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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Mindfulness

Overview

At some point in your life, you probably will, or already have, sought to alleviate some sort of emotional suffering. Psychological suffering can come in many different guises, such as: stress, anxiety, depression, interpersonal conflict, confusion and despair (Germer, 2004). Some of our suffering is existential in nature, such as distress regarding sickness, death and purpose of life. Other types of suffering may come from more personal sources, such as past experience, current circumstances, genetic predisposition or an interaction of many different factors (Germer, 2004). Mindfulness is a deceptively simple practice that has long been used to reduce the experience of suffering that we all encounter. Being mindful is not simply an activity that, upon deciding to practise it, one is immediately able to live in the present moment and experience the positive rewards that mindfulness can produce. Rather, it is experienced through daily practice, both formally and informally and develops over time (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). This chapter will illustrate the potential of mindfulness to manage difficult emotions.

Psychological disorder prevalence
We all know that psychological disorders exist in our society. So what are the real facts and figures regarding what is going on around us?

According to the World Health Organisation (2003), about 450 million people currently suffer from a mental or behavioural disorder. In any given year, approximately 30% of the adult population will suffer from a recognised psychiatric disorder and approximately half of all Americans will suffer from a DSM-IV classified psychiatric disorder at some point in their lives (Kessler, Chiu, Demler & Walters, 2005; Kessler, Berglund, et al., 2005). The World Health Organisation also reports that depression is the fourth largest, most financially burdensome and most debilitating disorder in the world and by the year 2020 it will move up to second on this list (WHO, 2010). In any given week, one in ten adults will be suffering from clinical depression and 55 percent of the entire population will be diagnosed with clinical depression at some point during their lives (Davies, 1997). Moreover, almost one third of the population will be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder during their lifespan with a median age of onset of 11 years old (Kessler, Berglund, et al., 2005).

Furthermore, of greater concern is the finding that approximately one in two people will consider suicide at some point during their lives and, even more concerning is the fact that one in ten people will actually attempt to kill themselves (Harris, 2006). It is also important to consider normative life events that are not considered ‘clinical disorders’ as such, but cause suffering just the same. These could include grief, loneliness, low self-esteem, alienation or distress related to racism, bullying, domestic violence and divorce (Harris, 2006).

In pursuit of happiness
In the western world conditions of living are higher than they have ever been (Harris, 2007).

There have been significant advances in medical treatment and accessibility to such treatment (Harris, 2007). Food, housing, education and sanitation are considerably better, and improvements in justice, ability to travel and access to career opportunities, have all increased standards of living (Harris, 2007).

So why is it that in this day and age, where standards of living far exceed those experienced before, psychological health remains as much of an issue as ever?

It seems that one answer may lie in the many myths and assumptions about happiness that our society take to be true.

Myths and assumptions about happiness
According to Harris (2006), Western psychology is founded on several ill-founded myths and assumptions:
 * 1) Happiness is a natural state for all human beings: One such assumption is that humans are innately psychologically healthy beings (Harris, 2006). It is argued that given the right environment, lifestyle and social settings, all humans will be naturally happy and content.
 * 2) If you are not happy, you are defective: In accepting myth number one, societies' logical conclusion would be that psychological suffering is abnormal. We then challenge or criticise ourselves for feeling emotions such as anxiety or despair, as if these feelings are a sign of weakness (Harris, 2006 & 2007). However, given the prevalence of psychological disorders in our society, it is clear that mental health issues are far from being against the norm.
 * 3) We must rid our lives of negative feelings in order to succeed: Western society places great emphasis on pursuing happiness and as such, society tells us that in order to create a better life, we must avoid or ‘push away’ negative thoughts and focus on positive ones instead (Harris, 2007). On face value, this seems to be merely common sense. However, in every meaningful interaction we have in life, such as relationships or career moves, we encounter a range of both positive and negative emotions, such as joy, excitement and inspiration, but also stress, anxiety and trepidation (Harris, 2007). So if an emphasis is placed on accumulating positive feelings only, clearly those difficult feelings that inevitably accompany the positive ones can cause distress. In order to succeed in making a better life, we must be prepared to have uncomfortable feelings.
 * 4) We should be able to control our feelings and thoughts: Unfortunately, we are not able to control our thoughts as much as we would like (Harris, 2007). This is not to say that we have no control, merely that we have less control than western society would have us believe (Harris, 2007). When reviewing the prevalence of psychological disorders, it can be seen that the many attempts to tell us that we can change the way we feel by changing our thoughts, clearly does not work for everyone, all the time.

So why mindfulness?
Kabat-Zinn (2003, p. 148) suggests that we live in a society that continually devalues the present moment in favour of “perceptual distraction, self-absorption, and addiction to a feeling of “progress”". It seems that, rather than trying to avoid all negative thoughts in a constant striving for happiness, a conceptual change needs to occur whereby a greater acceptance of negative or difficult emotions and a reduction of the struggle for happiness takes place. The practice of mindfulness is a way of achieving this.

What is mindfulness?
Mindfulness has been described as “consciously bringing awareness to your here-and-now experience with openness, interest and receptiveness” (Harris, 2006, p.2). It has also been defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145).

However, Harris (2006) contends that, regardless of the definition, mindfulness as a concept has three important facets. These include: living in the present moment, engaging fully in what you are doing rather than ‘getting lost’ in your thoughts, and allowing your feelings to be as they are, letting them come and go rather than trying to control them (Harris, 2006). It is suggested that in the process of observing our inner experiences with openness and interest, we are able to deal with feelings and emotions that we find distressing and they then become less threatening to us (Harris, 2006).

