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User:Spark93/enes100/my work 2

Helicopter Project, Part 2.

Write problem/project Goal
What is your wording of the overall problem/project goal? - To create a helicopter that can be controlled and maneuvered.

My First Task
What are you going to do for the team this first weekend? -Research on the concepts of a helicopter and how it works

Summary of actual work over first weekend
So what I did this week was try and get a Dc motor to lift off the ground.

Week1 Narrative
This week I wored with Shatton8111 mounted at DC motor on to a block of wood and then hooked it up to an arduino. We ran a spin up test that Steve wrote up. From the Arduino you want a wire hooked up to the Ground(GND)to the orange wire on the ESC and a wire from the Arduino port 9 to the brown wire on the ESC. After it was hooked up you need to power the ESC with one of the little boxed power supplies and also a cord that powers up an Arduino. First nothing really happened, we thought something was wrong with the motor because there wastoo much fricticon between the wood and motor. Then later found ou the power souce was the problem. After all that I got the block to hover a bit but not to total flight. Flight Test

My Second Task
My plan for the second week is to find materials that can be used to build the quad copter.

Summary of actual work over second weekend
How is what you did different than what you planned?

Week2 Narrative
Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend.

My Third task
Record what you are planning on doing for the team during the third weekend.

Summary of actual work over third weekend
Well in this week I go the Thunderbird 9 to spin. There wasnt enough current running through when i first started to try to get it to spin.

My Fourth task
For the final week I am going to try figure out how to wire up 4 motors to one ardunio.

Summary of actual work over fourth weekend
So I planned to do last week was to got 4 dc motors going but instead have 2 motors running on one arudino.

Complete Project Page
Follow the "project done" format.

title: User:Spark93/enes100/my work 2


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Symptomatic relief

This is a stub page

< Back to Therapy

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Egm4313.s12.team8.koester/R5.5

Question
1. Show that cos(7x) and sin(7x) are linearly independent using the Wronskian and Gramian.

2. Find 2 equations for the 2 unknowns M and N and solve for M and N.

3. Find the overall solution that corresponds to the initial condition.

Plot the solution over 3 periods.

Solution
1) Show that cos(7x) and sin(7x) are linearly independent using the Wronskian and Gramian.

The Wronskian is defined as:

$$ \displaystyle W(f,g):=det\begin{bmatrix} f &g \\ f'&g' \end{bmatrix}=fg'-gf' $$

The Wronskian proves linear independence if:

$$ \displaystyle W(f,g)\neq 0 $$

Filling in the formula:

$$ \displaystyle f= cos(7x) $$

$$ \displaystyle g= sin(7x) $$

$$ \displaystyle f'=-7sin(7x) $$

$$ \displaystyle g'=7cos(7x) $$

$$ \displaystyle W(f,g):=det\begin{bmatrix} cos(7x) &sin(7x) \\ -7sin(7x)&7cos(7x) \end{bmatrix}= cos(7x)*7cos(7x)-sin(7x)*(-7sin(7x)) $$

$$ \displaystyle W(f,g):= 7cos^{2}(7x)+7sin^{2}(7x)\neq 0 $$

Since the Wronskian does not equal 0 this proves that these two equations are linearly independent.

The Gramian is defined as:

$$\displaystyle \Gamma (f,g):=det\begin{bmatrix}  & \\  & \end{bmatrix} $$

Where the notation is:

$$\displaystyle :=\int_{a}^{b}f(x)g(x)dx $$

The Gramian proves linear independence if:

$$ \displaystyle \Gamma (f,g)\neq 0 $$

So for this problem and integrating over one period:

$$\displaystyle :=\int_{0}^{\frac{2\pi}{7}}cos(7x)cos(7x)dx $$

This integral must be solved using u substitution and the following equations:

$$ \displaystyle u=7x $$

$$ \displaystyle du=7dx $$

The integral then reduces to:

$$\displaystyle :=\frac{1}{7}\int_{0}^{2\pi}cos^{2}(u)dx= \frac{\pi}{7}$$

$$\displaystyle :=\int_{0}^{\frac{2\pi}{7}}sin(7x)sin(7x)dx $$

Which using the same u substitution reduces to:

$$\displaystyle :=\frac{1}{7}\int_{0}^{2\pi}sin^{2}(u)dx= \frac{\pi}{7}$$

$$\displaystyle := :=\int_{0}^{\frac{2\pi}{7}}sin(7x)cos(7x)dx $$

Due to the orthogonality of the trigonometric system and the fact that the coefficients in the sine and cosine terms are equal both of these integrals will equal 0.

$$\displaystyle := :=\int_{0}^{\frac{2\pi}{7}}sin(7x)cos(7x)dx=0 $$

$$\displaystyle \Gamma (f,g):=det\begin{bmatrix} \frac{\pi}{7} &0 \\ 0 & \frac{\pi}{7} \end{bmatrix}= \frac{\pi^{2}}{49} \neq 0$$

So once again these two equations are proven linearly independent.

2) Find 2 equations for the 2 unknowns M and N and solve for M and N.

Given the followin L2-ODE-CC:

$$\displaystyle y^{''}-3y^{'}-10y=3cos(7x) $$

$$\displaystyle y_{p}=Mcos(7x)+ Nsin(7x) $$

$$\displaystyle y'_{p}=-7Msin(7x)+ 7Ncos(7x) $$

$$\displaystyle y''_{p}=-49Mcos(7x)- 49Nsin(7x) $$

Plugging these back into the original equation one obtains:

$$\displaystyle -49Mcos(7x)- 49Nsin(7x)+ 21Msin(7x)- 21Ncos(7x)- 10Mcos(7x) -10Nsin(7x)= 3cos(7x) $$

