text:
User:Stephmartin

Week 1: Introduction
The concept of motivation has developed around two questions

 * 1. What causes behaviour

 * 2. Why does it vary

I had never thought about motivation in such intricate terms as those that were presented in lecture 1 and the text book. Motivation has both intrinsic and extrinsic forces that shape the amount exerted.

The concept of ‘will’ is quiet interesting also. It shows how greatly the theories of motivation have progressed. Will is a grand theory that stated that motivation found its basis in two camps

 * 1. Good, Rational, Immaterial, and active

 * 2. Primitive, Biological and reactive

Theories of motivation have now progressed to incorporate various physiological explanations, behavioural expression and theories that look at different aspects and expressions of motivation. The grand theories were eventually found to be of little help as they raised more questions then they answered. I find it interesting that a lot of original theories are found to be dead ends, however, they insight others into finding out the answers that uncover our psychological functions.

Week 2: Assessment Tasks and Skills
This lecture allowed us to look deeper into the concept that is motivation. Motivation can be thought of as

 * 1. Processes that give behaviour energy and direction

 * 2. Needs or desires that energise and direct behaviour

The difference between the motivated and emotional brain struck me as quiet interesting. A motivated brain asks the question ‘Do I want to do this’ and an emotional brain asks ‘What is my mood whilst doing this’. It seems that motivation and emotion are quiet closely linked and that one can influence the other. For example if student is in a motivated frame of mind to complete an assignment and then finds a component to difficult to complete. The emotion of frustration or helplessness may then alter their motivational state.

This lecture also explored in depth the physiological and biological aspects of motivation and the different brain centres that stimulate different emotions and motivations. This is interesting as tables and diagrams showed parts of the brain that activate pleasure and different emotional tendencies. This demonstrates how far things have come since the modest beginnings of theories that aimed to explain motivation and emotion. Theories and biological aspects have been refined to pin point exactly what triggers cause motivational states and emotions.

Week 3: Brain and Physiological Needs
Neurotransmitters were an aspect of this lecture that I have really found interesting. The 4 motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways are:

 * 1. Dopamine = Generates good feelings associated with reward

 * 2. Serotonin = influences mood and emotion

 * 3. Norepinephrine = regulates arousal and alertness

 * 4. Endorphin = Inhibits pain, anxiety and fear by generating good feelings to counter negative feelings

Needs were also explored. Needs are any condition within an organism that is essential and necessary for life, growth, and well-being. Needs are described as the way we know if we need to act to ensure the physiological well being. When needs are satisfied and nurtured well being flourishes. When needs are neglected or wanting they may damage you biologically or psychologically. Maslow theorised that needs could be organised into a hierarchy of those that are essential to satisfy and those that are less important. Needs have also been established and explained in regards to sex, thirst and hunger. Upon reading into these it is interesting to see how we are individually influenced by motivations and emotions that we are not even aware of and how they can be separated into processes

Week 3: Tutorial 1- Introduction
Today was the first tutorial for the Psychology subject Motivation and Emotion. This tutorial was quite interesting as I discovered more about what was to come in motivation and emotion. one of the more fascinating discoveries I found was when James outlined that all of our assessable items were to be completed on a website called ‘Wikiversity’ which I was not familiar with nor had ever used before, so it is going to be a unique experience.

To begin the tutorial we all engaged in a variety of Ice Breaker activities, which were useful for getting to know other students in the class. A range of different topics were covered during these activities from which we needed to answer yes or no or place ourselves into different categories. Once we had been through these activities James instructed us to form small groups of 4-5 people.

Our first task in our groups was to come up with a individual meaning of motivation. This proved to be a difficult task as I hadn’t really thought of it before. My meaning was: “the psychological force which compels individuals to complete tasks. After this we created a group meaning for motivation. The overall process for this was intriguing as it created a lot of discussion around what motivation actually was.

We then completed the exact same task for emotion within our small groups. Again this created lots of interesting discussion and different people’s ideals of what emotion is. Personally I found emotion to define as emotions are so broad and can be created in many different ways and scenarios.

After we had defined motivation and emotion respectively we started to talk about our assessment in our small groups. I was a little unclear of my topic though upon talking to James \during this tutorial I chose Adolescent emotions for my textbook chapter. During discussions held in my group i came up with a few broad questions and areas I wished to explore during my chapter which are as follows:

 * What is emotion?

 * How do we define adolescence?

 * How do adolescents react to different emotions?

Week 4: Psychological and Social Needs
This week’s lecture is on psychological needs. Self determination theory states that:
 * 1. Individuals are inherently active

 * 2. Person-environment dialectic

Person-environment dialectic states that there is a two way relationship between individuals and the environment and that one influences the other. This concept is one that seems to make a lot of sense even before you further examine the theory. I find that I am very much influences by my environment and that I have learnt to alter my environment in order to achieve set goals.

Self determination theory has 3 components that were examined in regards to controls and benefits. They include:

 * 1. Autonomy – influences self direction and endorsement of an individual’s behaviour

 * 2. Competence – The need to be effective in ones environment

 * 3. Relatedness – The need to be socially and emotionally connected to others

When looking at these three aspects I find that for me the most important is the concept of relatedness. Psychologically it allows support, emotional attachments and relationship exchanges.

Week 5: I-E Motivation and Goal Setting
This week’s lecture was on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and goal setting. This week split the types of motivation and further refined our understanding.

Intrinsic motivation flows on from psychological needs satisfaction and incorporates autonomy, competence and relatedness. The greater a person’s intrinsic motivation the more determination they have on a task. Intrinsic motivation also influences creativity, learning in the form of flexible thinking, and optimal wellbeing.

Extrinsic motivation is an environmental reason to engage in something such as an incentive. This form of motivation can be refined into consequences, incentives and rewards.

I found the concept of rewards particularly interesting. It is obvious that both intrinsic and extrinsic have their place in motivation but it is interesting that one form can be undermined by another. Rewards are a subcomponent of extrinsic motivation that is aimed at establishing compliance. We are told that in learning reinforcement can establish a desired behavioural pattern and that rewards are items that can be utilised. This lecture states that although the intention of rewards is to develop compliance a secondary effect is that it can undermine intrinsic motivation and self regulation.

Week 5:Tutorial 2- Needs
During this week’s tutorial we spent some time talking about our textbook chapters. This was a very useful process as I got to share a brief plan with my group and gain some useful feedback to further shape the direction of my textbook chapter. I am now begging to feel more confident in my ability to create a useful and effective textbook chapter on adolescent emotion.

For the remainder of this tutorial we were able to move on to the week’s topic of needs. This was again structured in our small group setting form the previous weeks tutorial with which our first task was to define what needs are. This was a very broad definition as our group had a few interlinking ideas, though we also had a few ideas that were completely opposite to each other. Upon completing this task we focussed on Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, which in itself was a very useful and thought related task. It was amazing to see just how closely these needs relate to our will to survive, live and have items of pleasure around us on a day to day setting.

The group’s discussions about this topic was very thought provoking as I found myself thinking of the needs that I am able to fill on a daily basis and those in which are being neglected. Whilst thinking deeply about my needs I discovered that I am constantly fulfilling my basic survival needs as well as love and belonging, though my social need is sometimes lacking. This was very interesting in itself as I then discovered that it is relatable to each individual in their everyday lives. Going further into this and thinking about it in relation to motivation and emotion I thought that it may be a worthwhile topic to explore for use in my textbook chapter.

Week 6: Personal Control and The Self
This week’s lecture is on personal control and the self.

The idea that individuals wish to control their environment is one that I completely agree with. In this lecture the example was used of the motivation of exercise. People exercise as they believe that by exerting this type of motivation they can favourably alter the results. I believe this may also have an impact on why some people continue to exercise and why others tend to become interested initially and then stop. Motivation when a goal is first established is generally high and good intentions are present. Some individuals can lose sight of a goal if results are not seen. People who cannot view the fruits of their labour within certain expected time fames may view the effort they expel as not worth the gains that they get back. This expectation of what will occur can severely affect behaviour.

Learned helplessness was another concept that aroused my interest as it overlaps with a learning subject I am taking. Learned helplessness is a psychological state that arises when an individual believes that they are unable to control or alter outcomes. This is a theory that has had various experiments conducted. The early experiments all encompassed the same ideal. Dogs were subjected to electric shocks while placed in different groups. The dogs were paired and the one in the control group could not do anything to stop the shock being administered, the shock would only stop when its conditioned partner learned how to activate the cessation device. As harsh as these early experiments sound they yielded quiet interesting results. When the cessation device was altered the dogs that originally learned the previous trick quickly adapted to the new condition. Those that were in the group that could not turn the shock off did not adapt at all. Instead they exerted no effort to stop their discomfort and waited for the shock to stop.

Week 7: Tutorial 3- Self & Goals
In the tutorial this week we discussed the topic of the motivation that surrounds students attending university. For me personally I found this topic to be of high interest as I have been at university for five year, as I switched degrees in 2009 into a degree which I had to start from scratch. Reasons for attending university can be either intrinsically motivated (internal forces) or extrinsically motivated (environmental factors). As a whole class group our discussions were based on the following reasons why people attend university:

 * Careers and qualifications; People complete university simply to get a better job or for the fact that they will have a degree.