It is a given that if we teach ourselves to be less distressed by difficult experiences in our lives, suffering will decrease. However, this is easier said than done. The body and mind instinctively react to painful experiences, and life often includes pain. Mindfulness provides a way of becoming less reactive in those moments (Germer, 2004). However, being mindful is not simply an activity that, upon deciding to practice it, one can immediately be able to live in the present moment and experience the positive rewards that mindfulness can produce. Rather, it is experienced through daily practice, both formally and informally and develops over time (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Using mindfulness techniques offer a way of relating to all experiences, positive, negative and neutral, so that suffering is reduced and one’s sense of well-being increases (Germer, 2004).

“…[mindfulness] is an invitation to allow oneself to be where one already is and to know the inner and outer landscape of the direct experience in each moment." – Jon Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 148

Mindlessness
To be mindful is to be aware of the here-and-now and to recognise what is occurring in the present moment (Germer, 2004). However, naturally, we are rarely mindful. As humans, we easily get distracted and absorbed in thoughts about what is occurring at the time. This occurrence is referred to as mindlessness (Germer, 2004; Hollis-Walker & Colosimo, 2011). Mindlessness occurs in everyday life. Examples of mindlessness include:
 * 1) Moving through tasks too quickly without giving an appropriate amount of attention to them.
 * 2) Getting entangled in thoughts about the past or the future.
 * 3) Accidentally spilling or breaking things due to inattentiveness.
 * 4) Being on ‘autopilot’ while driving and then going in the wrong direction.
 * 5) Snacking on food without being aware of eating.

History of mindfulness
The practice of mindfulness stems back to ancient times where its practice was considered an essential part of spiritual living (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Keng, Smoski & Robins, 2011). It has been through Buddhism, however, that its legacy has been best preserved and articulated over the past 2500 years (Germer, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Although mindfulness has its roots in eastern traditions and is often associated with the formal practice of mindfulness meditation, it is, however, more than just meditation (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin & Freedman, 2003). Meditation simply provides the structure to practice and develop mindfulness skills (Shapiro et al., 2006). The beginnings of mindfulness in Western psychology can be traced back to the Zen Buddhism movement in America during the 1950s and 1960s. It was during the 1960s that interest in using meditation techniques as part of psychotherapy, especially psychoanalysis, began to grow (Keng et al., 2011). Psychological research into heightening awareness and broadening the boundaries of consciousness using techniques such mediation began during the 1960s and 1970s. However, it was not until the late 1970s that a focus on using mindfulness meditation as an intervention to improve psychological well-being began (Keng et al., 2011).

Mindfulness has continued to develop in Western psychology and is now used through several different clinical treatment interventions. Mindfulness-Based Stress Relief was initially developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn during the late 1970s. Kabat-Zinn began using mindfulness meditation as a way of treating individuals with chronic pain (Germer, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Keng et al., 2011). However, several other clinical interventions use mindfulness-related principles and practices to treat individuals who are experiencing psychological distress. These include: Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (Baer, 2003; Carmody & Baer, 2008; Keng et al., 2011).

The benefits of mindfulness
Research has shown that mindfulness is associated with psychological well-being (Baer, 2003; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt & Walach, 2004; Keng et al., 2011). It has been argued that awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of the here-and-now experience are helpful in reducing psychological distress, such as feelings of anxiety, stress, despair and fear (Keng et al., 2011). Many of these forms of distress can manifest themselves within the individual to form maladaptive tendencies to avoid, suppress or over-engage with these difficult emotions (Keng et al., 2011).

Meta-analytic studies have shown that mindfulness-based therapies can be beneficial for individuals experiencing psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression and borderline personality disorder (Grossman et al., 2004; Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt & Oh, 2010; Keng et al., 2011). It is argued that mindfulness skills enhance the ability to cope, not only with distress and disability in everyday life, but also during episodes of intense stress or serious disorder (Grossman et al., 2004; Hoffman et al., 2010).

Furthermore, research indicates that self-reported mindfulness and psychological health are correlated (Keng et al., 2011). These correlations have been shown in a number of different sample populations, including undergraduate students, adults in the community as well as individuals who are suffering from mental health disorders (Keng et al., 2011). Questionnaires have been developed in order to attempt to measure mindfulness as a trait-type attribute. Interestingly, trait mindfulness has been shown to be correlated with many factors that would appear to be important for psychological well-being. Correlations have been found with higher levels of satisfaction, self-compassion, self-esteem, empathy, optimism, competence and sense of autonomy (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Hollis-Walker & Colisimo, 2011; Keng et al., 2011).

According to self-determination theory, three fundamental innate psychological needs are required to be satisfied in order to ensure psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness form the basis of psychological health (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is of interest then, that individuals who scored more highly on trait mindfulness were also correlated with higher levels of competence and a sense of autonomy (Brown & Ryan, 2003). This, in accordance with self-determination theory, indicates that developing mindfulness abilities can increase psychological well-being. Self-determination theory also posits that open awareness is particularly important in helping the individual to make choices that are in alignment with their needs, values and interest (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2008). This is also of interest given that from the earliest mindfulness teachings, opening awareness has been a fundamental factor in achieving well-being (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Hollis-Walker and Colosimo (2011) suggest that their findings indicate that individuals who scored higher on the mindfulness scale are more capable of identifying, managing and resolving problems that occur in day-to-day living and that this encourages psychological well-being.

