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Wikiversity:Research Network

A learning model that I think is close to your desired one is as follows.

For example, I want to learn from Wikiversity to get my masters in Computer Science. I join the computer science group, and we collaboratively complete projects. The wiki's can be used like a source control application and it can automatically record what percent of the completed project each member has contributed. When a member meets a pre-determined percentage a degree is given.

For example, the CS group has two projects:

1.Create a mail client like Outlook.

2. Create a media player.

 * If one member writes 52% of project 1, (s)he receives a masters.

 * If another member writes 33% of project 1 and 20% of project 2, (s)he receives a masters.

This is a simplified example but a model that I think has potential.

title: Wikiversity:Research Network


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What is "programming"

Programming is coding, modeling, simulating or presenting the solution to a problem, by representing facts, data or information using pre-defined rules and semantics, on a computer or any other device for automation.

Contents
Programming is the art and science of translating a set of ideas into a program - a list of instructions a computer can follow. The person writing a program is known as a programmer (also a coder).

The exact form the instructions take depend on the Programming Language used. Languages run the spectrum from very low level like Machine Language or Assembly, to a very high level like Java. Lower level languages are more closely tied to the platform they are targeted for, while Higher level languages abstract an increasing amount of the platform from the programmer.

In other words, low level programming languages represent the instructions in a manner that resembles more closely the way the computer actually works. High level languages do resemble more the way the human mind works. Each type is a good fit depending on the particular case. Whenever speed and resource consumption are important, low level languages can provide an advantage since they cause much less "translation" and are less generic, thus causing less load on the computer. High level languages have much more abstraction and thus are better suited for tasks where maintenance and complex design is required.

After a programmer has finished writing the program, it must be executed. Traditionally, some languages (like Basic) are interpreted, while others (like C) are compiled prior to execution. Interpreted languages are executed "on the fly" at run time, while compiled languages have a separate compilation step that must be completed prior to running. Compilers are able to make certain optimizations that are unavailable to interpreters.

The program may fail to compile or execute due to syntax errors. These are errors caused by doing something that is unknown or illegal according to the language they have used. These errors have to be corrected before the program will execute.

If the program runs, the programmer must then verify that the program is working as they intended it to. When things don't go as the programmer intended, the error is said to be a bug. To eliminate bugs, the programmer goes through a process called debugging, where he tries to isolate and fix the source of the problem.

Questions for self-test

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See also:

 * Computer program
 * Computer programming

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Types and variables

Course Navigation

Variables
A variable in any programming language is a named piece of computer memory, containing some information inside. Think of a variable as a box with a name, where we can "store" something. We create, edit and delete variables, as much as we need in our tasks. Variables usually are of a certain type (which define their logical representation and size). Say, we created a variable with name A and of type integer. This tells the compiler that we reserved a part of our memory for storing an integer number (usually 4 bytes long, depending on our language, compiler and machine type). We could also create another one, called B, but this one of type real. This variable will be also 4 bytes long, but we use this byte for storing floating point value, with certain precision and exponent. Variables can be static and dynamic.

Declaring Variables
Here is a list of some fundamental data types, and their characteristics, from C++:

Integer types
Integers are ordinary whole numbers, or numbers with no fractional/decimal parts. Integers can be added, subtracted, divided, and multiplied. Care must be taken when integers are divided in certain programming languages, as the division of two integers may not be a whole number, and may not be properly displayed. E.g., In C, 'int 5' divided by 'int 2' would output 'int 2', losing the 0.5.

Integers can be signed or unsigned. The sign itself takes up one bit, but that bit reduces the range of numerical values the variable can represent. Signed integers can represent about half of the positive numbers an unsigned integer can, but can represent both positive and negative values of those numbers.

48 3 80398309843098340

Reals
Reals, or floating point numbers, represent numbers that can have fractional or decimal parts. Floating point numbers are represented a bit differently than Integers, and can represent a much larger range of numbers.

Some care must be exercised with floating point numbers, because while there are an infinite number of floating point numbers, there are (by definition) only a finite number of numbers that can be expressed in a computer. Another issue is the absolute size of the numbers being handled. These issues are known as accuracy and precision. For balancing a checkbook they will not be significant, but in other cases they can lead to big issues.

1.0 45.5 4.32e10

Characters and strings
Up until now, we've discussed types that are of a single value, and which only represent numerical values. Text, which is what you are reading now, isn't a single value -- it's made up of numerous letters and punctuation, each of which is an individual value. A Character is a single letter, number, punctuation or other value.

A String is a collection of these character values, often manipulated as if it were a single value.

characters p 4 %

strings Hello blah blah That is a nice new pair of shoes you are wearing

Visibility and Lifetime of Variables
Variables can have different visibility, or scope, according to how they are declared and used. Scope refers to the ability to access the contents of a particular variable at a certain point in the program.

Usually, a variable's scope is determined by its enclosing block. A block can be enclosed explicitly in some languages (begin/end, {/} pairs), while in others the block is implicit.

Almost all languages have an overall bounding scope, and if a program declares a variable in this scope, it is known as a global variable.

A local variable, by contrast, is one that is only visible, or "in scope", within its block.

Consider this code: integer globalVariable globalVariable = 5

begin integer localVariable localVariable = 7 globalVariable = 8 end

localVariable = 3 /* <-- this is a syntax error */ the global variable is declared outside of any block, so is in the (implicit) global scope, making it a global variable. the local variable is declared in the begin/end block, limiting its scope to that block.

Variable globalVariable starts as 5, is assigned 8 in the block and exits as 8. Variable localVariable is assigned 7, then goes out of scope before being illegally assigned 3. There is no variable localVariable at this level.

The lifetime of a variable tells you when the variable is active. In the preceding example, a global variable is created at the start of the program and has a lifetime equal to the length of the program. For localVariable, it isn't created until just after the block begins directive. Its life is over when the program passes the end directive.

Dynamic memory allocation
Many programs have very specific purposes and need very specific and small areas of memory. If we were writing a program for reading image files, we aren't sure exactly how big the images could be. Some could be hundreds of megabytes, while some might be kilobytes or less. Allocating hundreds of megabytes that aren't needed would make the program difficult to run on some computers while allocating too little memory would mean that there are some images we can't handle.

A good approach to this problem is allocating memory as needed. This is called Dynamic memory allocation. We simply ask for as much as we need while the program is running (rather than stating predetermined block of memory at compile time), no more and no less. In our example, this would let us edit both huge and tiny image files in an efficient and effective way. There is some added complexity since it is no longer the language that is dealing with the details of allocation, but us directly. In our example, if we are running on a lower end computer, there may not be enough memory to accommodate large image files, so we have to detect (and possibly gracefully fail) in such situations.

Dynamic memory allocation is a principal source of "memory leaks", where programs allocate and use specific blocks of memory, but fail to mark it as being available once the program has finished using it. These problems can be hard to track down since unlike other bugs, leaks aren't readily apparent.

Some modern languages have built-in mechanisms to try and prevent memory leaks, known as garbage collection. This system keeps track of what allocation is used where, when it is out of scope. Garbage collection has a slight performance penalty, but it's now commonly regarded as progress. Java and Python, for example, have a garbage collector.