Collecting like terms:

$$\displaystyle -59Mcos(7x)- 59Nsin(7x)+ 21Msin(7x)- 21Ncos(7x)= 3cos(7x) $$

Equating coefficients the following two equations are found:

$$\displaystyle -59M -21N=3 $$

$$\displaystyle -59N +21M=0 $$

Solving these equations:

$$\displaystyle M=\frac{-177}{3922} $$

$$\displaystyle N=\frac{-63}{3922} $$

Therefore the particular solution is:

$$\displaystyle y_{p}(x)=\frac{-177}{3922}cos(7x)+ \frac{-63}{3922}sin(7x) $$

3) Find the overall solution that corresponds to the initial condition:

$$ \displaystyle y(0)=1 $$

$$ \displaystyle y'(0)=0 $$

Now to solve for the homogeneous solution:

$$\displaystyle y^{''}-3y^{'}-10y=3cos(7x) $$

This equation follow the form:

$$\displaystyle y^{''}+ay^{'}+by=0 $$

So:

$$\displaystyle a^{2}-4b=9+40=49 $$

Since this is greater than 0 we have Case I, two distinct real roots.

$$\displaystyle y_{h}(x)=c_{1}e^{\lambda_{1}x}+ c_{2}e^{\lambda_{2}x} $$

$$\displaystyle \lambda_{1}=\frac{3+7}{2}=5 $$

$$\displaystyle \lambda_{1}=\frac{3-7}{2}=-2 $$

$$\displaystyle y_{h}(x)=c_{1}e^{5x}+ c_{2}e^{-2x} $$

Using the initial conditions and the first derivative:

$$\displaystyle y_{h}'(x)=5c_{1}e^{5x}- 2c_{2}e^{-2x} $$

$$\displaystyle y(0)=1=c_{1}+c_{2}=1 $$

$$\displaystyle y'(0)=0=5c_{1}-2c_{2} $$

Solving this system of equations:

$$\displaystyle c_{1}=\frac{2}{7} $$

$$\displaystyle c_{2}=\frac{5}{7} $$

$$\displaystyle y_{h}(x)=\frac{2}{7}e^{5x}+ \frac{5}{7}e^{-2x} $$

$$\displaystyle y(x)=y_{p}+y_{h} $$

$$\displaystyle y(x)= \frac{2}{7}e^{5x}+ \frac{5}{7}e^{-2x}+ \frac{-177}{3922}cos(7x)+ \frac{-63}{3922}sin(7x) $$

Plot
Solution plotted over 3 periods.

$$\displaystyle P=\frac{2\pi}{7}, 3P=\frac{6\pi}{7} $$

Matlab code:

>> x=linspace(0,(6*pi)/7);

>> y=(2/7).*exp(5.*x)+(5/7).*exp(-2.*x)-(177/3922).*cos(7.*x)-(63/3922).*sin(7.*x);

>> plot(x,y)

title: User:Egm4313.s12.team8.koester/R5.5


text:
Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Symptomatic Relief

< Back to Therapy

Claims of the reversal of all PD symptoms are largely confined to animal models or in vitro studies. Complete reversal in humans appears occasionally in isolated case notes. Examples of both types are recorded here as potential pointers to productive lines of research.

Bushen huoxue granule (BHG)
This is a herbal remedy used in Chinese medicine.

Yang et al (2010) record the results of a test at the Outpatient Department of the General Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Xijing Hospital and Tangdu Hospital in Xi'an on a cohort of 106 PD patients.

This was a randomized double blind test and 55 patients were given BHG and 51 a placebo. Their UPDRS rating was measured at the end of one, two and three months. They were asked to rise, walk 10 metres, turn and walk back. The result:-

"BHG showed a better efficacy than the placebo (P<0.01) in improving motor function, shortening rise time of 10-meter back and forth test and relieving muscle tension. No adverse effects were found in this trial."

And the conclusion:-

"BHG plus Western medicine is effective and safe in improving motor dysfunction of PD patients"

Li et al (2011) described an experiment at the Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine at the PLA General Hospital, Beijing. Two cohorts of 47 PD patients were prescribed Madopar and in addition one group was given regular doses of BHG and the other a placebo.

After 3 months the levels of dopamine being expressed by their brains were measured by encephalofluctuography and positron emission tomography. The BHG group was found to have signicantly higher dopamine levels. The conclusion stated:- "BHG could improve the DA level of PD patients, and increasing DAT contents in the striatum, thus playing a role in effectively treating PD."

Li et al (2012) conducted a double-blind placebo controlled test of BHG on a cohort of 120 PD patients over period of 9 months and commented on the results:-

"Bushen Huoxue Granule showed a higher efficacy than the control in improving life quality of patients with PD by improving scores of UPDRS II, PDQ-39 and PDSS (P<0.05). No adverse effects were found in this trial."

Comment

Traditional Chinese Medicine - TCMis not usually reported in Western peer-reviewed medical journals. Western medicine is dedicated to the identification and treatment of evidence based diseases. TCM seeks to return harmony to the whole body of the patient as an individual. This approach may have some resonance when dealing with an idiosyncratic condition such as PD. There is plainly a case for further evaluation of BHG to determine its chemistry.

CLR01
Amyloidal fibrils] are abnormal aggregates of insoluble proteins that can occur in different parts of the body for different reasons. They are associated with 20 diseases currently considered incurable, the most common of which are Alzheimer’s Disease, Type 2 Diabetes and Parkinson’s Disease.

In the case of PD the protein involved is alpha synuclein and the fibrils aggregate into clumps called called Lewy Bodies after their discoverer.

UCLA Professor of neurology Jeff Bronstein and UCLA associate professor of neurology Gal Bitan. along with their colleagues, report the development of a novel lead molecule compound (CLR01) known as a "molecular tweezer," which in a living animal model blocked α-synuclein aggregates from forming, stopped the aggregates' toxicity and, further, reversed aggregates in the brain that had already formed. And the tweezers accomplished this without interfering with normal brain function. The CLR01 molecule is shaped like a letter C and when it comes across a fibril it binds itself to it and the two arms come together and pick at it structure..

After first testing the compound in vitro the researchers injected it subcutaneously into transgenic zebra-fish with induced PD symptoms. The Lewy bodies dissolved and the PD symptoms were reversed with no apparent adverse effects. Similar results were obtained with transgenic mice.

The compound was then tested on laboratory mice with an induced form of Alzheimer's Disease, where more than one type of amyloidal fibril is involved. The compound successfully crossed the blood brain barrier and dispersed the fibrils. The process has been described in some detail by Zheng, X.et al (2015)

Some thought is being given to organising a Class 1 clinical trial with PD patients. References

Comment

It would be difficult to overstate the significance of this research, which has far reaching implications for PD patients. The majority of PD cases involve Lewy Body formation and they are also a key feature of a devastating Parkinson's Plus syndrome called Lewy Body Disease.