More recent research has sought to study the mindful brain (Hölzel et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2011). Taylor et al. (2011) investigated the neural responses of individuals who practice mindfulness to emotional stimuli and compared results between experienced and beginner practitioners. Their results indicated that extensive mindfulness practice fosters emotional stability and modulates a number of regions in the brain that are involved in the neural responses to emotional experiences.

To confirm what mindfulness theory has long purported, the results of the study by Taylor et al. (2011) indicate that long term mindfulness practice induces brain activity patterns that are associated with acceptance of emotional stimuli and lower levels of interference from internal states (Taylor et al., 2011). The authors argue that this possibly points to better awareness of the here-and-now. Conversely, their results also indicate that less experienced mindfulness practitioners show brain activity that relates to voluntary regulation of emotion, which infers less acceptance of emotional states, and lower levels of emotional stability (Taylor et al., 2011).

However, due to the introspective nature of mindfulness, there has been a large reliance on self-report measures (Keng et al., 2011). Keng et al., 2011 question whether the construct of mindfulness is actually measurable by factual knowledge. The authors query how closely self-reports of mindfulness actually reflect the experiences of everyday life. Further research using multiple methods of assessment is required (Keng et al., 2011).

The mechanisms of mindfulness
At this point you may be asking: so how does mindfulness actually work? Although mindfulness is a mostly introspective construct, several mechanisms of action underlying mindfulness have been suggested in order to explain this (Baer, 2003; Keng et al., 2011; Shapiro et al., 2006). According to Shapiro et al. (2006) mindfulness occurs when ‘intention’, ‘attention’ and ‘attitude’ are simultaneously in alignment. Firstly, intention refers to the individual’s purpose for studying and pursuing mindfulness. This may be for self-regulation, self-exploration or self-liberation and may change over time (Shapiro et al., 2006). The authors suggest that intention is a critical element of mindfulness and serves to understand the process as a whole. Secondly, attention refers to the observation of the internal and external experiences present in the moment (Shapiro et al., 2006). It is argued that when an individual does not attempt to analyse these experiences they can learn to observe the free flowing content of their consciousness (Shapiro et al., 2006). Finally, attitude refers to how an individual attends to the moment-to-moment experience. Through mindfulness practice an individual is better able to reduce the continual striving for merely positive experience and avoidance of aversive feelings. This can be achieved through intentionally bringing attitudes of compassion, patience and non-striving to mindfulness practice (Shapiro et al., 2006).

A process known as reperceiving occurs when all three elements take place simultaneously. This results in a shift in perspective (Shapiro et al., 2006). The authors suggest that this is fundamental to the changes that occur with mindfulness practice and thereby facilitates other mechanisms such as self-regulation, values clarification and exposure.

In this context reperceiving is the process whereby an individual is able to de-identify from the thoughts and feelings of the consciousness and can therefore view each present moment experience with more clarity and objectivity (Shapiro et al., 2006). Rather than being caught up in life drama, the individual is able to observe the experiences as a bystander or witness. Through this process of intentionally attending to the contents of the consciousness, it is thought that the individual can begin to fortify the ability to observe the self. Reperceiving allows the individual who is experiencing psychological suffering, be it from problems such as anxiety, depression, or fear, to de-identify from these thoughts and emotions instead of being defined by them (Shapiro et al., 2006).

Further specific mechanisms have also been suggested to describe how mindfulness promotes psychological well-being:

Self-management
Mindfulness provides the skills to be able to self-regulate emotion in ways that encourage psychological well-being. It is thought that reperceiving disrupts automatic thoughts and emotions that lead to maladaptive habits by changing the level of reactivity to these experiences (Baer, 2003; Shapiro et al., 2006). For example, when an individual experiences anxiety and strongly identifies with it, they are more likely to react in unhelpful ways and attempt to regulate these feelings with behaviour such as drinking, smoking or overeating (Shapiro et al., 2006).

However, through reperceiving the individual is able to view the experience of anxiety objectively and accept it as a feeling that is transient and will, at some point, go away (Baer, 2003; Shapiro et al., 2006). Experiencing the impermanence of these feelings allows a higher level of tolerance for unpleasant internal states (Baer, 2003; Shapiro et al., 2006). It is also considered that better self-observation promotes the use of coping skills (Baer, 2003; Keng et al., 2011). Increased awareness of the experience of unpleasant states, such as anxiety or depression, also potentially results in a better ability to recognise early signs of potential relapse as well as then engage in more helpful coping strategies (Baer, 2003; Keng et al., 2011).

Exposure
When an individual learns to experience strong emotions with greater objectivity and less reactivity, in turn, a greater level of acceptance of unpleasant emotional states results (Baer, 2003; Shapiro et al., 2006). This increased tolerance reduces the tendency to avoid difficult emotions and allows for these experiences to occur more frequently, thereby increasing exposure to such states (Shapiro et al., 2006). Coming to understand the impermanence of these experiences, the individual learns not to fear them, thereby allowing desensitisation to occur and the eventual extinction of avoidant behaviours (Baer, 2003; Keng et al., 2011; Shapiro et al., 2006).

Values clarification
Reperceiving may also help an individual clarify what is meaningful to them (Keng et al., 2011). Individuals are conditioned by such external influences, as society, culture or family. Reperceiving enables objective reflection on what values hold more true for the individual, so they are  able to respond in ways that are more congruent with their needs, interests or values (Shapiro et al., 2006). Harris (2007) argues that values are important because they can guide and motivate an individual through situations when feelings or emotions may lead them astray. Living one’s life in accordance with their deepest values is ultimately fulfilling and satisfying (Harris, 2007). However, it may cause them to have to face unpleasant or challenging feelings, just as much as experiencing the pleasant feelings associated with value-driven life (Harris, 2007). This highlights the need for acceptance of all emotions: positive, neutral and negative, that mindfulness practice can promote (Harris, 2007).