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Introduction to Computer Science/Development environment and language principles

Course Navigation

Choosing the right Development Environment, whether you may use Windows, some flavour of Unix or another operating system, the development environment will go a long way in helping you to begin programming in your preferred language. First, we will need to know the type of language we are going to choose, whether it is a compiled or interpreted language will be dependent on your programming needs.

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User:Talonhawk

I'm a college student primarliy studying Computer Science and I hope to be the owner of a successful business in the future. I am very interested in the science and art of education and hope to be of some service to this community.

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Music Theory I

Introduction
This is the first Music Theory course. It provides an introduction to basic music theory, pitches, pitch collections (scales), key signatures, rhythmic meters, and modes. You should already know music fundamentals such as clefs, staves, accidentals, dynamics, and rhythmic values.

For more fundamental musical theory, see Introduction to Music or Fundamentals of Music.

What is music?
The definition of music itself is elusive. We want to be general enough to include a wide range of styles and cultures and approaches, yet not so wide that the term "music" can mean anything, and therefore, nothing. Here are some attempts:

 * Music is a series of tones
 * Music is sound organized by humans
 * Music is an art-and-science
 * Music is an abstract communication language
 * Music is an emotional expression of the soul
 * Music is made up of the elements of melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, texture, dynamics, and form
 * Music is the created order of nature
 * Music is culturally-defined psychological expression in sound
 * Music is love

All of these definitions have merit and truth. For now, let us define music as an art form expressed through the medium of sound, organized aurally (what we hear) and rhythmically (when we hear it).

What is music theory?
When we say music theory, we usually aren't talking about a universal system of understanding music. Rather, we are focusing specifically on Western Tonal Harmonic music, or "common practice" music. This type of music was developed from 1650 to 1900 in Western Europe. We consider it "common practice" not because it is the only good sounding music, but because it was a widely accepted system of analyzing music for three hundred years and is the foundation for much classical, pop, rock, and some aspects of blues and jazz music.

Let us define this type of music theory a little further. Music theory is merely a system of describing, notating, communicating, and analyzing music. It is not a "theory" like the theory of relativity, but rather a framework for understanding many types of music. It does not describe how music should work or what makes music work, but is simply a method by which composers, musicians, educators and anyone else can communicate and understand Western Tonal music.

While there are certain advanced elements to music theory (such as tuning and the overtone series) which have a "universal" application due to being based on the physics of vibration, the more common elements of music theory that are taught in universities today are these aspects of Western Tonal Harmony. The music theory we discuss here would not be particularly suited to talking about Indonesian Gamelan music or very modern classical pieces, both of which would require a different method of music theory analysis.

Pitch
All music is based on sound and when we refer to a specific tone we are referring to a pitch. Every key on a piano plays a different pitch. In traditional western music, we focus on twelve pitches to make music. They are as follows: C, C♯/D♭, D, D♯/E♭, E, F, F♯/G♭, G, G♯/A♭, A, A♯/B♭, and B

It may be helpful to picture a piano keyboard:

If you've seen a piano before, you'll notice that after we get to B, the whole thing just starts over again. Normally, there are eight C-keys on a piano. Each of those keys plays the same sound (in this case, the tone C) but higher or lower depending on the key. Therefore, we would say that the eight C-keys on a piano are the same pitch class but different pitches.

If you consult our pitches above, it may appear that seventeen notes have been listed, but this list actually only contains twelve notes. The notes with a slash between them are enharmonic, meaning that they represent the same pitch with two different names. For example, C♯ (C sharp) and D♭ (D flat) are actually the same. To see this, these notes both get played by the same black key on a piano.

The sharp and flat symbols should be familiar to you by now, but let us have a quick review. A sharp is one pitch higher than the note it is attached to. For instance F♯ (F sharp) is one pitch higher than F. Inversely, a flat is one pitch lower than the note it is attached to. Thus, E♭ (E flat) is one pitch lower than E. You might be tempted to think that any sharp or flat is the same thing as a black key on the piano, but this is not so. For instance, E♯ is enharmonic with F and C♭ is enharmonic with B.

While they are not quite as common, there is also a double sharp (x) and a double flat (♭♭). These symbols only mean that the tone is two pitches higher or lower than the note they are attached to. For example, A♭♭ would be enharmonic with G and Dx would be enharmonic with E.

The majority of Western music has emerged from the twelve pitch classes listed above. Just about every Western scale and chord (and a great many non-Western scales and chords) are founded from these notes.

The octave
As was briefly mentioned above, all the C-keys on a piano are in the same pitch class, but are different pitches. If you remember, we also said that after we list the twelve pitches, we start over. For example... C, C♯/D♭, D, D♯/E♭, E, F, F♯/G♭, G, G♯/A♭, A, A♯/B♭, B, C, C♯/D♭, D, D♯/E♭, E, F ...and so on and so on. If you look at any pitch "C", what is twelve pitches above it? Another C. What is twelve pitches above that? Yet another C. This distance (of twelve pitches) is called an octave.

Another way to think of it would be that an octave is the distance between two consecutive pitches in any pitch class. So if our pitch class is "C" we might have the following pitches: C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7. The distance between C3 and C4 is one octave. The distance between C2 and C5 is three octaves.

Basic intervals
The octave is a way of measuring musical distance. The distance between any two notes is called an interval. There are twelve basic intervals (corresponding with the twelve pitches) but there are two that particularly important: the half step (or semitone) and whole step (or whole tone). A half step is the distance between two consecutive pitches. For instance, the distance between G and A♭, or F and F♯, or B and C. You could think about a piano; the distance between any key to the keys immediately next to it is one half step. A whole step is two half steps. So the distance between D and E, or A♭ and B♭, or E♭ and F is one whole step.

These intervals are listed in order, beginning at the Unison and progressing up to the octave:

The naming conventions come from the following set of rules, which you don't need to learn, but are useful to know about at least.

 * The unison, fourth, fifth, and octave are perfect. The term perfect doesn't mean that the notes are superior, but comes from the very clear, resolute, final, "perfect" sound they have.
 * The m3, M3, m6, and M6 are considered consonant intervals because they produce a fairly pleasant, stable sound, although not as stable as the perfect intervals.
 * The m2, M2, m7, and M7 are considered dissonant intervals because they produce a fairly tension-filled sound that needs to resolve.
 * A minor interval is smaller than its major counterpart by a semitone. Conversely, a major interval is larger than its minor counterpart by a semitone.
 * An augmented interval is larger than its perfect/major counterpart by a semitone.
 * A diminished interval is smaller than its perfect/minor counterpart by a semitone.

Although they weren't listed above, there are more intervals. For instance, as stated above, a diminished interval is smaller than its perfect/minor counterpart by one half step. Therefore, a diminished fourth would be a perfect fourth (5 half steps) minus one half step, ending up with four half steps. You may notice that this is identical to the distance of a major third. The difference between the two is how we would write the interval on the page, but there would be no aural difference. Take care to note that you cannot have a minor fifth or a major fourth, for such terms are impossible. If you were to increase the distance in your perfect fifth, you would have an augmented fifth, and so on.