Cogane
Cogane is a protein developed by a company called Phytopharm.  It was recently the subject of a Phase II Clinical Trial. This was a 400 patient multi-national, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study. The study compared the safety, tolerability and efficacy of three doses of Cogane™ and placebo when administered for 28 weeks to untreated patients with early stage Parkinson’s.

Cogane was taken orally. Its aim was to stimulate the production of Glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (“GDNF”) and Brain derived neurotrophic factor (“BDNF”). These are naturally occurring proteins in the brain that have been shown to be effective in re-growing damaged nerves.

The results of the trial were reported by Phytopharm plc in February 2013. There was no significant difference between the Cogane™ group and the placebo group, as measured by change in the UPDRS scores. Both groups showed a small deterioration in their scores. The study also looked for any change in cognition or quality of life; again the study group and the placebo groups showed the same rate of change. Moreover, the results were not affected by the baseline severity of symptoms nor by the duration of the disease since diagnosis. Given the strong evidence from pre-clinical data of the efficacy of Cogane™, the researchers were surprised and disappointed by the lack of efficacy as shown in this trial. Phytopharm plc plan to publish their results, which will add to the body of knowledge about Parkinson’s disease.

Light Therapy
2007

Willis and Turner tried out an experimental system of light therapy (LT) on PD patients. LT reduces melatonin expression and this had been observed previously to be an antidepressant. Twelve patients diagnosed with PD were exposed to white fluorescent light for 1-1.5 h at an intensity of 1000 to 1500 lux once daily commencing 1 h prior to the usual time of sleep onset, approximately 22:00 h in most patients.

"Within two weeks after commencing LT, marked improvement in bradykinaesia and rigidity was observed in most patients. Tremor was not affected by LT treatment; however, agitation, dyskinaesia, and psychiatric side effects were reduced, as verified by decreased requirement for DA replacement therapy. Elevated mood, improved sleep, decreased seborrhea, reduced impotence, and increased appetite were observed after LT. LT permitted the reduction of the dose of L-dopa, bromocriptine, or deprenyl in some patients by up to 50% without loss of symptom control."

2009

Trimmer and Bennett have produced evidence for a revised pathological model of sporadic PD, and suggested that the use of Low Level infrared Light Therapy could be effective.

"Light therapy (LT) with coherent laser light or light emitting diodes in the far red to near-infrared spectrum (600–860nm) modulates numerous biological processes and is currently being used worldwide to treat a wide range of human neurological conditions.... The distance near-infrared light penetrates and transmits through skin, fat, muscle, bone and organs depends on the wavelength being used, but the distance is sufficient to penetrate the brain when delivered through the scalp and skull...."

And

"After exposure of differentiated PD cybrid neuronal cells and rotenone-exposed SH-SY5Y cells to a low energy laser treatment (LLLT, 50mW/cm2 for 40 seconds, 810nm diode laser), the velocity of mitochondrial movement by axonal transport was increased and restored to control levels for several hours after completion of the LT (Trimmer et al, in press). LT has also been shown to reverse the cellular changes induced by MPP+ and rotenone in both cell and animal models (Liang, et al., 2008, Rojas, et al., 2008). In conclusion, reduced axonal transport of mitochondria is present in two models of sporadic PD pathogenesis and can be ameliorated by the application of a low energy laser treatment. Because laser LT is already in clinical trials for stroke, in light of these encouraging cybrid results it is feasible now for study in sPD."

2012

Willis et al revewed the prospects for light therapy in the treatment of PD.

Their basis for this work was the observation that:-- "Recent scientific work suggests that the retina plays a major role in NSD function and intimates light therapy in the management of PD. This was tested on a cohort of 129 PD patients." Their conclusions:-

"These results confirm the value of the strategic application of light therapy with controlled doses of DART (dopamine replacement theapy) in PD and warrants further controlled investigation. That the symptomatic improvement continued as long patients remained in the program suggests that exposure to light, under a strict daily regimen, combined with controlled DART, actively slows or arrests the progressive degenerative process underlying PD."

Rutten et al evaluated the use of bright light therapy in the treatment of sleep disorders in Parkinson’s disease.

"The few studies that focused on the efficacy of BLT in patients with PD demonstrated a positive effect of BLT not only on sleep and mood but also on motor function. "

Willis et al experimented with light therapy on a cohort of PD patients.

"That the symptomatic improvement continued as long patients remained in the program suggests that exposure to light, under a strict daily regimen, combined with controlled DART,[dopamine replacement therapy] actively slows or arrests the progressive degenerative process underlying PD. "


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University of Florida/Egm4313/s12.team8.dupre/R5.4

Problem Statement
(1) Show that: $$\displaystyle y_{p}(x)=\sum_{i=0}^{n}y_{p,i}(x) $$    (5.1) is indeed the overall particular solution of the L2-ODE-VC: $$\displaystyle y''+p(x)y'+q(x)y=r(x) $$     (5.2) with the excitation: $$\displaystyle r(x)=r_{1}(x)+r_{2}(x)+...+r_{n}(x)=\sum_{i=0}^{n}r_{i}(x) $$    (5.3) (2) Discuss the choice of $$\displaystyle y_{p}(x) $$ in the above table, e.g., for: $$\displaystyle r(x)=kcos(\omega x) $$ Why would you need to have both $$\displaystyle cos(\omega x), sin(\omega x) $$ in $$\displaystyle y_{p}(x) $$?