 * Self-Exploration/ Learning: People go to university to learn about a certain subject that has personal interest to them.

 * Social Opportunities: People go to university simply for the social aspects, to meet new friends and form new relationships.

 * Altruism: People attend university to further develop themselves as people as well as wanting to ‘save the world’.

 * Social pressure: People attend university due to the pressures placed upon them by friends, family and society.

 * Rejection of alternatives: People attend university as they believe it is a better alternative than doing nothing or working..

The reasons why we attend university are very interesting and in some way you are able to place a part of yourself into each category. I believe that I would fall into most categories in some way though I am mainly focussed on altruism and career and qualifications as I already work full time whilst studying. After this discussion our focus then turned to more individual one as we took part in a Learned optimism test (Seligman 1991). Once i completed this test I had confirmed my suspicions and found that I was intrinsically motivated to complete university, which was a satisfying realisation.

Week 10: Aspects of Emotion
This week’s lecture was on aspects of emotion.

 * What is emotion?

 * What causes emotion?

 * How many types of emotion are there?

 * What are good emotions?

 * What is the difference between emotion and mood?

These questions I find quiet amusing. Not because I think that they are not worth asking but because people are so sure of what emotion and mood are. When you ask them to explain emotion and then the difference in mod they struggle. Their confident air is somewhat gone as they try to incorporate a range of different items into their definition and then ask the question ‘What do you think?’.

Emotion is made up of subjective, biological, purposive and social phenomena. I think that this type of explanation encompasses most aspects that can set off an emotional reaction. Emotions can be very subjective to environment or circumstance and they can also be to a biological change in hormones. Social situations are also a factor and you can often see examples of this in collective grieving after particularly bad event. Emotions also tend to be more specifically defined and short lived where as moods tend to be extending for greater periods of time and their parameters are somewhat ill defined.

Week 10: Tutorial 4- Emotion
Before entering this tutorial I was a little curious as to what aspects of emotion we would be exploring, as I do not widely talk about emotions. It is my personal belief that upon looking at a person’s facial expressions, it becomes obvious what emotion that they are feeling at that time due to the surroundings they are in (for example you see a child crying in the shopping centre, this could be due to them not being able to have what they wanted). As a result of this I found the emotional Q-sort activity very interesting.

This activity outlined many emotions that I previously had not thought of as emotions. The process was carried out in reference to the six emotions as outlined in Reeve (2009) which were: joy, sadness, interest, fear, anger and disgust. Whilst completing this activity our group found that a lot of the definitions seemed to fall under more than one category. As result of this we placed definitions that fell into more than one category in their own subsection.

After this activity we then focussed on and engaged in a PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule). This was a very interesting text as it showed similarities to other personality tests that I have previously been involved with. Once completed I found it quiet interesting how positive and negative emotions can be interpreted by humans and other species. James then went through a short session on how to use images in Wikiversity and the overall layout of Wikiversity. This has helped me understand a bit more about Wikiversity and will hopefully come in handy for my textbook chapter.

Week 11: Personality, Motivation & Emotion
This week’s lecture was on Personality, Motivation and emotion

The personality type of introverts and extraverts has always interested me. I am from a family of extraverts and when together we can be quiet an overwhelming bunch. Extraverts are described as being sociable with a preference for enjoyment and social situations. They are also thought of to be assertive and socially dominant. Finally they have a tendency to seek out enjoyable situations. It has been suggested that introverts are happier then introverts as they can express the emotion of happiness with ease.

When you consider this definition it makes a lot of sense. If a person is more willing to seek out situations where fun occurs then they are more likely to be exposed to situations that cause happiness. I find it particularly interesting that 2 people in the same situation can have 2 completely different emotional reactions.

Week 12: Unconscious Motivation
This week’s lecture was on unconscious motivation.

The unconscious is something that arises throughout each psychology course and one that is always interesting. Freud’s explanation of the unconscious is perhaps the most interesting, as for me were most of his theories. Freud theorised that dreams were an outlet for the tensions that individuals encountered in their day to day lives. Dreams were a way in which an individual can access their unconscious core and explore their wishes. Dreams were thought to be a challenge to the ego so they instead of being expressed in an obvious way they were expressed as latent and symbolic.

Freud further theorised that individuals have a personality structure consisting of an ID, ego and superego. The motivations of the ID are located in the unconscious and are impulsive and pleasure orientation. The motivations of the ego are partly located in both conscious and unconscious but are surrounded by the ideal of delayed gratification and self preservation. It is these 2 personality structures that are in a struggle to express and remember information and desires.

Week 12: Tutorial 5- Personality
This tutorial was one of the most important and useful tutorials to me as James devoted a large quantity of time to helping us gain better insight into our textbook chapter and also ran through how to submit the textbook chapter with us. In my personal opinion using Wikiversity has been very difficult as I am very confident in Microsoft Word, yet these features are not shown in Wikiversity. Although in saying this I feel that my abilities to use an unfamiliar word processing tool have increased and I am slowly becoming more confident. I would like to gain further insight into how to use Wikiversity as I believe it could be a very useful tool not only for my current assessment items but also for the future. We also looked briefly at the multimedia assessment briefly, which was led mainly by James.

Once this discussion had finished we turned lour focus to some other interesting activities. We went through and completed a personality test which was focussed on the big five personality traits. And we finished the tutorial by looking at the four main factors of the sensation seeking scale (Zuckerman 1971):

 * Thrill and adventure seeking: the desire to engage in sport or other activities which involve physical danger such as scuba diving or bungee jumping.

 * Experience seeking: the desire to seek new found experiences in a nonconforming lifestyle with unconventional friends.

 * Disinhibition: the need to disinhibit behaviour in a social setting by engaging in activities such as drinking and partying.

 * Boredom and susceptibility: the aversion of participating in repetitive activities such as work.

This activity was very eye opening as I was able to try and select the characteristics that I show in activities that I ensue daily.

Week 13: Growth Psychology
This week’s lecture is on growth motivation and positive psychology

The problem of evil was the most interesting concept in this week’s lecture. I think that the statement that ‘People are inherently good’ is completely incorrect. People in this world, old and young, do terrible things to others. Nature vs nurture or any other argument cannot account for the things that some people do. I believe that people are good as that is what society has come to expect. We are bound be laws, norms and expectations and as such we exhibit expected behaviours. This is one perspective that is presented by the humanistic approach. That malevolency is something that people are born with and that due to our evolution we now see primitive acts of violence as evil.

Chapter 15 states how individuals descend into a malevolent personality and consists of situations in which a child is subjected into situations that are not ideal. I feel like this humanistic perspective ignores those people that commit acts of malevolence that have grown up in loving families or that do so at a young age. I believe that in a lot of cases acts that are defined as evil and the motivations behind it are environmentally and circumstantially driven, but there are some individuals that are just inherently evil or are just unable to conform to social norms.

Week 14: Summary and Conclusion
Emotion and motivation was a particularly interesting subject. I really enjoyed the content and seeing how both motivation and emotion can be broken down into different theories and components.

Week 14: Tutorial 6- Growth Psychology
This week’s tutorial saw the conclusion for classes in motivation and emotion. During this final tutorial the group discussed the differences between positive and humanistic psychology. This brought about many different personal opinions from the group. We also discussed the issue of raising a child with a socially unacceptable temperament. In my personal opinion the child needs to take responsibility for his or her own behaviour and taught some respect for their parents and others around them. We then moved on and focussed on a checklist for self-actualisation characteristics according to Maslow. The topics that we covered in this discussion were:

Priority of Values such ads truth, love and happiness.

 * Acceptance of self, of others, of nature: Accepting the fact that things are the way they are, whether it is good or bad.

 * Identification with human species: Indentifying with not only your own culture, family and friends abut also with all of humanity.

 * Emphasis on higher level values: self-actualisation where people tend to forget about the smaller matter and focus on higher values in life.

 * Perception of reality-greater perceptual accuracy of reality: The ability to relate to others on a deeper level and perceive the truth.

 * Discrimination between means and ends, between good and evil: Seeing the bigger picture of life.

 * Resolution of dichotomies (Conflicts): Become disconcerted with small matters, therefore not retaliating to immediate surroundings.

Internally controlled

 * Autonomy and resistance to enculturation: Being in control of one’s own life to a certain extent.

 * Detachment and desire for privacy: Ability to enjoy yourself in a comfortable manner.

 * Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness: Focused upon values and habits in daily routines.

High involvement, productivity and happiness

 * Problem-centering: Absorbed in present tasks they are completing.

 * Creativeness: often viewing life like a child, very relaxed.

 * Freshness of appreciation and richness of emotional reactions: Aware of emotional state and how they react to certain situations.

 * High frequency of peak experiences

High quality interpersonal relationships

 * (Intimate) Interpersonal relationships: Everyone wants to be friends with them, though they are very selective with who they surround themselves.

 * Democratic character structure: Persons general status in life is unimportant to them as they are focused on equality.

