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Software metrics and measurement

Overview
Software is measured to:
 * Establish the quality of the current product or process.
 * To predict future qualities of the product or process.
 * To improve the quality of a product or process.
 * To determine the state of the project in relation to budget and schedule.

Measurements and Metrics A measurement is an indication of the size, quantity, amount or dimension of a particular attribute of a product or process. For example the number of errors in a system is a measurement.

A Metric is a measurement of the degree that any attribute belongs to a system, product or process. For example the number of errors per person hours would be a metric.

Thus, software measurement gives rise to software metrics.

Metrics are related to the four functions of management:
 * Planning
 * Organising
 * Controlling
 * Improving

Metric Classification Software metrics can be divided into two categories; product metrics and process metrics.

Product metrics are used to asses the state of the product, tracking risks and discovering potential problem areas. The team's ability to control quality is assessed.

Process metrics focus on improving the long term process of the team or organisation.

Goal Question Metric(GQM)
The GQM, developed by Dr. Victor Bassili defines a top-down, goal oriented framework for software metrics. It approaches software measurement using a three level model; conceptual, operational, and quantitative. At the conceptual level, goals are set prior to metrics collection. According to the GQM organisational goals are understood to shape project goals. Organisational goals may be set by upper management or by organisation stakeholders. To establish Project goals Brainstorming sessions by the project team may be used. At the operational level, for each goal question(s) are established which when answered will indicate if the goal has been achieved. Finally, at the quantitative level, each question has a set of data associated with it which allow it to be answered in a quantitative way.

The GQM is described as a seven step process. (Some authors give a different number of steps, leaving out step 7 or merging two steps into one). The first three steps are crucial and correspond to the main activities at each level in the model as described above.

Step 1. Develop a set of Goals
Develop goals on corporate, division, or project level. These goals can be established from brainstorming sessions involving project team members, or they may be set by organisational goals or from stakeholder's requirements.

Basili and Rombach provide a template for recording the purpose, perspective and environment that will add structure to the goal

The [process, metric, product, etc] is [characterised, evaluated, understood, etc] in order to [understand,improve,engineer,etc] it. The [cost,defects,changes,etc] are examined from the point of view of the [customer,manager,developer,etc].e.g. The changes are examined from the developers viewpoint. The environment in which measurement takes place is evaluated in terms of people, process, problem factors, tools, and constraints.
 * Purpose
 * Perspective
 * Environment

Step 2. Develop a set of questions that characterise the goals.
From each goal a set of questions is derived which will determine if each goal is being met.

Step 3. Specify the Metrics needed to answer the questions.
From each question from step two it is determined what needs to be measured to answer each question adequately.

Step 4. Develop Mechanisms for data Collection and Analysis
It must be determined:
 * Who will collect the data?
 * When will the data be collected?
 * How can accuracy and efficiency be ensured?
 * Who will be the audience?

Step 5. Collect Validate and Analyse the Data.
The data may be collected manually or automatically. Metrics data can be portrayed graphically to enhance understanding.

Step 6. Analyse in a Post Mortem Fashion
Data gathered is analysed and examined to determine its conformity to the goals. Based on the findings here recommendations are made for future improvements.

Step 7. Provide Feedback to Stakeholders
The last step, providing feedback to the stakeholders is a crucial step in the measurement process. It is essentially the purpose behind the previous six steps. Feedback is often presented in the form of one goal per page with the questions, metrics and graphed results.

What is Six Sigma?
Sigma is a letter in the Greek alphabet which becomes the statistical symbol and metric of process variation. It scales the characteristics of defects per unit, part per million defective and the probability of a failure. The concept of Six Sigma(6σ) began in 1986 as a statistically-based method to reduce variation in electronic manufacturing processes in Motorola Inc in the USA. The top management with CEO Robert Galvin developed a concept named Six Sigma, In 1987, he formulated the goal of "achieving Six-Sigma capability by1992" in a memo to all Motorola employees (Bhote, 1989). The results in terms of reduction in process variation were on-track and cost savings totalled US$13 billion and improvement of labour productivity became 204% increase during 1987-1997 (Losianowycz, 1999).

Nowadays, as the founder for Six Sigma, Motorola University defines Six Sigma as (http://www.motorola.com/content.jsp?globalObjectId=3088):

“Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal, conceptual, and practical definitions. At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels: o	As a metric o	As a methodology o	As a management system Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time.” "...Six Sigma as a Metric: The term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of 'goodness' or quality. Using this scale, 'Six Sigma' equates to 3.4 defects per one million opportunities (DPMO). Therefore, Six Sigma started as a defect reduction effort in manufacturing and was then applied to other business processes for the same purpose."

What is Software Six Sigma?
From the software process aspect, Six Sigma has become a top-down methodology or strategy to accelerate improvements in the software process and software product quality. It uses analysis tools and product metrics to evaluate the software process and software product quality.

DMAIC vs. DMADV
DMAIC and DMADV are two Six Sigma sub-methodologies. DMAIC is an abbreviation of Define requirements, Measure performance , Analyse relationships , Improve performance , Control performance. It is the most popular framework used within DFSS (Design for Six Sigma) projects. There are many methods to be implemented in each process: DMADV is an abbreviation of Define requirements, Measure performance , Analyse relationships , Design solutions , Verify functionality. It is the problem-solving framework used within DFSS (Design for Six Sigma) projects.

Process mapping
The purpose of process mapping is helping project define the project process, depict inputs, outputs and units of activity. It can serve as an instruction manual or a tool for facilitating detailed analysis and optimization of workflow and service delivery.

Stangenberg said, in Jul.9, 2003, a good Process Map should:

1) Allow people unfamiliar with the process to understand the interaction of causes during the work-flow. 2) Contain additional information relating to the Six Sigma project i.e. information per critical step about input and output variables, time, cost, DPU value.

Value stream mapping analytics is popular for use. It can output the Value Analysis, Lean Benchmarking, Value Stream Mapping, Cycle-time Variability Modelling and Discrete Event Simulation. Analyse: It includes regression techniques, estimating, process modelling, statistical process control and the Pareto Analysis (Pareto chart): The Pareto chart is used to graphically sum up and display the related importance of the differences between groups of data

Advantage/Flaws
Six Sigma resolves the problem in the organization. Using DMAIC approach, they start at boundary analysis and qualitative analysis, collect data with the relative problem, then find the root cause using metrics and analysis tools. Consequently, the measurement and solution will be put forward. The continuous control activity should be used into the improving and optimizing phases, the purpose is to ensure such problem will not happen in the future.

However, the natural limitation of Six Sigma also exists. It uses statistic analysis tools to find defects in current execution process, but the solution could not get from these statistic analyses. The success ratio is higher within small projects when using Six Sigma to manage their project than resolving big problem in organization.

Improve
1. Reviews, Inspections, and effective checklist management 2. Designing for defect prevention 3. Using Standards
 * Recognizing Improvement Opportunities
 * Making Effective Improvements:
 * Measuring Effectiveness

Control

 * Management
 * Tracking Status and Managing Projects
 * Managing Effort
 * Quality Control Plan
 * Managing Defects in Integration & Test

Execution
Six Sigma processes are executed by Six Sigma Green Belts and Six Sigma Black Belts, and are overseen by Six Sigma Master Black Belts. (Six Sigma Dictionary ):

 * Six Sigma Green Belts: A Six Sigma practitioner trained in the methodology and tools to need to work effectively on a process improvement team. Green Belts may act as team members under the direction of a Black Belt or may lead their own less complex, high impact projects.
 * Six Sigma Black Belts: A Six Sigma expert highly skilled in the application of rigorous statistical tools and methodologies to drive business process improvement.
 * Six Sigma Master Black Belts: A Black Belt achieves "Master" status after demonstrating experience and impact over some period of time. Master Black Belts address the most complex process improvement projects and provide coaching and training to Black Belts and Green Belts.

Metrics in Project Estimation
Software metrics are a way of putting a value/measure on certain aspects of development allowing it to be compared to other projects. These values have to be assessed correctly otherwise they will not give accurate measurements and can lead to false estimations, etc.

Metrics are used to maintain control over the software development process. It allows managers to manage resources more efficiently so the overall team would be more productive. Some examples of metrics include Size Projections like Source Byte Size, Source Lines of Code, Function pointers, GUI Features and other examples are Productivity Projections such as Productivity Metrics.