Solution (1)
Using the following equation: $$\displaystyle r_{i}(x)=y_{p,i}''+p(x)y_{p,i}'+q(x)y_{p,i} $$    (5.4) for different r and y values gives us the following: $$\displaystyle r_{1}(x)=y_{p,1}''+p(x)y_{p,1}'+q(x)y_{p,1} $$    (5.5) $$\displaystyle r_{2}(x)=y_{p,2}''+p(x)y_{p,2}'+q(x)y_{p,2} $$    (5.6) $$\displaystyle r_{3}(x)=y_{p,3}''+p(x)y_{p,3}'+q(x)y_{p,3} $$    (5.7) Now, adding (5.4),(5.5), and (5.6), gives us: $$\displaystyle r_{1}(x)+r_{2}(x)+r_{3}(x)=(y_{p,1}+y_{p,2}+y_{p,3})''+p(x)(y_{p,1}+y_{p,2}+y_{p,3})'+q(x)(y_{p,1}+y_{p,2}+y_{p,3} )$$    (5.8) Equation (5.8) shows us that the overall particular solution of (5.2) with excitation (5.3), is in fact, equation (5.1).

Solution (2)
We know that the given example for an excitation is the periodic excitation: $$\displaystyle r(x)=kcos(\omega x) $$ When we decompose a periodic excitation into a Fourier trigonometric series, we find: $$\displaystyle r(x)=a_{0}+\sum_{n=0}^{\infty }[a_{n}cos(n\omega x)+b_{n}sin(\omega x)] $$ Since we know that the particular solution should depend on the excitation, we know that for a periodic excitation $$\displaystyle r(x) $$, we would need both $$\displaystyle cos(\omega x), sin(\omega x) $$ in $$\displaystyle y_{p}(x) $$ to obtain the correct particular solution.


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Instructional design/Reducing cognitive load in multimedia instruction/What’s Going On In There?: How the mind works in multimedia instruction

Understanding how the leaner's mind works is paramount in designing multimedia instruction that will provide opportunities for meaningful learning. Cognitive science has made 3 basic assumptions about the learning process:

 Dual Channel

Under this assumption, humans are thought to process information through two “channels.” There is the auditory/verbal channel for processing auditory input and verbal representations and a visual/pictorial channel for processing visual input and pictorial representations.

 Limited Capacity

Now the issue of Limited Capacity comes into play because even with two channels operating, cognitive processing is limited in both channels. Keep in mind that working memory can only hold between 5-9 pieces or “chunks” of information at a time.

 Active Processing

In order for meaningful learning to take place, Active Processing must be enabled and that means heavy duty cognition in both the verbal and visual channels. In multimedia learning, there are five cognitive processes that need to be engaged in order for active processing to “kick in”
 * Selecting words from the presented material
 * Selecting pictures from the presented material
 * Organizing words selected
 * Organizing pictures selected
 * Integrating not only the words and pictures but also matching them up with what the leaner already knows.

But how does that look? Enter the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Click Next to continue this lesson.


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User:Zansae

I am interested in learning the Arabic language.

title: User:Zansae


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User:Marshallsumter/Radiation astronomy/Chemistry

The study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, as can be assessed b their interaction with radiation is part of astronomical radiation chemistry, or radiation astrochemistry.

Astrochemistry
Def. the study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites is called cosmochemistry.

Def. the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is called molecular astrophysics.

Def. the "study of the chemical composition of stars and outer space" is called astrochemistry.

"An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."

Radiochemistry
"182Hf (T1/2 = 9 x 106 y) is believed to be formed by pure r-process during a supernova explosion".

Planetary sciences
"In order to understand much of the chemistry that underpins astronomical phenomena (e.g. star and planet formation) it is essential to probe the physico-chemistry of ice surfaces under astronomical conditions. The physical properties and chemical reactivity of such icy surfaces depends upon its morphology. Thus it is necessary to explore how the morphology of astrochemical ices is influenced by their local environment (e.g. temperature and pressure) and the mechanisms by which they are processed."

Most "planetary and lunar surfaces in our own solar system (Venus and Mercury being the exceptions) contain large amounts of ice."

Color astronomy
"Irradiation of these species plausibly results in the dark neutrally colored centaurs and Kuiper belt objects (KBOs)."

"The surfaces of KBOs range from those which are neutrally reflecting—and thus appear to have essentially solar colors—to some of the reddest objects known in the solar system. The full range of colors is mixed at what appears to be nearly random throughout the outer solar system (Morbidelli & Brown 2005)."

Minerals
"Olivines are described by Mg2yFe2-2ySiO4, with y in the range [0, 1]." Substituting values for y from 0 to 1 produce ideal compositions from forsterite Mg2SiO4 to fayalite Fe2SiO4.

"Laboratory studies of the evolution of a magnesium silicate smoke from an amorphous condensate to a crystalline mineral by annealing in vacuum provide a foundation for the development of a silicate evolution index (SEI)."

Theoretical radiation astrochemistry
"Emission from aromatic hydrocarbons dominate the mid-infrared emission of many galaxies, including our own Milky Way galaxy. Only recently have aromatic hydrocarbons been observed in absorption in the interstellar medium, along lines of sight with high column densities of interstellar gas and dust. [...] laboratory and theoretical astrochemistry studies are needed to explain astrophysical observations, such as a possible absorption feature due to interstellar “diamonds”".

"The [interstellar infrared emission features] IEFs are believed to arise in either interstellar grains or interstellar molecules, and because their emission can account for up to 30 – 40% of the overall emission of galaxies, solving problems related to their composition, size, and origin are essential for understanding the overall energy budget of radiation from galaxies."

Entities
"Astrochemistry is the chemistry of astronomical entities in which molecular compounds exist."

"Dense clouds also have a number of sub-classes. Although these entities are treated separately, they can and do interact."

Meteors
"Ammonia clouds [and] water clouds ... will be absent in 51 Peg B ... At an effective temperature of roughly 1250 K, the primary cloud-forming materials near the surface are magnesium silicates and other silicate compounds."

Cosmic rays
"The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 - 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle [cosmic-ray] flux consists of these elements."

Blues
"[P]referential absorption of sunlight by ozone over long horizon paths gives the zenith sky its blueness when the sun is near the horizon".

Plasma objects
"Plasma is the fourth state of matter, consisting of electrons, ions and neutral atoms, usually at temperatures above 104 degrees Kelvin."

Liquid objects
The bluish color of water is a composite of several contributing agents. Prominent contributors include dissolved organic matter and chlorophyll.

The image at right is a detailed, photo-like view of Earth based largely on observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite.