 * Philosophical unhostile sense of humour

This process led to deeper thoughts into my own life and how I live. Overall this subject has been very interesting and live developing.

title: User:Stephmartin


text:
User:Haddo

About me
I am currently completing my second degree, which is a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I have preiously completed a Bachelor of Education in Primary teaching with a major in Physcial Education.

Week 1: Introduction
The two main questions that have been asked in relation to motivation are:

 * 1. What causes behaviour

 * 2. Why does it vary

The study of motivation concerns those processes that give behaviour its energy and direction. Energy implies that behaviour has strength and direction implies that it has purpose.

This lecture also defined the following:
 * Needs = conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and for nurturance of growth and well being
 * Cognition = mental events such as thoughts, beliefs and expectations
 * Emotions = Short lived subjective-physiological-functional-expressive phenomena that orchestrate how we react adaptively to the important events in our lives

This lecture introduced us to terms and basics of motivation. From the content that is listed I think the overall course will give an in depth and segregated overview of what causes emotion and motivation and what each encompasses.

Week 2: Assessment Tasks and Skills
Motivation is viewed as being the process by which we exert energy and the direction it takes as well as the needs and desires that energise behaviour.

The functioning of chemicals and transmitters in this lecture gave a greater insight into the inner workings of our bodies and how our motivation and emotion are affected. Dopamine is released which in turn causes positive emotion and results in enhanced functioning.

There are also 3 are integral to motivation and emotion:

 * 1. Cortisol = aka the stress hormone and is associated with societal evaluation threats

 * 2. Testosterone = steroid hormone and is associated with high sexual motivation

 * 3. Oxytocin = the bonding hormone that helps explain why people seek council and confide in friends

For me this will be one of the most interesting components of the course as my belief for why people exert emotions and motivations are very much entrenched in the biological workings of the body.

Week 3: Brain and Physiological Needs
A need is any condition within a person that is essential and necessary for life, growth and well being. Motivational states provide a way to act before damage occurs to psychological and bodily wellbeing.

It is theorising that a needs structure consists of the following:

 * 1. Physiological need = which are inherent within the workings of biological systems eg sex or thirst

 * 2. Psychological need = which are inherent within the strivings of human nature and healthy development eg autonomy and relatedness

 * 3. Social needs = which are internalized or learned from our emotional and socialization histories eg power and intimacy

All needs generate energy. If needs are satisfied optimal well being occurs. If needs are not being satisfied then they become frustrated and destructive to well being.

This lecture set out process by which each need can be encountered. It was intriguing to see that individuals have gone so far as to set out a process by which we encounter thirst. The section that discussed self regulation and what can occur if it fails was an aspect of the lecture I agreed with. When people are not experiencing a motivational force they can underestimate its power. Additionally people that have unrealistic goals will fail with self regulation as they cannot see the fruits of their work and therefore view the task of self regulation as without reward. The final reason why people fail at self regulation is being overwhelmed, distracted or intoxicated. When concentration lapses it is easy to become lax on goals.

Week 3: Tutorial 1- Introduction
Today we had our first tutorial for Motivation and Emotion. This was a very informative tutorial as we gained insight into many different aspects of the motivation and emotion unit. I found it particularly interesting that we needed to use Wikiversity for all of our assessment items.

To start off the tutorial the class took part in a range of Ice Breaker activities, which were very useful to get to know other students in the class. These activities involved a variety of different topics in which we had to answer certain questions or place ourselves into certain categories. Activities such as these can prove to be very useful to get to know others whilst having a laugh and fun during the learning process. Upon completion of these activities we formed small groups to go into further discussion that would take place during the rest of the tutorial.

Firstly, we individually came up with our own definition for motivation; mine was “an internal force that drives us to complete tasks”. Once we created our individual meaning we then came up with a group meaning for motivation. This was a very interesting process as there were many different viewpoints as to what motivation was. This created a lot of interesting and worthwhile discussion.

In our small groups, we then followed the same process for emotion. This again brought about lots of interesting discussion and different viewpoints from individual people. Although in saying this emotion was much harder to define as many people believe and describe emotion as how an individual is feeling.

Upon completion of these activities we moved on to discussing our textbook chapters and our likely topics. At this stage I was still a little unsure of my exact topic though I knew it was going to be based around exercise. From this I found that a topic available to us was ‘exercise motivation’. Once I discovered this I was able to come up with a few questions for my textbook chapter, which were:

 * What is exercise?

 * What is motivation?

 * How can we be motivated to exercise?

 * What motivated us to exercise?

 * How can individuals become more motivated to exercise?

 * What are the main theories behind motivation and exercise?

Week 4: Psychological and Social Needs
This week’s lecture is on psychological needs.

Self determination theory encompasses:

 * 1. Individuals are inherently active

 * 2. Person-environment dialectic

Individuals are inherently active refers to the ideal that individuals have goals, curiosities and different forms of motivation and person-environmental dialectic refers to the idea that the relationship between individuals and their environment is a two way interaction.

Self determination theory has 3 components. They include:

 * 1. Autonomy – Which influences self direction and endorsement of an individual’s behaviour
 * 2. Competence – The need to be active in ones environment
 * 3. Relatedness – The need to be socially and emotionally connected to others

These aspects all work in conjunction with each other and each covers important ground. To fulfil psychological needs you cannot look at one part of a functioning mechanism and single it out as the most important. To be fulfilled you do need to look at self, others and environment.

Week 5: I-E Motivation and Goal Setting
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation further defines the influences on motivation and individuals outputs.

Intrinsic motivation finds its basis in psychological needs satisfaction uses the concepts of incorporates autonomy, competence and relatedness. It is thought that intrinsic motivation can have an influence on creative mind frames and learning.

Extrinsic motivation is an environmental reason to engage in something such as an incentive. This form of motivation is examined in terms of consequences, rewards and incentives that an individual may encounter whilst trying to reach a goal.

For me extrinsic motivation is by far the stronger motivator. When I set a task I like to be able to view my progress and possibly reinforce my behaviour schedule with a small reward. I can see why extrinsic motivation may at times undermine intrinsic motivation and I can also see why at time extrinsic motivation can act as a way to reinforce behaviour that is desired. As a school teacher I use extrinsic motivators to achieve optimal results from my students by way of sport time or extra play.

Week 5:Tutorial 2- Needs
During the tutorial this week we spent a large amount of time discussing our textbook chapters. This was a very useful part of the tutorial as it gave me a chance to gauge other people’s opinions on the direction of my textbook chapter. From this I was able to amend the direction I was taking for my textbook chapter and gain a further insight and image of how I am going to structure my work.

During the rest of the tutorial we were able to discuss needs. We continued to do this in our small groups within which our first task was to create a definition for the question, what are needs? Once we came up with this group definition we looked at Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, this was very interesting as it explained what needs had to be met to lead a fulfilling lifestyle. From this it was very interesting to discover that our physiological needs seem to be directly related with our basic survival needs.

Our discussions about needs were very interesting as you start to think are my own needs being met? From this I had a brief think and discovered that I am very confident that my needs of love and belonging are being met, along with my basic survival needs. Therefore I discovered that these discussions around the various needs topics are very interesting and related to each individual on a day to day basis. This was also interesting as it related to my textbook chapter, which led me to think, what need is being met when we exercise?

Week 6: Personal Control and The Self
Self efficacy is the opposite of self doubt and indicates how well a person will deal in particular situations. This lecture also examined self which I always find particularly interesting. Self constructs are made up of 4 components:

 * 1. Self esteem = An individual’s feelings of self worth

 * 2. Self efficacy = An individual’s belief about how they can perform tasks

 * 3. Self confidence = An individual’s belief that they will be able to do things well

 * 4. Self concept = beliefs of self

The idea of a possible self was one of interest. The notion that an individual can experience motivation to move their present perception of self towards a bettered self can be viewed every single day. You see the people at the gym aiming to be the self they have in their mind. You see people at university studying to place them into a future that they want. These types of motivation push people every single day and are clearly visible. I also found it interesting that the possible self is motivated by social forces and that it is based on a self an individual models off others.

Week 7: Tutorial 3- Self & Goals
During this week’s tutorial we discussed the notion of motivation for students attending university. This was a very interesting topic for me personally as I am currently mid way through completing my second degree and I started to think about my motivation firstly for my first degree in Education and then secondly for my second degree in Psychology, in which I will disclose my findings shortly. These reasons can either be intrinsically motivated (driven internally) or extrinsically motivated (due to external/environmental factors). As a group we discussed the following reasons as to why people attend university:

 * Careers and qualifications; completing university for the degree or so the individual can get a better job.

 * Self-Exploration/ Learning: going to university for the learning factor, out of curiosity or for the knowledge-seeking.

 * Social Opportunities: people will attend university to meet new people, make and explore friendships and enjoy the social environment that is involved in the university lifestyle.

 * Altruism: individuals attend university to become better able to help the world, society, other people and the planet.

 * Social pressure: people attend university due to the expectations of family friends and the social pressures of life.

 * Rejection of alternatives: university is a better option than working or doing nothing at all.

All of these factors were very interesting and eye opening as I was forced to think about my motivators and reasons for coming back to university. From this I believe that I am driven by the careers and qualifications aspect as well as altruism. Once we looked at these aspects we then went on to complete a Learned Optimism test (Seligman 1991). From this I found that I was intrinsically motivated to attend university and satisfied thus far with my university experience.