{| class="wikitable" ! Activity- A Few Simple Ways to be Mindful Mindfulness can be practised informally throughout the day. Here are few examples of the ways to practice mindfulness anywhere (adapted from Harris, 2009).

Ten breaths
Focusing on your breathing is a simple way to centre oneself and connect with the present environment (Harris, 2009). It can also easily be practised at any time of the day, especially when experiencing unpleasant or distracting thoughts (Harris, 2009).
 * 1) Take ten slow, deep breaths. Focus on breathing out as slowly as possible until your lungs are completely empty and then allow them to refill themselves.
 * 2) Notice the sensations of your lungs emptying. Notice them refilling. Notice your rib cage rising and falling. Notice the gentle rise and fall of your shoulders.
 * 3) See if you can let your thoughts come and go as if they are just passing cars, driving outside your house.
 * 4) Expand you awareness: simultaneously notice your breathing and your body. Then look around the room and notice what you can see, hear, smell, touch and feel.

Thich Nhat Hanh- Mindfulness Master - talks about the value of the mindful breath

Mindfulness in your morning routine
During the morning choose an activity that forms part of your daily routine, such as having a shower or brushing your teeth. While undertaking this activity, totally focus your attention on what is happening and what you are doing. Focus on your body movements, the feel, the smell, the taste, the sight and the sound that occur during this activity. Notice what is going on with an attitude of openness and curiosity. When your thoughts arise, acknowledge them, and try and let them come and go as they please. Again and again, you’ll get caught up in your thoughts. As soon as you realise this has happened, acknowledge it, note what the thought was that distracted you, and bring your attention back to the activity of the present moment (Harris, 2009).
 * }

Summary

 * In western society, we are encouraged in the pursuit of happiness. However, life involves pain at times. It is inevitable that throughout life we experience challenging emotions such as rejection, grief, disappointment, failure, stress and anxiety (Harris, 2007). The way these emotions are managed can shape how we deal with painful emotions that will, without doubt, occur again in the future. By living life with awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of the here-and-now experience, in a manner that is congruent with one’s needs, values and interests, these feelings of psychological distress are able to be ameliorated. In order to achieve psychological well-being, one has to accept that they must feel the full range of human emotions, including those that are positive, negative and neutral (Harris, 2007). Mindfulness provides the skills to achieve a rich, full and meaningful life (Harris, 2007).


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Hypnosis

What is hypnosis?
Modern hypnotherapy has roots that can be traced to similar practices found in ancient Persian texts, yoga (White, 1941), as well as the work of Franz Anton Mesmer (1734 – 1815) from whom we derive the term mesmerize, and who believed in a fluid universal magnetic force that can influence the health of the human body; a force to become known as animal magnetism (Waterfield, 2003).

Hypnosis is now considered to be a state of cerebral attentiveness or mental concentration that usually leads to a form of progressive relaxation, and is often induced by a procedure known as hypnotic induction (Lynn, Fassler & Knox, 2005). Hypnosis is characterised as a non-deceptive placebo (Kirsch, 1994) with a subject being guided to respond to suggestions for changes in experience, perception, sensation, emotion or thoughts (Kraft & Kraft, 2005).

The earliest definition was given by James Braid (1795-1860) who invented the term hypnosis to mean nervous sleep, as opposed to normal sleep (Braid, 1853). Braid later reserved the term hypnotism for a state of amnesia resembling sleep called a hypnotic state (state-theory), but later took on a more non-state stance. The concept of hypnosis being any form of sleep was later discredited with research showing an unlikely relationship between sleep and hypnosis (Fricker & Butler, 2001).

Two main schools of hypnosis emerged during the late 19th century. These were the Paris School, which argued that hypnosis was an abnormal state of functioning; and the more dominant Nancy School, arguing that hypnotism was simply an extension of normal psychology. Debate between the two schools over Braid’s state theory and the concept of a trance like state during hypnosis continued. Psychotherapists began to postulated that only heightened suggestibility and not any state-like trance could account for the phenomenon of hypnosis (Lynn, Fassler & Knox, 2005). Altered state views are now rejected by most sociocognitive theorists (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009), however, recent brain imagery and research has reinvigorated debate into the merits of a state-theory hypothesis (Fricker & Butler, 2001).

Hypnosis in therapeutic purposes is known as hypnotherapy, while the term stage hypnosis has been coined in entertainment circles. Self hypnosis is used when describing self induced physical relaxation and focused mental concentration; a practice made widespread since the work of Emile Coue (1857-1926) following his theory of conscious autosuggestion and psychotherapeutic techniques (Waterfield, 2003).

How does hypnotism work?
Victorian era exponents of therapeutic hypnosis such as Braid and Bernheim believed that hypnosis was a form of suggestion that communicated directly with the subject’s conscious mind. It wasn’t until the end of the 19th century when Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Pierre Janet (1859-1947) introduced the concepts of the unconscious and subconscious mind into the hypnotic equation, leading to the practice and theory of hypno-analysis and regression hypnotherapy. Several concepts including the ideo-motor and ideo-dynamic theories have been adopted to explain the phenomenon of hypnosis, and employed to help illustrate the power of an idea (or mind over matter) as an explanation for the psycho-physiological impact of hypnosis (Waterfield, 2003). Under hypnosis, the brain constructs a reality according to what is suggested by the hypnotic inductor (Burkhard, 2009).

