core of the Linux operating system, over the past three years, according to a new report from the Linux Foundation. That's more than any other individual developer, the report states. In contrast, Torvalds, the kernel's creator and steward, contributed 495 changes. Viro couldn't be reached for comment about the report.

During the past three years, the top 10 individual developers have contributed nearly 15 percent of the changes to the kernel, while the top 30 developers have submitted 30 percent, the report states.