Week 10: Aspects of Emotion
The primary questions that surround emotion are:

 * What is emotion?

 * What causes emotion?

 * How many types of emotion are there?

 * What are good emotions?

 * What is the difference between emotion and mood?

There seems to be no one set definition for emotion however it can be viewed as a way to regulate behaviour and encompasses biological, cognitive and social elements. Emotion and mood tend to vary in definition as emotion has its parameters specified and tends to last only a short period of time, whereas moods are ill defined and last for long periods of time.

Each emotion has its own unique facial expression, neural activity and feeling.

Izard classified 10 fundamental emotions which include:

 * Positive emotions = Interest and joy

 * Neutral emotions = surprise

 * Negative emotions =Fear, anger, disgust, contempt, guilt and shame.

When I first looked at these classifications I agreed what was listed after each. Upon closer inspection I found it quite strange that surprise is listed as a neutral emotion. There was also a line in this lecture that made me think of an age old adage. ‘Does smiling make you happy’, made me think of when you are not in a good mood and people say ‘Smile’. I wonder if this found it basis in the thought that if you smile the simulation of that emotion would overcome the negative.

Week 10: Tutorial 4- Emotion
Previous to this tutorial I hadn’t given much thought to the different emotions and the way that people express them. I believe it is obvious the way people express the most common emotions of happiness and sadness as it usually shows as facial expressions, other than that my thought processes had gone any deeper into how people and other species express emotion.

This activity was very interesting as it brought up many emotions that I was previously unfamiliar with. We completed this activity using the six categories outlined in Reeve (2009) which were: interest, anger, joy, disgust, sadness and fear. It was very interesting to discover that many of the definitions didn’t fit into just one category of emotional feelings and states, though they seemed to be able to be placed into two or three categories. Therefore we found ourselves placing these into a section where it was discoverable that they came under more than one category.

During this tutorial we also took part in a PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule). This structure was very similar to personality scales that I have previously seen in my experiences. Though it was very interesting to discover how positive and negative states of emotions can be interpreted by ourselves as well as other people.

After the completion of this activity James ran through a short session on working with images and the layout of Wikiveristy. This will more than likely be a very useful session when it comes to putting my textbook chapter up on the Wikiversity.

Week 11: Personality, Motivation & Emotion
This week’s lecture was on Personality, Motivation and Emotion

The question that was asked at the start of this lecture really made me wonder why it is that individuals can have different emotional reactions when faced with the same situation. Personality traits allow an individual to approach a situation in a differing manner and are accompanied by different coping mechanisms.

The sensation seeking scale that was proposed in this lecture can easily be examined in light of addictive behaviour. This scale suggests that individuals that have a low tolerance to boredom will seek out novel situations to engage sensation and release inhibitions. Engaging in an activity that causes heightened sensation would eventually lead to desensitisation and seeking of a new activity. Following this thought process you can easily see how addictive types of activities would be sought out in order to increase sensation.

Week 12: Unconscious Motivation
Subliminal motivation made me laugh in this lecture. It is described as being stimuli that is presented to an individual at a below threshold frequency. It is information that is processed at the unconscious level and can elicit emotional reactions. The lecture states that much to the disappointment of advertisers this concept does not work. I found this funny as I have heard of many occasions ranging from old marketing campaigns to government advertisements that have tried to utilise the effects of subliminal motivation.

Psychodynamics describes psychological forces as a clashing between the conscious and unconscious. This clash is thought to be a struggle between our desires and wishes with the force that encourages inhibition and repression.

Week 12: Tutorial 5- Personality
This tutorial proved to be quite effective and useful for me as we spent a large quantity of time on discussing and gaining help with our textbook chapters. During this time James spent most of his time helping us with enquiries about submitting the textbook chapter and answering questions about using Wikiversity as well as the final content which should be included in the textbook chapter. I have found the whole process of using Wikiversity a very interesting one to say the least. I am much more familiar with using Microsoft word, though using Wikiversity I have become a bit more technologically advanced. In saying this I would have liked to include many more things and interesting arrangements in my textbook chapter and this has led me to gain further insight into the workings of Wikiversity. James also helped us briefly with the Multimedia assessment and after he had explained a few details about the process in which we could complete this assessment I was very pleased that I was already familiar with Microsoft Power point.

Once we had finished these in depth and useful discussions it was time to complete some other interesting activities. We went through and completed a personality test which was focussed on the main five personality traits. We wrapped up the tutorial by looking at 4 main factors of the sensation seeking scale (Zuckerman 1971) which were:

 * Thrill and adventure seeking: this is the desire to engage in sport or activities which involve some degree of physical danger such as sky diving or speeding in a car.

 * Experience seeking: this is the desire to seek new experiences through the mind and senses by living in a nonconforming life style with unconventional friends, and through travelling.

 * Disinhibition: the need to disinhibit behaviour in the social sphere by doing such activities as drinking and partying.

 * Boredom and susceptibility: this is the aversion to repetitive experiences of any kind.

This was a very interesting activity and led me to thinking a great deal about my own lifestyle and what traits I exhibit.

Week 13: Growth Psychology
Chapter 15 set out an exercise that I really liked. It is based in positive psychology and it is called a happiness exercise.

 * 1. Gratitude visit = This exercise entails an individual writing a letter of gratitude and giving it to someone who they feel has been particularly nice to them but has never really received the appreciation they deserved

 * 2. Three good things in life = Each day individuals are encouraged to write down three good things that have occurred and identify why they worked

 * 3. You at your best = Recount a time when you performed at your best. Reflect on what you did to be able to achieve this

 * 4. Identify your strengths = Identify five of your strengths and new ways they could be applied.

These happiness exercises may seem overly optimistic (which is a criticism of positive psychology), however even reading them does put a small smile on your face.

Week 14: Summary and Conclusion
This has been a very intersting, eyeopening and intuative unit to be involved in. I believe we have covered a vast array of topics which have not only informed my learning but also led to deeper thought processes about my own personal life. I have had to complete assessment tasks in a method previous to which I have never encountered and this was a fantastic learning curve.

I have learnt a lot during this unit. I was able to write a textbook chapter bout a topic that I have passionate about and thereforen was able to be more motivated about the assessment task than I otherwise could have been. Thie has bee a great learning curve throughout which I have learnt a lot of interesting fact along the way.

Week 14: Tutorial 6- Growth Psychology
This week was a final tutorial for motivation and emotion. During this tutorial we discussed the differences between positive and humanistic psychology. This provided for some very interesting conversation as many personal opinions were discussed. This was followed up by a further interesting discussion on raising a child with a socially unacceptable temperament. In my personal opinion the child needs to take responsibility for his or her own behaviour and only thereafter will the unsocial behaviours begin to diminish.

After discussing these topics we viewed a checklist for self-actualisation characteristics according to Maslow. The topics covered were as follows:

Priority of Values such ads truth, love and happiness.

 * Acceptance of self, of others, of nature: this relates to accepting things the way that they are whether they are good or bad.

 * Identification with human species: this relates to individuals indentifying with not only their own culture, family and friends abut also all of humanity.

 * Emphasis on higher level values: this relates to self-actualisation where people tend to spend most of their time focussing on higher values.

 * Perception of reality-greater perceptual accuracy of reality: this is the ability to perceive the truth and relate to people on a deeper level.

 * Discrimination between means and ends, between good and evil: this relates to seeing the bigger picture of life.

 * Resolution of dichotomies (Conflicts): the ability to be less phased by smaller conflicts, less likely to retaliate to momentary surroundings.

Internally controlled

 * Autonomy and resistance to enculturation: in control of your own life to a certain degree.

 * Detachment and desire for privacy: comfortable with their own lives and able to enjoy themselves.

 * Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness: goes about their day to day life according to values and habits.

High involvement, productivity and happiness

 * Problem-centering: is very absorbed in the tasks they are engaging in.

 * Creativeness: retains a child like view of life.

 * Freshness of appreciation and richness of emotional reactions: very aware of their emotions and reactions due to them.

 * High frequency of peak experiences: being completely engaged in the present task.

High quality interpersonal relationships

 * (Intimate) Interpersonal relationships: very selective person with who their friends are but everyone wants to be friends with them.

 * Democratic character structure: person is centred on equality of life and their general status is unimportant to them as an individual.

 * Philosophical unhostile sense of humour

This was a very interesting process which leads to a deeper thought process of how I live my own life. This subject led me to think deeper about my own life and the way i do things.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Haddo


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual

Introduction
Mainstream psychology concerns itself with the ego and is written from that viewpoint, and inevitably to some extent by the ego. The present topic falls into the relatively new area of transpersonal psychology (i.e., above or outside the ego) which has emerged out of humanistic psychology. It includes the work of C. G. Jung; Kurt Goldstein, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Stanislav Grof, Viktor Frankl, and Roberto Assagioli. It touches on the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza, Aldous Huxley, and others, and includes the reported experience of a number of psychics and mystics over the centuries, notably that of the polymath and scientist, Emanuel Swedenborg.