The metrics can be used to measure size, cost, effort, product quality of a project as well as putting a value on the quality of the process taken and personal productivity. There are certain factors that have to be taken into account when comparing different projects with each other using metrics. If one project has was written in a different language then the number of lines of code could be significantly different or perhaps the larger project has many more errors and bugs in it. Measurements such as Function Pointers give a better indication because they are the actual methods that are in the project rather than the number of lines.

Using metrics companies can make much better estimations on the cost, length, effort, etc of a project which leads to them giving a more accurate view of the overall project. This better view will allow the company to bid for projects more successfully, make projects more likely to succeed and will greatly reduce the risk of late delivery, failure, being penalised for late delivery, bankruptcy, etc.

The processes that manage the project and its code can have issues such as build failures, patches needed, etc that can affect the software metric's measures. By using ISO 9000 this can help alleviate these issues.

For smaller companies where customer retention is important, using metrics to better the software development process and improve on overall project quality, delivery time, etc will make the customers happy which may lead to continued business.

Source Byte Size
Source Byte Size is a measure of the actual size of the source code data (e.g. in Kilobytes). It measures the file size vs. packages, classes, methods, etc.

The overall byte size of the project can be estimated which would give a better indication of the type/size of hardware needed to use the software. This becomes an issue on systems/devices where they are of a limited nature (e.g. watch, washing machine, intelligent fridge, etc)

The byte size of the source code would vary greatly depending on which programming language was used to develop it. For example a program developed in Java could be much smaller than the same program coded in COBOL.

If we were to compare executable byte size of programs written in different languages we would see that there would be a difference too. The compiler compiles source code into byte code so different compilers would give out different executable file sizes.

As more development is done and the project increases, the overall byte size of the project increases. This will give estimations on how much space is needed to store, backup, etc the source files and also the size of transfers over the network. Although this is not much of a problem these days with the cost of storage, transfer bandwidth, etc being so cheap, it is a metric that can be used for this type of estimation (storage).

As the byte size builds up, searching and indexing will take slightly longer every time it increases.

Source Lines of Code (SLOC)
SLOC gives the size of the project by counting all the lines of source code in a project. It is used to measure effort both before as an estimate and after as an actual value. It comes from the days of FORTRAN and assembly coding.

SLOC gives a much clearer image to developers on the size of the project.

When code is written, integration and unit testing can be performed so measures of programming productivity and quality can be assessed.

Source lines of code themselves are not as meaningful as the other metrics. Just because one project has more lines of code than another does not make it more complex or give it a better quality rating. When using number of lines of code as a metric, other metrics would need to be used such as product quality. When product quality is looked at with number of lines of code, it gives a much better reflection on the overall project’s quality; radio of good code to buggy code; efficiency of the code; etc.

Source lines of code can be measured from another point of view. This is the measuring the actual number of lines of code written in a specific amount of time. When looking at a project level, the number of lines of code that is measured would typically come from the overall lines of code written throughout the project within a specific amount of time.

If the SLOC metric was being applied to an individual developer or a team then the number of lines of code would obviously be measured on the lines written by the developer or team respectively.

When developers use auto-generated code (from GUI designers, frameworks, etc) it can lead to incorrect productivity measures. These lines of code should be removed from the calculation to give a better indication of the actual number of lines written by the developer/team.

When using SLOC to assess different projects written in different programming languages it cannot be taken directly. This is because different programming languages can take more/less lines to do the same functions. The measure of number of lines of code need to be condensed/expanded so more meaningful values can be assessed. The use of function points would give a better indication because the number of function points would remain the same (i.e. a function point may take 10 lines in C# and 30 lines in FORTRAN but there still is only one function). Since the number of lines of code would be different, even for the same functionality, the effort required would be completely different.

When comparing projects by using SLOC, then it is far more useful if there are orders of magnitudes between them.

There are two ways to measure lines of code:

 * 1) Physical SLOC = Lines of Source Code + Comments + Blank lines1
 * 2) Logical SLOC = Number of lines of functional code (“statements”)

1 if blank lines are less the 25% of the section.

Names of SLOC measures:

[K – Kilo, M – Mega, G – Giga, T – Tera]
 * K-LOC – 1,000 Lines of Code
 * K-DLOC - 1,000 Delivered Lines of Code
 * K-SLOC - 1,000 Source Lines of Code
 * M-LOC - 1,000,000 Lines of Code
 * G-LOC - 1,000,000,000 Lines of Code
 * T-LOC - 1,000,000,000,000 Lines of Code

Function Points
Function Point metric was described by Alan J. Albrecht in 1979 at IBM and official release was in 1984 available for the community. This is a relatively old technique for measurement of certain software module or property. Function Point Analysis (FPA) is a technique accepted by International Organization for Standards (ISO) for measuring functional size of Information Systems (IS). Function Point is a measurement unit or software metric for FPA that is the end-user analysis of the functions needed for the software. FPA doesn’t take into an account technology used for the software project, programming language or tools. Function Points are grouped into five types of functionality: Each of those types of functionality is given metric called weighting factor. Those weighted functions are known as Unadjusted Function Points (UFPs). Reviewing fourteen General System Characteristics (GSCs) and the summing those assessed GSCs we get Degree of Influence (DI). Technical Complexity Factor (TCF) is 0.65 + 0.01 * DI, further Function Points are calculated UFP’s * TCF. Implementation of Function Point metrics is a very effective way to measure the size of the software at the beginning of the development phase after establishing needs and requirements of the software. Since late 70’s up to nowadays software engineering has been developing and many of the ‘function points’ have been outdated or less relevant to modern software development moving from procedural programming practice to object oriented.
 * Internal Logical Files – logical data that is nurtured inside the application.
 * External Interface Files – logical data that resides outside the application but is restrained with the application that is measured.
 * External Input – preservation, management and processing of logical data through external input through peripherals and other sources.
 * External Output – logical output of data by application.
 * External Inquiries – requests and responses for external data procedures.

Objects
In software development was a need for application extensibility and software reuse. Object Oriented languages like Java and C++ makes it possible to develop applications that are easy to change, add a new functionality by reusing existing resources. By the reuse of existing resources we have to manage dependencies that are between modules of the application and cause of the changes that may arise through the dependencies. These factors are described as software package metrics that are derived from: There are many other principles that make up software package metrics that define measure.
 * Class Cohesion – a measurement for the unity of purpose in the object or class; elements within the class or object should make as much purpose as possible.
 * Coupling – dependency that are between two or more classes that are heavily related together. Changing one class may force drastic changes in other classes that are highly coupled together. Low coupling is by changing one class doesn’t require any changes in another classes or modules because modules communicate together through well established interfaces.
 * Cardinality – number of objects in the relationship between classes.
 * Open-Closed Principle (OCP) – one of the most important principles of object oriented design. OCP means opened for module extension and closed from modification (changing the source code of the module).
 * Single Responsibility – changes may occur in the class domain logic or format, we need to minimize those reasons by separating the class into two or more classes, if we need to introduce a change. This change won’t affect the whole class or module by placing into two separate responsibilities.
 * Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP) or Inversion of Control – dependency upon abstraction but not upon concretion. Every dependency should target interface or abstract class.
 * Interface Segregation Principle – creation of many client specific interfaces is better that general purpose interface. This is because if many clients depend on the functions of the same class that require change and recompilation of the project.
 * Listkov Substitution Principle – subclasses or derived classes should be substitutable for their base classes; the user of the base class should function if the derived class of the base class is passed to the base class.

GUI Features
GUI Features Since 70’s and 80’s when dominant were command line interfaces, things started to change with Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing devices WIMP and Graphical User Interface (GUI) has substituted consol input in late 80’s. It is very difficult to measure the functionality of the application Vs GUI. All depends how efficiently algorithms that solve the problem are implemented to add a new functionality. Significance of the lines contained in the software or lines written is not too much of an importance. Developers working on the project write in average 10 to 15 lines a day. The real importance is what those lines offer to the user, what functionality do they provide behind the graphical interface?
 * It is very difficult to measure GUI metrics because user interfaces have special characteristics. Visibility in design plays a very important role. Functions should be visible ‘in-sight’ for users easy to find and predict the steps that follow on the common sense basis.
 * Feedback on the notion of visibility, how long should we wait for the response e.g. pressing the button.
 * Constraints is a graphical design principle of restraining users of performing particular operations, fading out options on the menu or restricting access to other graphical representations. This minimizes making a wrong choice.
 * Consistency is an operation that uses similar elements for achieving similar tasks.
 * Affordance is an important features of the design of GUI, that is obvious for the user how to use the application e.g. button is highlighted moving over the mouse pointer, for the user is fairly understandable the operation of pressing on it.