We can name these intervals in a universal way, consisting of the following:

[Modifying Symbol][Number]

where the modifying symbol denotes perfect (P), major (M), minor (m), augmented (+), or diminished (°), and the number corresponds to the name of the interval - so 2 for second, 6 for sixth, etc.

Let us talk briefly about enharmonics, for when it comes to intervals they do make a difference. If you started with C and wanted a minor sixth, you would go up eight half steps until you got to G♯/A♭, however you wouldn't use the note G♯. The distance between C and G♯ is an augmented fifth. If you wanted a minor sixth, you would say C to A♭. The difference here is, again, written but not aural. There is no discernible change from an augmented fifth or a minor sixth, but for our analytical purposes, it is a very important distinction.

Compound intervals
There is a system of naming notes past the octave, used commonly in jazz but also to an extent in modern classical and pop music, called compound intervals. These are essentially the same as the basic intervals, but expanded by an octave (12 semitones remember). Our naming and notational conventions carry over, but we add seven to the note number.

For example, a minor sixth (8 semitones) goes up an octave to become a minor thirteenth (now 20 semitones). Where we notate it before at m6, we now notate with m13.

Again, this system is used mostly in jazz. For now, as we study Western Tonal Harmony, we will use our basic intervals. If you were to see a minor thirteenth in a piece of music, we would simplify and call it a minor sixth.

Introduction to meter
As you listen to most music, you will notice a discernible beat, or a primary pulse. In common practice music, we can either divide this beat into two parts (and multiples of two, such as four), which we call simple meters, or we can divide it into three parts (and multiples of three, such as six), which we call compound meter. When we say we can divide the beat into two or three, all we are saying is that it is easiest to divide the beat into this number. We could arbitrarily divide the beat into five or seven, but almost all music naturally divides into two or three.

Notice all that we have been talking about is how the beats divide. But beats can also be grouped into larger sections. We could place beats into groups of two (which we call duple), three (which we call triple), or four (which we call quadruple). We could place the beats into as large a group as we want, but for now let us stay with duple/triple/quadruple as they are the most common. These groupings of beats are called measures or bars and are shown on sheet music with thin lines to divide the measures.

Thus, we could have a piece of music with a simple triple meter. Refer to the terms above. A simple triple meter would be one in which we could put the beats into groups of three and the beats themselves divide easily into two parts. The familiar song "Amazing Grace" is in simple triple meter. Take a look at the chart below:

No doubt you have heard the terms rhythm and meter by now, perhaps interchangeably, however let us separate the two words: rhythm refers to the length of a pitch in a piece while meter is the framework of strong and weak beats in which rhythm is placed.

Meter signatures
A meter signature or a time signature is located at the beginning of a piece and sets the meter type (Simple/Compound and Duple/Triple/Quadruple) and the beat unit. The beat unit is the note length which gets one beat. A time signature is set up like this: [Beats per Measure] [Beat Unit]

The top number will tell us what the meter type is while the bottom number will tell us the beat unit. If the upper number is 2, 3, or 4, it will usually mean that the meter is simple duple, simple triple, or simple quadruple respectively. If the upper number is 6, 9, or 12, the meter will likely be compound duple, compound triple, or compound quadruple. The lower number indicates the following: 2 = half note, 4 = quarter note, 8 = eighth note, 16 = sixteenth note. You can reference this chart for easier understanding:

Pitch collections
The traditional Western music that we are studying does not usually use all twelve of our pitch classes. Instead, we have discovered that it is aurally pleasing to use only some of the twelve pitch classes at any given time. We call this a pitch-class collection. If we were to select all twelve of the pitch classes we would have a chromatic collection. A chromatic scale is one in which all of the pitch classes are played. However, we normally use a diatonic collection ("diatonic" with the root of "tonic", referring to the tones) of seven pitch classes. These diatonic collections usually take the form of the major and minor scales.

Major scale
No doubt you have heard of the major scale before. As we have said above, the major scale is a diatonic pitch-class collection. The major scale employs seven of the twelve pitch classes and is composed of the unison (P1), the major second (M2), the major third (M3), the perfect fourth (P4), the perfect fifth (P5), the major sixth (M6), and the major seventh (M7) before repeating again. This particular selection of pitches is what gives the major scale its distinct sound and what differentiates it from other pitch-class collections (such as the minor scale).

As an example, if we choose C to be the root (the starting point of a pitch-class collection), the Major scale would be:

C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, etc.

Note that we repeat the C at the top of the scale. So we use eight notes but only seven pitches (because the C is repeated).

Another way to describe the Major scale is to describe the steps between each note of the scale. We know that the distance between each neighboring pitch is one half step. If we use "H" to name a half step and "W" to name a whole step, the Major scale can be described as WWHWWWH.

One creates a Major scale by first choosing a certain pitch as the root, or starting point. Because it started on "C", the C Major scale was shown above has a "C" root. Other major scales can be created by starting on other notes and then by following the pattern of WWHWWWH from that root. Any of the twelve pitches may be the basis for the major scale.

Some major scales are redundant in the sense that they sound the same as their enharmonic counterparts (e.g. G♭-major sounds the same as F♯-major). Some redundancies are more common while others are not. Generally, if one has to go beyond the use of single sharps or flats, then one has created a redundant scale which can be more simply expressed (e.g. G♭♭-major: G♭♭, A♭♭, B♭♭, C♭♭, D♭♭, E♭♭, F♭, G♭♭ is incredibly redundant compared to F-major: F, G, A, B♭, C, D, E, F).

Minor scale
The minor scale is another diatonic pitch-class collection. Like the major scale, the minor scale employs only seven notes from the twelve available pitches. There are many types of minor scales but for our purposes, we are going to focus on three. The Natural Minor scale, the Harmonic Minor scale, and the Melodic Minor scale.

The natural minor
This is the most common form of the minor scale, and can be represented by the pattern WHWWHWW. A common way to create a natural minor scale is to take a major scale a lower scale degree 3,6, and 7 by a semi-tone. The scale could also be thought of in terms of intervals and is composed of the unison (P1), the major second (M2), the minor third (m3), the perfect fourth (P4), the perfect fifth (P5), the minor sixth (m6), and the minor seventh (m7). Using "A" as our root, the scale would be as follows:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A

The harmonic minor
The Harmonic Minor scale is almost exactly the same as the Natural Minor scale with the exception of one pitch. A common way to create a harmonic minor scale is to take a major scale a lower scale degree 3, 6 by a semi-tone, leaving scale degree 7 as written in its parallel major. It can be represented as WHWWH(W+H)H. Note the large Whole+Half Step (3 semitone) in parenthesis. This augmented second interval between the sixth and seventh pitches is what distinguishes the Harmonic Minor scale and was created to add more tension and interest to the music incorporating it.