"Viewed from space, the most striking feature of our planet is the water. In both liquid and frozen form, it covers 75% of the Earth’s surface. It fills the sky with clouds. Water is practically everywhere on Earth, from inside the rocky crust to inside our cells."

Chemicals
Spectrometers are able to measure the abundance and distribution of about 20 primary elements of the periodic table, including silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, calcium, sulfur, and carbon.

Hydrogens
"[O]nce ionized, the gas is rapidly heated by Coulomb collisions to the coronal cloud temperature, but as this material peels off, a cooler hydrogen-emitting region is left."

A number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas, notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.

The familiar red H-alpha (Hα) 656 nm spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell n = 3 to the Balmer series shell n = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of emission or ionization nebula, like the Orion Nebula, which are often H II regions found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits.

Heliums
Other signatures of magnetic clouds in the solar wind are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon and/or oxygen.

The spectral lines from the atmospheres of spectral type O and B stars "show a large number of isolated and overlapping He I lines, the strongest of which are the spectral lines at 447.1 and 492.2 nm".

Lithiums
In some 824 red giant stars, the Li I 670.78 nm line was detected in several stars, "but only the five objects ... presented a strong line. Indeed, the Li subordinate line at 6103.6 Å was detected in these stars only."

Carbons
Other signatures of magnetic clouds [in the solar wind] are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon and/or oxygen.

Nitrogens
Nitrogen emission ([NII] occurs in the red at 658.4 nm. Gaseous "cometary knots" have heads that have NII emission and are at least twice the size of our solar system.

The image at right is a color picture, taken with the Wide Field Planetary Camera-2. It is a composite of three images taken at different wavelengths. (red, hydrogen-alpha; blue, neutral oxygen, 630.0 nm; green, ionized nitrogen, 658.4 nm). This NASA Hubble Space Telescope image shows one of the most complex planetary nebulae ever seen, NGC 6543, nicknamed the "Cat's Eye Nebula." The image was taken on September 18, 1994. NGC 6543 is 3,000 light-years away in the northern constellation Draco. The term planetary nebula is a misnomer; dying stars create these cocoons when they lose outer layers of gas.

Oxygens
There are faraway active galaxies that show a blueshift in their O III emission lines.

Sodiums
Sodium produces two spectral lines known as D1 and D2, or the "sodium doublet". Their average wavelength, 589.3 nm, is often just called "D".

Calciums
During the limb flares of December 18, 1956, a coronal line at 569.4 nm, a yellow line, occurred at 1822 UTC, 1900 UTC, undiminished up to 20,000 km above the solar limb, and at 2226 UTC, is identified as Ca XV.

Scandiums
The orange system in orange astronomy is a number of emission lines very close together forming a band in the orange portion of the visible spectrum. These lines are usually associated with particular molecular species, including ScO, YO, and TiO.

Titaniums
The orange system in orange astronomy is a number of emission lines very close together forming a band in the orange portion of the visible spectrum. These lines are usually associated with particular molecular species, including ScO, YO, and TiO.

Irons
The Fe VII emission line at 608.7 nm, "frequently observed in the spectra of astrophysical plasmas", has been detected in planetary nebulae, Seyfert galaxies, and quasars.

Other signatures of magnetic clouds in the solar wind are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon and/or oxygen.

Yttriums
The orange system in orange astronomy is a number of emission lines very close together forming a band in the orange portion of the visible spectrum. These lines are usually associated with particular molecular species, including ScO, YO, and TiO.

Thoriums
The chemical element thorium [is] mapped by a GRS, with higher concentrations shown in yellow/orange/red in the left-hand side image shown on the right.

Metallicities
For stars, the metallicity is often expressed as "[Fe/H]", which represents the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun (iron is not the most abundant heavy element, but it is among the easiest to measure with spectral data in the visible spectrum). The formula for the logarithm is expressed thus:

$$ [\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}] = \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{star}} - \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{sun}} $$

where $$N_{\mathrm{Fe}}$$ and $$N_{\mathrm{H}}$$ are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively. The unit often used for metallicity is the "dex" which is a (now-deprecated) contraction of decimal exponent. By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive logarithmic value, while those with a lower metallicity than the Sun have a negative value. The logarithm is based on powers of ten; stars with a value of +1 have ten times the metallicity of the Sun (101). Conversely, those with a value of -1 have one tenth (10 −1), while those with -2 have a hundredth (10−2), and so on. Young Population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older Population II stars. Primordial Population III stars are estimated to have a metallicity of less than −6.0, that is, less than a millionth of the abundance of iron which is found in the Sun.

Ions
Def. an "atom or group of atoms bearing an electrical charge such as the sodium and chlorine atoms in a salt solution" is called an ion.

About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei of alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%.

Molecules
Def. the "colour of growing foliage, as well as other plant cells containing chlorophyll; the colour between yellow and blue in the visible spectrum; one of the primary additive colour for transmitted light; the colour obtained by subtracting red and blue from white light using cyan and yellow filters" is called green, or green radiation.

Compounds
Usually, Hibonite ((Ca,Ce)(Al,Ti,Mg)12O19) as shown at right is a brownish black mineral. It is rare, but is found in high-grade metamorphic rocks on Madagascar. Some presolar grains in primitive meteorites consist of hibonite. Hibonite also is a common mineral in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) found in some chondrite chondritic meteorites. Hibonite is closely related to hibonite-Fe (IMA 2009-027, ((Fe,Mg)Al12O19)) an alteration mineral from the Allende meteorite. Hibonite is blue perhaps like the image at left in meteorite occurrence.

Alloys
"Grain size varies from 98 to 530 lm with an average of *150 lm. Minor [elements] oxidation [from an iron–nickel–chromium–cobalt–phosphorus alloy] is evidenced by the presence of a light brown and blue surface layer composed of very fine-grained (<1 lm) crystals on the surface." The oxidation of minor elements in metallic alloys in the early solar system is indicated to possess at instances a blue surface layer.

Atmospheres
Def. a layer of gases that may surround a material body of sufficient mass, and that is held in place by the gravity of the body is called an atmosphere.