Controlled experiments are probably impossible to arrange, and a bias against this area has been commented on by some authors (e.g. Grof, 2008). The ego, in particular the inflated ego, logically defends itself against any knowledge which might undermine its nominal primacy.

Given that the mystics of whatever religious tradition are apparently few in number, and that few have put pen to paper, not much is presently known in this area. Thus much that is presently written by academics and others is speculative. It has also to be admitted that psychopathology, intoxication, self-delusion or pretentiousness may account for some reported experience in this area. My own experience and consequent personal knowledge is mentioned wherever it may be helpful to compare or contrast with theory or other evidence. There can be no absolute certainty, but direct experience provides data that is inarguably empirical.

The following remarks on the scientific method from Jung (1960, p.35) are apposite:

"This grasping of the whole is obviously the aim of science as well, but it is a goal that necessarily lies very far off because science, whenever possible, proceeds experimentally and in all cases statistically. Experiment, however, consists in asking a definite question which excludes as far as possible anything disturbing and irrelevant. It makes conditions, imposes them on Nature, and in this way forces her to give an answer to a question devised by man. She is prevented from answering out of the fullness of her possibilities since these possibilities are restricted as far as practicable. For this purpose there is created in the laboratory a situation which is artificially restricted to the question which compels Nature to give an unequivocal answer. The workings of Nature in her unrestricted wholeness are completely excluded. If we want to know what these workings are, we need a method of inquiry which imposes the fewest possible conditions, or if possible no conditions at all, and then leave Nature to answer out of her fullness."

William James wrote of a necessary ‘radical empiricism’ (Rathunde, 2001) in this area of enquiry, an acceptance of all evidence including phenomenological data. This chapter follows his advice.

Two aspects of spiritual motivation
Two aspects of this topic are evident: the first is the motivation to engage to any extent in the general area of spirituality; the second is the special motivation which can result from knowledge acquired through such spiritual engagement. It is to be understood that this is an artificial division which enables a linear or temporal description and thus facilitates an understanding; in reality things tend to be continuous and holistic. For example, human motivation is inextricably intertwined with human growth and development.

Initial motivation can be partly explained by simple curiosity; but admission of growth and development as fundamental characteristics of living organisms, including human beings, is necessary to provide a more complete explanation. The concept of intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985) includes simple intellectual interest and an innate striving for growth.

In the human case such development notably includes psychological and psycho-spiritual development throughout the life-span (e.g. Schaie, 2005); it is probable that the most intelligent animal species also continue to develop psychologically. The philosophical or spiritual distinction between animals and human beings is presumably that we are aware of being aware, and now have sufficient neurological and neurochemical complexity to begin to understand God.

The philosophers
Our inquiry in this area necessarily begins with the organismic ideas of some philosophers. The idea that an organism has a developmental potential goes back at least to Aristotle’s Metaphysics and is echoed in Whitehead’s metaphysical process philosophy.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) wrote of dynamis (potentiality) and entelecheia (actuality) as fundamental characteristics of all things, including living things. For example, the acorn contains within it the potential of the oak tree. This is an evolutionary and teleological idea (Russell, 1961). Even before him, Heraclitus (535-475 BCE) apparently taught that ‘nothing ever is, everything is becoming’ (Russell).

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) believed in an infinite God in all things, namely pantheism. Hence individual souls and material things are all aspects of God. He regarded self-seeking as a fundamental human motivation: in its highest form this was a search for the knowledge of God (Russell). We can see in this a motivation towards self-realisation.

In accord with Aristotle’s developmental perspective, Schopenhauer (1819) postulated a Will to Live in Mankind. This is a metaphysical principle rather than an individual attribute, beyond personal desires, and it found agreement in the philosophy of Santayana (Santayana, 1955). It may be understood as a fundamental organismic or evolutionary imperative. Henri Bergson’s élan vital (life force) pushing evolution in all directions (Russell, 1961) is a more general idea, echoed in the Big Bang theory of astronomy. Hans Driesch (1867-1941) was a biologist and philosopher who also adopted an Aristotelian teleological perspective in his theory of entelechy (Driesch, 1894). Prigogine (1980) has applied the organismic concept to both the biological and physical sciences, that is to physical matter. Crystallisation would be an example of this process.

This concept and process was also, according to Tong (undated), understood by the Confucian philosopher Mencius (372-289 BCE). The following remarks attributed to Mencius suggest that it can focus on an individual: "When Heaven is about to confer an important office upon a man, it first embitters his heart in its purpose; it causes him to exert his bones and sinews; it makes his body suffer hunger; it inflicts upon him want and poverty and confounds his undertakings. In this way it stimulates his will, steels his nature and thus makes him capable of accomplishing what he would otherwise be incapable of accomplishing."

According to Whitehead’s theory this experience could occur in response to a free will choice. Friedrich Nietzsche’s ‘Overman’ and George Bernard Shaw’s ‘Superman’ may be understood in this context as one who has, with such assistance, transcended himself: more accurately his or her ego and self-limiting beliefs.

Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) developed a process-philosophy in which occasions of experience are fundamental elements in the universe; free will is inherent, and God both exists and participates (Whitehead, 1929). Opportunities for learning are clearly present in such a universe; in turn a process of becoming more. Riffert (1999) points out the parallels with the developmental theory of Jean Piaget, and suggests that a process-psychology can be built on an empirical Piagetian foundation. Buchanan (2005) regards Whitehead’s process thought as the best philosophical foundation for transpersonal psychological research.

Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) regarded Christ as central in human evolution, following what he described as an inner meeting in 1899 with this being (McDermott, 1992). Christ, or rather the concept of ‘Christ-consciousness’ (taken to mean knowledge of a direct relationship with God), as a centripetal evolutionary principle or imperative would easily fit into the philosophic ideas already mentioned.

The core of Joshua ben Joseph’s teaching is now understood as advice that all human beings are directly related to God, and have the potential to realise it experientially. This is in effect Spinoza’s Weltanshauung, or credo; a more extensive experiential realisation of this credo as fact would obviously radically change collective human motivation. Gidley (2007) has written a comprehensive account of the voluminous work of Steiner, Gebser, and Wilber on the evolution of consciousness, along similar lines.

At this point we recall the occasional introspective methodology of Wilhelm Wundt, taken up by his student Edward Tichener and employed in a more general or philosophic context by William James.

William James (1842-1910) collected, lectured on, and described in a seminal text (James, 1902) the religious experiences of a number of people, including how their experiences changed their attitude and motivation. James suggested that spiritual needs were important (Huitt, 2007) and he proposed a theological cosmology on which Whitehead later based his own theory (Buchanan, 2005). He also thought that transcendendent experiences could be transformative, and should be studied by psychologists (Rathunde, 2001).

The Jesuit palaeontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) proposed a teleological theory of biological and human evolution in which a higher form of consciousness, the Omega Point, draws lesser forms to itself (de Chardin, 1959). This can be understood as a centripetal force or unconscious motivation towards oneness, yet insufficient to negate individual free will.

Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) mentions Man’s inherent motivation to self-transcend in the preface to his book ‘The Devils of Loudon’ (Huxley, 1952). His Perennial Philosophy (Huxley, 1945) is in my view a correct statement of the fact that oneness with God is possible and has been experienced by mystics over the centuries. But his later endorsement of psychedelic substances as an aid to such experience (Huxley, 1954) is an evident mistake, indicated by there being no claim to this eventual experience in his writing.

That this was a mistake is also supported by the view put forward in Adams (2002) that there is a necessary moral component to spiritual development, with which Kohlberg (1984) would no doubt agree. There are in this context no shortcuts. Adams also points out that the contemporary writer Ken Wilber’s integral theory of transpersonal psychology is deficient in this respect. It is surely an illogical proposition that the immoral can realise oneness with the Divine. Charles Darwin would also disagree with such a proposition, as we shall see shortly.

Darwin and the humanistic psychologists
Transpersonal psychology is regarded as the fourth force in psychology, the first being a focus on pathology, the second on behaviourism, the third force being humanistic psychology. It thus comes out of the work of Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Rollo May. Carl Jung was also a humanist. But before we summarise their work, we need to consider a pivotal reassessment of Darwinian evolution by David Loye, Mihaly Csiksentmihalyi, and others (Loye, 2000, 2004). David Loye, now in his 80’s, is a psychologist, sociologist and evolutionary moral theorist, and co-founder of the multinational General Evolution Research Group. His research included a detailed reading of Charles Darwin’s later and more difficult book ‘The Descent of Man’, long ignored by science.

In this later work Darwin saw a considerable difference between evolution in Man and in other species, to the extent that he regarded love, morality and conscience as the most important factors or drivers in human evolution, which includes sociological elements and is thus on a different level to that of other species. Darwin admits in ‘The Descent’ that he may have given too much importance to natural selection and the survival of the fittest in his earlier work (Loye, 2000).

Loye (2004) goes on to suggest that Darwin has been conveniently (e.g., in terms of the Victorian ‘survival of the fittest’ rationale for colonising much of the world) misrepresented by science, and that a more comprehensive evolutionary theory is urgently needed which might include ideas from humanistic and transpersonal psychology, and systems science. This would be a much-needed antidote to the nihilism of neo-Darwinism, of which ‘selfish genes’ are but one example. He further mentions the identification of Agape (altruistic love) by Pierce (1893) as one of three major principles in human evolution, and the concern of Dabrowski (1964) with moral and spiritual evolution. Dabrowski’s theory included considerations of developmental potential, an individual’s essence, and a drive (i.e., motive) towards autonomy.