Productivity Projections
Software Engineering Productivity

Projecting productivity is all about measurements. In general these measurements involve the rate at which a software engineer produces software and the accompanied documentation. While quality is also an important aspect of the produced software the measurement is not quality oriented. In essence the goal is to measure the useful functionality produces in a unit of time.

Productivity metrics

Metrics on productivity come in two main categories.
 * 1) Size of product based on some output from the software process. i.e.. lines of delivered source code, object code instructions, etc.
 * 2) Function-related measurements based on the functionality of the deliverables. This is expressed in so called "Function-points".

Function points

Function points are determined on the basis of a combination of programmer characteristics such as external inputs and outputs, user interactions, external interfaces and files used by the system followed by associating a weight with each of these characteristics. Finally a "function point count" is computed by multiplying each raw count by the weight and summing all values.

Challenges in Software Metrics

The biggest challenge that lie in measures is mainly the estimation process of the size, the total elapsed time assigned to programming. In addition it can be difficult to define elements such as "a line of code", "Programs to determine part of the system".

General Productivity estimates

Several studies conducted by researches show average lines of code that represent software productivity in systems and commercial applications. For a description of these studies and their result visit UNDERSTANDING SOFTWARE PRODUCTIVITY

Quality and productivity

Although metrics can provide estimates for productivity, they usually do not take quality into account. One can write thousands lines of working code, but the challenge remains to determine how to measure the quality of this code in regard to productivity. by Perez Makerere university

Decomposition
Cost estimations in general are based on a form of reference data also known as Analogy Data. This reference data can be data from previous successful projects, consultancy data, available models such as mathematical relationships or parametric cost models, and rules-of-thumb in software cost estimations. The apply factor of these forms of data depends on the current stage in the software life cycle. A combination of these methods can be especially useful in the early conceptual stages of development when available models are combined with high-level reference data which provide a general concept overview. When the requirements and design becomes clearer in a later stage of the project, more specified functional decompositions are likely to become the main method of cost estimation.

Effort Estimates
In order make a correct estimate of the costs involved in a project it is important to make a break down of the required work elements. A good tool to do this could be the application of a Work Break-down Structure (WBS). The main initial efforts can be decomposed in the following sections:

 * Software Management
 * Software Development
 * Software Systems Engineering
 * Software Engineering
 * Software Test Engineering
 * System-Level Test Support
 * Software Development Test Bed
 * Software System-level Test Support
 * Assembly, Test, Launch Operations (ATLO) Support for flight projects
 * Software Quality Assurance
 * Independent Verification and Validation (IV&V)

Expert Judgement
Suitable domain experts provide estimates for fine-grained tasks, and using suitable software and statistical tools a reliable measurement is achieved. The emphasis is on the knowledge and experience of the expert.

Lederer and Prasad categorise expert judgement as either intuitive or structured. Intuitive expert judgement relies solely on the experience and opinion of the expert. Structured judgement for cost estimation also relies on expert knowledge but validates estimates using historical data and statistical tools.

At the task level, work breakdown structures are often used to achieve a high degree of granularity of tasks. The chosen expect then provides a range of estimated values for the task (actual, best case, worst case). Various statistical formulas are applied to these measures to ensure a reasonable result.

Jørgensen proposes the following steps for estimation experts:
 * 1) Evaluate estimation accuracy, but avoid high evaluation pressure
 * 2) Avoid conflicting estimation goals
 * 3) Ask the estimators to justify and criticize their estimates
 * 4) Avoid irrelevant and unreliable estimation information
 * 5) Use documented data from previous development tasks
 * 6) Find estimation experts with relevant domain background and good estimation records
 * 7) Estimate top-down and bottom-up, independently of each other
 * 8) Use estimation checklists
 * 9) Combine estimates from different experts and estimation strategies
 * 10) Assess the uncertainty of the estimate
 * 11) Provide feedback on estimation accuracy and development task relations
 * 12) Provide estimation training opportunities.

These ideas reflect some of the practices laid out in PSP.

Estimation by Analogy
Use Estimation by Analogy (EBA) to identify completed projects and features that are similar to a new project and use that historical data to create estimates for the cost and effort of a newer project.

EBA hinges on identifying the 'analogies' between previous projects and planned projects. Some software applications exist which can help identify such projects (e.g. The ANGEL Project) By identifying a feature or component that is of similar complexity to a previous feature, and making a reasonable judgement on the relative sizes of the feature, an estimation can be arrived at.

Steve McConnell outlines a five step approach to EBA for a new project as follows:

 * 1) Get Detailed Size, Effort, and Cost Results for a Similar Previous Project
 * 2) Compare the Size of the New Project to a Similar Past Project
 * 3) Build Up the Estimate for the New Project's Size as a Percentage of the Old Project's Size
 * 4) Create an Effort Estimate Based on the Size of the New Project Compared to the Previous Project
 * 5) Check for Consistent Assumptions Across the Old and New Projects

A few key factors govern the accuracy of estimates:
 * Break down the project into relatively detailed features. Measuring too few features will not provide enough accuracy, too much detail meanwhile risks introducing extraneous elements into the model.
 * Judgment is required when calculating comparisons. Measurements of completed projects may need to be adjusted to account for complexity, ability or other facts that had a bearing on the outcome of the that project.
 * McConnel stresses that you should resist the temptation to inflate estimates to accommodate inherent inaccuracy in estimates. For example, if your estimates suggest a figure between 40 and 50 weeks, resist the temptation to communicate an effort of 55 weeks.

Cost Estimation Tools
It is estimated that there has been 75 major software cost estimation tools produced over the last decade.

Some Software Measurement tools are listed below:
 * The COMOCO site provides various numerous tools that support COCOMO based measurement.
 * The ANGEL project from Bournemouth University. Based on research on Analogy method of estimation. The version of the software currently on the site required JDK 1.4 to install but will run with Java 1.4 and above. To get around this problem do the following:
 * Save the angel.jar installation file to a directory
 * Extract the contents using the command jar xf angel.jar
 * Locate the file copy.jar that was extracted using the previous command
 * Extract the contents of copy.jar using the command jar xf copy.jar
 * Locate the bin directory and in there you will find batch files and shell scripts for running ANGEL.
 * NASAs NASA Cost Estimation Website provides various cost estimation models. While heavily focused on aerospace and aeronautics, it is still worth looking over.

 * QSM provide a suite of products for software products called SLIM tools. QSM are one of the leading providers of commercial software measurement tools.

= References =

title: Software metrics and measurement


text:
User talk:Jeroencl

Welcome
Hello Jeroencl, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
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 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  16:56, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Re:Wiki in education
ping, Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  19:22, 11 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm also interested in wiki's in education. Feel free to ping me. Historybuff 06:24, 2 April 2008 (UTC)

Networked learning
Jeroen, I'd like to add my comment to your blog post on networked learning. Though we don't know teachers at our schools interested in Web 2.0 tools and collaboration, there are so many at this OER course Thanks for inviting me.Anicap  Wikiversity:Chat  18:23, 16 March 2008 (UTC)→

Enlightenment course research
Hi Jeroen, I just wanted to say I haven't abandoned you or this project - I have just been away for a lot of the time after I suggested this project. I'm also away this weekend, but will try to catch up with this and all the other "pots on the boil" next week. ;-) In the meantime, it might be good for you to identify some real questions that you want to ask in your research - making them as clear as possible will help, but this is also an inherent part of the research process. Talk to you soon. Cormaggio talk 11:04, 4 April 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Jeroencl


text:
User talk:Lamberg

Welcome
Hello Lamberg, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
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 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  16:57, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lamberg


text:
User talk:Consta~enwikiversity

Iassou Consta, btw: you are everywhere a user and at el.WV you probably just have some more tools :-) Below some more info about this WV, Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  17:02, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello Consta, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  17:02, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Consta. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Consta~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:30, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Consta~enwikiversity


text:
Airplane Flying Handbook/Slow flight stalls and spins

Introduction
The maintenance of lift and control of an airplane in flight requires a certain minimum airspeed. This critical airspeed depends on certain factors, such as gross weight, load factors, and existing density altitude. The minimum speed below which further controlled flight is impossible is called the stalling speed. An important feature of pilot training is the development of the ability to estimate the margin of safety above the stalling speed. Also, the ability to determine the characteristic responses of any airplane at different airspeeds is of great importance to the pilot. The student pilot, therefore, must develop this awareness in order to safely avoid stalls and to operate an airplane correctly and safely at slow airspeeds.