When A is the root, the scale runs:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G♯, A

The melodic minor
The Melodic Minor is very distinct from the previous scales discussed in that it has two forms, ascending and descending, which are used respectively according to rise and fall of the scale. The descending form of the scale is the same as the Natural Minor scale:

A, G, F, E, D, C, B, A

Note that the pitches are in reverse order because, obviously, we are descending downwards. The ascending form is a kind of combination between major and minor scales. It can be represented as WHWWWWH or:

A, B, C, D, E, F♯, G♯, A

Modes
Modes are another type of pitch-class collection. There are seven common modes and they are all diatonic. Let's build a major scale on "C":

C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C

We know that this is a major scale but it is also one of the seven modes, called Ionian. The Ionian Mode and a major scale are one and the same. Let us imagine the same seven pitches (C, D, E, F, G, A, B) but using instead the root of "D".

D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D

This is no major scale, nor is it any minor scale we have learned. It is, however, a mode, called Dorian. If we continue this pattern, using each of the seven pitches as our root, we will get all of our modes. If we use "E" as the root, the mode would be Phrygian. If we use "F", we would have Lydian Mode. If we use "G", we would have Mixolydian. If we use "A", we would have Aeolian Mode. Let us take a closer look at Aeolian Mode:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A

Look familiar? The Aeolian Mode and the Natural Minor scale are the same thing, just like the Ionian Mode and the major scale. Finally, if we used "B" as the root, we would get Locrian Mode.

Remember that even though we used only C, D, E, F, G, A, B in our example, a mode can be built on any pitch.

Key signatures
A key signature shows which pitch classes are to be consistently played sharp or flat throughout the piece. It is placed at the beginning of each line of a score. To help understand why key signatures are beneficial, look at this example:

Even though both images above are of the same music, the second version is much easier to read, analyze, and to play. The key signature, by placing the flat accidentals in a tidy formation, rather than having them dispersed across the page, makes the reading of them much easier.

We have eight sharp key signatures and eight flat key signatures. They look like the following:

You may have noticed that each time we add a sharp, we use the pitch a P5 higher. In other words, the order in which we add sharps is:

F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯

After this, another P5 about B♯ is F♯ again so, therefore, that is as many sharps as we can add. You also may have noticed that once we have B♯, all the pitches have the sharp accidental attached and it would be impossible to sharp any more pitches without using double sharps.

Each time we add a flat, we use the pitch a P5 lower. The order of flats is:

B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭

Similarly, after F♭, the next pitch would be B♭ again. Many students use a mnemonic to remember the order of sharps and flats. A very common mnemonic would be "Father Charles goes down and ends battle" (the order of sharps), or reversed, "Battle ends and down goes Charles' Father" (the order of flats). You are welcome to use whatever you like but the key signatures are something that should be memorized.

Some of the key signatures are enharmonic with each other: D♭ is enharmonic with C♯, G♭ with F♯, and C♭ with B. To better understand this, take a look at the circle of fifths, with shows each of the key signatures, which major or minor key it may represent, the number of sharps or flats it contains, and which keys are enharmonic.

You may be wondering how we can know what the major or minor key of the piece is from the key signature. Well, the key signature with three flats indicates a major or minor key with B♭, E♭, and A♭. The major key that has such flat notes is E♭ Major, and the minor key is C Minor. However, there are a few tricks that make it easier to determine the key without having to consult sheets of key signatures and major and minor scales.

 * 1) To determine the major key of a flat key signature, look at the next-to-last flat. The key signature with six flats is G♭ Major. Of course, this does not work with only one flat, but there is only one key signature with one flat: F Major.
 * 2) To determine the major key of a sharp key signature, look at the last sharp, then move up one half-step. For instance, the key signature with four sharps in E Major. Take care to note that if you move up one half-step but they key signature contains a sharp on that note, you must include the sharp. For instance the key signature with seven sharps is C♯ Major not C Major, which has no sharps.

Be careful that you do not assume that the key signature automatically determines the actual key of a piece. The key signature might have two flats, but this does not mean that the piece is in B♭ Major. It could be in G Minor, or C Dorian, or E♭ Lydian, or... etc. When determining the key of the piece, we must consider the key signature in combination with the pitch-class collection and the interactions of the intervals within the music.

title: Music Theory I


text: File:Chapter menu iTunes.png

title: File:Chapter menu iTunes.png


text:
Portal talk:Cardiology

Hi, I've noticed that there seems to be a lack of navigation arrows i.e. forward, back etc. on the page/s.

This makes it very hard to return to the next topic.

Suggest incorporation of these controls. --Richard 01:31, 13 September 2006 (UTC) Merge complete DónalMcK 06:55, 24 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Cardiology


text: User talk:Sudhir.84

title: User talk:Sudhir.84


text:
User talk:Teddythetank~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Teddythetank. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Teddythetank~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Teddythetank~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Mariopcornejo

title: User talk:Mariopcornejo


text: User:Draicone

title: User:Draicone


text:
Wikiversity:Vandalism

Bottomline: Vandalism is an inherently disruptive or destructive behavior. At Wikiversity and its sister projects, vandalism is considered a nuisance. It's something that needs to be dealt with but which is not a big deal.

No shrines for vandals

Vandalism should be removed and Vandals publicly ignored. If you have doubts, a comment should be left on the user's talk page to offer the person an opportunity to respond. Users that vandalize repeatedly should be blocked. Users that are blocked for vandalism should have their user page deleted or if there is useful content there protected from editing.

If there is a need to document vandalism, it should avoid being a source for vandals to boast about their exploits. Wikiversity does not commemorate inappropriate behavior on other websites or projects. As a result, Wikiversity erects no shrines for vandals.

Wikiversity offers people that discontinue disruptive or destructive behavior an opportunity to make a fresh start.

Philosophy
The primary motive for many vandals is attention. If individuals move pages to inappropriate titles, blank articles, write obscene words, propose pages for speedy deletion without merit, deliberately add false information, or whatever else vandals do, it's to gain attention. It's "funny" to see people stop their work and take care of the damage. It's "entertaining" to show friends what one has done on pages that many other people visit. Disruption is "cool". By refusing to acknowledge individual vandals, we take away what they crave most.

Dealing with vandalism
Wikiversity works when people are bold and assume others are acting in good faith. If you believe a page has been vandalized, take a moment to consider whether the material may have been added in good faith. If you believe material was not added in good faith, you can undo the changes.

Click the "history" tab and click the "undo" link alongside the questionable revision. Before saving please explain in your edit summary what the purpose of the edit was and why the edit was undone — commonly used summaries include "revert vandalism" or "rvv". If the changes were made in multiple edits then you'll need to instead select the radio buttons corresponding to the most recent questionable revision and the most recent unaffected revision before clicking "Compare selected revisions" and then "undo" under the most recent edit.

Custodians have access to the Rollback tool which reverts the last change or group of changes made to a page by the same user. Unlike the "undo" method, rollback doesn't prompt for an edit summary. Custodians may use rollback for obvious cases of vandalism which require no explanation. If you want an explanation for a rollback, you can ask a custodian why a change or group of changes were rolled back on their talk page, or bring it up for discussion at Notices for custodians.

Additionally, you can use some of the programs listed below to assist you in dealing with vandalism:
 * MWT - a very lightweight yet efficient vandal fighting tool written by w:User:Michael Billington. User:Draicone is a developer and project admin. This tool will soon be ported to work on Wikiversity.

 * Join the #cvn-sw IRC channel; this channel has a reporting bot which flags likely vandalistic edits.

