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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame

Overview
"Shame is about the whole self." ~ Helen B. Lewis

When the concept of shame crops up in ordinary conversation, it tends to be as an important quality we see lacking in others rather than ourselves. The thief who robs the pensioner "has no shame"; someone who steps over perceived boundaries of public propriety may be labelled "shameless"; protesters may be seen pointing an accusing finger of shame at the Government which they believe has failed them; or there may be talk of "naming and shaming" those who have covered up some offence against a moral code. These examples suggest that shame plays a regulatory role in social or moral terms. However, they do not provide a full account of what it means to actually experience shame.

Experiences of such a powerful negative emotion as shame can be very challenging to recall and even more difficult to disclose. When shame plays a major role in daily lived experience, the situation can be even more painful. This chapter is intended to help you understand how shame works and explore ways to manage this intense emotion effectively.

Scenarios
These three scenarios are intended to help you to think about what it means to experience shame.

Lisa's story
A six year old girl, Lisa, is taught piano by a family friend. To start her off, the friend places stickers on each key with the letter values of each note. Everything is going so well, the teacher asks Lisa if she'd like to play for her whole family. Just as the girl sits down at the piano eagerly, her teacher rips off all the stickers with a flourish,"Away you go, then". With her family members looking on expectantly, there is only silence. The little girl looks down at the piano, frozen, her face hot. She wishes she could disappear.

Ms Tweet's story
Ms Tweet and Mr Happy are having a good humoured exchange on Twitter. Mr Happy is honeymooning in an exotic location and is keeping all his Twitter friends jealous by tweeting photos of the high life at the resort. All goes well until Ms Tweet laughingly comments on one of his holiday snaps, "All looks good, except for that obese woman who looks like she's about to vomit in her lap. Haha!" In the train wreck of Tweets that follow, it becomes clear that the woman in this photo is actually Mr Happy's bride. Their conversation involves not only Mr Happy and Ms Tweet but also, since Twitter is a public forum, anyone else who wanted to follow the conversation, including the bride herself. As realisation of the extent of her misstep becomes clear, Ms Tweet says "I think it's best for all concerned if I kill myself now." then "I feel so incredibly, incredibly ashamed and sorry".

Mr Trev's story
A 45 year old man, Mr Trev, walks into the unemployment office, head down, eyes fixed on the floor. After a long uneasy wait, sitting hunched in the waiting room, the man is interviewed by a smartly dressed young woman, Ms Clark. His unemployment assistance claim form is blank apart from his poorly printed name. Mr Trev keeps looking at the floor as he mumbles replies to questions. As Ms Clark fills in the claim form, Mr Trev must explain how he has become unemployed for the first time in his life. Laid off from his manual labourer's job during a major slump in the building industry, he is no longer able to compete with the younger workers in the tighter job market and he has no other skills that would help him find another type of work. He has used up all his savings trying to find work. He can no longer support his family. He never thought he'd have to be on unemployment benefits. All Mr Trev can think about is what a failure he has become. Mr Trev covers his face in his hands.

Now that you have read their stories...

 * Have you ever felt like Lisa, Ms Tweet or Mr Trev?
 * Would you have described this feeling as shame - or something else?
 * Did you ever wonder why you felt this way?
 * Did you ever wonder if there was a better way to cope with these feelings?

These are some of the questions we'll be explore in this chapter: Avoiding the shame game.

What is shame?

Shame is considered to be part of a set of self-conscious emotions which also includes guilt, embarrassment, social anxiety and pride (Leary, 2007). This suite of emotions are grouped together because they all involve making some sort of evaluation of ourselves based on how we expect real or imagined others are judging us (Leary). It is not classed as a core emotion: we are not born with the ability to make these types of judgements (Tangney, Stuewig,& Mashek, 2007). These emotions therefore rely on our development of objective self-awareness, an ability to make inferences about the views of others, as well as internalised standards against which we evaluate ourselves (Leary; Lewis, 1995, p. 91; Tangney et al., 2007).

With shame, an intensely painful emotion, the result of this evaluation is the feeling that our entire self is defective (Tangney et al., 2007). This may be referred to as "internal shame" (Brown, Linehan, Comtois, Murray, & Chapman, 2009). Shame also exposes us as flawed and vulnerable to others who we believe react to this imperfect self with contempt and disgust (Lewis, 1995). This "external shame" drives the desire to conceal the flawed aspects of ourselves from others to avoid potential rejection (Brown, et al., 2009). It is also possible to experience shame vicariously through the actions of others closely associated with us, such as if a family member or friend were found to be a paedophile (Leary, 2007).

Going back to our scenarios
 * If Lisa thinks that she has let everyone down by not being able to play the piano, that her family thinks less of her because of it, that this makes her a bad girl in some way, then she is probably feeling shame.
 * If Ms Tweet believes that her insulting comment means Mr Happy now views her with contempt, that she is a horrible person, then at least part of what she is feeling is probably shame.
 * If Mr Trev believes being a good breadwinner is what makes you a man and that everyone else is judging him a complete failure because he is unemployed, he is likely to be experiencing shame.

What do you think?

The shamed body and brain: Physiological changes associated with shame
The experience of shame is associated with changes to emotional expression, physical reactions, body chemistry, and brain activity (Beer, Heerey, Keltner, Scabini & Knight, 2003; Leary, 2007; Lewis, 1971; Tangney et al., 2007; Tracy, Robins & Schriber, 2009). The most obvious changes relate to emotional expression and some physical reactions:
 * The person adopts a shame posture)which involves making the body into as small a target as possible by lowering the head, curving the spine, and closing the eyes or averting the gaze (Beer et al. 2003; Leary; Lewis; Tangney et al.;Tracy, et al., 2009).
 * Other observable changes include nervous smiling, blushing, sweating or tears (Leary, 2007; Lewis, 1971).

The changes that occur within the body are more subtle. Tangney and colleague's (2007) comprehensive review points to emerging evidence that shame is associated with increased cortisol levels, heightened immune response, and higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity (increased heart rate and blood pressure). Cortisol helps the body access extra energy stores by raising blood sugar levels (Dickerson et al., 2004). The heightened immune response involves proinflammatory cytokines which are associated with "sickness behaviours" (Dickerson et al.; Slavich, O'Donovan, Epel & Kemeny, 2010). In other words, like someone with a bad cold, the shamed person may feel lethargic, with a decreased desire for physical exertion or social interaction (Dickerson et al.; Slavich et al., 2010). These changes may help the body prepare to respond to the shaming situation, providing additional motivation needed to withdraw from a potentially damaging social threat (Dickerson et.al; Slavich et al.). Shame is a particularly strong trigger of this stress response (Dickerson et al.). The chapter on Handling Stress covers the neurological aspects of stress in more detail.

Within the brain, there is some support for the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in producing self-conscious emotions, such as shame (Beer, et al., 2003; Leary, 2007; Sturm, Ascher, Miller, & Levenson, 2008). People with damage to the OFC have shown impairments in both the ability to appropriately express self-conscious emotions, such as shame, and in their social behaviour (Beer et al.). In Beer and colleagues' (2003) study, participants with OFC damage were more likely to overshare intimate information on a disclosure task, for example, telling about cheating on their partner, whereas other participants gave more guarded answers, such as being embarrassed when they did not understand a punchline. Those with OFC damage were also less likely to recognise self-conscious emotions on a recognition test than participants without any damage, although there was no difference between the groups in recognising other emotions (Beer et al.). This inability to correctly detect others' emotional responses suggests people with OFC damage may be missing important signals that their behaviour is inappropriate, such as others' embarrassment (Beer et al.). However, since others do not have to be real or physically present for a person to experience shame or the other self-conscious emotions, this suggests damage impairs the ability to correctly infer others' reactions to behaviour (Beer et al.).

Shame, guilt and embarrassment - Spot the differences
Although shame, guilt and embarrassment are all negative self-conscious emotions, there are important differences between them (Keltner & Busnell, 1996). Shame can be distinguished from guilt on a number of dimensions, as the table below shows (Kim, Thibodeau & Jorgenson, 2011). A key difference is that shame arises from a person's evaluation of their whole self, rather than a specific action (Tangey et al. 2007; Leary, 2007). If I feel like a bad person, that is shame; if I feel bad about something I did, that is guilt (Leary, 2007).