Slow Flight
Slow Flight could be thought of, by some, as a speed that is less than cruise. In pilot training and testing, however, slow flight is broken down into two distinct elements: (1) the establishment, maintenance of, and maneuvering of the airplane at airspeeds and in configurations appropriate to takeoffs, climbs, descents, landing approaches, and go-arounds, and, (2) maneuvering at the slowest airspeed at which the airplane is capable of maintaining controlled flight without indications of a stall - usually 3 to 5 knots above the stalling speed.

Flight at less than Cruise Airspeeds
Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of an airplane at less than cruise speeds. The ability to determine the characteristic control responses at the lower airspeeds appropriate to takeoffs, departures, and landing approaches is a critical factor in stall awareness.

As airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreases disproportionately. For instance, there may be a certain loss of effectiveness when the airspeed is reduced from 30 to 20 m.p.h. above the stalling speed, but there will normally be a much greater loss as the airspeed is further reduced to 10 m.p.h. above stalling. The objective of maneuvering during slow flight is to develop the pilot's sense of feel and ability to use the controls correctly, and to improve proficiency in performing maneuvers that require slow airspeeds.

Maneuvering during slow flight should be performed using both instrument indications and outside visual reference. Slow flight should be practiced from straight glides, straight-and-level flight, and from medium banked gliding and level flight turns. Slow flight at approach speeds should include slowing the airplane smoothly and promptly from cruising to approach speeds without changes in altitude or heading, and determining and using appropriate power and trim settings. Slow flight at approach speed should also include configuration changes, such as landing gear and flaps, while maintaining heading and altitude.

Flight at Minimum Controllable Airspeed
This maneuver demonstrates the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of the airplane at its minimum flying speed. By definition, the term "flight at minimum controllable airspeed" means a speed at which any further increase in the angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in power will cause an immediate stall. Instruction in flight at minimum controllable airspeed should be introduced at reduced power settings, with the airspeed sufficiently above the stall to permit maneuvering, but close enough to the stall to sense the characteristics of flight at very low airspeed - which are sloppy controls, ragged response to control inputs, and difficulty maintaining altitude. Maneuvering at minimum controllable airspeed should be performed using both instrument indications and outside visual reference. It is important that pilots form the habit of frequent reference to the flight instruments, especially the airspeed indicator, while flying at very low airspeeds. However, a "feel" for the airplane at very low airspeeds must be developed to avoid inadvertent stalls and to operate the airplane with precision.

To begin the maneuver, the throttle is gradually reduced from a cruising position. While the airspeed is decreasing, the position of the nose in relation to the horizon should be noted and should be raised as necessary to maintain altitude.

When the airspeed reaches the maximum allowable for landing gear operation, the landing gear (if equipped with retractable gear) should be extended and all gear down checks performed. As the airspeed reaches the maximum allowable for flap operation, full flaps should be lowered and the pitch attitude adjusted to maintain altitude. ([[Media:AFH_Figure_4-1.JPG|Figure 4-1]]) additional power will be required as the speed further decreases to maintain the airspeed just above a stall. As the speed decreases further, the pilot should note the feel of the flight controls, especially the elevator. The pilot should also note the sound of the airflow as it falls off in tone level.

As airspeed is reduced, the flight controls become less effective and the normal nosedown tendency is reduced. The elevators become less responsive and coarse control movements become necessary to retain control of the airplane. The slipstream effect produces a strong yaw so the application of rudder is required to maintain coordinated flight. The secondary effect of applied rudder is to include a roll, so aileron is required to keep the wings level. This can result in flying with crossed controls.

During these changing flight conditions, it is important to retrim the airplane as often as necessary to compensate for changes in control pressures. If the airplane has been trimmed for cruising speed, heavy aft control pressure will be needed on the elevators, making precise control impossible. If too much speed is lost, or too little power is used, further back pressure on the elevator control may result in a loss of altitude or a stall. When the desired pitch attitude and minimum control airspeed have been established, it is important to continually cross-check the attitude indicator, altimeter, and airspeed indicator, as well as outside references to ensure that accurate control is being maintained.

The pilot should understand that when flying more slowly than minimum drag speed (LD/MAX) the airplane will exhibit a characteristic known as "speed instability". If the airplane is disturbed by even the slightest turbulence, the airspeed will decrease. As airspeed decreases, the total drag also increases, resulting in a further loss in airspeed. The total drag continues to rise and the speed continues to fall. Unless more power is applied and/or the nose is lowered, the speed will continue to decay right down to the stall. This is an extremely important factor in the performance of slow flight. The pilot must understand that, at speed less than minimum drag speed, the airspeed is unstable and will continue to decay of allowed to do so.

When the attitude, airspeed, and power have been stabilized in straight flight, turns should be practiced to determine the airplane's controllability characteristics at this minimum speed. During the turns, power and pitch attitude may need to be increased to maintain the airspeed and altitude. The objective is to acquaint the pilot with the lack of maneuverability at minimum speeds, the danger of incipient stalls, and the tendency of the airplane to stall as the bank is increased. A stall may also occur as a result of abrupt or rough control movements when flying at this critical airspeed.

Abruptly raising the flaps while at minimum controllable airspeed will result in lift suddenly being lost, causing the airplane to lose altitude or perhaps stall.

Once flight at minimum controllable airspeed is set up properly for level flight, a descent or climb at minimum controllable airspeed can be established by adjusting the power as necessary to establish the desired rate of descent or climb. The beginning pilot should note the increased yawing tendency at minimum control airspeed at high power settings with flaps fully extended. In some airplanes, an attempt to climb at such a slow airspeed may result in a loss of altitude, even with maximum power applied.

Common errors in the performance of slow flight are:
 * Failure to adequately clear the area
 * Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in altitude loss
 * Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid reduction in airspeed and "mushing"
 * Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during turns
 * Fixation on the airspeed indicator
 * Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted
 * Inadequate power management
 * Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation

Stalls
A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the airplane's wing is disrupted, and the lift degenerates rapidly. This is caused when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting. ([[Media:AFH_Figure_4-2.JPG|Figure 4-2]])

The practice of stall recovery and the development of awareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilot training. The objectives in performing intentional stalls are to familiarize the pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to assist in recognizing an approaching stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action.

Intentional stalls should be performed at an altitude that will provide adequate height above the ground for recovery and return to normal level flight. Though it depends on the degree to which a stall has progressed, most stalls require some loss of altitude during recovery. The longer it takes to recognize the approaching stall, the more complete the stall is likely to become, and the greater the loss of altitude to be expected.

Recognitions of Stalls
Pilots must recognize the flight conditions that are conducive to stalls and know how to apply the necessary corrective action. They should learn to recognize an approaching stall by sight, sound, and feel. The following cues may be useful in recognizing the approaching stall.

 * Vision is useful in detecting a stall condition by noting the attitude of the airplane. This sense can only be relied on when the stall is the result of an unusual attitude of the airplane. Since the airplane can also be stalled from a normal attitude, vision in this instance would be of little help in detecting the approaching stall.
 * Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition. In the case of fixed-pitch propeller airplanes in a power-on condition, a change in sound due to loss of revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) is particularly noticeable. The lessening of the noise made by the air flowing along the airplane structure as airspeed decreases is also quite noticeable, and when the stall is almost complete, vibration and incident noises often increase greatly.
 * Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion, is probably the most important and the best indicator to the trained and experienced pilot. If this sensitivity is properly developed, it will warn of a decrease in speed or the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.
 * Feel is an important sense in recognizing the onset of a stall. The feeling of control pressures is very important. As speed is reduced, the resistance to pressures on the controls becomes progressively less. Pressures exerted on the controls tend to become movements of the control surfaces. The lag between these movements and the response of the airplane becomes greater, until in a complete stall all controls can be moved with almost no resistance, and with little immediate effect on the airplane.  Just before the stall occurs, buffeting, uncontrollable pitching, or vibration may begin.

Several types of stall warning indicators have been developed to warn pilots of an approaching stall. The use of such indicators is valuable and desirable, but the reason for practicing stalls is to learn to recognize stalls without the benefit of warning devices.

Fundamentals of Stall Recovery
During the practice of intentional stalls, the real objective is not to learn how to stall an airplane, but to learn how to recognize an approaching stall and take prompt corrective action. ([[Media:AFH_Figure_4-3.JPG|Figure 4-3]]) Though the recovery actions must be taken in a coordinated manner, they are broken down into three actions here for explanation purposes.