Viktor Frankl (1905-1984) was an existential psychotherapist whose philosophy was formed while a prisoner facing death in a WWII concentration camp. His book ‘Man’s search for meaning’ (Frankl, 1984) describes this experience and how different men reacted to it. He proposed that human beings have an existential need (i.e., motivation) to find a purpose or meaning in life. In his theory Man does not invent himself but discovers what is already within. He also believed in a built-in ability and purpose to transcend the self (Frankl, 1966, 1984). One day in the camp he had the insight ‘The salvation of Man is through love and in love’ (Frankl, 1984, p.105). This is consistent with the therapeutic experience or ideas of Rogers, Pierce, Steiner, Darwin and others.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is well known as a humanistic psychotherapist who coined the term ‘unconditional positive regard’ (Rogers, 1967). His theory of the self included the proposition that the human organism has an innate tendency to self-actualise (Rogers, 1951). He regarded this tendency as ‘the most profound truth about Man’ (Pescitelli, 1996). His life was, incidentally, a demonstration of the fact that psychologists are concerned with their own developmental issues like everyone else, and that each person can help the human race in this way, directly or indirectly (Cohen, 1997).

Rollo May (1909-1994) was an existential and humanistic psychotherapist whose theory focused on the inner potential or reality of an individual’s being. In his book ‘The Discovery of Being’ he used the acorn growing into an oak tree metaphor (Kiser, 2007). There is an implication in his theory, given the difficulties in overcoming internal resistances, that few people get to be who they really are. This is consistent with Maslow’s conclusion that only 1 percent of people self-actualise, although he later changed this view in his Theory Z (Maslow, 1971) to the effect that this figure referred to those self-actualisers who self-transcend. Thus more than 1 percent meet his later less strict self-actualisation criteria (i.e., criteria not conflated with those of self-transcendence). In his book ‘Man’s Search for Himself’, May (1953) writes of ‘the long development towards self-realisation’.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) is a central figure in both humanistic and transpersonal psychology. His work on self-actualisation is described in this chapter, whilst the current chapter focuses on the transpersonal developmental stage. His personal goal was to find a theory of humanity which would contribute towards world peace. This was incidentally a purpose beyond himself, and in my view he succeeded in it. His last work addressed transpersonal development.

The complete diagram of a Maslowian hierarchy of needs thus includes a capstone of self-transcendence above the level of self-actualisation, and this self-transcendent aspect of human nature gives rise to the possibility of a mystical greater realisation (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). This open-ended model of human personality and development represents a major change in our understanding of human psychology, and of the origins of altruism, wisdom and consequent social progress (Koltko-Rivera).

Maslow characterised self-actualising people as ‘the most altruistic and social and loving of all human beings’ (Rathunde, 2001, p. 145). He described the transpersonal state as the being (‘B’) realm in which individuals operate from a higher state of motivation derived from a ‘unitive perception’. According to him these are the ‘awakened’, the ‘illuminated’ and ‘high-plateau’ people (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Such people have metaneeds for their own space reflective of their own being, in which truth and beauty are B-values (Maslow, 1971).

Maslow’s B-motivation is typified by a selfless greater purpose, consistent with the wisdom perspective in Sternberg’s theory (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). It is interesting that even without himself (so far as is known) having the highest peak experience, not highlighted in his theory, Maslow was able to accurately describe a level of resultant being and B-motivation.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a psychiatrist with a distinctly mystical inclination. His theory of individuation is a little vague. In brief the psyche is motivated towards individual wholeness in a long and difficult process which includes sorting through archetypal elements. The individuated person has moved beyond egocentricity, and the whole person is invariably a better person.

In my experience ego-defences built up in childhood have to be dismantled in order that a more authentic self can emerge. This is consistent with the theory of Positive Disintegration (Dabrowski, 1964). Also, mythic elements are encountered and dealt with in lucid dreams, or in particular life-events. This is the journey inwards in search of the Self, the monomyth found in all cultures by Joseph Campbell (Campbell, 1949). In this respect a properly designed and managed intensive personal development course can enable progress in months which would otherwise take a lifetime. Such work can be cathartic and is safely done only with experienced and informed support.

Erich Fromm (1900-1980) also deserves a mention. In his 1955 book ‘The Sane Society’ he identified five human needs, notably including for transcendence, and for an object of devotion (Funk, 1982). The path of devotion is called ‘Bhakti’ in Hindu yogic philosophy: the goal of yoga practice is to become ‘yoked’ to God (i.e., on an experiential basis to ‘Realise’ yoga or oneness with God).

The psychics and mystics
A mystic greater realisation (Koltko-Rivera, 2006) is apparently confirmed in the reported experience of Christian, Hindu, Sufi and other mystics, and more recently phenomenologically confirmed in the author’s case, in whose resultant perspective Maslow’s ‘self-actualisation’ is a generalisation that includes a ‘crystallisation’ of the egoic personality as a necessary element in an idiosyncratic evolutionary developmental process which results in its eventual transcendence. Maslow recognised that self-actualisation is a paradoxical transitional goal (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). But transcendence of something does not mean it is no longer available, instead it means that one is no longer limited to it or by it (even though it may not yet be perfected); there is an added option beyond it rather than a lock, stock and barrel move away from it.

Development is in practice individual and idiosyncratic. More strenuous effort was in my case required in the personal self-becoming or individuation stage than in later work so it is regarded as the more difficult state to attain, at least in contemporary society. It is all uphill after that!

The remarkable psychic Edgar Cayce (1877-1945) is recorded as saying from his trademark trance state, in answer to the specific question, that the purpose of human life is both to develop individuality and to realise oneness with God (Carter & Cayce, 1990). This is entirely consistent with the developmental theories of mainstream psychology and with the ‘unitive perception’ and ‘selfless greater purpose’ etcetera identified in Maslow’s later work, also with the mystical experience reported by several individuals.

In this general context William James carried out experiments with a contemporary psychic and concluded ‘In the trances of this medium, I cannot resist the conviction that knowledge appears which she has never gained by the ordinary waking use of her eyes and ears and wits.’ (James, 1896).

The Indian civil servant Gopi Krishna (1902-1984) was apparently one in whom yoga occurred, following some problems resulting from forced kundalini arousal. His description of this final event is worth noting: ‘The true mystical experience, even for one brief duration, shakes the individual to the roots, and lives in the memory as a Beacon of Light, Immortality and Peace to the end’ (Krishna, 1980). He subsequently wrote a number of books on his experience, recommending scientific investigation. He was critical of modern self-styled spiritual teachers.

C.G. Jung gave four lectures on kundalini in 1932 following a visit to India (Shamdasani, 1999). This energy was very apparent in my case (it seems to be a prerequisite), and it might indeed be investigated with advantage. Motoyama (1981) reports on some scientific work in this area.

The true experience is indeed a most powerful illumination. It is beyond the analytical mind, primarily conative and only subsequently cognitive, and more than a little paradoxical. It is also a considerable energetic and psychic shock, not to be underestimated. Therefore, it is not to be contemplated without considerable preparatory work, itself paradoxical and beyond the remit of this chapter.

This event is hard to describe in ordinary language. The Sufi mystic Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (1207-1273) resorted to poetry; others were probably mute. It was in my case an experience of total bliss; apparently outside time and space, literally overwhelmed (and temporarily obliterated as a person) by unconditional love, with an additional awareness of immense creative potential.

The Christian mystic St. Catherine of Genoa (1207-1273) reportedly said ‘My me is God, and I accept no other save my God Himself’. There is no argument with this interpretation, but in practice it is necessary to continue to live a normal life as an individual human being.

This event does change a person, and motivation changes in accord with Maslow’s view. The utility for human society of this event, from the B-motivation which results, is obvious. Given the power of this event, subsequent singular motivation is unremarkable. Much more remarkable is the motivation demonstrated in suicide bombers and the like, not covered in this chapter.

The Varieties of Religious Experience (James, 1902) has been mentioned.

The scientist and polymath Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) is a case in point. As a scientist he might be expected to provide an accurate account. He reported a number of experiences which are also proposed as able to provide a species of ‘B’ motivation. He is regarded as a Christian mystic, although he did not report at-one-ment. Instead he said he had messages from angels (as is held by Muslims in respect of Muhammad) and visions of the spiritual hierarchy. Some of his precognitions and visions were apparently confirmed by subsequent events or other observers; the fact that he continued to hold important official positions mediates against a naive explanation of psychopathology.

He was motivated to write a number of books out of these reported experiences. Similar experiences of visions, messages, telepathy etcetera have occurred in my case, most of them subsequently confirmed in physical reality or otherwise coherent. They mostly occur in a deeply relaxed state and are quite distinct from even lucid dreams. However, some perceptual distortion can occur, probably related to pre-existing beliefs, desires or neurological programmes. This may account for apparent idiosyncrasies in Swedenborg’s subsequent writings on the Christian religion, and it implies that no religious text is unadulterated. Of course, perceptual distortion occurs in nominally healthy individuals: dyslexia is one example. An inability to perceive metaphysical domains of reality or beings therein may itself be counted as a major perceptual distortion.