Sometimes the differences between embarrassment and shame are not described very clearly or even recognised (Keltner & Busnell, 1996). While both shame and embarrassment seem concerned with the judgement of others, there is a distinct body language of embarrassment(Tracy et al., 2009). Although the head is turned down in embarrassment, as it would be for shame, it is tilted sideways and the person has a small sheepish smile which is sometimes combined with a hand touching the face (Tracey et al.). Embarrassment is also recognised as a less intense emotion than shame and one of shorter duration (Tangney & Dearing, 2004; Leary, 2007). The types of situations in which embarrassment occurs tend to be merely socially awkward, for example, tripping in public, minor loss of bodily control or otherwise becoming conspicuous (Leary; Tangney et al., 2007).

Going back to our scenarios
 * How would the situation have to change, if at all, for Lisa to feel guilt instead of shame?
 * Do you think Ms Tweet was guilty as well as shamed? And if so, why?
 * Do you think Mr Trev was more embarrassed than shamed?. And if so why?

What do you think?

Evolutionary theory
The basic evolutionary perspective is that emotions have an adaptive purpose - they evolved to help us survive (Dickerson et al., 2004). Self-conscious emotions are concerned with our social survival (Beer, et al., 2003; Dickerson et al., 2004). Negative self-conscious emotions including shame, punish socially unacceptable behaviour while a positive self-conscious emotion, such as pride, act as a reward for socially valued behaviour (Beer, et al.; Dickerson et al.). However, the adaptive qualities of shame go beyond trying to get us to avoid socially unacceptable behaviour by making us feel bad.

Evolutionary theorists argue that experiencing shame actually helps us to avoid the consequences of acting inappropriately (Beer et al., 2003; Dickerson et al., 2004). Just as fear can help us prepare to face a physical danger by inducing a flight or fight reaction, shame literally shapes an adaptive response to social threats (Beer et al; Dickerson et al.). The physical manifestation of shame is the humble posture required to appease those who have been offended by the bad behaviour (Beer et al.; Dickerson et al.). This posture has been compared to appeasement behaviours in other species, such as primates, which signal the desire to avoid conflict with other group members (Beers et al.; Dickerson, et al.; Leary, 2007). Shamed people often express the desire to disappear, hide or escape from the shaming situation (Dickerson et al.; Tangney & Dearing, 2004; Tangney et al., 2007). The submissive posture coupled with the desire to withdraw is meant to reduce social tension and decrease the likelihood that the offended person will attack (Dickerson et al.).

Cognitive Attributional Theory
Cognitive Attributional Theory (CAT) regards shame as the outcome of three sets of cognitive activities: standards, rules and goals; the evaluation of success or failure against these goals; and attribution to self (Lewis, 1995, pp. 64-83). The standards vary between cultures, different social and age groups and within individuals (Lewis, p. 65). Children's socialisation experiences play a large part in which standards they internalise and the type of attributions they make about themselves (Lewis, p. 109). By around age three, children have normally internalised their own set of standards and may feel uncomfortable or upset if they fail to live up to them (Lewis, p. 67). They have also developed self-awareness by this age, an important step in making attributions to self (Lewis, p. 48). These attributions are about whether the success or failure is global, involving the whole self, or merely specific, involving a single action (Lewis, p. 72-73). Whether the child blames themselves (internal blame) or others (external blame) is also part of CAT, with younger children more likely to opt for internal blame (Lewis, pp. 100-102). The table below maps out the different emotional outcomes depending on attributional style, success or failure. Shame occupies the quadrant which involves failure attributed globally to the self.

{| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="float: right; width: 30%; margin-right: auto; margin-right: auto" Cognitive Attribution Theory Table
 * style="width: 20%; background-color: Lavender; border: 3px solid Thistle; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px; height: 10px;" |

CAT has been so highly influential in the study of shame and self-conscious emotions, that it is difficult to define these emotions without reference to it. CAT also forms the basis for key instruments, such as the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) which distinguishes between shame and guilt (Luyten, Fontaine, & Corveleyn, 2002; Tangney & Dearing, 2004). The TOSCA itself has been criticised for downplaying the maladaptive aspects of guilt and the adaptive aspects of shame (Luyten et al., 2002). However, it is difficult to fault the TOSCA or its theoretical underpinnings, given the growing evidence base supporting the distinctions it makes (Dearing, Stuewig, & Tangney, 2005; Kim et al., 2011; Leary, 2007; Highfield, Markham, Skinner & Neal, 2010).

Going back to our scenarios

 * Which theory, evolutionary or cognitive, best fits the experiences of Lisa, Ms Tweet and Mr Trev?
 * What benefits, if any, did each gain from feeling shame?
 * Could anything have made a difference to how they felt?

 * What do you think?

Does experiencing shame have any benefits?
Shame can play an important role in helping us manage interpersonal relationships, ensuring that we moderate our behaviour in ways that acknowledge that we act within a broader social context (Beer, et al., 2003; Dickerson et al., 2004). Certainly, those whose ability to feel shame or other self-conscious emotions is impaired or disrupted often have difficulties with basic social functioning many of us take for granted (Beer et al.). The physiological reactions associated with shame may sometimes help us avoid conflict or minimise the impact of hostile social situations (Beer et al.).

Shame may have helped humans survive in evolutionary terms. However, shame is effectively a short term strategy in terms of interpersonal relationships. The body of research evidence suggests that guilt rather than shame tends to be the more morally effective emotion (Tangney et al., 2007). Unlike shame, guilt is more likely to encourage patterns of behaviour which involve empathy for others, accepting responsibility for mistakes, saying sorry and making amends (Tangney et al.). Indeed, some researchers, assert that shame has few if any benefits, getting in the way of our feelings of worth and our ability to connect with others and belong (Brown, 2006).

Although shame itself is not a diagnosis, it can be a problematic emotion for many individuals today, with substantial empirical evidence linking shame to a range of psychological and physical health issues (Brown, et al., 2009; Highfield, Markham, Skinner & Neal, 2009; Kim, et al., 2011; Tangney,2007; Tangney, et al., 2004; Tracy & Robins, 2004). These include:
 * alcoholism,
 * eating disorder symptoms,
 * posttraumatic stress disorder,
 * male violence,
 * anxiety,
 * suicide and suicidal ideation,
 * low self-esteem,
 * chronic anger,
 * depression,
 * health problems arising from social stigmatisation, and
 * personality disorders, such as narcissism or borderline personality disorder.

Chances are either you or someone you know has struggled with feelings of shame at some point in their life. Sometimes the shame is obscured by a more obvious emotion, like anger. Shame and anger are closely connected, with recent research confirming this applies across all age groups (Lewis, 1971; Tangney, et al., 2007; Tangney & Dearing,2004). In feeling shamed, the whole self is globally judged as "bad" by real or perceived others (Tangey & Dearing). As a result, the shamed person may feel unfairly judged, in that he or she has no control over their entire being and therefore no way of remedying the situation (Tangney, et al.). In these circumstances, anger may be directed outwards towards those others seen to be doing the judging (Tangney & Dearing). This can have devastating effects within relationships, with some couples becoming locked into a mutually destructive pattern of behaviour called a shame-rage spiral (Lewis, 1971; Tangney et al.).

Sometimes a major psychological issue, such as depression can obscure the issue of shame. There is also substantial evidence based on over 20 years of studies and over 20,000 research participants which connects shame with depression (Kim et al., 2011). Shame alone was significantly correlated with depression (r = .36) whereas guilt alone was not (Kim et al.). These results overturn accepted thinking about the respective roles of shame and guilt in depression (Kim et al.). Various explanations for the link between shame and depression have been offered including decreased social support, social conflict, self-focussed rumination and unhelpful attribution patterns (Kim et al.). However, there is not enough evidence as yet to clearly support any single theory (Kim et al.).