First, at the indication of a stall, the pitch attitude and angle of attack must be decreased positively and immediately. Since the basic cause of a stall is always an excessive angle of attack, the cause must first be eliminated by releasing the back-elevator pressure that was necessary to attain that angle of attack or by moving the elevator control forward. This lowers the nose and returns the wing to an effective angle of attack. The amount of elevator control pressure or movement used depends on the design of the airplane, the severity of the stall, and the proximity of the ground. In some airplanes, a moderate movement of the elevator control—perhaps slightly forward of neutral—is enough, while in others a forcible push to the full forward position may be required. An excessive negative load on the wings caused by excessive forward movement of the elevator may impede, rather than hasten, the stall recovery. The object is to reduce the angle of attack but only enough to allow the wing to regain lift.

Second, the maximum allowable power should be applied to increase the airplane’s airspeed and assist in reducing the wing’s angle of attack. The throttle should be promptly, but smoothly, advanced to the maximum allowable power. The flight instructor should emphasize, however, that power is not essential for a safe stall recovery if sufficient altitude is available. Reducing the angle of attack si the only way of recovering from a stall regardless of the amount of power used.

Although stall recoveries should be practiced without, as well as with the use of power, in most actual stalls the application of more power, if available, is an integral part of the stall recovery. Usually, the greater the power applied, the less the loss of altitude.

Maximum allowable power applied at the instant of a stall will usually not cause overspeeding of an engine equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller, due to the heavy air load imposed on the propeller at slow airspeeds. However, it will be necessary to reduce the power as airspeed is gained after the stall recovery so the airspeed will not become excessive. When performing intentional stalls, the tachometer indication should never be allowed to exceed the red line (maximum allowable r.p.m.) marked on the instrument.

Third, straight-and-level flight should be regained with coordinated use of all controls.

Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls is important because it simulates stall conditions that could occur during normal flight maneuvers. For example, the power-on stalls are practiced to show what could happen if the airplane were climbing at an excessively nose-high attitude immediately after takeoff or during a climbing turn. The power-off turning stalls are practiced to show what could happen if the controls are improperly used during a turn from the base leg to the final approach. The power-off straight-ahead stall simulates the attitude and flight characteristics of a particular airplane during the final approach and landing.

Usually, the first few practices should include only approaches to stalls, with recovery initiated as soon as the first buffeting or partial loss of control is noted. In this way, the pilot can become familiar with the indications of an approaching stall without actually stalling the airplane. Once the pilot becomes comfortable with this procedure, the airplane should be slowed in such a manner that it stalls in as near a level pitch attitude as is possible. The student pilot must not be allowed to form the impression that in all circumstances, a high pitch attitude is necessary to exceed the critical angle of attack, or that in all circumstances, a level or near level pitch attitude is indicative of a low angle of attack. Recovery should be practiced first without the addition of power, by merely relieving enough back-elevator pressure that the stall is broken and the airplane assumes a normal glide attitude. The instructor should also introduce the student to a secondary stall at this point. Stall recoveries should then be practiced with the addition of power to determine how effective power will be in executing a safe recovery and minimizing altitude loss.

Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stall at a low altitude in which a recovery was not accomplished prior to contact with the surface. As a preventive measure, stalls should be practiced at an altitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL. To recover with a minimum loss of altitude requires a reduction in the angle of attack (lowering the airplane’s pitch attitude), application of power, and termination of the descent without entering another (secondary) stall.

Use of Ailerons/Rudder in Stall Recovery
Different types of airplanes have different stall characteristics. Most airplanes are designed so that the wings will stall progressively outward from the wing roots (where the wing attaches to the fuselage) to the wingtips. This is the result of designing the wings in a manner that the wingtips have less angle of incidence than the wing roots. ([[Media:AFH_Figure_4-4.JPG|Figure 4-4]]) Such a design feature causes the wingtips to have a smaller angle of attack than the wing roots during flight.

Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall; the wing roots of an airplane will exceed the critical angle before the wingtips, and the wing roots will stall first. The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron control will be available at high angles of attack (slow airspeed) and give the airplane more stable stalling characteristics.

When the airplane is in a stalled condition, the wingtips continue to provide some degree of lift, and the ailerons still have some control effect. During recovery from a stall, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses toward the roots. Thus, the ailerons can be used to level the wings.

Using the ailerons requires finesse to avoid an aggravated stall condition. For example, if the right wing dropped during the stall and excessive aileron control were applied to the left to raise the wing, the aileron deflected downward (right wing) would produce a greater angle of attack (and drag), and possibly a more complete stall at the tip as the critical angle of attack is exceeded. The increase in drag created by the high angle of attack on that wing mightcause the airplane to yaw in that direction. This adverse yaw could result in a spin unless directional control was maintained by rudder, and/or the aileron control sufficiently reduced.

Even though excessive aileron pressure may have been applied, a spin will not occur if directional (yaw) control is maintained by timely application of coordinated rudder pressure. Therefore, it is important that the rudder be used properly during both the entry and the recovery from a stall. The primary use of the rudder in stall recoveries is to counteract any tendency of the airplane to yaw or slip. The correct recovery technique would be to decrease the pitch attitude by applying forward-elevator pressure to break the stall, advancing the throttle to increase airspeed, and simultaneously maintaining directional control with coordinated use of the aileron and rudder.

Stall Characteristics
Because of engineering design variations, the stall characteristics for all airplanes cannot be specifically described; however, the similarities found in small general aviation training-type airplanes are noteworthy enough to be considered. It will be noted that the power-on and power-off stall warning indications will be different. The power-off stall will have less noticeable clues (buffeting, shaking) than the power-on stall. In the power-off stall, the predominant clue can be the elevator control position (full upelevator against the stops) and a high descent rate. When performing the power-on stall, the buffeting will likely be the predominant clue that provides a positive indication of the stall. For the purpose of airplane certification, the stall warning may be furnished either through the inherent aerodynamic qualities of the airplane, or by a stall warning device that will give a clear distinguishable indication of the stall. Most airplanes are equipped with a stall warning device.

The factors that affect the stalling characteristics of the airplane are balance, bank, pitch attitude, coordination, drag, and power. The pilot should learn the effect of the stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and the proper correction. It should be reemphasized that a stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or at any power setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the particular airplane.

A number of factors may be induced as the result of other factors. For example, when the airplane is in a nose-high turning attitude, the angle of bank has a tendency to increase. This occurs because with the airspeed decreasing, the airplane begins flying in a smaller and smaller arc. Since the outer wing is moving in a larger radius and traveling faster than the inner wing, it has more lift and causes an overbanking tendency. At the same time, because of the decreasing airspeed and lift on both wings, the pitch attitude tends to lower. In addition, since the airspeed is decreasing while the power setting remains constant, the effect of torque becomes more prominent, causing the airplane to yaw.

During the practice of power-on turning stalls, to compensate for these factors and to maintain a constant flight attitude until the stall occurs, aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank attitude constant. At the same time, back-elevator pressure must be continually increased to maintain the pitch attitude, as well as right rudder pressure increased to keep the ball centered and to prevent adverse yaw from changing the turn rate. If the bank is allowed to become too steep, the vertical component of lift decreases and makes it even more difficult to maintain a constant pitch attitude.

Whenever practicing turning stalls, a constant pitch and bank attitude should be maintained until the stall occurs. Whatever control pressures are necessary should be applied even though the controls appear to be crossed (aileron pressure in one direction, rudder pressure in the opposite direction). During the entry to a power-on turning stall to the right, in particular, the controls will be crossed to some extent. This is due to right rudder pressure being used to overcome torque and left aileron pressure being used to prevent the bank from increasing.

Approaches to Stalls (Imminent Stalls) - Power-On or Power-Off
An imminent stall is one in which the airplane is approaching a stall but is not allowed to completely stall. This stall maneuver is primarily for practice in retaining (or regaining) full control of the airplane immediately upon recognizing that it is almost in a stall or that a stall is likely to occur if timely preventive action is not taken.

The practice of these stalls is of particular value in developing the pilot’s sense of feel for executing maneuvers in which maximum airplane performance is required. These maneuvers require flight with the airplane approaching a stall, and recovery initiated before a stall occurs. As in all maneuvers that involve significant changes in altitude or direction, the pilot must ensure that the area is clear of other air traffic before executing the maneuver.

These stalls may be entered and performed in the attitudes and with the same configuration of the basic full stalls or other maneuvers described in this chapter. However, instead of allowing a complete stall, when the first buffeting or decay of control effectiveness is noted, the angle of attack must be reduced immediately by releasing the back-elevator pressure and applying whatever additional power is necessary. Since the airplane will not be completely stalled, the pitch attitude needs to be decreased only to a point where minimum controllable airspeed is attained or until adequate control effectiveness is regained.