Ionospheres
Upon reaching the top of the mesosphere, the temperature starts to rise, but air pressure continues to fall. This is the beginning of the ionosphere, a region dominated by chemical ions. Many of them are the same chemicals such as nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere below, but an ever increasing number are hydrogen ions (protons) and helium ions. These can be detected by an ion spectrometer. The process of ionization removes one or more electrons from a neutral atom to yield a variety of ions depending on the chemical element species and incidence of sufficient energy to remove the electrons.

Materials
Def. matter "which may be shaped or manipulated, particularly in making something" is called a material.

Meteorites
Def. a "metallic or stony object or body that is the remains of a meteor" is called a meteorite.

Widmanstätten patterns, also called Thomson structures, are unique figures of long nickel-iron crystals, found in the octahedrite iron meteorites and some pallasites. They consist of a fine interleaving of kamacite and taenite bands or ribbons called lamellæ. Commonly, in gaps between the lamellæ, a fine-grained mixture of kamacite and taenite called plessite can be found.

Spectroscopy
By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and temperatures of stars and interstellar clouds. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. Interstellar formaldehyde was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium.

Sun
Depending primarily upon gas temperature, the presence of gas may be used to determine the composition of the gas body observed, at least the outer layer. Early spectroscopy of the Sun using estimates of "the line intensities of several lines by eye [to derive] the abundances of ... elements ... [concluded] that the Sun [is] largely made of hydrogen."

Other signatures of magnetic clouds in the solar wind are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon and/or oxygen.

Calcium (Ca), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and titanium (Ti) emission lines have been detected in solar limb faculae.

In the image at right the iron (Fe XIV) green line is followed by doppler imaging to show associated relative coronal plasma velocity towards (-7 km/s side) and away from (+7 km/s side) the large angle spectrometric coronagraph LASCO satellite camera.

"Carroll et al. (1976) detected a number of coincidences between laboratory lines of FeH and weak unidentified solar lines, again in the blue and green wavelength region, in addition to the infrared."

The visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions.

Mercury
"Optical reflectance studies of Mercury provide evidence for Mg silicates."

The MESSENGER X-ray spectrometer (XRS) maps mineral composition within the top millimeter of the surface on Mercury by detecting X-ray spectral lines from magnesium, aluminum, sulphur, calcium, titanium, and iron, in the 1-10 keV range.

Venus
When viewed using radio astronomy, the resulting radar image of Venus at right shows that just beneath the cloud layers is a rocky object.

Interplanetary medium
Def. that "part of outer space between the planets of a solar system and its star" is called interplanetary space.

Def. the material which fills the solar system and through which all the larger solar system bodies such as planets, asteroids and comets move is called an interplanetary medium.

Chemical ions above the Earth's atmosphere, moving at very high speeds and at concentrations up to 100 particles per cm3 (centimeter cubed, a unit of volume) constitute the interplanetary medium.

Earth
Quartz is the second-most-abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal (sometimes called clear quartz), is colorless and transparent or translucent.

Iceland spar, formerly known as Iceland crystal, is a transparent variety of calcite, or crystallized calcium carbonate. It has been speculated that the sunstone (a different mineral than the gem-quality sunstone) mentioned in medieval Icelandic texts was Iceland spar and that Vikings used its light-polarizing property to tell the direction of the sun on cloudy days, for navigational purposes.

A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no hue, or color. However, in reality almost no gem-sized natural diamonds are absolutely perfect.

Def. the "gases surrounding the Earth or any astronomical body" is called an atmosphere.

On July 1, 1957, following the intense auroral display of the previous night, the variation in hydrogen (H) Hβ emission shows quite clearly that the sudden transition from an auroral arc to rays coincides with a decrease in the intensity of the hydrogen emission and an inversion of the polarity of the magnetic disturbance.

The atmosphere of Earth is composed of small particles called molecules.

When cosmic rays enter the Earth’s atmosphere they collide with molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, to produce a cascade of billions of lighter particles, a so-called air shower.

These molecules in many instances are in turn made up of atoms of chemical elements. At each geographical location, specified in latitude and longitude, this gaseous envelope extends upward. The atmosphere of Earth changes with altitude. At high enough altitude the composition changes significantly, as does the temperature and pressure.

Between the Earth’s surface and various altitudes there is an electric field. It changes with altitude from about 150 volts per meter to lower values at higher altitude. In fair weather, it is relatively constant, in turbulent weather it is accompanied by ions. At greater altitude these chemical species continue to increase in concentration. For travel upwards, eventually protective clothing and appropriate breathing apparati are needed. The air pressure is lowering as is the ambient temperature.

The Earth has an ionosphere, a region dominated by chemical ions. Many of them are the same chemicals such as nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere below, but an ever increasing number are hydrogen ions (protons) and helium ions. These can be detected by an ion spectrometer.

From the ground below, or with spectrometers on platforms at higher altitude, including satellites, ion species and concentrations are measured. Into the exosphere or outer space, temperature rises from around 1,500°C (centigrade) to upwards of 100,000 K (kelvin).

"The production and escape of hot ions (H+ and H+2) and hot atomic hydrogen by stellar ultraviolet radiation is ... likely".

Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were photoionized by the sun during the day, luminescence caused by cosmic rays striking the upper atmosphere, and chemiluminescence caused mainly by oxygen and nitrogen reacting with hydroxyl ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the scattered light from the Sun.

"Auroras result from emissions of photons in the Earth's upper atmosphere, above 80 km (50 mi), from ionized nitrogen atoms regaining an electron, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms returning from an excited state to ground state. They are ionized or excited by the collision of solar wind and magnetospheric particles being funneled down and accelerated along the Earth's magnetic field lines; excitation energy is lost by the emission of a photon, or by collision with another atom or molecule:
 * oxygen emissions: green or brownish-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed
 * nitrogen emissions: blue or red; blue if the atom regains an electron after it has been ionized, red if returning to ground state from an excited state.

Moon
The Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected X-rays from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms on the Moon.

Both Luna 24 and Apollo 12 soil samples are from mare soils that reflect primarily cyan that is likely due to the presence of TiO2 in the soils.