How do we cope with shame when it is hurting us or the people we care about?
There are lots of ways to get help if you or a loved one are dealing with difficult and shameful feelings. Here are just a few:
 * People who are struggling with feelings of shame can be harshly self-critical and self-loathing (Gilbert & Procter, 2006). Compassionate Mind Therapy (CMT) is one method that is being used to help people learn how to soothe this inner critical voices (Gilbert & Proctor). CMT aims to activate the body's natural oxytocin-opiate system which produces feelings of safeness, lowers stress and cortisol levels and diminishes feelings of shame (Gilbert & Procter). Learning focuses on developing caring, sympathy, empathy, non-judgement, sensitivity, distress tolerance and skills of compassion (Gilbert, 2009).
 * Lewis (1995) suggests that the best way of getting rid of shame is to own it, not deny it. His advice is to confess it, feel it and forget it, or find a way to laugh about it. After all, everyone has a secret they are afraid to share.
 * Finally, Tangney & Dearing (2004) offer advice to help parents avoid shaming their children:
 * focus on the behaviour, not the child.
 * emphasise consequences for others.
 * support children to make amends.
 * avoid public punishment which can be humiliating.
 * do not use sarcasm or anything but lighthearted teasing.
 * make sure discipline occurs in a loving context that also provides positive feedback.

Summary
Shame may have been an evolutionary necessity but if it continues to strike at the core of who you are, you can get help to learn to manage shame and:

Quiz
{If I am standing head bowed, eyes averted, cheeks blushing, am I more likely to be feeling... + shame? - embarrassment? - guilt? - pride?
 * type=""}

{If I feel shame, I am more likely to... - try to make amends by apologising - empathise with others + withdraw from the situation - accept responsibility for a mistake
 * type=""}

{Shame has been linked to... - well-behaved children - lower crime rates - improved health outcomes + chronic depression, low self-esteem and negative body-image
 * type=""}

{Shame is part of a set of self-conscious emotions which also include... + guilt, embarrassment and pride - guilt, love and selfishness - embarrassment, pride and sadness - guilt, pride and low self-esteem
 * type=""}

{Which part of the human brain has been most strongly linked to shame? + orbitofrontal cortex - cerebellum - occipital lobe - amygdala
 * type=""}

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Draft:Original research/Metadefinitions

The metadefinition of a particular definition is the set of attributes that address and satisfy a number of purposes or functions for that definition. Once specifics are included in the higher level definition, that definition applies to the lower level situation in which the specifics are characteristic. The specifics are relatively arbitrary within the relationship of the metadefinition, which means the term of the metadefinition may be used in a large number of specific subject areas. The metadefinition is often viewed as a higher level definition that may consist of the definition of several objects within that higher level, or a definitional set of descriptive attributes or characteristics that can be used to produce a variety of related definitions.

Notations
Notation: let the symbol Metadef. indicate that a metadefinition is following.

Notation: let the symbol word of choice in a quote indicate emphasis of the 'word of choice in a quote', as independent of the actual quote or author's intent.

Semantics
"The problem of definition is at the basis of the problem of understanding. Any level of understanding of any natural phenomenon or object entails its description, followed by the comparison (in our brain or in the pages of an Herbarium, or by a computer program) with similar phenomena or objects."

Def. “The earliest steps of the evolution of the codons also suggested two major stages in the origin of life – self-reproduction (exact replication of the ideal RNA duplex in the above theory, one strand of which is repeating triplet GCCn, while another strand is complementary GGCn), and variations (appearance of point-mutated versions of GCC and GGC in the subsequent replications).” is called life.

Metadefinition theory
The metadefinition layer can be defined as a higher level definition, that may consist of the definition of several objects. When each object is made specific, a specific definition is derived or translated from the metadefinition.

Inducting upward from the definitional layer, the metadefinition of a particular definition is the set of attributes that address and satisfy a number of purposes or functions.

Def. "the set of attributes that address and satisfy a number of purposes or functions" for a particular definition is called a metadefinition for that definition.

A definition serves five functions:

 * 1) a statement of identity,
 * 2) a way to define competitive and cooperative relationships with other terms,
 * 3) a way to end conceptual disputes and thus prepare the way for measurement - its preoperational or premeasurement function,
 * 4) a way to locate a term within a particular context - its orienting or contextual function, and
 * 5) a way to generate new ideas - its generative or revelatory function.

When the concept of the description is relatively arbitrary, the definition containing this concept is in fact a metadefinition. Each arbitrary choice from the metadefinition creates a definition.

Forms
From the theory of a metadefinition, a constituent phrase can be said to have a metadefinition if and only if the set of attributes that address and satisfy a number of purposes or functions for each descriptive definition is related or relatable either to the initial definition or the metadefinition itself through some algorithm such as translation.

"The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified). "

For a word or phrase, once a number of purposes or functions (of the metadefinition) are addressed and satisfied, this set of addressed and satisfied attributes is the definition for the word or phrase. Presenting the existing knowledge of or about the word or phrase in an alternate form (the metadefinition) and summarizing or classifying that existing knowledge into the this form is presenting existing knowledge in an alternate form, perhaps for analysis.

Presenting an alternate form for existing knowledge is not considered a primary source, but producing new knowledge about changes in the attributes over time or as a function of other variables is original research.

Tests
By analogy to the constituency tests of constituent linguistics, tests may be arranged on a scale of reliability, with less-reliable tests treated as useful to confirm constituency to a proposed metadefinition though not sufficient on their own. Failing to pass a test may not always mean that the phrase is not a constituent of the metadefinition. It is best to apply as many tests as possible to a given phrase to prove or rule out its constituency.

As an illustration of an alternate form for existing knowledge, a particular description of a ‘dominant group’, perhaps the initial descriptive definition, should consist of attributes addressing and satisfying the following purposes or functions of the proposed metadefinition:

 * 1) a relation,
 * 2) a population,
 * 3) a basis or ‘criteria for dominance’, and
 * 4) a country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group).

But, because this form of the definition probably cannot be expressed in the subject area, for example evolutionary biology where the apparent initial descriptive definition may have originated, it may be a metadefinition of ‘dominant group’ for that subject area rather than a definition. When the specific representations for the enumerated metadefinitional components are filled in from the context by any arbitrary algorithm, this specific constituent phrase ‘dominant groups’ is a definition within the subject area of evolutionary biology if and only if it is related or relatable to the metadefinition.

Specifically, one set of choices from context yields

 * 1) relation: dominant species,
 * 2) population: 'forms of life',
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': 'the common, the widely-diffused, and the widely-ranged species', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'in their own countries'.

Or, a dominant group of life forms is the common, the widely-diffused, and the widely-ranged species (plural form of species) in their own countries. This particular choice is readily related or relatable by inspection; therefore, this descriptive definition of dominant group as used within the authoritative source is within the set of definitions described by the proposed metadefinition. For the population a better description may be 'species of life', though not specifically used by the source.

Each of the attributes of the metadefnition can change over time, subject area, or other variables (such as temperature).

Applications
A broader definition of the assault cycle (a meta-definition) is needed based on levels and types of patterns.

“It turns out that there are over 100 disciplines that have a unique definition of risk, from the military to software engineers. Not easily discouraged I came to the conclusion that there must be some commonality between the definitions, some meta-definition.”

Biology
"The pragmatic approach asks whether and how strongly recreational fishing compromises the health and fitness of individual fishes and what can be done to avoid or mitigate such effects. Its implementation rests on accepting recreational fishing as a principally legitimate activity."

"The second approach to fish welfare focuses on suffering and pain in fishes and is usually morally prescriptive. Its central tenet is that some or all recreational fishing practices may be unacceptable unless sufficient benefits to humans are created, which justify the supposedly cruel treatment of the fishes."

"[A] suffering-centred definition of fish welfare currently only serves as a meta-definition of fish welfare because there is no scientific method available that allows quantifying pain and suffering in fishes". "[A] suffering-centred approach to fish welfare tends to promote tension and enduring conflict that cannot be reconciled objectively and thus should be avoided."

All in the debates about life and consciousness are "making use of an implicit and unspoken but intuitively known metadefinition of life to decide the rightness or wrongness of any definition." "It was pointed out by Bertrand Russell that efforts to define such terms ultimately devolve on common usage, from which we must "distill the essence of the word.""

Metadef. self-reproduction and variations, is called life.