The pilot must promptly recognize the indication of a stall and take timely, positive control action to prevent a full stall. Performance is unsatisfactory if a full stall occurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained, or if the pilot fails to take timely action to avoid excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or a spin.

Full Stalls Power-Off
The practice of power-off stalls is usually performed with normal landing approach conditions in simulation of an accidental stall occurring during landing approaches. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or retractable landing gear should be in the landing configuration. Airspeed in excess of the normal approach speed should not be carried into a stall entry since it could result in an abnormally nose-high attitude. Before executing these practice stalls, the pilot must be sure the area is clear of other air traffic.

After extending the landing gear, applying carburetor heat (if applicable), and retarding the throttle to idle (or normal approach power), the airplane should be held at a constant altitude in level flight until the airspeed decelerates to that of a normal approach. The airplane should then be smoothly nosed down into the normal approach attitude to maintain that airspeed. Wing flaps should be extended and pitch attitude adjusted to maintain the airspeed.

When the approach attitude and airspeed have stabilized, the airplane’s nose should be smoothly raised to an attitude that will induce a stall. Directional control should be maintained with the rudder, the wings held level by use of the ailerons, and a constantpitch attitude maintained with the elevator until the stall occurs. The stall will be recognized by clues, such as full up-elevator, high descent rate, uncontrollable nosedown pitching, and possible buffeting.

Recovering from the stall should be accomplished by reducing the angle of attack, releasing back-elevator pressure, and advancing the throttle to maximum allowable power. Right rudder pressure is necessary to overcome the engine torque effects as power is advanced and the nose is being lowered. [[Media:AFH_Figure_4-5.JPG|(Figure 4-5)]]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain flying speed and returned to straight-and-level flight Establish normal approach Raise nose, maintain heading When stall occurs, reduce angle of attack and add full power. Raise flaps as recommended As flying speed returns, stop descent and establish a climb Climb at V, raise landing gear and remaining flaps, trim Y Level off at desired altitude, set power and trim attitude.

After establishing a positive rate of climb, the flaps and landing gear are retracted, as necessary, and when in level flight, the throttle should be returned to cruise power setting. After recovery is complete, a climb or go-around procedure should be initiated, as the situation dictates, to assure a minimum loss of altitude. Recovery from power-off stalls should also be practiced from shallow banked turns to simulate an inadvertent stall during a turn from base leg to final approach. During the practice of these stalls, care should be taken that the turn continues at a uniform rate until the complete stall occurs. If the power-off turn is not properly coordinated while approaching the stall, wallowing may result when the stall occurs. If the airplane is in a slip, the outer wing may stall first and whip downward abruptly. This does not affect the recovery procedure in any way; the angle of attack must be reduced, the heading maintained, and the wings leveled by coordinated use of the controls. In the practice of turning stalls, no attempt should be made to stall the airplane on a predetermined heading. However, to simulate a turn from base to final approach, the stall normally should be made to occur within a heading change of approximately 90°.

After the stall occurs, the recovery should be made straight ahead with minimum loss of altitude, and accomplished in accordance with the recovery procedure discussed earlier.

Recoveries from power-off stalls should be accomplished both with, and without, the addition of power, and may be initiated either just after the stall occurs, or after the nose has pitched down through the level flight attitude.

Full Stalls Power-On
Power-on stall recoveries are practiced from straight climbs, and climbing turns with 15 to 20° banks, to simulate an accidental stall occurring during takeoffs and climbs. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or retractable landing gear should normally be in the takeoff configuration; however, power-on stalls should also be practiced with the airplane in a clean configuration (flaps and/or gear retracted) as in departure and normal climbs.

After establishing the takeoff or climb configuration, the airplane should be slowed to the normal lift-off speed while clearing the area for other air traffic. When the desired speed is attained, the power should be set at takeoff power for the takeoff stall or the recommended climb power for the departure stall while establishing a climb attitude. The purpose of reducing the airspeed to lift-off airspeed before the throttle is advanced to the recommended setting is to avoid an excessively steep nose-up attitude for a long period before the airplane stalls.

After the climb attitude is established, the nose is then brought smoothly upward to an attitude obviously impossible for the airplane to maintain and is held at that attitude until the full stall occurs. In most airplanes, after attaining the stalling attitude, the elevator control must be moved progressively further back as the airspeed decreases until, at the full stall, it will have reached its limit and cannot be moved back any farther.

Recovery from the stall should be accomplished by immediately reducing the angle of attack by positively releasing back-elevator pressure and, in the case of a departure stall, smoothly advancing the throttle to maximum allowable power. In this case, since the throttle is already at the climb power setting, the addition of power will be relatively slight. [Figure 4-6] The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain flying speed with the minimum loss of altitude and then raised to climb attitude. Then, the airplane should be returned to the normal straight-and-level flight attitude, and when in normal level flight, the throttle should be returned to cruise power setting. The pilot must recognize instantly when the stall has occurred and take prompt action to prevent a prolonged stalled condition.


text:
Instructional design/Psychomotor behaviors/Lesson Design Practice Page

Link to a video by external link: Click here to view the video.

Possible Quiz Format:

Learning Activity
Let's see if you were paying attention... Try the following three questions. Click Submit after you answer the questions. Your score will be noted below the Submit button.

{Which of the following correctly list the five stages of Dave's Psychomotor Domain. Click of the correct response. +Imitation, Manipulation, Precision, Articulation, and Naturalization - Perception, Set, Guided Response, Mechanism, and Complex Overt Response - Reflex Movement, Basic Fundamental Movements, Perceptual Abilities, Physical Abilities, and Skilled Movements
 * type="[]"}
 * Correct! These are the five stages of Dave's Psychomotor Domain.
 * Incorrect! These are not stages of Dave's Psychomotor Domain. These are stages of Simpson’s Psychomotor Domain.
 * Incorrect! These are not stages of Dave's Psychomotor Domain. These are stages of Harrow’s Psychomotor Domain.

{Which of the following are examples of psychomotor behaviors? Select all that apply. +Cheerleading - Reading a book + Riding a bike
 * type="[]"}
 * Correct! This is an example of a psychomotor behavior.
 * Incorrect! This is a non-example of a psychomotor behavior.
 * Correct! This is an example of a psychomotor behavior.

{Which of the following is not one of the three levels of the instructional process? - Practice - Habit - Imitation + Understanding
 * type=""}
 * Incorrect! This is one of the three levels of the instructional process.
 * Incorrect! This is one of the three levels of the instructional process.
 * Incorrect! This is one of the three levels of the instructional process.
 * Correct! This is not one of the three levels of the instructional process.

How did you do? If you feel good about your knowledge of psychomotor behaviors, go to the next lesson; Psychomotor_Behaviors_in_Practice.

Written Responses- linked to external page Classifying the Psychomotor Behaviors of Respiratory Therapists

Since psychomotor behaviors are physical activities, it is necessary to examine the work of respiratory therapists in order to discover those tasks that are peculiar to the profession. Review Part One and Part Two of the learning task below. When you ready to begin, click on link below to open your task worksheet to record your 10 identified actions (Right-click on the link, select "open in new window"). You can refer back to the job descriptions while completing the task.

Click here to open your worksheet

Link to pritable worksheet Before continuing with this lesson, print out the Lesson worksheet.

Answers to Worksheet Now complete your lesson worksheet (questions 3B - 6). For those responses not placed in this lesson's discussion tab, review your answers.

Adding Hyperlink to text: As with any learning activity, assessment begins with the learning objectives. Objectives in the psychomotor domain are created under the same criteria as objectives in the other domains. Creation of Type Your Text Here are beyond...

Using a Blog for Interaction: Think back on your own experiences and create a final post for the course blog describing how you will incorporate the following elements into your learning:

Using a Table with rows and columns

Affective Stages
It is important to first understand the stages of the affective domain. Study the table below. Each stage is listed, along with a definition of what constituties that stages, and an example video, complete with explanation. Read each definition and then watch each video. Look for the definition playing out in the example video.

Navigation Used at Bottom of lesson:

Using Colored Text

Six Pillars of Character

Instructing Learners to Contribute to the Page TASK: Answer these questions by clicking on the "edit this page" tab found at the top of the screen. Just add your response below the line and save page. Then, click next to go on.