If you find vandalism you can't deal with yourself or if the same user is repeatedly engaging in vandalism, you might want to leave a note at Request custodian action. Custodians are users with special tools that enable them to block users and protect pages from editing. You can also find custodians in the Wikiversity chat room.

title: Wikiversity:Vandalism


text:
User:Lemi4

Note: I am the same Lemi4 as the one at Wikipedia. --Lemi4 09:18, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Lemi4


text:
User talk:Pranay Biswas~enwikiversity

I AM PRANAY BISWAS
1.Adress:JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY. Physics-148,batch:2004-07 KOLKATA-700032,West Bengal. INDIA 2.Personality:I am a simple man having critical thoughts and an undesireable panic to being a great man.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pranay Biswas. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pranay Biswas~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:47, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Pranay Biswas~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Adi89~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Adi89. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Adi89~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:27, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Adi89~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Alkiviadis

title: User talk:Alkiviadis


text:
User talk:AmandaSmith~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called AmandaSmith. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name AmandaSmith~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:28, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:AmandaSmith~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Fine fettle

title: User talk:Fine fettle


text:
User talk:Nvwaero~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Nvwaero. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Nvwaero~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:45, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Nvwaero~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Godpop

title: User talk:Godpop


text:
User:Pranay Biswas~enwikiversity

I AM PRANAY BISWAS
1.Adress:JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY. Physics-148,batch:2004-07 KOLKATA-700032,West Bengal. INDIA 2.Personality:I am a simple man having critical thoughts and an undesireable panic to being a great man.

title: User:Pranay Biswas~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Ron navarette

title: User talk:Ron navarette


text: User talk:Lifangwei

title: User talk:Lifangwei


text: User talk:Kdsteph7

title: User talk:Kdsteph7


text: User talk:Lemi4

title: User talk:Lemi4


text: User talk:Fatti

title: User talk:Fatti


text:
User talk:Deonraoul~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Deonraoul. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Deonraoul~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Deonraoul~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Khankhawari

title: User talk:Khankhawari


text:
User talk:Accounts~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Accounts. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Accounts~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:26, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Accounts~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Kiemfresh

title: User talk:Kiemfresh


text:
Talk:Introduction to Philosophy

any volunteer to make a progress in this page. i really need a tutor about philosophy. i'm trying to be systematic while i'm learning about it but i'm just lost. help! i need somebody (: --Quinlan Vos 13:25, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

There's an introduction to philosophy (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Philosophy) on wikibooks.. it's unfinished, though. There's also an introduction to philosophical logic (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Philosophical_Logic) there. Should any of those be in the texts section? 71.178.204.41 19:15, 22 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Please list them at Introduction to Philosophy. --JWSchmidt 19:27, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

I just added a link to Wikisource's Gorgias dialog in the references for the first lesson. It seems that a primary source is needed. This is my first edit here, although I did some Wikipedia edits a few years ago. I thought I'd add something minor first. I have to say that this page seems a little disorganized, but I have no idea if anyone is currently following it. Whitecphil (talk) 20:52, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

opinion
This was moved from here to this page. Erkan Yilmaz ( my talk page, wiki blog ) 17:25, 9 October 2007 (UTC) I think Osho's teaching's more than enough to know about philosophy. -Suresh Gottimukkala.

Making the TOC more compact
This page begins with what looks like a plan to make a long list of link using the asterisk at the beginning of each line. At the moment there are no links. I replaced Replaced * by    |     to allow readers to better see the whole page. In source edit mode this is easily reversed by making the backward replacement. --Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 03:24, 30 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Philosophy


text: User talk:Star333j333

title: User talk:Star333j333


text:
Talk:Native Americans and the horse

Need?
There is no need for this at Wikiversity. IPs can already create pages, why would we want to change that? -- sebmol ? 16:08, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Native Americans and the horse


text:
User talk:Krishna~enwikiversity

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Krishna. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Krishna~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:41, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Krishna~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Wikichaos

title: User talk:Wikichaos


text:
User talk:Bisbohemian~enwikiversity

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:Bisbohemian~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Javier cardenas

title: User talk:Javier cardenas


text: User talk:Macukali

title: User talk:Macukali


text:
Template:Doppelganger

Usage
This template adds pages to Category:Wikiversity doppelganger accounts.

title: Template:Doppelganger


title: User:AwoIf002


text:
Oboe

The oboe is a double-reed woodwind instrument. There are several different sizes of instrument in the oboe "family". The oboe is most common instrument of the family, and is pitched in the key of C. There is a slightly larger instrument, called the oboe d'amore (the oboe of love) which is pitched in the key of A, the larger cor anglais (English horn) pitched in the key of F and the heckelphone, pitched in the key of C, but an octave below the oboe.

Reed

The oboe uses double reeds, unlike the saxophone family and the clarinet family, which use a single reed. The double reeds are more complex to make which means that oboe reeds cost more than the average single reed. But it is all worth it, because if the reed is kept safe, it can last for over two months until the sound goes sour. Whenever possible, buy hand-made reeds or make your own, instead of getting the machine made ones. Hand-made reeds are more carefully made than factory reeds, and will most likely last a while longer. All players need to learn to adjust their reeds so that they can get the best possible tone.

Aural concept

The oboe has a unique sound. Some would say that it is "annoying" or "horrible", but that means that you do not know the beauty of it. A famous pun is that the oboe is "an ill wind that nobody plays good." To oboe players, the oboe is a wonderful instrument, and, if the oboe is tuned right, the musician can convey this majestic sound for their audience to hear. The oboe is also known to be tuned to in an orchestra because of how hard it is to tune.

title: Oboe


text: User talk:Sedky118

title: User talk:Sedky118


text:
User talk:Emilie Tolman~enwikiversity

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:35, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Emilie Tolman~enwikiversity


text:
User talk:Chrisklerkx~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Chrisklerkx. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Chrisklerkx~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chrisklerkx~enwikiversity


text: User talk:PDumondJr

title: User talk:PDumondJr


text: User talk:Lilys.petal

title: User talk:Lilys.petal


text:
Web Design/The Structure of HTML

After coming to understand the concept of mark-up, you will want to start learning the actual 'marks' used in HTML. We call these elements or sometimes tags, and this activity is designed to:

 * Familiarize you with the general form of elements.
 * Familiarize you with the idea of nesting elements.
 * Familiarize you with the idea of attributes.
 * Give you a base vocabulary of elements you can begin to use in creating HTML.
 * Show you how to view the source HTML of your web pages with a common web browser.

It will be assumed you:

 * Understand the difference between local and online files.
 * Have already selected a text editor and understand its basic use. For a discussion of text editors go here.

This activity is not designed to:

 * Give a comprehensive list of elements.
 * Give a comprehensive list of attributes or their accepted values.
 * Discuss document type, the meta elements, or comments.

Element form
Elements are the basic unit of mark-up in HTML. They are distinguished from plain text by the less-than and greater-than characters. < >

Many elements are paired, consisting of an opening tag and a closing tag, and are of the container type. The accompanying closing tag is denoted by a forward slash.  text  A few elements do not need to have a closing tag, such as a line break.