While research is yet to identify a superior model, hypnotic induction can take a number of forms (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). These include Braidism (which utilises an eye-fixation method), as well as Ericksonian techniques devised by the most influential post WWII hypnotherapist, Milton Erickson (1901-1980). Often described as the Dean of Hypnotherapy (Mays, 1990), Erickson employed such tactics as direct and indirect verbal suggestions, metaphorical devices, figures of speech, mental imagery, as well as physical manipulation (Kraft & Kraft, 2005). It has been hypothesised that the use of metaphor in hypnotherapy, which encompasses other forms of word play such as simile and analogy, helps to not only communicate a richness of experiential knowledge, but also bridges the gap from semantic connotation to true understanding, thus enhancing participation (Mays, 1990). Pavlov himself hypothesized that suggestion is one of the most simple forms of human reflexes (Waterfield, 2003).

While modern brain imaging techniques can help illustrate but not necessarily prove theoretical explanations of internal mental processes, recent work has demonstrated that hypnotic induction is accompanied by changes in the brain (Burkhard, 2009). Modern medical imaging technologies have also given greater insights into how the brain functions under hypnosis, indicating that more suggestible subjects are simply activating brain areas used for imagination (Kosslyn, Thompson, Costantini-Ferrando, Alpert & Spiegel, 2000). PET scans have shown that highly suggestible subjects’ brains react differently under hypnosis compared to that when not under hypnosis (Burkhard, 2009).

Another theory help to explain the motivation behind hypnotic suggestibility is the social-role theory, where hypnotised subjects attempt to fulfill socially-constructed roles and perform accordingly (Waterfield, 2003). Furthermore, the experimenter’s prestige and the subject's motivation to respond can also influence suggestibility (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). The astonishing responses that highly suggestible subjects make has on one hand prompted many to question their authenticity, while on the other, had many assume that some kind of unusual hypnotic state must be involved. (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001). However, some research indicates that perhaps neither is true, with brain imagery data indicating that highly suggestible people do not alter their state, but rather their experience. (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001).

Can anyone be hypnotised?
The ability to be hypnotised is known as both hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic suggestibility (Kraft & Kraft, 2005). The Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility was devised in 1959 by Andre Weitzenhoffer (1921-2004) and Ernest R. Hilgard (1904-2001), and has shown that individual hypnotic susceptibility scores are highly stable over time (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). However, young children do not respond well to hypnosis due to their there lack of ability to understand meaning in verbal communication (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). Furthermore, it has been suggested that hypnotic susceptibility scales measure suggestibility independent of hypnotic induction, and therefore a distinction should be made between hypnotic suggestibility and hypnotic susceptibility, also known as hypnotizability (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001).

Accounting for individual differences in hypnotic suggestibility continues to interest researchers. Attitudes, fantasy proneness, imaginative absorption, motivation, readiness to respond and expectancy represent a number of variables that correlate with hypnotic suggestibility (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001). Fast reaction response times have been associated with greater hypnotic suggestibility in research conducted by Braffman and Kirsch (2001) involving over 100 undergraduate students. Furthermore, suggestible subjects can be identified as either fantasizers (with the ability to block out current stimuli) or dissociaters, who more readily block out past experiences (Barrett, 1992). It has been postulated that about one third of the population score highly on hypnotic suggestibility, and about one quarter score very low (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001).

What are some applications of hypnosis?
Hypnosis has been used to control pain (Vickers & Zollman, 1999), as a form of psychotherapy in conjunction with cognitive-behavioural therapies (Kirsch, 1996), in the military (albeit unsuccessfully), as a form of entertainment, to treat stage fright, in forensics, in education, in physical therapy and rehabilitation (Diamond, Davis, Schaecher & Howe, 2006), for addiction cessation and habit control, for help with weight loss or weight gain, to treat dissociative disorders and insomnia, to assist sporting performance (Waterfield, 2003), and to compliment traditional medical treatments (Fricker & Butler, 2001).

Is hypnosis effective on motivation?
Despite the explicit notion that hypnosis positively effects motivation, there has been debate regarding its usefulness as a purely motivational tool (London & Fuhrer, 1961). Interestingly, the simple concept or possibility of being hypnotised has been thought to account for the readiness of many subjects to become more susceptible to hypnosis, suggesting that the mere notion of hypnosis affects motivation (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). Furthermore, it is argued that hypnosis can change a subject’s focus to be more attuned to therapeutic goals, hence covertly increasing motivation for successful treatment (Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009).

Motivation towards enhanced performance
Diamond, Davis, Schaecher and Howe (2006) observed qualitative improvements in motivation as well as strength when hypnosis was used to help treat chronic stroke patients. It has also been postulated that hypnosis empowers people to help themselves and increases self-esteem (Fricker & Butler, 2001). In reviewing the anecdotal and experimental evidence supporting the use of hypnosis, Onestak (1991) suggests that the mere notion that hypnosis is effective can be motivational enough for a subject to pursue it as a strategy for improving performance, particularly goal-oriented people. This is despite no real consistent or decisive evidence to support such a theory. Hypnosis also can be seen as a natural state that can empower self-control. Furthermore, in a study involving the impacts of hypnosis on goal achievements, hypnotised participants demonstrated a greater result than those from a control group (Emmerson, 1990).