Gamma-ray spectrometers have been widely used for the elemental and isotopic analysis of airless bodies in the Solar System, especially the Moon These surfaces are subjected to a continual bombardment of high-energy cosmic rays, which excite nuclei in them to emit characteristic gamma-rays which can be detected from orbit. Thus an orbiting instrument can in principle map the surface distribution of the elements for an entire planet. They are able to measure the abundance and distribution of about 20 primary elements of the periodic table, including silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, calcium, sulfur, and carbon. The chemical element thorium is mapped by a GRS, with higher concentrations shown in yellow/orange/red in the left-hand side image shown on the right.

At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the Lunar Prospector using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn loose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface. Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted. The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.

Based on the 3He-flare flux from the Sun's surface and Surveyor 3 samples (containing 15N and 14C implanted in lunar material by solar radiation) from the surface of the Moon, the level of nuclear fusion occurring in the solar atmosphere is approximately at least two to three orders of magnitude greater than that estimated from solar flares such as those of August 1972.

Mars
Mars is often described as the "Red Planet" as the iron(III) iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron(III) oxide dust.

Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere, first image at right, by carefully observing the planet throughout several Mars years with NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility and the W.M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

"The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) is an active/passive neutron spectrometer that measures the abundance and depth distribution of H- and OH-bearing materials (e.g., adsorbed water, hydrated minerals) in a shallow layer (~1 m) of Mars' subsurface along the path of the MSL rover. In active mode, DAN measures the time decay curve (the "dynamic albedo") of the neutron flux from the subsurface induced by its pulsing 14 MeV neutron source."

At right is an X-ray image of Mars. X-radiation from the Sun excites oxygen atoms in the Martian upper atmosphere, about 120 km above its surface, to emit X-ray fluorescence. A faint X-ray halo that extends out to 7,000 km above the surface of Mars has also been found.

"[A]bsorption features in the submillimeter spectrum of Mars ... are due to the H2O (110-101) and 13CO (5-4) rotational transitions."

"The distribution of water in the Martian atmosphere matches a profile of constant, 100% saturation from 10 to 45 km altitude."

Asteroids
On October 7, 2009, the presence of water ice was confirmed on the surface of [24 Themis] using NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility. The surface of the asteroid appears completely covered in ice. As this ice layer is sublimated, it may be getting replenished by a reservoir of ice under the surface. Organic compounds were also detected on the surface.

Trace amounts of water would be continuously produced by high-energy solar protons impinging oxide minerals present at the surface of the asteroid. The hydroxyl surface groups (S–OH) formed by the collision of protons (H+) with oxygen atoms present at oxide surface (S=O) can further be converted in water molecules (H2O) adsorbed onto the oxide minerals surface. The chemical rearrangement supposed at the oxide surface could be schematically written as follows:

 * 2 S-OH → S=O + S + H2O

or,
 * 2 S-OH → S–O–S + H2O

where S represents the oxide surface.

Jupiter
"Some species previously detected on Jupiter, including CH3D, C2H2, and C2H6, have been observed again near the pole. Newly discovered species, not previously observed on Jupiter, include C2H4, C3H4, and C6H6. All of these species except CH3D appear to have enhanced abundances at the north polar region with respect to midlatitudes."

The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are believed to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.

"[F]or wavelengths between 0.35 and 0.45 mm ... the radiances can be matched by models which include NH3 ice particles which are between 30 and 100 µm in size, regardless of the scale height characterizing the cloud."

Io
At right is an "eerie view of Jupiter's moon Io in eclipse ... acquired by NASA's Galileo spacecraft while the moon was in Jupiter's shadow. Gases above the satellite's surface produced a ghostly glow that could be seen at visible wavelengths (red, green, and violet). The vivid colors, caused by collisions between Io's atmospheric gases and energetic charged particles trapped in Jupiter's magnetic field, had not previously been observed. The green and red emissions are probably produced by mechanisms similar to those in Earth's polar regions that produce the aurora, or northern and southern lights. Bright blue glows mark the sites of dense plumes of volcanic vapor, and may be places where Io is electrically connected to Jupiter."

Saturn
"[T]he PH3 1-0 rotational line (266.9 GHz) line [has been detected] in [the atmosphere of] Saturn".

Titan
Much as with Venus prior to the Space Age, the dense, opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan's surface until new information accumulated with the arrival of the Cassini–Huygens mission in 2004, including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in the polar regions.

The atmosphere of Titan is largely composed of nitrogen; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog.

Uranus
"Methane possesses prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR) making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in color.

In January 1986, the Voyager 2 spacecraft flew by Uranus at a minimal distance of 107,100 km providing the first close-up images and spectra of its atmosphere. They generally confirmed that the atmosphere was made of mainly hydrogen and helium with around 2% methane. The atmosphere appeared highly transparent and lacking thick stratospheric and tropospheric hazes. Only a limited number of discrete clouds were observed.

Titania
Infrared spectroscopy conducted from 2001 to 2005 revealed the presence of water ice as well as frozen carbon dioxide on the surface of Titania, which in turn suggested that the moon may possess a tenuous carbon dioxide atmosphere with a surface pressure of about one 10 trillionth of a bar.

Neptune
A trace amount of methane is also present. Prominent absorption bands of methane occur at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue, although Neptune's vivid azure differs from Uranus's milder cyan. Since Neptune's atmospheric methane content is similar to that of Uranus, some unknown atmospheric constituent is thought to contribute to Neptune's colour.

Comets
One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen.

"In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves". "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo." The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.

Cyan blue is the color of several cyanide (CN) containing materials, including CN detected in comet haloes.

"Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C2). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight".

Interstellar medium
Ultraviolet line spectrum measurements are used to discern the chemical composition, densities, and temperatures of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of hot young stars.

"The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium." "H2CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".

"Over the past 30 years, radioastronomy has revealed a rich variety of molecular species in the interstellar medium of our galaxy and even others."

There are 110 currently known interstellar molecules.

The cyanide radical CN- has been identified in interstellar space. The cyanide radical (called cyanogen) is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.

Radio astronomy has resulted in the detection of over a hundred interstellar species, including radicals and ions, and organic (i.e. carbon-based) compounds, such as alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and ketones. One of the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric dipole moment), is CO (carbon monoxide). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions. The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar glycine, the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy. One of the reasons why this detection is controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like rotational spectroscopy) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids.