Try it!
Open your text editor and copy and paste the folowing text:

  Web Design is an incredibly fun skill to learn - combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from current professionals who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs! You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a good foundation for any web designer. Of course, if you have something to add or improve then please contribute.

Save the file as web.html and open it in your web browser. The first thing you will notice is that the text is displayed as a single block, with none of the line returns. Your web browser will ignore any extra white-space and render it as a single space.

Let's go back to the text editor and add a few formatting elements. Bold   displays as: Bold Italics displays as: Italics

Alternatively we can use 'emphasis' and 'strong' elements to set a block of text apart from the surrounding text. Emphasised                     displays as: Emphasised Strongly Emphasised    displays as: Strongly Emphasised

Use of emphasis and strong is generally preferred over italics and bold.

Experiment by adding these and the line break element shown above to your document. Save your changes and then refresh your browser.

Self-Closing Tags In XHTML
If you don't know what XHTML is, simply skip this quick clarification.

If your page is being written using XHTML, elements with no closing tags should be closed by a forward slash ('/') just before the closing > per the W3C XHTML standard. For example:
 This will also result in the page being XHTML compliant (if an appropriate doctype is set, which we will move on to later). This does not ensure that the page will be served as XHTML, however. In order for these additional self-closing slashes to be significant, the page must be served with the proper Content-Type HTTP header, or the page will become "Pretend XHTML."

Please note that this practice should not be followed if the page is being written using standard HTML. Standard HTML does not require self-closing tags and, while the page will continue to display properly, these additional slashes will be considered to be errors.

Nesting
You may have noticed the html and body elements used in the previous example. Those elements along with the head element form the basis for the structure of any webpage. The html element marks where the document begins and ends. The head section comes next, and gives the browser some data that is not contained in the page itself. The body contains all that will display on the page.   <title>This text appears in the browser's title bar.</title>

As you can imagine, as page content is added more and more elements will begin to fill your html file and it will become difficult to keep everything straight. The spaces (or tabs) in front of some of the lines helps to keep them visually separated and allow you to ensure that the page structure is correct.

You can also see from the above example how each element is placed within the page structure and becomes a part of that structure. The title element is completely within the head element. The head element is completely within the html element. The head and body elements do not overlap. This is often called nesting. Though many web browsers can be forgiving for small mistakes, nesting is required in many cases for your page to display properly.

Try it!
Go back to your web.html file and make the following changes:   <title>Web Design</title>   Web Design is an incredibly fun skill to learn - combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from current professionals who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs!

 You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a good foundation for any web designer. Of course, if you have something to add or improve then please contribute.

Save and refresh your browser. Notice how the word 'learn' in the line 'incredibly fun skill to learn' is both italicised and bolded. For the HTML to be valid in this case, the closing bold element must be within the italics element. If something is not displaying properly, this is one of the mistakes to look for.

Viewing Source
When viewing a web page, you may want to know its structure. Most common browsers have a menu command called View Page Source. Clicking on this command opens a new window showing the page with all of its HTML elements. When validating your web pages, it can be helpful to compare the results with your source to find any errors quickly. This can also be useful to see how someone has marked up any page on the web to achieve their results, a great learning tool.

Try it!

 * For mozilla based browsers. : Go to your browser window of web.html and right click anywhere on the page. Select 'View Page Source'.

Attributes
The elements we have discussed so far have performed simple and predictable actions. If we want a bit more control over our web pages, we will need to be able to alter the performance of some elements.

Many tags have additional functions that can be controlled through attributes. Attributes are placed within the opening tag. It is often neccessary to specify a value for the attribute. The attribute is followed by an equal sign and the value is placed within quotes, as below.

The anchor element is a well used example. It is used for linking documents. The most commonly used attribute for the anchor element is HREF which creates a link to the URL specified. Google    displays as: Google

Try it!
Lets add what we've just learned to our web.html file. Try to reproduce the result below including 'Web Design' in the title bar and a link to Wikipedia after the last paragraph. When you are ready, you can compare it to my source. Web Design is an incredibly fun skill to learn - combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from current professionals who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs! You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a good foundation for any web designer. Of course, if you have something to add or improve then please contribute. Wikipedia

Remember, no peeking until you have tried to do it on your own!

  <title>Web Design</title>   Web Design is an incredibly fun skill to learn - combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from current professionals who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs!

 You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a good foundation for any web designer. Of course, if you have something to add or improve then please contribute.
 Wikipedia

title: Web Design/The Structure of HTML


text:
Web Design/Useful Books

Please update this page with books that you have also found useful, but only if you have used them yourself (and are not the author!). Please describe why the book was helpful to you and include a link to the book on Amazon so we can read other reviews.

Creating a Web Page with HTML - Elizabeth Castro
Level: Introductory HTML/CSS

This book is by the same author as "HTML for the WWW with XHTML and CSS" - Elizabeth Castro - but differs in that it aims to introduce the tools of the Web (HTML and CSS) without overwhelming the reader with detail.

And it does this really well by stepping you, the learner, through a small web project from beginning to end. This includes everything from creating the HTML, CSS files and images yourself, through to publishing your site on the web.

The straight-forward simplicity of the book is its greatest asset, leading you through all essential tasks related to creating a simple web page the right way. The book does not pretend to be a thorough guide to HTML and CSS, nor does it go into much depth about each step - but this is a strength not a weakness (each chapter does include a section called extra bits at the end). Instead, this is a book that tells you just what you need to know to get going but, importantly, it gets you going in the right direction!

You can check out the reviews collected by the author, as well as those on Amazon.

CSS Specific books
Stylin' with CSS by Charles Wyke-Smith - an excellent follow up to Elizabeth Castro's HTML, XHTML & CSS 6th ed. This book really fills in the blanks with clear explanations of the box model & construction of selectors.

The author provides a clear explanation of the difference between the cascade & inheritance so you can track down style rules that are incorrectly affecting your elements. Combine this with an excellent section on specificity & you'll be constructing selectors much more effectively.

The book also shows you how to use universal selectors to level up cross browser behaviors & to eliminate the need to duplicate styling rules.

If you can't figure out why your elements are getting all fujumbled - the author clearly explains absolute & relative positioning & floats so you can relatively position yourself in the design community AND still remain in the flow.

After reading this book you will look at page elements in a different way. You'll see how they relate to one another depending on whether they're inline or block level - how padding & margins cause them to react to each other & how they'll present themselves in different browsers. As a result you'll have a much easier time laying out your designs.

My review is not near as lucid as the explanations in this book...

After learning CSS - I burned my FrontPage 2003 CD!

Design books
Designing Web Usability, Nielson, Jacob - New Riders, ISBN 1-56205-810-X

Book lists

 * Book list at Uni. Minnisota - List includes Accessibility, Color, CSS, Dreamweaver, Information Architecture, Evaluation, JavaScript, Navigation, PHP, Project Management, Typography, Usability, Web Standards, Writing, (X)HTML.
 * Books recommended by Web Teacher for teaching and learning web design including (X)HTML, CSS, Dreamweaver, Usability, design, web standards, PHP and JavaScript.