Studies have also researched the impact of hypnosis on athletic performance. Arguably, the difference that often determines success or failure is the psychological preparation of an athlete, and a commonly held belief has been that psyching an athlete up will enhance performance (Onestak, 1991). However, the inverted-U hypothesis contradicts the commonly held view of drive theory that an increase in an athlete’s arousal level improves performance, and that arousal only works to a point before tapering off (Onestak, 1991). Therefore, to counter this effect, athletes are becoming motivated to try hypnosis with sport psychologists who have become more focused on lowering these arousal levels to optimize performance (Onestak, 1991). Such hypnotic strategies include controlling arousal, increasing self-confidence, regression to a more positive memory state, decreasing anxiety, venting negative feelings, narrowing attention, and reducing pain (Onestak, 1991).

Motivation towards habit cessation
Bonshtein, Shaar and Golan (2005) reported on the benefits of utilising hypnosis in helping people to be motivated to beat their nicotine addition, and emphasize the importance in finding therapeutic methods to help motivate smokers to stop. One such strategy is hypnosis, and smokers are often motivated to try it as an option because of the absence of side effects and the increase in self control (Bonshtein, Shaar,& Golan, 2005). Furthermore, while hypnosis has been shown to make positive changes in consciousness, emotions, and behaviours relating to a nicotine addict’s motivation to quit smoking, it is most effective when used in combination with other strategies, including medication and group therapy (Bonshtein, Shaar & Golan, 2005).

"Quitting smoking is easy: I've done it hundreds of times Mark Twain"

The use of hypnosis as an effective treatment to motivate smokers to quit may include the introduction of aversive conditioned stimuli, associating profoundly disgusting thoughts or smells with the act of smoking (Bonshtein, Shaar & Golan, 2005). Bonshtein, Shaar and Golan (2005) warn against the dangers and limitations of hypnosis as an effective treatment for addiction, particularly highlighting concerns associated with hypnotizing patients with either a pre-psychotic state or major depression.

Motivation towards controlling psychopathology
In reviewing the literature, Vanderlinden and Vandereycken (1988) reported the use of hypnosis for the therapeutic treatment of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia dating back over 100 years, where hypnosis was utilised to encourage behavioural changes and help motivate patients to take control of their eating. However, inducing hypnosis in patients with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa has proven to be comparatively quite difficult due to a lack of motivation in a great number of patients (Vanderlinden & Vandereycken, 1988). That said, when motivated to change, hypnotherapy becomes a useful therapeutic strategy, and success increases when used in conjunction with other methods (Vanderlinden & Vandereycken, 1988).

Hypnosis has also been used to motivate patients to dissociate themselves from problems, increase a more objective perspective, and to assist in remembering premorbid functioning. Myerson and Konichezy (2009) described healthy dissociation as crucial in human development, and reported that hypnotically induced dissociation (HID) has been used as an effective therapeutic tool in the psychotherapeutic treatment of obstinate mental disorders (OMD), such as chronic depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and personality disorders. While the dissociative components of hypnosis differ from that of pathological dissociative symptoms, the similarities have seen hypnosis utilised as an effective instrument for not only motivating a change in perspective or outlook within sufferers, but also in the initial diagnosis of pathological dissociative symptoms (Myerson & Konichezy, 2009). Hypnosis can motivate patients to recognise the difference between healthy and pathological aspect of personality and behaviour, and enhance meaningful personal transformations. (Myerson & Konichezy, 2009).

Summary
Since James Braid invented the term hypnosis (meaning nervous sleep) during the mid 19th century, the astonishing responses that highly susceptible people make after hypnotic induction have continued to spur debate and create hypotheses regarding this phenomenon. Regardless of the actual or perceived changes that occur in a subject's brain as revealed by modern imaging techniques, hypnosis has been shown to increase motivation within a number of fields including physical performance, habit cessation, and psychopathology. Most interestingly, even the mere notion of hypnosis can motivate people to become more susceptible to the suggestions and therefore outcomes of hypnosis.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Static electricity/Howard Community College/Fall 2011/501 Lifters

Problem Statement
We will build a functional static electricity "lifter."

Team Members

 * N. Delaney
 * A. Satya

Summary
We decided to base our model heavily on the one in this website. The lifter was constructed using aluminum foil, balsa wood, superglue, and copper wire. While the two parts of the lifter designed to conduct electricity (the foil sides and the wire top) were confirmed to be fully conductive, we were not able to charge the lifter enough to levitate.

Story
Our initial design for the lifter was very similar to the one in the above link, though we decided to use three longer pieces of wood for the corner posts stretching both above and below the foil, rather than have three separate pieces of wood as the lower support posts. Realizing that it would be more difficult to assemble in that manner, we cut them into 8cm and 3cm poles instead of three 11cm poles, making our final design identical to the one on the model website. We cut three 20 cm x 4 cm pieces of foil and glued them to the sides of the lifter. Finally, copper wire was threaded through the top of the corner posts.

Several pieces of wood snapped during the course of threading the wire, so they were repaired with more super glue. We checked the conductivity between the three sides, and it appeared that only two of them were conductive with each other. The wire, being an unbroken strip, was conductive throughout. We determined that the foil conductivity issue was due to having cut the pieces at a length of 20 cm, which, aside from one corner, was insufficient to touch each other around the two remaining corners. No more foil was available at the time, but tape was discovered in the classroom that was foil on one side and adhesive on the other side, so we attempted to repair the corners with that. Unfortunately, the adhesive side was not conducive to conductivity. We later glued more foil to the non-conductive corners, and the conductivity problem was resolved.