Biosciences
Metadef. self-reproduction and variations, is called life.

Def. a "discrete and complete living thing, [such as animal, plant, fungus or microorganism] " or any "complex thing with properties normally associated with living things" is called an organism.

Def. any "of several sciences that deal with living organisms" is called a bioscience.

Def. any "of the sciences dealing with living organisms, such as biology and zoology" is called a life science.

Metadef. any science of a discrete and complete complex thing with properties normally associated with self-reproduction and variations is called a bioscience or life science.

Chemistry

 * Metadefinition of a clear liquid:

Metadef.

 * 1) A clear flowing substance
 * 2) keeping or retaining no shape or definite shape
 * a. except that determined by the containing receptacle
 * 3. composed of molecules
 * a. not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas
 * b. readily changing relative position

is called a clear liquid.

A clear liquid diet consists of transparent liquid foods such as vegetable broth, bouillon, clear fruit juices, clear fruit ices, popsicles, clear gelatin desserts, and no carbonated drinks. Soda's carbonation expands the gastrointestinal tract. Herein are many clear liquids that fit within the metadefinition.

 * Definition of water:

Def. a clear liquid having the chemical formula H2O, required by all forms of life on Earth is called water.

 * Definition of water from the metadefinition of a clear liquid:
 * 1) A clear flowing substance
 * 2) keeping or retaining no shape or definite shape
 * a. except that determined by the containing receptacle
 * 3. composed of H2O molecules
 * a. not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas
 * b. readily changing relative position

is called water.

 * Definition of ethanol from the metadefinition of a clear liquid:
 * 1) A clear flowing substance
 * 2) keeping or retaining no shape or definite shape
 * a. except that determined by the containing receptacle
 * 3. composed of C2H5OH molecules
 * a. not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas
 * b. readily changing relative position

is called ethanol.

Computer sciences
For metamodeling, the metadefinition “defines process concepts such as role, activity and interaction”, to help provide a unified process support framework for global software development.

In the customisation of process modeling languages, process metamodeling, which allows process modelling languages to be specified and implemented in a process support environment, is defined. Therefore, process metamodelling allows users to change to a different process modelling language if necessary.

Metadef. "the notation to which all the external process modelling notations are mapped” is called the metadefinition for process metamodelling.

“[I]t needs to have a much more comprehensive coverage of process issues.” “Given that the meta-definition is an internal representation, readability and simplicity are not the main issue. “[I]t is not possible to include all process modelling concepts in the meta-definition so that any process modelling notation can be mapped and integrated.”

A meta-definition is one of the three parts of a model integrator, the other two parts being a number of model translators and an internal representation.

SPASE is an initial protoype of a unified process support framework. The SPASE meta-definition contains only the following concepts:

 * 1) process,
 * 2) node (or action),
 * 3) condition for action,
 * 4) links to traverse to other actions, and
 * 5) communication.

Instantiation
"Since instantiation is the real essence of any metamodeling discipline, the best way to start formalizing a multi-level metamodeling approach is through a semi-formal definition of the requirements imposed on the instantiation. All current instantiation approaches share the following principle: let us take a meta-definition and process it by instantiating all defined items of the definition. In other words, it means that, for example, if we have three attribute definitions, then we are forced to instantiate all those three variables at the same time. We cannot decide, for example, to instantiate only two of them right now and keep the last item in the state of being uninstantiated."

"The abstract requirements for a genuine representation of practical multi-level instantiation can be summarized as follows:"
 * 1) Instantiation copies the structure of the meta-definition and decides whether to instantiate child elements one by one
 * 2) Instantiation of a type results in a compatible value within the same meta-definition slot
 * 3) Instantiation of a cardinality limit results in a more restricted value imposed on the same meta slot
 * 4) Instantiation of type constraints results in further restriction(s) on the set of valid instances

"In practice, the consequence of the above instantiation rules will result in a system that enables the automatic creation of a hierarchy of meta-definition templates where template variables are gradually substituted in a well-orchestrated sequence of execution. Also, optional template variables may even be simply left out during the same instantiation process. The proposed instantiation process also covers both design- and run- time aspects of meta-model based software development by allowing the integrated and semantically correct co-existence of all model elements, from the very abstract top-level concepts down to their most concrete executable instances."

"Dynamic Multi-Level Algebra (DMLA) is the formal definition of our multi-level modeling approach, which acknowledges all the requirements presented above. It supports dynamic instantiation. The instantiation is explicitly given by a meta-reference that directly connects the instances to their meta-definition. In order to provide a uniform representation for both meta- and instance data, the formalism applies multislot tuple encoding. The tuple encoding must support composability by allowing the explicit representation of substructures as children. This feature is vital since it formalizes the template induced origin of complex meta-definitions."

Economics
Def. definitions which correspond to intuitive views on the knowledge games we shall call metadefinitions. Metadefinitions and metalemmas are essential in order to prove that the formal theory of the knowledge game is well adapted to its intuitive aims.

"Metadefinition 1. A "knowledge game" G is given by G = (n, (Ii)k, E, S) where n is an entire number. Ik is a sequence of subsets of I = {1,2,...,n} such that for any i in I, there exists infinitely many k such that i is in Ik. E is a given set and S a subset of Ea."

The number of players in the game is n, also each i in I represents a player. Ik is the set of players who are asked at any time k, for example, whether they are able to deduce their own value. The set of values E are those which can be attributed to each player (colors, numbers, distinquishing marks, etc.). The set of all the attributions of values to the players (S) are those effectively allowed by the rules of the game.

"Metadefinition 2. A knowledge game G = (n, (Ii)k, E, S) is convergent if for every initial attribution of values a ∈ S, there exists a time k such that some player of Ik is able to deduce his own value."

A formal translation of metadefinition 2 is the following definition: "Definition 3. A game G = (n, (Ii)k, E, S) is decidable if there is an explicit algorithm determining for every a in S, every i in I and for every k such that Ik contains i, whether Sk ∩ Ei(a) is of cardinality 1, and, if that occurs, giving this unique element. G is convergent if it verifies one of the following equivalent properties:
 * (a) S = ∪kTk
 * (b) ∩kSk = ∅."

Tk is the set of all initial values "a" for which the game finishes at time k. Cardinality 1 is the winner. And, "giving this unique element" is designating which player is the winner.

Alternative translations of metadefinition 2 can yield, for example, a ranking of players, subject to the algorithm chosen.

History
Possibly the earliest use of metadefinition as 'meta-definition' is in symbolic logic.

Per JSTOR, metadefinition, or meta-definition, also occurs within the subjects of language and rhetoric, social research, management, and probability.

An early use of term dates from 1964 in mathematical logic.

In 1971, the term is used in theoretical physics as part of the axiomatic foundations of special relativity.

By 2003 it has found its way into literature with respect to the Heian literary system.

Mathematics
There are many metadefinitions in mathematics in addition to those of game theory.

Elementary arithmetic
The finitary theory of finite sets can be used to develop a theory of ‘natural number arithmetic’, or ‘elementary arithmetic’ (EA). For a specific EA, depending on its characteristics, in this instance the one described by Mayberry, ‘EA1’, a metadefinition cannot be expressed in this EA. If a definition cannot be expressed in EA1, then relative to EA1 the definition becomes a metadefinition.

Principal eigenvalue
The meta-definition of principal eigenvalue for boundary value problems of elliptic operators in quasi-nonlinear and fully nonlinear equations could be the following:

Metadef.

Given a zero order and odd operator H with the same homogeneity than the second order elliptic operator F, and given a domain Ω,
 * λ is a principal eigenvalue if there exists a non trivial solution of constant sign of the problem

\begin{cases} F(x, \nabla u, D^2 u) + \lambda H(u) = 0 \text{ in } \Omega \\ u = 0 \text{ on } \partial \Omega. \end{cases} $$

Physics

 * Definition of a liquid:

Def. a substance that is flowing, and keeping no shape, a substance of which the molecules, while not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas, readily change their relative position, and which therefore retains no definite shape, except that determined by the containing receptacle is called a liquid in physics.

Metadef.