Post answers here


text:
User talk:PBasic

Hello, please see Ohm's Law

Welcome
Hello PBasic, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
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And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! --Remi 19:25, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:PBasic


text:
User:Anicap

Open Educational Resources
I am a language teacher in a secondary vocational school in Gostivar, Macedonia.I also work as a trainer of teacher trainers and in service teacher trainer. I am very much interested in social networking in order to collaborate and share with others who have similar interests.You may have a look at my CV here: I first started using Internet for sharing knowledge (blogging) with two classes of K-9 students in April, 2005. At that time my goals for teaching were the ordinary EFL classroom goals, when I only wanted to provide my students a new electronic learning environment that would be more motivating and engaging....Currently, I am working on secondary schools' "Collaborative Learning Project Using the Internet to Learn", between Macedonia and the Netherlands , which started on January 31st, 2008.

LeMill and Wikiversity
I have registered at http://lemill.net and created my own profile during the first week. However, for the time being I am more interested in wikiversity. There is a project on wikiversity called "Networked learning" http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Networked_learning ...Assisting you in developing online communication and internet learning skills. The project is based on the principles of networked learning where individuals establish an online identity and formulate relationships with other people and information to communicate and develop knowledge. Part of the Teaching and Learning Online project... I didn't have time to explore more.

Licences
Wikiveristy says, images should be licenced, otherwise they will be deleted. "You agree to license your contributions under the GFDL . Any copyrighted works not licensed under the GFDL will be deleted."

Wikiversity Readers/ RSS Feeds- Are there any?
Bloglines http://www.bloglines.com and google reader are both helpful tools in bringing the information from Internet on your desktop. I have made two images on how to make a watchlist. I still want to know about the RSS.

Free Node Java Applet
http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en OER participants have meetings there.

Meetings at Free Node
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Thucydides:_The_Peloponnesian_War/Meetings is this a book club discussion?

Assignments week 3, 4 and 5
On:

Wikimedia and Wikiversity

 * Upload file (copy the image name)
 * What links here
 * Editing toolbar: embeded file
 * Paste the name of the image
 * Control the size and the position of the image, add thumb and image caption
 * http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image:Ohrid_lake%2C_Macedonia.jpg
 * http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Image:Gostivar.jpg
 * 1) Categories in Wikimedia
 * 2) Converting video and audio files- to ogg
 * 3) Codecs

Videos
I copied and pasted the information before uploading the post on my blog. Obviously, blogs and wikiversity don't work the same way. I changed all the  symbols into brackets [including http://.....].

There are several possibilities to make videos :

This video was made with a web cam. It's published on blip tvbecause it supports Creative Commons licenses.  It's not possible to include http://www.youtube.com/videos, without converting them for wikiversity/ wikimedia. However, as Hans's video uploaded on Lemill shows, these videos may be used for creating free educational resources. The you tube video with the American President is a model how to put smaller clips together. Power Point Presentations can be uploaded at http://www.slideshare.net/. This site supports Creative Commons licenses. PP Presentations can either be added as links  to websites, blogs and wikis or embeded. The google docs presentations are for collaborative work on presentations. However, WINK seems more proffesional, or something that I can't make yet. I installed the wink software. I read the tutorial and made the first small steps. Here is what it should do..www.Dotsub.com, is a web tool which supports Creative Commons licences and subtitles in all languages. When uploading avideo, the video uploader and producer decides who will have rights to caption and/ or translate it.li>I translated this video in Macedonian language.

I will probably upload a video, on this web site, although the Conversation Week, 2008 is over now. Upps...I have to check the CC licence for translation...

Wikimedia videos
These are audio or video files selected for display on the Main Page as the Media of the day. Publishing them on this page allows users to translate the captions into other languages.Media of the Day provides one freely-licensed audio or video file each day.

The current Media of the day can be included on a page using the templateThe audio or video file can be accessed using[[Media:]]The caption can be accessed using

Wikimedia Commons uses Ogg Vorbis files for sound files and Ogg Theora for video files. You can learn which software and which codecs you need to play media files.

Requirements: First you need playback software. By default you can use the Windows Media Player, but you need extra codecs (see below). Alternatively you can use the free VLC media player or MPlayer. They can play Ogg as installed.

Downloading required Codecs Now you have to download a necessary extension (Codec), so that your media player will be able to play sound and video files with the Ogg Vorbis file type (sound files) and with the Ogg Theora file type (video files).

Load the website http://www.illiminable.com/ogg/downloads.html#stable and click the link on the right hand side Download Now. The file size is 800 kB. After you downloaded it to your hard disk, open the file and follow the installation guide.

Making links
Hypertext

Internal links are links only to pages in Wikiversity. To make an internal link to another page in Wikiversity use the wiki markup, and paste the title of the wikiversity page inside it.

Both examples of internal links are existing Wikiversity pages.
 * Example 1:Making links
 * Example 2:Main Page

External links are links to web pages and sites outside of Wikiversity. To make an external link to another web site use the wiki markup [], and paste the URL inside it.

 * Example 1: http://anicape.blogspot.com
 * Example 2: Here is the URL address:
 * Example 3: This is Hypertext that leads to Wikipedia

Recommendation: Quote citations from relevant resources while writing article. Include additional section called external links, or see also, at the end of the page.

Tip: If you want the external link to look like an internal link insert the double brackets wiki markup, and |. Include "w:Main Page|Wikipedia website". The text on the right side of the pipe will show as hypertext.
 * Example: Wikipedia website

Discussion: How to make an external link that looks like an internal link?

title: User:Anicap


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User talk:Anicap

Welcome
Hello Anicap, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  21:43, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Hello Anica, how is it going so far ? You seem to have experience with wikis already ? Did you find something interesting already ? Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  21:33, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Embedding video

 * Delighted to have you here Anicap! Yes, embedding video from youtube isn't possible, but if you have the video file itself, you could upload it to Commons (it will need to be in a free format - Ogg Theora - see Commons' help page on doing this). More later... :-) Cormaggio talk 16:31, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

Uploaded pictures
Hello again, you just uploaded 2 pictures: Image:Origami1.jpg (without licence) + Image:Hands on activities.jpg (with licence). Both seem to be the same, if you want one of these to be deleted, you could add this to the page:. This helps us to find them later on faster. Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  08:23, 15 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your help. It is deleted, Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  08:49, 15 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Thank you Erkan. This was fast. I tried to delete it myself, but didn't know how. Anicap 09:06, 15 March 2008 (UTC).
 * We can be even faster :-) Delete function is atm only available to custodians. Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  09:25, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

book club discussion ?
about this: yes, it is part of the reading groups - you can see old chat logs here, Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  18:11, 16 March 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Anicap


text:
User talk:Zeptomoon

Welcome
Hello Zeptomoon, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may
 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit;
 * Explore our learning projects;
 * Browse our portals, schools, and research activities;
 * Read and help develop our community policies；or
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold, and see you around Wikiversity! Erkan Yilmaz Wikiversity:Chat  21:43, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zeptomoon


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User:Dark Sunshine~enwikiversity

Welcome to the page of Dark Sunshine

This is an Introduction to Philosophy course designed by the students of Mesa State College. It is constructed from a historical/topical view point. Please click the above link to access our project.

Thanks and remember to have fun!

According to Cicero (Tusculan Disputations V, III, 8), when Pythagoras was once asked who philosophers were, he replied that life seemed to him to resemble the games in the Olympic festival: some men sought glory, others to buy and sell at the games, and some men had come neither for gain nor applause, but for the sake of the spectacle and to understand what was done and how it was done. In the same way, in life, some are slaves of ambition or money, but others are interested in understanding life itself. These give themselves the name of philosophers (lovers of wisdom), and they value the contemplation and discovery of nature beyond all other pursuits.

News [edit] Divisions Added [edit]November 23, 2006: Continental Philosophy. See Philosophy message board. February 21, 2007: Ethics.

Divisions and Departments [edit]Divisions and Departments of the School exist on pages in "topic" namespace. Start the name of departments with the "Topic:" prefix; departments reside in the Topic: namespace. Departments and divisions link to learning materials and learning projects. Divisions can link subdivisions or to departments. For more information on schools, divisions and departments look at the Naming Conventions. Note: there are additional philosophy pages that need to be imported from Wikibooks.