The next step was to get a high voltage generator. We were unsure if equipment found in class was what we needed, so we attempted to design a generator of our own. These attempts did not produce any realistic results, so we requested a demonstration from our instructor as to how to use the in-class equipment. The classroom's generator had the ability to generator up to 30 kV, so using an HP 34111A High Voltage Divider Probe, we attached the ground clamp to the lifter's wire and the probe to the foil and vice versa. Neither method caused the lifter to levitate.

After these failed attempts we attached two short pieces of copper wire to one of the sides of the lifter with scotch tape and to the wire on top of the lifter, in order to make holding the probe's parts to the lifter easier. We then confirmed the conductivity of each of the wires to their respective parts of the lifter. In the end, the lifter appeared to be built correctly, but we were unable to figure out how to charge it properly.

Material List

 * Balsa wood
 * Aluminum foil
 * Super glue
 * Aluminum foil tape
 * Copper wire
 * HP 34111A High Voltage Divider Probe
 * E&L Instruments PS-01
 * Scotch tape

Time
We spent 25 hours on this project.

Next Steps
The primary problem preventing the project from moving forward is determining how to use the probe and generator. Once that is done, it should be a simple matter to charge the lifter. Aside from that, the wire on top of the lifter is a bit "saggy," and could stand to be shorter and straighter. This would help make the lifter both lighter and easier to transport.


text:
User:Epcole/enes100/speakers

Back to Speakers team page.

Give instructor top 3 project choice list
My top three projects were Power Projects, Corn Starch, and Infared. I am working on Corn Starch.

Write problem statement
What makes Corn Starch solution a Non-Newtonian fluid? What is the difference between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids?

Assign Task1
Understand the difference between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. Buy corn starch and find device to produce sound vibrations.

Compare actual work done to Task1
Purchased corn starch, made oobleck, and studied its behavior.

Week1 Narrative
Here are a few videos I recorded while studying the behavior of the corn starch solution.
 * | Rolling into a ball
 * | Mix with spoon

Week1 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:32, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task2
Get some 6" speakers and try to conduct experiments with oobleck and sound waves.

Compare actual work done to Task2
Tried to conduct experiments with speakers.

Week2 Narrative
This week was my first attempt at the actual experiments. I tried Faraday Waves and also Monsters. Both tests were unsuccessful although I think I saw some waves in one of the experiments. I First tried using an ultrasonic horn at 20KHz to create the vibrations but it simply just bubbled the Oobleck around the horn. After about a minute the heat generated from the horn turned the solution into a gummy state. I tried using a speaker cone, initially to create the monsters but that was also unsuccessful. I used a small 4" speaker with a power amp for this experiment.

Here are links to the videos
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3IoUoho--Y
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0TtgRatOP8&feature=channel_video_title

Week2 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:32, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task3
This week I'll spend more time on planning and gathering more information on how the experiments are done.

Compare actual work done to Task3
Studied successful experiments conducted with the cornstarch mixture to possibly find what went wrong with last week's experiments.

Week3 Narrative
Compared the mixture concentrations, not much difference was found. From watching a few of the other videos on youtube and also the post on instructables.com, the main difference I could find was the thickness of the fluid. Also the amount of fluid on the speaker could be something to look at.

Week3 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Assign Task4
Gather more info about the concentrations and retry the speaker experiments.

Compare actual work done to Task4
did speaker experiments

Week4 Narrative
With thicker mixtures, the speaker monster experiment actually worked this time. Here is a link
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlA-U0wO7P0&feature=feedu

Week4 Peer Review
Go to each team mates weekly summary wiki page. Read their activities and narrative. Then go the associated discussion page. Say something positive on this page. Try some constructive criticism. Add your name and 1sfoerster 13:33, 28 August 2011 (UTC) to create a time and date stamp. Create a new category if another team mate has already commented here.

Complete Project Page
Follow the "project done" format.

Start Next Project Week0 activities
During this week you will perform the week0 activities of the next project.

title: User:Epcole/enes100/speakers


text:
User:Ndelaney9295/ENES100/Static electricity

Back to Lifters team page.

Give instructor top 3 project choice list
I submitted three project choices and was assigned Static Electricity.

Write problem statement
The goal is to create an object that levitates when highly charged such as in these videos.

Assign Task1
My task was to set up the Wikiversity documentation pages and gather information as to how to safely charge objects.

Compare actual work done to Task1
I set up the Wikiversity pages and found some limited information on charging techniques and safety, but more importantly found a basis for our model.

Week1 Narrative
I found instructions on how to build and operate a lifter here. I drew a sketch in my engineering notebook for our moel.

Assign Task2
Over the weekend, I will build the lifter.

Compare actual work done to Task2
I built the lifter.

Week2 Narrative
While I originally designed the upper and lower legs of the lifter to be part of the same piece of wood in order to differentiate my design from the example from Week 1, I quickly discovered that it would be much more difficult to assemble, so instead of three 11cm poles, I cut them to be 8cm and 3cm poles. Most of the original pieces of wood I cut broke as I stumbled through gluing them together, but I eventually was able to complete the gluing.

The foil bits proved to not be long enough, as I cut them for 20cm exactly, and I realize now I should've left another cm or two to wrap around. I believe I can cut smaller pieces and simply attach them, but I'd like to see if it works as is, for now.