 * 1) A flowing substance
 * 2) keeping or retaining no shape or definite shape
 * a. except that determined by the containing receptacle
 * 3. composed of molecules
 * a. not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas
 * b. readily changing relative position

is called a liquid.

Psychology
"A metadefinition of management development is offered: management development is a metafield that emerged from a range of disciplines (primarily, though not exclusively psychology, social science, and management studies), which either attempts to frame the reality of management or re-frame the reality experienced by managers, with the aim of contributing to the personal resource base of managers, and/or the intellectual capital of organisations".

Metadef. "a metafield that emerged from a range of disciplines (primarily, though not exclusively psychology, social science, and management studies), which either attempts to frame the reality of management or re-frame the reality experienced by managers, with the aim of contributing to the personal resource base of managers, and/or the intellectual capital of organisations" is called management development.

Technology
"The complementary rule states that upon insertion of a new element to a meta-definition (eg an attribute to a class) all instance objects must be extended with values initialized to the default value of the type, and the respective M0 data elements must be added." The M0 layer of metadata architecture is the information layer consisting of instance, or application, data (e.g. objects and records).

Hypotheses

 * 1) For metadefinition, the proof of concept is a formalistic expression that allows transmission of the concept from one field to another.

title: Draft:Original research/Metadefinitions


text:
User:EGM6341.s11.team1.Chiu/PEA1 F09 Mtg30

Mtg 30: Thu, 29 Oct 09

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| page30-1]]

Find

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \psi(r, \theta) \ $$at $$ \Delta \psi=0 \ $$ and $$ \psi(r=1, \theta)= T_{0} \cos^{4} \theta = T_{0} \sin^{4} \bar{\theta} \ $$ (1)
 *
 * }

End Find

Separation of variables

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \psi(r, \theta) = R(r) \Theta( \theta) \ $$

(2)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \Delta \psi=0= \frac{\Theta}{r^{2}} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} r} (r^{2} \frac{\mathrm{d} R}{\mathrm{d} r})+ \frac{R}{r^{2} \cos \theta} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta} (\cos \theta \frac{\mathrm{d} \Theta}{\mathrm{d} \theta}) \ $$

 * }

Simplify $$ \frac{1}{r^{2}} \ $$ ; divide by $$ R \Theta \ $$

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \Rightarrow \underbrace{ \frac{1}{R} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} r} (r^{2} \frac{\mathrm{d} R}{\mathrm{d} r})}_{ \color{red} \alpha(r)}+ \frac{1}{ \Theta \cos \theta} \underbrace{ \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta} (\cos \theta \frac{\mathrm{d} \Theta}{\mathrm{d} \theta})}_{ \color{red} \beta( \theta)}=0 \ $$

(3)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \Rightarrow \alpha(r)+ \beta( \theta)=0 \ $$

(4)
 *
 * }

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| page30-2]]

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \Rightarrow \alpha(r) = -\beta( \theta)=k \ $$  (constant)

 * }

2 Separate equations from [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| (3)&(4) page30-1]] (L2-ODE-VC 2 equations)

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} r} (r^{2} \frac{\mathrm{d} R}{\mathrm{d} r})=kR \ $$

(1)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ -\frac{1}{ \cos \theta} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta} (\cos \theta \frac{\mathrm{d} \Theta}{\mathrm{d} \theta})= k \Theta \ k \ $$ : separation constant

(2)
 *
 * }

(1) by trial solution:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ R(r)=r^{ \lambda} \ \lambda \ $$: undetermined coefficient

(3)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ R'= \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} r}R= \lambda r^{ \lambda-1} \ $$

 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ R''= \lambda( \lambda-1) r^{ \lambda-2} \ $$

 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ { \color{red} (1) \Rightarrow} \ r^{2}R''+2rR'-kR \ \overset{ \overset{ \color{red} (4)}{\downarrow}} = \ 0 \ $$

 * }

(3) $$ \to \ $$ Euler equation [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg15.djvu| page15-4]]

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ r^{2}R'= \lambda r^{ \lambda-1+ { \color{red}2 \cdots}} \ $$

 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" |

HW:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \lambda( \lambda+1)=k \ $$

(5)
 *
 * }

At this stage, no restriction on sign of $$ \lambda \ $$ (see later)

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| page30-3]]

Now 2nd separate equation [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| (2) page30-2]]

Goal: Transform this equation into Legendre differential equation of order n [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg14.djvu| (1) page14-2]]

 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

Let $$ \cos^{2} \theta = 1- \underbrace{\sin^{2} \theta}_{ \color{blue} := \mu^{2}} \ $$

 * }

 * {| style="width:28%" border="0"

 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #FF0000" |
 * style="width:92%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #FF0000" |

$$ \mu:= \sin \theta \ $$ (think as "x" in [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg14.djvu| (1) page14-2]])

(1)
 *
 * }

Transform of variables from $$ \theta \ $$ to $$ \mu \ $$:

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta}= \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu} \underbrace{ \frac{\mathrm{d} \mu}{\mathrm{d} \theta}}_{ { \color{red} (1) \ \Rightarrow} { \color{blue} \cos \theta}} \ $$

(2)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \Rightarrow \frac{1}{ \cos \theta} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta} (.)= \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu} (.) \ $$

(3)
 *
 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| (2) page30-2:]] $$ { \color{red}-} \underbrace{( \frac{1}{C} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta})}_{ \color{blue} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu}} \left [ \underset{ \color{blue} \underset{(1- \mu^{2})}{\uparrow}} C^{2}\underbrace{( \frac{1}{C} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \theta})}_{ \color{blue} \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu}} \Theta \right ]=k \Theta \ $$

 * }

 * {| style="width:100%" border="0"

 * style="width:95%" |
 * style="width:95%" |

$$ \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu} \left [ (1- \mu^{2}) \frac{\mathrm{d} }{\mathrm{d} \mu} \Theta \right ]+k \Theta=0 \ $$

(4)
 *
 * }

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| page30-4]]

$$ \Theta (.) \ $$ is now considered as a function of $$ \mu \ $$, i.e., $$ \Theta ( \mu) \ $$

[[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg30.djvu| (4) page30-3:]]$$ (1- \mu^{2}) \Theta''-2 \mu \Theta'+k \Theta \underset{ \color{red} \underset{(1)}{\uparrow}}=0 \ $$

confer [[media: Egm6321.f09.mtg14.djvu| (1) page14-2]] is Legendre differential equation if $$ k=n(n+1) \ $$(2)


text:
Dominant group/Small group study

Once the phrase dominant group is found within a field, a small group of publications is chosen for analysis from various subdivisions.

The publications chosen should have a downloadable form so that occurrences of dominant group can be found and context regarding its components are available.

Proof of concept/Metadefinition
For the small group study, the proof of concept focuses on a metadefinition for dominant group. If this metadefinition or a similar one meets all the demands placed by various authors in the spectrum of fields, then the proof of concept for this metadefinition has been achieved.

Small group theory
“A simplifying typology is always dangerous because one may not have the right variables in it, but if one distills from small group theory the dimensions that recur in group studies, one can identify a set of major external and internal tasks that all groups face and with which they must learn to cope”

Metadefinition
Most of the subject areas and subfields are analyzed per the four components of the metadefinition:
 * 1) relation (of the group),
 * 2) population (from which the group comes),
 * 3) basis (criteria for dominance), and
 * 4) country (region of dominance).

Examination of the theory of definition of "dominant group" has shown that relative synonymy suggests many genera differentia. These may be used to define the term "dominant group" or stand on their own as relative synonyms without the term "dominant group" actually mentioned by the author.

This set of relative synonyms and the desire to produce subpages that serve as learning resources for Wikiversity suggests that providing each subpage with a larger number of examples of the use of "dominant group" or its relative synonyms should help to understand what the authors are doing and how they are using the term.

Genera differentia
The genera differentia for possible definitions of "dominant group" fall into the following set of orderable pairs:

'Orderable' means that any synonym from within the first category can be ordered with any synonym from the second category to form an alternate term for "dominant group"; for example, "superior class", "influential sect", "master assembly", "most important group", and "dominant painting". "Dominant" falls into category 171. "Group" is in category 61. Further, any word which has its most or much more common usage within these categories may also form an alternate term, such as "ruling group", where "ruling" has its most common usage in category 739, or "dominant party", where "party" is in category 74. "Taxon" or "taxa" are like "species" in category 61. "Society" is in category 786 so there is a "dominant society".