The transpersonal psychologists
The central work of Abraham Maslow has already been discussed.

Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) was a sometime colleague whose ideas contributed towards Maslow’s motivational theory. He worked as a neurologist and psychiatrist with patients who had suffered brain injury in World War I. He concluded from this work that there is an inherent tendency for growth and development in human beings, irrespective of bodily injury. This self-actualising tendency is ‘the only drive by which the life of an organism is determined’ (Goldstein, 1939).

Roberto Assagioli (1888-1974) is notable for incorporating in his theory of psychosynthesis (Assagioli, 1965) both the influence of the Self or soul and the individual will as essential elements in human development. This is reminiscent of Jung’s conclusion from anecdotal evidence that the Self has the ability to end an individual’s life if its purpose is not being met. Both Self-realisation and the synthesis of an individual are central in Assagioli’s theory, which predates many later theories (Assagioli). His ideas did not change over his lifetime. They are entirely consistent with Cayce’s later enunciation of the purpose of life, previously mentioned under the Psychics and Mystics section, and his work is being carried on by many psychotherapists around the world.

Stanislav Grof (1931-) qualifies as a transpersonal psychologist in that he helped to formally establish the field. He can also be regarded as a speculative philosopher. He initially worked with LSD (Cf. Huxley, 1954) but now specialises in ‘holotropic’ (i.e., non-ordinary) states of consciousness obtained through certain breathing techniques, which can also be psychotherapeutic. Through similar bodywork I confirm both outcomes as possibilities.

He suggests that psycho-spiritual death and rebirth is a common theme in his workshops, centred on memories of the physical birth process (Grof, 2010, p.17). I believe his conflation of these psychodynamic or psychophysiological experiences with religious concepts is unjustified. The peak religious experience appears to require a system that is already clear of major resistances or blockages, and it appears to be given to very few, perhaps for this reason. He has no formal theory of transpersonal motivation, but notes ‘spontaneous emergence and development of deep humanitarian concerns’ following transpersonal experiences (Grof, 2010, p.25).

James Hillman (1926-?) was trained as a Jungian analyst but has developed his own interpretation, archetypal psychology (Hillman, 1975), which focuses on the psyche (i.e., soul) and the archai (i.e., fundamental fantasies). His book ‘The Souls’s code: On Character and Calling’ (Hillman, 1997) is perhaps prescient in terms of future psychological science. In it he uses the familiar acorn metaphor of an inherent blueprint for a life’s work and calling. It is entirely logical that each of us is suited to a life-task for which we are uniquely (i.e., genetically and hence neurologically and personally) qualified. However, he posits an additional metaphysical influence on character, aspiration and achievement.


text:
Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Emotional stability

Introduction
Emotional stability can be defined as having a congruent transition of emotional states and moderate emotional resilience to environmental influences (or cues). Someone who has the ability to cope with general changes in the environment, without responding with an intense emotional reaction, is said to be emotionally stable. The ability to stabilise emotions differs from the ability to regulate emotions. The signs of an emotional stability are calmness of mind and freedom from anxiety and depression (Hay & Ashman, 2003). An emotionally stable person has the attributes of emotional maturity, self-confidence, and stability in their plans and affections; these subjects look boldly ahead for facts and situations and do not give into occasional fluctuations in their mood..." (Pavlenko, Chernyi and Goubkina, 2009: p. 39). A large deepening occurs in the development of emotional stability after the age of three years old. This allows the child to maintain a sense of self during periods of brief separation from his or her parents (Postle, 1988). Regulation also plays an important role in the stability of someone's emotions, in that the ability to control and regulate emotions is an emotionally stabilising factor, whether that be through cognitive therapy or medication.

Emotional lability (instability) occurs when someone reacts with intense emotion to low or moderate external cues. The emotional reaction can also take the form of a 'flood of emotions' or ‘jumping’ from one emotion to the other in quick successions, as if the individual has little or no control over the emotionality of their brain. Emotionality refers to the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion, and is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus Emotionality. For example, in the case of car accident trauma, a person may react with intense fear, avoidance followed by sadness when driving in a car that brakes heavily.

In some cases emotional lability remains a psychiatric illness where the brain actually looses functionality as a result of physical brain trauma such as a stroke or serious accident. This chapter will focus mainly on the psychological and neurological perspectives of emotional lability.

Emotional Mind and Brain
When we talk about emotional stability, it is important to separate the emotional brain and the emotional mind, and in doing so examine the relationship and interplay which occurs between them. The emotional mind can be defined as the subjective experience of emotions (Mind). The emotional brain refers to the physical and neurological reactions which occur in response to stimuli. The relationship between mind and brain can be basically seen in Figure 1 below.

The way the mind perceives stimuli can directly influence the individuals’ health and physiology. The American Academy of Family Physicians (2004) claim that poor emotional health can cause physical symptoms such as back pain, ulcers, chest pain, insomnia, headaches, high-blood pressure and an assortment of illnesses associated with weak immunity. The impact of emotional mind on the brain therefore cannot be underestimated in the study of emotional stability.

The mind is responsible for the interpretation of stimuli. It is what experiences the emotionality of the brain. The mind is also the conscious control centre for initiating commands of the brain. For example, one may feel fear when breaking heavily in a car, the mind can respond by simply willing to remain calm in the event of a crisis.

When it comes to instability, emotions often will dominate or cloud the mind's thought patterns. In Figure 1, the brain is illustrated as the physical car, the mechanics which allow the mind to function (i.e. allow the person to subjectively experience the act of driving). In other words the brain gives us the physical structure to allow the mind to operate and experience the world.

When emotions begin to dominate the brain (i.e. emotional instability occurs) our entire experience and perception of the world changes. It becomes clouded by whatever emotions are dominating at that time (Figure 2).

As with Figure 2, our experience of driving becomes tainted if the mechanical working can no longer drive or guide us efficiently. Similarly, our mind becomes emotionally unstable when emotions dominate the regulatory areas of emotion.

Alternatively, the experiencer has to some extent a choice on how to interpret the events he or she is experiencing. This is how the mind can respond to various events without losing emotional control. This is commonly known as emotional stability and resilience (Figure 3).

Psychological Disorders
There are many factors which influence instability in the congruent transfer of emotions. Further, there are many variables which affect the minds ability to remain calm and free. Daily, there can be a build up of frustration which can in turn lead to a temporary instability of emotions, such as minor mood-swings and stress. Pavlenko, Chernyi and Goubkina argued low emotional stability is a common component of pathological disorders such as psychopathies, alcoholism, and substance abuse disorders. Other studies have also reported evidence of low emotional stability in trauma and anxiety-related disorders (see Martens, 2004; Pavlenko, Chernyi & Goubkina, 2009). These disorders warrant further investigation as they are the most common disorders where emotional lability is a leading symptom.

Trauma
Experiencing Trauma can significantly impact the way in which emotions are regulated and therefore stabilised. Trauma has been known to impair emotional and social functioning of the human mind (Martens, 2004). The impact of trauma also influences emotional circuitry of the brain functions, in that circuitry becomes rewired (Martens, 2004). As a result, emotional responses to external cues and the external environment change and in most cases remain unstabilised emotional responses. Emotions can become blunted and/or excessive in response to certain stimuli (DSM III, 1987). The emotional severity may increase in response to perceiving car accidents if her or she was recently in a car accident.

Trauma, according to Martens (2004), is an experience that leads to
 * 1) involuntary and radical change of a person's internal life;
 * 2) emotional, social, and eventually moral dysfunction (feelings of loss of old capacities, habits, and relationships) because of its intensive devastating, uncontrollable, profound, and long-lasting impact on all internal dimensions of the person's life; and
 * 3) restlessness, grief, frustration, and paranoid and hostile feeling toward the harsh, unbearable, and threatening outside world.

It is clear, according to Martens' (2004) definition, that trauma can significantly impact the stability of the emotions in the mind. An (early) trauma in one’s life is usually symptomised through primary depression (Martens, 2004). A symptom of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder is emotional lability (DSM III, 1987), or more specifically a 'flood of emotions' (Weimer, 2002; cited in Martens, 2004). Trauma can increase the likelihood of emotional lability occurring. In trauma, emotional lability remains a symptom of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

The Role of Emotional Stability in Post-Trauma Recovery
Recovering from trauma requires the decreasing of emotional lability to an emotionally stable mind where emotions can transition fluidly; a return to the calmness of mind and freedom from anxiety and depression (Hay & Ashman, 2003). The role of emotional regulation is essential in this instance. More specifically, not having working emotional regulation can lead to emotional lability (an overwhelming of emotions), instead of appropriately expressing the intense negative emotions which have been associated with the trauma (Wild & Paivio, 2003). In terms of emotion, the goal of post-traumatic recovery is a stabilised emotional mind. This is achieved primarily through the strengthening of emotional regulation.