An H I region is an interstellar cloud composed of neutral atomic hydrogen (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements.

The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm3, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.

Also, within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm3, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.

SIMBAD contains 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region).

These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the hydrogen line at 21 cm (1,420 MHz) region spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies.

An H II region is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place.

Protoplanetary disks
In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, Science, discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of organic compounds, including two that contain biologically usable nitrogen; indigenous aliphatic hydrocarbons with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse interstellar medium; abundant amorphous silicates in addition to crystalline silicates such as olivine and pyroxene, proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced spectroscopically from ground observations; hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited pure carbon (CHON) was also found in the samples returned; methylamine and ethylamine was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles.

Planetary nebulas
"In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit)."

In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the Ring Nebula. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm).

Dark nebulas
"The 111 → 110 rotational transition of formaldehyde (H2CO) [occurs] in absorption in the direction of four dark nebulae. The radiation ... being absorbed appears to be the isotropic microwave background". One of the dark nebulae sampled, per SIMBAD is TGU H1211 P5.

In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."

The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) is in low Earth orbit to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: water (H2O), isotopic water (H218O), isotopic carbon monoxide (13CO), molecular oxygen (O2), and neutral carbon (C I).

Brown dwarfs
Some of the incontrovertible brown dwarf substellar objects are identified by the presence of the 670.8 nm lithium [I] line. The most notable of these objects was Gliese 229B, which was found to have a temperature and luminosity well below the stellar range. Remarkably, its near-infrared spectrum clearly exhibited a methane absorption band at 2 micrometres, a feature that had previously only been observed in gas giant atmospheres and the atmosphere of Saturn's moon, Titan. Methane absorption is not expected at the temperatures of main-sequence stars. This discovery helped to establish yet another spectral class even cooler than L dwarfs known as "T dwarfs" for which Gl 229B is the prototype. Lithium is generally present in brown dwarfs and not in low-mass stars. The presence of the lithium line in a candidate brown dwarf's spectrum is a strong indicator that it is indeed substellar. The use of lithium to distinguish candidate brown dwarfs from low-mass stars is commonly referred to as the lithium test. Some brown dwarfs emit X-rays; and all "warm" dwarfs continue to glow tellingly in the red and infrared spectra until they cool to planetlike temperatures (under 1000 K).

Carbon stars
The orange band from molecular CaCl is "observed in the spectra of many carbon stars." "[T]he concentration of CaCl is strongly temperature and pressure dependent, but almost independent of the C/O ratio at a fixed pressure."

Stars
"The aluminium abundance was derived from the resonance line at 394.4nm, and Al is underabundant by ∼ −0.7 dex with respect to iron."

Galactic halos
The Spite plateau (or Spite lithium plateau) is a baseline in the abundance of lithium found in old stars orbiting the galactic halo.

Milky Way
"Spectra of the helium 2.06 µm and hydrogen 2.17 µm lines ... confirm the existence of an extended region of high-velocity redshifted line emission centered near [Sgr A*/IRS 16]."

Large Magellanic Cloud
The supernova SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue supergiant (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 1038 erg/s. The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from 56Co decay have been detected.

At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."

Semiconductor detectors
A semiconductor detector is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually silicon or germanium).

When barium fluoride BaF2 is used, gamma rays typically excite the fast component, while alpha particles excite the slow component.

Lenses
Def. an "object, usually made of glass, that focuses or defocuses the light [or an electron beam] that passes through it" is called a lens.

Ordinary glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas silica or quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths.

Lenses are typically made of glass or transparent plastic. This glass is usually approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface.

Ultraviolet telescopes
Ultraviolet telescopes 10 nm - 400 nm resemble optical telescopes, but conventional aluminium-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead.

Observatory domes
The domes of observatories, such as in the image at right, and the objects inside used to observe and control these observatories are made of chemicals.

Shields
Radiation shielding refers to a mass of absorbing material placed around a radioactive source or to reduce incoming radiation.

The effectiveness of a material as a biological shield is related to its cross-section for scattering and absorption, and to a first approximation is proportional to the total mass of material per unit area interposed along the line of sight between the radiation source and the region to be protected. Hence, shielding strength or "thickness" is conventionally measured in units of g/cm2. The radiation that manages to get through falls exponentially with the thickness of the shield. In X-ray facilities, the plaster on the rooms with the x-ray generator contains barium sulfate and the operators stay behind a leaded glass screen and wear lead aprons. Almost any material can act as a shield from gamma or x-rays if used in sufficient amounts.

Practical radiation protection tends to be a job of juggling the three factors to identify the most cost effective solution.

For specific radiation: even very energetic alpha particles can be stopped by a single sheet of paper, and beta particles can be absorbed by a few millimeters of aluminum. High energy beta-particle shielding requires low density materials, e.g. plastic, wood, water or acrylic glass (Plexiglas, Lucite).

X-rays and gamma-rays are best absorbed by atoms with heavy nuclei. Barium sulfate is useful.

Ultraviolet radiation can be absorbed by sunscreens, clothing, and protective eyewear.

Hypotheses

 * 1) It may take the complete electromagnetic spectrum to identify all organic compounds in the interplanetary, interstellar, or intergalactic media.

"Clouds 11-13 and cloud 20 are Lynds (1962) dark clouds3 and sites of low-mass star formation (e.g., Sandell, Reipurth, and Gahm 1987) at high Galactic latitude and they are included in the sample as a control group."


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Category talk:Resources needing sources from September 2010

I post here, because the topic "Designing Web Pages" sounds interesting and useful. This puts the topic on my "contributions" and my "watchlist", so I am confident that I can find this topic again -- soon. Also, this gives me an anchor -- a place to post my thoughts and comments as I try to follow the outlined course. I expect this will be more challenging than "Simple Simon's" guided tours. ("Simple Simon" is my name for the happy little smiley face, who is even now reminding me to "sign and timestamp" my edits.) Perhaps you'd like to join in this course with me! Ray Calvin Baker (talk) 22:39, 30 March 2012 (UTC)