"A related, but separate, definition relies on a linguistic identity that differs from that of the dominant society [5]."

The relative synonyms for "dominant group" configured as genera (any two) differentia (any two) could be as many as 2400 depending on the number of words that may be reasonably exact to each genus and differentia. The total number of occurrences of genera (up to two) differentia (up to two) relative synonyms for "dominant group" whether the term occurs in a specific article or not may be on the order of 10 % of the scholarly articles searched by Google scholar, for example. Finding all such occurrences may be less important than understanding the intent of the authors in using the entity as part of any article.

Relationship: Metadefinition - Genera differentia

 * Metadefinition
 * 1) Each group has a relation between its members: something they have in common that puts them into the group.
 * 2) A population from which the group comes.
 * 3) A stated or context criteria for dominance is available or implied.
 * 4) A country or region of dominance has the limits within which the dominant group is possible.

 * Genera differentia
 * 1) Use one or two synonyms for "group", including "group" itself.
 * 2) Use one or two synonyms for "dominant", including "dominant" itself.
 * 3) Use at least three up to four synonyms: one to two from each. Less than three is a relative synonym.

Comparison:
 * 1) A relation between "dominant group" members is by definition of the word "group".
 * 2) Any synonym for "group" may be or describe the population.
 * 3) The criteria for dominance may be described by a synonym for "dominant".

Contrast:
 * 1) The relationship between the "dominant group" and the population may not be described directly by the combination of genera differentia.
 * 2) The limits within which the "dominant group" is possible may not be described by the genera differentia.

To overcome the contrasts, a precising definition containing the three or four synonyms, plus additional words or symbols may be needed:
 * 1) identification of the population may be required to clarify the relationship between any two "group" synonyms,
 * 2) any relationship between any two synonyms for "dominant" when used is needed,
 * 3) additional words or symbols may be needed whenever two synonyms for "dominant" are combined with one synonym for "group", and
 * 4) additional symbols may be needed whenever two synonyms for "group" are combined with one synonym for "dominant".

A definition of a "dominant group" may need more than any two genera and differentia.

The limits which separate the group from the population, or those that determine the region or country within which the dominant group is possible may be correlated with the criteria of dominance.

Dominant group/Anthropology
The field of anthropology is divided into subfields: archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and social anthropology. The articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' are in the subpage ../Anthropology/.

Biological anthropology
Some thirty-two vervet monkey infants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, are observed from August 1983 to June 1985.

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: high-ranking group member,
 * 2) population: adult vervet monkeys,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': threats, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): groups of vervet monkeys in Amboseli National Park, Kenya.

Cultural anthropology
"[N]ativistic movements in North America" with respect to "groups of individuals" such as "Indians" and "whites" refer to "whites" as an "alien society which surrounds them." Most nativistic movements "have as a common denominator a situation of inequality between the societies in contact. Such inequalities may derive either from the attitudes of the societies involved or from actual situations of dominance and submission."

The apparent components of a ‘dominant group’ consist of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: dominant subgroup,
 * 2) population: North Americans,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: surrounding, armed force, technological superiority initially, now distinctive powers and privileges, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group), region, territory, or the like: North America.

Linguistic anthropology
"There certainly appear to be numbers of examples of the language of one group of egalitarian hunter-gatherers replacing the language of another group of egalitarian hunter-gatherers on other continents apart from Australia." Language shift is probably a more common occurrence among prehistoric hunter-gatherers than among peoples with more elaborate socio-political systems, because the latter systems give rise to more fixed ties of groups to ethnic identities, including ethnic languages, than among small bands of hunter-gatherers who could afford to be more 'fickle'.

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant partners,
 * 2) population: aboriginal societies,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': surrounding, strong influence, and new technology, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Australia.

Social anthropology
"For ethnic groups, Wolofs and Lebus, Tukulors and Fulas, Bambaras and Soninkes, Diolas and Manjaks were respectively grouped together since the social structure and historical background of each member of the pair were closely related."

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: large group of the total population,
 * 2) population: people of Senegal,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': a large per cent (but not necessarily a majority) of the total population, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Senegal.

Dominant group/Archaeology
Archeology is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record).

Evolutionary archaeology
One group is "placed in a position of economic and communicative superiority: Its products were more valuable than those of the other two groups, and all trade had to be conducted through it."

"The results showed that although the dominant group earned more than the other two groups, all groups increased their earnings over the successive generations."

The components of the dominant group are

 * 1) relation: groups producing products deemed more valuable and having trade limited to only that conducted through the group,
 * 2) population: groups simulating the trading of goods,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': 'a position of economic and communicative superiority', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'all trade had to be conducted only through the dominant group'.

Diaspora
The East African diaspora has three causes:

 * 1) migration of ethnic groups like the Zulu,
 * 2) the slave trade, and
 * 3) climatic changes which caused wars and forced ethnic groups to abandon certain areas.

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: slave masters and slave owners,
 * 2) population: East Africans,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': "most and the biggest slave owners", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): East Africa.

Dominant group/Astronomy
Articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' are in the subpage ../Astronomy/.

Active regions
Active regions on the surface of a star's photosphere, including the Sun have dominant groups:

 * 1) relation: dominant active regions (ARs),
 * 2) population: active regions (ARs),
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': filling factor,
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): a star's observable surface.

Galaxy groups
Compact groups of galaxies are tight associations of galaxies.

The ‘dominant group’ consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: compact galaxy groups within a velocity range of the median velocity containing a dominant galaxy,
 * 2) population: Hickson's catalog of compact groups,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: large numbers of galaxies per compact group, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): observable universe containing compact galaxy groups,.

Interstellar medium
Interstellar dust can be studied by infrared spectrometry, in part because the dust is an astronomical infrared source and other infrared sources are behind the diffuse clouds of dust.

Per the metadefinition, a ‘dominant group’ consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: 'dominant surface species',
 * 2) population: 'different groups on carbon particles' in diffuse clouds,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: 'observation of a 3.3 µm feature only in emission while that at 3.4 µm occurs in both emission and absorption', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): diffuse clouds in the 'interstellar medium'.

Mira variable
A Mira variable is a type of pulsating variable star in which some intense maser emission has been detected.

The dominant group from the author's context is

 * 1) relation: dominant maser emission objects,
 * 2) population: maser emission objects,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority of maser emission objects, and
 * 4) country region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): Milky Way.

Preflare spectrum
The microdensitometer tracings from a low-inductance vacuum spark are compared with those of the preflare and flare solar spectra taken with a crystal spectrometer on the OSO 3 satellite.

This ‘dominant group’ consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: dominant Fe ion spectrum,
 * 2) population: "spectra of highly ionized Fe in the region 10-18 Å",
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: strong relative visual intensities for all lines per iron ion, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): "iron lines and their visual intensities".

Star-disc encounters
A proposed mechanism for the formation of binary and multiple systems is that of 'prompt initial fragmentation' of the molecular cloud during the formation of protostars in which stars form in bound groups.

The dominant group as defined by the author's context is

 * 1) relation: dominant particle groups,
 * 2) population: particle groups,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority of all the particle groups, and
 * 4) country region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): circumstellar accretion disc.

Subdwarfs
The dominant population in the Palomar-Green Catalog of Ultraviolet Excess Stellar Objects is that of the hot, hydrogen atmosphere subdwarfs, the sdB stars, which comprise nearly 40 percent of the sample.

The dominant group components from context are

 * 1) relation: dominant spectral type objects,
 * 2) population: ultraviolet excess stellar objects,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority, and
 * 4) country region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): one-fourth of the sky at high galactic latitude of the Milky Way.

White dwarfs
"White dwarfs are end-products of stellar evolution.The fundamental properties of the dominant group of nonmagnetic white dwarfs have been invaluable in constraining the theory of single star evolution."