Introduction to Philosophy - convert to a "Topic:" page? Undergraduate Student Philosophy Journals Initial Questions Analytic Philosophy Logic Epistemology Philosophy of Science Philosophy of Language Philosophy of Mind Cognition Philosophy of Religion Philosophy of Art Metaphilosophy Metaphysics Ethics Meta-Ethics Normative Ethics Ethical Theory Applied Ethics Environmental Ethics Bioethics Business Ethics Moral and Political Philosophy Moral Psychology Philosophy of Mathematics The History of Western Philosophy Ancient Greek Philosophy Eastern Philosophy African Philosophy Ethiopian Philosophy Modern African Philosophy Continental Philosophy Hegel Nietzsche - "I regard profound problems as I do a cold bath - quick in, quick out." Psychoanalysis Phenomenology Existentialism Marxism and Marxist Philosophy Critical Theory Structuralism Post-structuralism French feminism

Active participants [edit]The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this school, you can list your name here (this can help small schools grow and the participants communicate better; for large schools it is not needed).

emc executivezen bobbydigits scribe Jaime Richmac Steven Wang comrade_flash Juan Maiz Kylie Pedmands | talk Beautifulmisfit Mystictim Keops Alex beta Loop Claudia liftyrfists CmdrRamon | talk Markc 10:56, 16 February 2007 (UTC) Nannus Dionysios spitfireatme johnkecops Laleena Anderswohin 16.08.07 jjlearner Chocoman xTHExONEx1 Girisha --Adrift 20:49, 2 February 2008 (UTC)

Where to start [edit] The choice here is greatIf you're new to philosophy, or just new to Wikiversity's School of Philosophy, this place may seem like a bit of a tangle. That's okay! Most of our editors are students or past students, who are also beginning their journey in the philosophical conversation. This doesn't mean what they have written is rubbish, but that it will be about the same technicality as what you would want. (Bonus)

The best place to start is by asking yourself why you came here...

Current Philosophy Students If you are a current student, looking for information on a philosophy or a philosopher then have a browse. If we don't have what you are looking for, then please tell us. We're naturally all volunteers, but there's more chance of finding what you're searching for if you talk about it.

Brand New If you are brand new to philosophy, then take it slow and easy! Political philosophy is probably what you've encountered in your own life, so that's always a nice start. Logic will help you understand arguments, and will give you new tools to evaluate them.

Academia If you are an academic, then we welcome you to edit, add and evolve the site. Your knowledge and expertise will add greatly to the integrity and morale of the School, as well as adding confidence to end users. It's also quite fun.

To All The most important thing, is that if you have some information you can share - then share it! We welcome all contributions.

Reading list [edit]General

Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology, by Edmund Husserl Being and Time, by Martin Heidegger Philosophical analysis in the 20th century, volumes I and II by Scott Soames. Sophie's World, by Jostein Gaarder The Gospel According to Larry, by Janet Tashjian Are You a Machine, by Eliezer Sternberg Concept of Mind, by Gilbert Ryle Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, by David Hume Five Dialogues - Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Phaedo, by Plato An Introduction to Metaphysics, Henri Bergson Symposium, Plato Republic, Plato De Anima, Aristotle Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, George Berkeley On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life, Friedrich Nietzsche Meditations on First Philosophy, Rene Descartes Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Ludwig Wittgenstein An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume Freedom Evolves, Daniel Dennett Skeptical Essays, Bertrand Russell Being and Nothingness, Jean-Paul Sartre Philosophy: Who needs it, Ayn Rand The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell A History of Philosophy, Copleston, Frederick, (1946-1975). Great Britain: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-6948-5. The Problems of Philosophy, Betrand Russell

Projects: [edit]What is The Question?

Departmental Message Board [edit]Philosophy Department message board Who is who in the Philosophy Department

Library [edit]The Library This is the gateway for information about the courses and philosophy in general. We hope that its size and scope will increase dramatically as participation in the School increases. We welcome input from all philosophies and philosophers.

Kant's Categorical Imperative Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Philosophy"

The Philosophical Method

"Those who are eager to learn because they wonder at things are lovers of wisdom." - Alexander of Aphrodisias

1. Doubting and Questioning

Philosophy begins with wonder, but goes further than that. It is an attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions in life. Socrates is famous for his Skeptisicm. He would approach popular people who were considered wise, and ask them to justify their beliefs. They would provide him with various attempts at justification, but Socrates would not accept their words without further probing for reasonable justification. In Metaphysics, Aristotle described how wonder fit into the philosophical method: “For it is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize; they wondered originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little and stated difficulties about the greater matters, e.g. about the phenomena of the moon and those of the sun and of the stars, and about the genesis of the universe” (Metaphysics, Book I). Philosophers clarify their questions and claims to remove ambiguity. As part of the great conversation of philosophy, a question must be understood in terms people can agree on. To pose a proper philosophical question, one must be able to make distinctions between conceptual questions and those that can be answered with empirical evidence.

"Somehow it fills my head with ideas, only I don't know exactly what they are." - Alice in Wonderland

2. Reading Philosophy

In order to participate in the great conversation of philosophy, and to apply the philosophical method in a meaningful way, one must become familiar with the conversation. Reading philosophy is often a challenge, but it has the intrinsicly motivating factor of revealing thoughts on things that matter. In approaching primary sources in philosophy, a method can help one to extract meaning from the words: Read and re-read the material. Analyze the works, separating them by their distinguishing features and essential elements. Criticize the works, applying reason to your evaluation of the authors' arguments.

3. Argument

Argument is essential to philosophical inquiry. Logic is the study of correct argumentation. Aristotle is generally credited as being the first to formalize logic. He devised ways to analyze and evaluate arguments. His main work was in what is called syllogistic logic, in which the primary constituents of arguments are terms, which are judged to be better or worse depending on the way in which they are arranged. His works On Sophistical Refutations and Prior Analytics address this.

4. Definition

The method of definition involves seeking out the meanings of words, and figuring out how meanings can be identified. Socrates and Plato brought a new method into philosophy with a search for definitions. By seeking to clarify the meaning behind grand words like "holy" and "just" (in Plato's Euthyphro and Republic, respectively,) they introduced a new way of investigating the fundamental questions in life.

title: User:Dark Sunshine~enwikiversity


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User:Laleena~enwikiversity/US History

2008 and Beyond

Kosovo
The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence is an act of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government Assembly of Kosovo, adopted on 17 February 2008, which declared Kosovo to be independent from Serbia. It was the second declaration of independence by Kosovo's Albanian-dominated political institutions, the first having been proclaimed on 7 September 1990. Unlike the post-“Anti-bureaucratic revolution” 1990 Kosovo declaration of independence, which only Albania recognised, Kosovo's second declaration of independence is expected to be supported by some foreign states including most European Union member states and Japan. The United States formally recognized Kosovo's independence on 18 February 2008 in a written statement by US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. In response, Serbia withdrew its ambassador, and threatened to do so to any other nation who recognized Kosovo.

Casto Retires
In a letter dated February 18, 2008, Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of president and commander in chief at the February 24, 2008 National Assembly meetings, saying "I will not aspire nor accept - I repeat I will not aspire or accept - the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief," effectively announcing his retirement from official public life. The letter was published online by the official Communist Party Paper Granma. In it, Castro stated that his health was a primary reason for his decision, stating that "It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion, that I am not in a physical condition to offer".

STS-122
STS-122 is the current NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It is being flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. STS-122 marks the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS, and the 121st space shuttle flight since STS-1.

The primary objective of STS-122 is to deliver the European Columbus science laboratory, built by the European Space Agency (ESA), to the station. It will also return Expedition 16 Flight Engineer Daniel M. Tani to Earth. Tani will be replaced on Expedition 16 by Léopold Eyharts, a French Flight Engineer representing ESA. After Atlantis lands, the orbiter will be prepared for STS-125, the final servicing mission for the Hubble Space Telescope. The completion of STS-122 will leave ten flights remaining in the Space Shuttle program until its end in 2010, excluding two as-yet-unconfirmed Contingency Logistic Flights.

Benazir Bhutto
Benazir Bhutto was assassinated on 27 December 2007 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Benazir Bhutto, twice Prime Minister of Pakistan (1988–1990; 1993–1996) and then-leader of the opposition Pakistan Peoples Party, was assassinated while she was campaigning ahead of elections due in January 2008. She was shot at after a political rally at Liaquat National Bagh; a suicide bomb was detonated immediately following the shooting. She was declared dead at 18:16 local time (13:16 UTC), at Rawalpindi General Hospital. At least 24 other people were confirmed dead in the aftermath. Shortly after her return from exile two months earlier, she survived a similar attempt on her life that killed over 136 people.

title: User:Laleena~enwikiversity/US History


text:
User:Mr.adam2008

Yello! My name is Adam and i love to learn new things (that's kind of why i'm here lol) I'm currently enrolled in a spanish class and would liek to further expand upon my knowledge to increase my accuracy and fluency in the language. You can hit me up at mr.adam2008@gmail.com

title: User:Mr.adam2008