Reference Books

 * HTML and XHTML Pocket Reference, 3rd Edition - Published by O'Reilly
 * CSS Pocket Refernce, 2nd Edition - Published by O'Reilly

Other Web Design Book Listings

 * - Books -List includes CSS, Accessibility, Color, Dreamweaver, Information Architecture, Evaluation, JavaScript, Navigation, PHP, Project Management, Typography, Usability, Web Standards, Writing, (X)HTML.

Out of Print

 * HTML Pocket Reference, 2nd Edition - Published by O'Reilly

title: Web Design/Useful Books


text:
Introduction to Likelihood Theory/Maximum Likelihood Estimation

A simple idea: Since we have seen in previous section (Intuitive Meaning?), we may regard likelihood as the probability of the sample $$x$$ showing up in the space of all the possibles samples of size $$n$$ for a given value of $$\theta$$. But the sample $$x$$ has actually occurred and the sample space is infinite, so this sample might have something special - perhaps it's probability of showing up is bigger than the others. Why don't we maximize it?

Maximizing the Likelihood
If we try to maximize likelihoods of variables with densities like the Gaussian
 * $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\exp\left\{-\frac{(x-\mu)^{2}}{2\sigma^{2}}\right\}$$

directly, things can be rather complicated. But, we know from calculus that maximizing (or minimizing) $$g(f(x))$$ when $$g$$ is strictly crescent is equivalent to maximizing $$f$$. So, we take the logarithm of the likelihood and call the function
 * $$\ell(\theta)=\ln(L(\theta))=\sum_{j=1}^{n}\ln(f_{Y_{j}}(y',\theta))$$

log-likelihood. So, we will maximize the log-likelihood instead of maximizing the proper likelihood.

Statistics, Estimators, Unbiased Estimators, Variance and Consistency of an Estimator
A statistic is a function from a sample $$S$$ in any space we are interested, and suppose that there a log-likelihood function $$\ell(\theta)$$; A estimator for $$\theta$$ is a statistic used to estimate $$\theta$$. These definitions don't add much, but since these words are commonplace for staticians worldwide, they are worth defining. Note that any statistic or estimator is itself a random variable.

In this section we will use our previous notation for samples. A estimator $$s(S)$$ for $$\theta$$ is called unbiased if $$E[s]=\theta$$, and asymptotically unbiased if

$$\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty} E[s(S_{n})]=\theta$$

where $$S_{n}$$ is a sequence of samples(as defined in the section about sampling). In classical views of statistics, only estimators that possessed at least one of these properties where admissible, but the Maximum Likehood Estimators (MLE) are not necessarily unbiased nor asymptotically unbiased.

TODO: Examples of biased estimatives (the easier one is the variance of a normal distribution).

The variance of a estimator $$s$$ is another important thing; We expect that, as our data grows in size, the variance of the estimator goes to zero, for more data means more information, more information means more certanity. So, we say that the estimator is consistent if

$$\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty} V[s(S_{n})]=0$$

but such a strong condition is rarely satisfied; Usually, we have to contempt ourselves with weakly consistent estimators, estimators where

$$V[s(S_{n})]=O_{p}(n^{-1})$$

Reparametrization and Invariance
TODO: Show how to reparametrize a gaussian using the coefficient of variation instead of the variance. Show how to reparametrize $$f(x,\theta)$$ to $$f(x,g(\theta))$$.

A estimator $$s$$ of $$\theta$$ is called invariant under the transformation $$f$$ if the estimator of the parameter $$f(\theta)$$ is $$f(s(\theta))$$. One important property of maximum likelihood estimators is that they are invariant under strictly monotone transformations.

TODO: Show estimators that aren't invariant under monotone functions.

Properties of Maximum Likelihood Estimates
TODO: Show that the MLE are consistent.

Examples of finding Maximum Likelihood Estimators
TODO: Example with a single parameter, continuous case.

TODO: Example of discrete case. Mark-Recapture Sampling.

A wildlife biologist captures and tags n1=300 ducks, and then releases them. After allowing time for mixing of the tagged birds with the population, a second sample of n2=200 birds is taken. It is found that m2=10 of these birds are found to be tagged.

Write down a binomial likelihood for m2.

Plot the likelihood of m2 as a function of the population abundance, N.

What is a maximum likelihood estimator of N?

TODO: Example with a two or more parameters, continuous case. that is nothing

TODO: Example Finding MLE's with a numerical method.

Often in applied problems the likelihood is so complicated that a closed form solution for the MLE cannot be found. In such cases, one must use numerical methods to find an approximate solution. The Metropolis Algorithm is a commonly used approach.


text:
User talk:Kl36044~enwikiversity

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kl36044. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kl36044~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 06:13, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kl36044~enwikiversity


text: User talk:Farriet

title: User talk:Farriet


text: User talk:Dreamscapes

title: User talk:Dreamscapes


text: User talk:K82ly32

title: User talk:K82ly32


text:
User talk:Pedmands

Signature
Here's how to change it:

 * 1. Go to "my preferences" at the top of the page
 * 2. Copy the following to the "Nickname" field:

Pedmands (talk)
 * 3 click on "Raw signatures"

You'll still need to use four tildes, but now it will automatically provide a link to your talk. --SB_Johnny | talk 09:34, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

= testing = Pedmands | talk 16:01, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pedmands


text:
User:Piotrus/Sociology of the family

Intro
This is a wiki page for Piotr Konieczny's recitations (Friday 0800 to 1100) of Sociology of the Family (SOC0438), Fall 2006, University of Pittsburgh.

For students
Dear students, welcome to our wiki page. Wikis are very user-friendly and easy to use, see this quick Wiki-editing tutorial. We will be using this page, hosted at Wikiversity (see here for What Wikiversity is Tutorial), for our optional online activities; remember that quality postings here can earn you additional activity points. If you follow a link above marked 'discussion' or click here you will see the discussion section of our course, where you can post anything you want.

Please note that if you want to post something anonimous, you can do so simply by posting while not being logged in. On the other hand, if you want your post to be considered for activity points, please log in - unsigned, anonimous posts will not be considered for activity points (for obvious reasons).

Study for mid-term and final

 * Mid-Term Study Guide
 * Final-Term Study Guide

Crossword

 * See the crossword activity #1
 * See the crossword activity #2

Collaborative notes
We all take notes. Some do it better, some worse, but there is no such thing as perfect notes. However working together we can combine our notes and create an easy-to-understand, online and hyperlinked study notes. The best places to add your notes would be relevant Wikipedia and Wikibooks articles on 'Sociology of the Family' - see the section below. Substantial contribution to those section will also be recognized with activity points.
 * Notes

Collaborative presentations
We can use wiki to collaborativly work on the presentations.
 * Presentation grade rubric

Ask questions
We learn by asking questions. If you have any questions about this course, answers to which may be useful to others, ask them here - this way we can create our own 'Frequently Asked Questions' database about this course. Whether it's something about the technical aspects of this course (where is the midterm? etc.) or about something that was unclear in the lecture, this site is the best place to ask them first.
 * Discussions

General

 * Syllabus
 * Sociology of the family entry on Wikipedia
 * Sociology of the family entry on Wikibooks

Presentations

 * Example of Evaluating Student Presentations
 * Garr Reyonolds Presentation Tips
 * Presentation Zen - blog about presentations

title: User:Piotrus/Sociology of the family


text:
User talk:Piotrus/Sociology of the family

This is a discussion page for our Sociology of the family course. Feel free to post here anything you want: questions about the course, lectures or recitations, essays for activity points, or anything that you feel is relevant to the course. To post anythink, click 'edit' button above or at the right of each heading. Wiki-editing tutorial is highly recommended, and remember about bottomposting.--Piotrus 03:08, 14 September 2006 (UTC)

Questions
Could it be argued that the characteristics of the modern nuclear family existed in families throughout history and is not just specific to families today?