Each of the articles from White dwarf states almost exactly the same usage of the term 'dominant group'. Their common definition is

 * 1) relation: majority of white dwarfs per spectral type,
 * 2) population: white dwarfs,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group), region, territory, or the like: nearby white dwarfs of the Milky Way.

Economics
Articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' in the subpage ../Economics/.

Discriminations
In an article about "[a] general equilibrium model of statistical discrimination" by economists Andrea Moro and Peter Norman, the term 'dominant group' occurs fourteen times.

Applying the metadefinition, produces the following:

 * 1) relation: dominant 'differences in human capital investments, average wages and job assignments',
 * 2) population: 'distinguishable groups have identical distributions of productive characteristics',
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: 'group inequalities as a result of statistical discrimination', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'competitive labor market' where there is 'statistical discrimination', 'a world where firms can observe output, but not individual productivities'.

Economists
“It might well repay the students of this subject to pass in review the voluminous evidence that could be brought to prove that these ideas were held almost unquestioningly by the dominant group of economists of that period.”

From the above article, the specific definition of 'dominant group' becomes

 * 1) relation: dominant majority of economists,
 * 2) population: political economists,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: 'in their thought on economic questions, simply imply an attitude and assume a philosophy respecting it without consciously defining either', and
 * 4) country: American political economy,.

Oligopoly
The phrase 'dominant group' occurs three times in an article on 'Networks of collaboration in oligopoly'.

The definition of a ‘dominant group’ consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: dominant 'collaboration network',
 * 2) population: 'stable and efficient networks' where 'each firm has an opportunity to form pair-wise collaborative links with other firms',
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: 'a large number of completely connected firms', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'different types of market competition' which 'allow for intransitive structures of collaboration.' with 'social welfare' implications.

Relative synonyms for economics
Def. a superior class [of test statistics] that [influences] [decision or trading rules] in a specific section [of the article] is called a dominant group.

Def. a superior class of [policy or decision] rules described in a section of the article is called a dominant group.

Def. a superior class [of stock owned by the corporate insiders] rules [takeover gains and voting for the insiders] is called a dominant group of stock.

Each of the "dominant group" definitions requires additional words to clarify what's happening; i.e., to make the definition more precise to the specific situations.

Geology
Petrology is a branch of geology that studies rocks, and the conditions in which rocks form. Three branches of petrology focus on the three major rock types: igneous petrology, metamorphic petrology, and sedimentary petrology. Articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' are in the subpage ../Geology/.

Igneous petrology
With respect to the igneous petrology of the southern Paraná of southern Brazil, "[i]t was well known from surface mapping that LPT rocks were the dominant group in the southern Parana, but the borehole data indicate that LPT rocks underlie HPT, and that they in turn are overlain by IPT rocks."

From the text, specifically the context, the objects of the metadefinition for 'dominant group' have their respective meanings:

 * 1) relation: dominant basalt group,
 * 2) population: Parana continental flood basalt (CFB) province,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: present day surface extent of these early Cretaceous lavas,
 * 4) country: 'the southern Paraná'.

Metamorphic petrology
On the serpentinization processes in ultramafic rocks from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of the Kane Fracture Zone, latitude 23° N, at Site 670, "[o]range to pale-green serpentinized harzburgites with a well-defined spinel and orthopyroxene foliation are the volumetrically dominant group of samples (Shipboard Scientific Party, 1988)."

The objects of the metadefinition for 'dominant group' have their respective meanings:

 * 1) relation: dominant serpentinized harzburgites,
 * 2) population: serpentinized ultramafic rocks,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority volume of a core sample,
 * 4) country: 'the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of the Kane Fracture Zone, latitude 23° N, at Site 670'.

Sedimentary petrology
In the Lower Cretaceous sediments of south-eastern Alexander Island are a palaeogeographical distribution of conglomerate beds.

From the text, specifically the context, the objects of the metadefinition for 'dominant group' have their respective meanings:

 * 1) relation: percentage of pebble analyses in the compositional groups,
 * 2) population: conglomerate horizons,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority of the total number of pebbles analyzed (895 of 1656),
 * 4) country: 'Lower Cretaceous sediments of south-eastern Alexander Island'.

Dominant group/Metagenome
The articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' are in the subpage ../Metagenome/.

Biodiversity
Species richness is "the number of species in a site, habitat or clade."

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant taxa,
 * 2) population: life,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': 'species richness', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'place' and 'time', 'region', 'site', or 'habitat'.

Dispersals
"Dispersal is a fundamental process affecting the genetic structure of populations, speciation, and extinction."

The components of Griesser's dominant group are a

 * 1) relation: dominant social members,
 * 2) population: chordates (birds, fish and mammals),
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': breeding pair, hatching order for the Siberian jay (Perisoreus infaustus), can control group membership, residents, non-breeding older residents, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): close to Arvidsjaur, Northern Sweden (65°40′N, 19°0′E).

Natural selection
"We have seen that it is the common, the widely-diffused, and the widely-ranged species, belonging to the larger genera, which vary most; and these will tend to transmit to their modified offspring that superiority which now makes them dominant in their own countries."

For evolution on the basis of natural selection, the definitional components are

 * 1) relation: dominant species,
 * 2) population: 'forms of life',
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': 'the common, the widely-diffused, and the widely-ranged species', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'in their own countries'.

Phylogenetics
"Caenogastropoda is the dominant group of marine gastropods in terms of species numbers, diversity of habit and habitat and ecological importance."

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant clade,
 * 2) population: Gastropoda,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': "species numbers, diversity of habit and habitat and ecological importance", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): marine.

Phylogeography
"[M]odern haplochromines gave rise to several major adaptive radiations; the most prominent ones are those of [Lake Malawi] LM and [Lake Victoria] LV."

The components of dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant species,
 * 2) population: 'cichlid fishes in East Africa',
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': number of species, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'rocky littoral zone of Lake Tanganyika'.

Agriculture
The components of a dominant group among dairy heifers are

 * 1) relation: "dominant follicle",
 * 2) population: superovulated dairy heifers,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': "presence of a dominant follicle", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): cattle, Quebec, Canada.

Bacteriology

 * Antigenic bacteria

A ‘dominant group’ of antigenic bacteria consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: "dominant antigenic types" ,
 * 2) population: "strains of Escheria coli" ,
 * 3) basis or "criteria for dominance": "present in nearly all stool specimens" and "a far greater proportion of total cultures", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group), region, territory, or the like: "intestinal tract of man".

 * Probiotic bacteria

A ‘dominant group’ of human colonic microbiota consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: "one of the most abundant species" ,
 * 2) population: "human colonic microbiota" ,
 * 3) basis or "criteria for dominance": "largest single cluster of cultured strains", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group), region, territory, or the like: "human gut".

Entomology

 * Ants

With respect to a dominant group of leaf-cutter ants, the components are

 * 1) relation: ecologically dominant ants,
 * 2) population: dominant herbivores,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: ecological dominance, and
 * 4) a country region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): New World tropics.

 * Bees

Components of dominant group regarding stingless bees:
 * 1) relation: dominant "relative abundance" ,
 * 2) population: all insects foraging on flowers,
 * 3) basis or criteria for dominance: "numerically dominant" ,
 * 4) country of the dominant group: "Tropical Atlantic Rainforest".

Paleontology
"Most suggestive are the parallel-veined leaves that may be ruflorian-like cordaites, a dominant group in Angaraland (Meyen, 1982), and a gigantopterid without clear similarities to any described taxa."

Mass extinction
"On the contrary, the usual sequence is for one dominant group to die out, leaving the zone empty, before the other group becomes abundant."

The components of Simpson's dominant group are

 * 1) relation: abundant groups,
 * 2) population: life,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': a great and far-flung population, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): opportunities (space, ecological niches, etc.).

Teleosts
"Similarly, with the dramatic decline of marine eurypterids (large arthropods) about 410 million years ago, the first large marine predators were lost. However, they were later surpassed in this role by certain fish, notably the placoderms, a highly diverse group that sported interlocking plates of armor. The placoderms underwent a spectacular radiation during the Devonian (between 410 and 360 million years ago), but at the end of this period all placoderms—large, small, marine and freshwater—went extinct. They were replaced by the actinopterygians (ray-finned fishes), which ultimately produced the teleosts, the dominant group of modern fish."