Depression and Anxiety
When anxiety is present it is often associated with emotional reactions. In many cases these emotions can take the form of fear, sadness, stress, the experience of nervousness and exhilaration. When anxiety is present, emotional regulation begins to lose its ability to maintain emotions (i.e. emotions begin to dominate and produce physiological responses in the body) (See Figure 2 below).Recent neurological studies have revealed the lower the rate of emotional stability the higher the rate of anxiety (Pavlenko, Chernyi & Goubkina, 2009).

In their study, Pavlenko, Chernyi and Goubkina were able to show that people with low anxiety and moderate emotional stability had much higher alpha rhythms present in their brain. In electroencephalogram (EEG) studies, alpha rhythms can generally be recorded in a healthy awake adult (Shaw, 2004). The intensity of the alpha rhythm in high-anxiety individuals is much smaller, while the powers of the delta and high-frequency beta rhythms are greater than those in subjects characterized by low anxiety. Delta rhythms are generally found in people during the sleep cycle, while Beta waves are generally found in states of increased mental alertness and concentration. Below are comparisons of emotionally stable, low anxiety mental states and emotionally unstable high anxiety mental states via EEG. Highly anxious individuals will generally have lower emotional stability.

In major depressive illnesses, the mind appears to enhance unstable patterns of negative emotions. Depression is treated as an emotional disorder with increased feelings of sadness, hopelessness, anhedonia (loss of pleasure) and worthlessness (Levin et al., 2007). Impairment in the ability to suppress these negative emotions was also evident in recent studies (Rhodes et al, 2007). More specifically, sufferers of depression tend to passively focus on the experience of negative moods, their causes and consequences (Flynn, Kecmanovic & Alloy, 2010). This would indicate that the emotional mind is pessimistically orientated in depressive cases. This kind of behaviour has been termed depressive rumination. As with anxiety suffers, depression influences unstable patterns of emotion in the mind. These have shown to cause higher rates of negative emotions over positive emotions, meaning the mind is more prone to the experience of negativity and negative emotional states are more common.

Since the 1980s, neurological evidence has revealed support for the notion that depression has an emotional neurological component as well as a mental component. Studies in serotonin levels in adult major depressive cases have revealed lower levels of serotonin than normal functioning adults. Omega 3 and Essential fatty Acids are now being prescribed as treatment for major depressive and mood stabilisation cases with moderate successful results (Holford, 2003). The brain therefore being impaired influences the experience of emotional states in the mind.

The Role of the Amygdala

Depression has also shown 'unusual' activity in the amygdala (Figure 5), which is partly responsible for the processing and generation of emotions. Though it is not clear what the exact relationship is between the Amygdala and depression, current research suggests disruptive activity is present between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), the right prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the Amygdala (See Figure 5).

The Amygdala is primarily responsible for the formation and processing of emotional reactions and emotional memories. Memories of emotional experiences imprint in the Amygdala's Neurons, creating emotional imprinting. Trauma causes a negative imprinting in the Amygdala's circuitry, meaning a fear response can be more easily triggered.

Stress & Stability
In times of non-stress, the VMPFC and the PFC regulate the emotional outputs streaming from the Amygdala. In times of stress, the emotional outputs override the regulation offered by the VMPFC and PFC. Raw emotions pour into the brain and consequently the emotional stability of the mind becomes unbalanced. This is also known as 'emotional flooding', and is a common characteristic of interpersonal stress. "Interaction between the Amygdala and the VMPFC may underlie the proper adaptation of levels of the stress hormone Cortisol on a daily basis." (ScienceDaily, 2007). Cortisol is... (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7976489.stm). Stress is a trigger for emotional flooding and consequently instability to occur. It streams emotional outputs from the Amygdala which flood its regulators, the VMPFC and PFC cortexes.

The impact of stress also gives us insight into how other disorders destabilise emotions. The role of the VMPFC can be seen to regulate emotional outputs of the Amygdala When the outputs are too strong, the VMPFC becomes overwhelmed and is unable to efficiently regulate the streaming emotional outputs, meaning emotions begin to flood the brain. This theory can be applied to other disorders where 'emotional flooding' is common characteristic in response to a stressful stimuli. For example, anxiety, trauma and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Stress appears to be the trigger emotional imbalance in the brain.

In Conclusion Stress appears to play a vital role in the trigger of emotional lability.

Resilience
The mind experiences emotions but at the same time can possess a degree of control over how the emotional brain will receive the stimuli. This process is known as emotional resilience (Bruce & Rickards, 2004).

"Resilience is not just a matter of constitutional strength or a robust temperament, it is also a product of how people perceive, appraise, approach and tackle stresses and challenges" (Bruce and Rickards, 2004: 1).

The more resilient the emotional mind can be to oncoming stimuli, the more likely the mind is to be emotionally stable.

See: The APA’s Guide to Building Resilience (2009)

The Importance of Meditation
Recent studies have identified the extreme impact of meditation on the emotional balance of the mind. Meditation enhances detachment from mental formations in the mind and control of the minds engagement (Muktananda, 1980). Perceptions become a direct experience, where the mind does not conditionally engage with the formations nor respond to them, rather it simply enhances consciousness to nonreactively 'monitor' the events which are occurring in the mind (Lutz et al, 2008). The mind creates and sustains mental formations. In doing so negative formations, such as trauma related incidents may be held in the mind via long-term memory. Instability occurs when these memories are accessed or triggered by newly emerging stimuli.

Meditation develops synchronization of mind and body helping the person to be in the present. "Being present" in the moment is not the same as becoming detached from mental formations and becoming in control over mental faculties. Being present is simply being. It is also important to remember meditation is a generic word like exercise. If a person uses guided meditation, it's much different than Zen Buddhist sitting meditation or Tibetan Buddhist calm abiding meditation. In guided meditations, a person might generate awareness in a specific manner by following a predetermined narrative protocol. In calm abiding meditation a person cultivates awareness by simply being. One notices (acknowledges) thoughts and returns to breathing. This tiny effort of acknowledgement provides the axis of stability toward awareness. Why is this interesting? When a person is being present, all kinds of inherent qualities of human nature are available such as dignity, beauty, truth, justice and so on. As the capacity to be present increases, the capacity of human nature has the ground to flourish. Please remember, the concept of emotional stability is not important to a meditator. One who meditates without altering experience will keep returning to being present. This practice of returning to being present is what may help someone through stressful situations.

Meditation also enhances well-being and emotional stability. Lutz (et al., 2008: 1) conceptualised meditation as the "emotional and alternational regulatory training regimes developed for various ends, including the cultivation of well-being and emotional balance". Their study revealed that OM Meditation greatly enhances the "nonreactively monitoring the content of experience from moment-to-moment primarily as a means to recognise the nature of emotional mind and cognitive patterns" (Lutz et al, 2008: 1). Similarly, Buddhist practices such as mindfulness reduced stress levels in people who practiced regularly (Lutz et al, 2008).

As stress is a major trigger of emotional instability, meditation provides an imperative natural process in decreasing emotional lability and enhancing balance. Further, not partaking in emotional and cognitive content reduces emotional reactivity, and consequent flooding of the mind and brain as a result of stress.

Conclusion
In conclusion, emotional stability has two mediums which contribute to emotional balance in humans, namely: the emotional mind and the emotional brain. The brain can taint the way the mind perceives its own emotions and the world around itself, often giving way to behaviour dominated by emotion. Of the disorders relating to emotional lability, trauma, depression and anxiety are the most extreme cases of emotionally unstable minds and were emphasised in this chapter. Studies have indicated that stress plays a major role in triggering emotional imbalance in the brain and the mind.

Emotional stability can be enhanced through retraining the mind's ability to cope with external stimuli. Building emotional resilience is extremely important for people who haved experience trauma or damage to the coping mechanisms of the mind. Recently emerging research has revealed that meditation and mindfulness based approaches attribute to emotional balance, and further enhance detachment from emotional states and mental formations.


text:
User:EdoBot

This is a bot account operated by EdoDodo that creates and maintains interwiki links.

title: User:EdoBot


text:
Talk:Natural Science 14-17th century

Two Bacons
I think there has been some confusion between RogerBacon and Francis Bacon. Perhaps the section about Roger should be removed as he died before the period in question.Harrypotter 11:38, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Natural Science 14-17th century


text:
User talk:Godfrey~enwikiversity

 Hello Godfrey, and welcome to Wikiversity! If you need help, feel free to visit my talk page, or contact us and ask questions. After you leave a comment on a talk page, remember to sign and date; it helps everyone follow the threads of the discussion. The signature icon in the edit window makes it simple. To get started, you may

 * Take a guided tour and learn to edit.
 * Visit a (kind of) random project.
 * Browse Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, non-formal education.
 * Find out about research activities on Wikiversity.

 * Read an introduction for teachers and find out how to write an educational resource for Wikiversity.
 * Give feedback about your initial observations
 * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the colloquium.
 * Chat with other Wikiversitans on #wikiversity-en.

And don't forget to explore Wikiversity with the links to your left. Be bold to contribute and to experiment with the sandbox or your userpage, and see you around Wikiversity! If you're a twitter user, please follow http://twitter.com/Wikiversity. --Harrypotter 11:58, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Godfrey. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Godfrey~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:09, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Godfrey~enwikiversity