Which theory of the family perspective is more popular today, Pessimistic, Optomistic, or Skolniks view? Are these views found across cultures or are they specific to Western Society?

aec--Aec 19:07, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
 * A very good question to spark off a discussion. What do you think, people? PS. An actitivy point for you, Aec, for starting our debates!--Piotrus 23:17, 21 September 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Web Design/Useful Books

It looks like when this page was moved, an earlier link was not updated. I began a page there not realizing that this page existed. It might be best to merge the two. The page in question is Web Design:Useful Books. Hope that helps. Talonhawk 03:19, 14 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Web Design/Useful Books


text: File:Subscribe.png

title: File:Subscribe.png


text:
L-infinity algebras and deformation theory

A differential graded Lie algebra is a graded $$k$$-vector space $$\mathfrak{g}$$ endowed with a differential $$d:\mathfrak{g}\to\mathfrak{g}$$ of degree $$+1$$ and a bracket $$[\,]:\mathfrak{g}\otimes\mathfrak{g}\longrightarrow\mathfrak{g}$$ (of degree $$0$$), such that
 * $$[\,]$$ is skew symmetric,
 * $$[\,]$$ satisfies the Jacobi identity,
 * $$d$$ acts as a derivation with respect to $$[\,]$$.

We denote the cohomology of $$\mathfrak{g}$$ with respect to $$d$$ by $$h^*(\mathfrak{g})$$. It is a graded vector space over $$k$$, and it inherits a Lie bracket. (In fact, it is an $$L_\infty$$-algebra.)


text:
User:Draicone/Sandbox for Introduction to PHP

PHP (recursive acronym for "PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor") is a server-side scripting language designed for use in web based applications. As it is a server side scripting language, its use requires a web server installed, configured and enabled with PHP.

Introduction
This is a course designed to teach PHP by example (and eventually assignment) to anyone willing to learn. Bear in mind that this course is still a work in progress and is by no means comprehensive in its current state. In addition, it is fairly fast paced and it is suggested participants utilise various other learning resources to assist them in their learning.

If you feel that a certain section lacks detail, or there is a blatant error in a statement, change it! Alternatively, point it out on the talk page and an experienced user will take a look at it.

Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites for this course. However, it is strongly reccommended that participants have access to a php enabled webserver or install WAMP/LAMP on their system to practise.

Basic Syntax
When PHP parses a file (web servers are generally configured to have php parse files with the .php extension), it looks for an opening tag and a closing tag and then interprets the code between the two:

 This is not being parsed.

PHP will output everything that is not contained within an opening tag () and a closing tag (?> or ) exactly as it is written. All lines of code in PHP should end with a semicolon. This denotes to the PHP interpreter that a command has been passed and that it should anticipate the next (or the ?> tag / end of file). This is because different text editors handle new lines differently (the Notepad utility on Microsoft Windows is notorious for being terrible with UNIX end of line compatibility), and it allows coders to squeeze together small blocks of code on the same line. For example, the following is acceptable:

And will work just the same as the example below.

Variables
PHP scripts can contain variables, which are denoted with the $ at the start of their unique identifier (two variables with the same identifier are, essentially, the same variable). Unlike many low end languages, variables in PHP need not be declares and defined - when a variable is used, PHP automatically creates it and assigns it a null value if it does not already exist. Take a look at this example:

Notice the difference from the first example - in this, we assign the sentence This is being parsed. to the variable $message and then output it. This may seem like a pointless example, but rest assured, variables have a very important purpose in PHP.

Comments
PHP supports commenting code for ease of viewing by humans. There are two common ways of commenting ways: comment blocks and line commenting.

Comment blocks
Comment blocks work by denoting a range from one point to another within a script as a comment, which is then ignored entirely by the PHP interpreter. They can be inserted anywhere (although it is good practise to give them their own few lines in the script for readability's sake) and are denoted by two special characters: / and *. Take a look at this example:

Notice that the order of the / and * alternate. To designate an area in a script as a comment block, simply begin it with a /* and end with a */. Comments can, as mentioned above, be placed anywhere like so:

Notice that comment blocks are placed between the echo function and its parameters, within the function call for echo itself (ec/* ... */ho), within the string passed to the echo function and just before the end of line declaration (with the semicolon).

Line commenting
Line commenting is much like the comment block, except that it only affects a particular line from a given point onwards, cannot be ended until the next line and only uses the // operator. Examine the following example:

Anything after a // on a line is considered a comment, ignored entirely by the interpreter and meaningless to anything but a human examining the code. Remember that the use of echo 'This will NOT be parsed.'; above is totally immaterial; the word echo will not be treated as a function call. A // can also be added to the end of a line (must be after the semicolon if there is a function call on the same line) and anything after it will be commented, like so:

Functions and arguments
PHP is well known for its extensive library of inbuilt functions. A function in php is a set of code predefined to be called by a particular keyword, either built into PHP's numerous libraries, or defined by the person writing the script within the code. A function can be declared like so:

In the same script, the function can then be called like this:

This will output 'Stuff.' (without the quotation marks). Functions can have arguments which can be passed when the function is called:

In this example, the variable $extrastuff does not need to be sent to the function as an argument, however if it is, it will be output after 'Stuff.'. Multiple arguments are seperated by a comma, however do not need seperate sets of parenthesis (in fact, this will give you a compile error).


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Template:Wikibooks

This template is a self-reference. It may be used to provide links to books on Wikibooks that are likely to be useful and/or of interest to the reader.

cs:Šablona:Wikiknihy fr:Modèle:Wikilivres sv:Mall:Wikibooks

title: Template:Wikibooks


text: Template:Wikibooks/doc

title: Template:Wikibooks/doc


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Template:Wikibooks-poc

Wikibooks has  on the topic of  This template is a Proof of Concept (hence the name: Wikibooks-poc) to show how a single template can take over from Wikibooks, Wikibookspage, Wikibookspar and Wikibookschapter.

Compare the following examples with those on Wikibooks. It is fully backwards compatible with Template:Wikibooks and Wikibookspage. Wikibookspar should be deprecated since it uses an outdated naming policy. Wikibookschapter has only 90 transclutions so it can easily be changed.

title: Template:Wikibooks-poc


text:
Template:Lts

Template: ( [ edit] talk [ links] [ history] )

<--- Old line: Usage:, see for details. >
 * Main discussion & Queries:

ar:قالب:Lts

title: Template:Lts