The components of Levin's dominant group are a

 * 1) relation: dominant species,
 * 2) population: large predators,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': size, diversity, 'spectacular radiation', and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): marine.

Graptolites
"Since in all these levels graptolites are the dominant group of macrofossils, shallow marine conditions are excluded."

The significance of graptolites being the dominant group of macrofossils is that they are an indicator of a benthic or deeper water environment.

 * 1) relation: dominant macrofossils,
 * 2) population: macrofossils,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: "nearly the only macrofossils present" and "often encountered", and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Silurian of the Brabant Massif.

Phanerozoic
"The usual interpretation attributes our pattern of early bottom heaviness to "adaptive radiation" following either an evolutionary innovation or an ecological vacuum caused by extinction of a previously dominant group."

The components of Gould's dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant fossil clades,
 * 2) population: fossil animals,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': number of species, radiation, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Phanerozoic rocks.

Planetary sciences
Within planetary science are astronomical objects such as comets, the Moon, and meteoroids (a suggested term for a sand- to boulder-sized particle of debris in the Solar System). Articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' for these objects are in the subpage ../Planetary science/.

Lunar boulders
The Apollo 17 highland samples are classified into groups according to proportions of meteoritic iridium (Ir), gold (Au), and germanium (Ge).

The 'dominant Group 2' is the dominant group that has the following definition from context

 * 1) relation: predominant meteoritic groups,
 * 2) population: groups of meteoritic material with the Ir/Au ratio as the principle criterion, with a second major criterion being distribution over landing sites,
 * 3) a basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: largest number of samples, and
 * 4) a country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): 'Apollo 14, 15, 16, and 17 sampling sites'.

Lunar soils
KREEP, an acronym built from the letters K (the atomic symbol for potassium), REE (Rare Earth Elements) and P (for phosphorus), is a geochemical component of some lunar impact melt breccia and basalt rocks.

The dominant group mentioned above has the following definition from context

 * 1) relation: "major types of glasses",
 * 2) population: groups of glasses on the basis of chemistry,
 * 3) a basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: abundance of certain groups of glasses, and
 * 4) a country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): 'glasses of the Fra Mauro sampling site'.

Lunar terrains
The lunar impact glasses from the Apollo 14 landing site show significant variation and hint at the existence of multiple terrains of differing compositions near the landing site.

This dominant group has the following definition from context

 * 1) relation: 'most populous clusters of glass compositions',
 * 2) population: 'compositional groups of glasses',
 * 3) a basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: most populous cluster, and
 * 4) a country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): 'glasses of the Fra Mauro sampling site'.

Martian meteorites
Roughly three-quarters of all Martian meteorites can be classified as Shergottites.

For the dominant group of Martian meteorites, the definitional components of the 'dominant group' are

 * 1) relation: majority of Martian meteorites currently identified,
 * 2) population: meteorites impacting Earth,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Earth's land surface, e.g., Antarctica.

Meteors
"The distribution of photographic meteors in iron, stony, and porous meteors is given in this paper".

The definition of the term 'dominant group' from the context of photographic meteors is

 * 1) relation: largest number N of meteors within a given interval,
 * 2) population: photographic meteors through the Earth's atmosphere,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority p. c., and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): Earth's upper atmosphere as sampled for air density by V-2 rocket flights in 1952.

Micrometeorites
Micrometeorite is often abbreviated as MM.

The 'dominant group' in the subject area of micrometeorites has the definitional objects defined as

 * 1) relation: dominant fractional percent of asteroidal precursor,
 * 2) population: fractional percent of asteroidal precursor,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: majority, and
 * 4) country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): asteroidal precursor.

Comet chemistry
As comets are also a subject of planetary science, this example could be included there.

A magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and chemical comet-coma model is applied to describe and analyze the plasma flow, magnetic field, and ion abundances in Comet Halley.

The ‘dominant group’ consists of the definitions of the following objects:

 * 1) relation: "[d]ominant ions in mass/charge bins" or dominant ion per channel,
 * 2) population: "the ion abundances as measured with the HIS ion mass spectrometer" ,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: log n [ions cm-3] (n is ion density) in the approximate range of 2.5 to 4, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): "ionized coma of a comet".

Sociology
Articles containing the several meanings of 'dominant group' are in the subpage ../Sociology/.

Aesthetics
"Body adornment and body modification are universal phenomena."

From the point of view of body piercings on group identification, the dominant group as indicated from context by the authors is defined as

 * 1) relation: mainstream groups,
 * 2) population: general public,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: mainstream beauty standards, and
 * 4) a country (of the dominant group): The Netherlands.

Artists
"Each man, finally, outside his professional activity, carries on some form of intellectual activity, that is, he is a “philosopher,” an artist, a man of taste, he participates in a particular conception of the world, has a conscious line of moral conduct, and therefore contributes to sustain a conception of the world or to modify it, that is, to bring into being new modes of thought."

The term 'dominant group' occurs three times in the article. The definition per context use by the author is

 * 1) relation: "dominant fundamental group",
 * 2) population: "great masses",
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: "prestige", and
 * 4) country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): "world of production".

High art
The critical social relationship is between rival groups of producers who struggle for ascendancy.

"But once this dominant group has been deposed, other producers take their place and can assert their hegemony, drawing authority away from consumers by a process of de-commodification."

The components of the dominant group are

 * 1) relation: dominant producers,
 * 2) population: producers,
 * 3) basis or 'criteria for dominance': authority, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): 'western society'.

Imagined community
Art allows individuals to think about themselves and others in new and abstract ways, and plays a central role in the creation of an imagined community.

Several uses of the term 'dominant group' occur in the article. The apparent definition per context use by the author is

 * 1) relation: dominant ethnic group art,
 * 2) population: Indian art,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: swadeshi, and
 * 4) country, region, territory, or the like (of the dominant group): national identity in India.

Will
"For one thing, we have not been long enough concerned with it, and for another, we know too little about democracy itself. How then can we analyze the quality of its genius or prefigure the expression it will take when the informing spirit still lies weltering in the mists of Chaos and Old Night?"

 * 1) relation: dominant classes,
 * 2) population: aristocracy,
 * 3) basis or ‘criteria for dominance’: privilege, and
 * 4) country (of the dominant group): empires, hierarchies, or national destinies.

Hypotheses

 * 1) Dominant group often appears in highly specialized original research to describe multivariable dominance.

title: Dominant group/Small group study


text:
Literature/1892/Frege

Translations

 * Geach, Peter & Max Black, trans. & eds. (1980). Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, 3rd ed., Blackwell, 1980. (1st ed. 1952).

Wikimedia

 * Gottlob Frege
 * Sense and reference

Chronology

 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.
 * Frege, Gottlob (1892). "Über Begriff und Gegenstand," ("On Concept and Object") Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie 16: 192-205.

Comments
The morning star and the evening star (Frege's senses) are Venus (Frege's reference), as simply as the rising sun and the setting sun are the sun. All these are natural ideas of intersection and analogy regardless of cultural words.

That is to say, Frege's divide of  sense and reference is as needless to say as that the sun rises east and sets west, or that it is bright and warm.

He does note (morning star) = (evening star), but does not note (morning star) ≠ (evening star).

The morning star is one thing (or referent if you like) and the evening star is another, however analogous both may be. "Everything is an analogy," as per 1974/Pirsig. That is, it is different from, and similar to, everything else. It may be marked by an identity in isolation but by too variant relations in context for a symbol to symbolize magically consistently or objectively. So the pure symbol-referent match without the mediating mind is a myth rather than a must, as illustrated by the triangle of reference on the right.

Both Mill and Frege were perhaps misguided by the "word magic" refuted by 1923/Ogden. It works no magic to refer direct but refer the mind to a thing, to be precise. Cognitivism should overcome this verbally trivial gap.

As a logician like J. S. Mill, he also looks like a word magician, textualist and externalist. Whatever is external, whether sign or design, however, is to be interpreted, whether common or uncommon. We intercept and then interpret signs and designs rather at will, whether common or uncommon.

title: Literature/1892/Frege