After writing the above, I checked the conductivity between the three sides, and it appears that only two of them are conductive with each other. I will need to add foil connectors to the remaining side.

I also threaded copper wire through the top posts. Two of them snapped, but I was able to repair them with tape that is aluminum foil on one side and adhesive on the other side. Sadly, connecting the non-attached side of the lifter via this tape does not appear to aid conductivity. The wire could also stand to be shorter, but I will tackle that issue once I have the larger ones fixed.

Assign Task3
I must attach more foil to the weak side of the lifter to get conductivity all around it. I also need to figure out how to build a high voltage generator.

Compare actual work done to Task3
I fixed the conductivity problem, but haven't yet determined how to build a high voltage generator.

Week3 Narrative
I glued a small strip of foil to both of the unconnected corners of the lifter. When I checked the conductivity, all sides appeared to work with each other.

I didn't make any progress in designing a high voltage generator.

Assign Task4
Design and build a high voltage generator.

Compare actual work done to Task4
I did not build a high voltage generator, but rather attempted to get materials available in the classroom to serve that purpose.

Week4 Narrative
The classroom contained a voltage generator (up to 30 kV), so using an HP 34111A High Voltage Divider Probe, I tried attaching the ground clamp to the lifter's wire and the probe to the foil and vice versa. Neither method caused the lifter to levitate.

It was difficult to attach the lifter to the probe's parts, so I attached two short pieces of copper wire to the wire on top of the lifter and to one of the sides of the lifter. I double-checked the conductivity of each of the wires to their respective parts of the lifter, and they appeared to be functioning correctly.

Start Next Project Week0 activities
For my next project I was assigned Apps.


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hypnosis

Comments on the draft
Just testing. -- Jtneill - Talk - c 02:35, 13 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi hypnosis page! I did a presentation on hyponsis for pain management last semester in psychopathology, and I was fascinated by its uses in not just pain management but in childbirth. Maybe that could be a good section as it helps motivate women to give birth without drugs and to mange the experience. Or maybe just on pain management, its pretty fascinating stuff. Good luck. EamesA 02:01, 18 October 2011 (UTC)

Hey Andrew, I came across that info on the hypnotic lap-band info that I mentioned the other day. It's called: Hypnotic Lap Band- Reprogram your mind for success with Mark Stephens. I have the "Fast action success manual" in my hands and it goes through how it works and what you do, including the "think slim success verse" that you tell yourself every day.... if that's of any help to you?! Let me know and I can bring it in to show you. I'm sure you've got a million things to cover already! CaitlinU3067255 23:45, 23 October 2011 (UTC)

This is looking really good. The only thing I'd suggest is maybe finding some literature about the impact susceptibility has on the effectiveness of the hypnosis. Otherwise I think you've done a really good job of covering the topic. Danielle.d 04:45, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey, it's looking great. Here’s a great article about Hypnosis and NLP that might be useful to this chapter… http://www.neuro-vision.us/Products/ExerciseMotivationHypnosisCD.htm. Looks like you're kicking goals. U3067255 05:13, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks all... appreciate the comments. Good luck with your chapters. Have a great weekend U895075 10:42, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks for the feedback on my mindfulness page.... Most helpful. The stage hypnosis aspect of this topic is most intriguing. As far as stage hypnotism goes, you can’t go past Derren Brown. For information and helpful links visit http://derrenbrown.co.uk/. He has some terrific book sout includoing “confessions of a conjuror”… a great read that dispels many of the myths about stage hypnosis. I'm not going to look at you- just so you know... U3067255 00:14, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Wow your progress is impressive, you've even completed the multimedia already! You must have had a lot of intrinsic motivation in this topic :) It reads very well too. -- I would love to see some kind of self-test to see how susceptible I would be to hypnosis (I suspect I would be fairly susceptible..) Not sure about copyright problems though, unless the questions were adapted and cited. All the best and thanks for your feedback --Jaybay 09:53, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Comment by Magnolia - hypnotic presentation - very well laid out - interesting history - well done

Images
This could be uploaded to Wiki commons - http://www.flickr.com/photos/30998192@N04/2901853773/in/pool-766316@N21 -- Jtneill - Talk - c 10:16, 19 October 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 04:22, 24 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 01:49, 9 December 2011 (UTC)


title: User:U895075


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Mindfulness

Comments
Testing the wiggles U895075 03:09, 13 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi, Ellen Langer has done a lot of work on mindfulness, also Bishop (2004) offers a good definition. Mindfulness qualitities suggested by Snyder & Lopez, 2007 include; nonjudging, nonstriving, acceptance, patience, trust, openness, letting go, gentleness, generosity, empathy, gratitude & Lovingkindness. Regards, Susann 11.08, 29 October 2011

MCBT Mindfullness based cognitive behavioural therapy... most evidence found on motivating those with depression Lucas K1 04:57, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi, love the concept of mindfulness and it practice in therapy. Page is looking good. If you wanted it would be to do a guide how one may practice mindfulness and give an example of a mindfulness session. Also I have heard some people confuse meditation with mindfulness and I know there are some similarities to these 2, but it may be useful to compare the differences between the 2. Good luck :) (Benk 08:13, 2 November 2011 (UTC)).

G'day. This is an excellent looking chapter on what is a truly interesting topic. Great idea... kind of wish I'd thought of it myself. Look at me!!! Regards U895075 02:04, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi, thanks for the reference, just in case you are pursuing the treatment side and there is also Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs, (have mentioned this in Eudaimonic Well-being briefly), you may have already checked into this, just a thought. (Susann 23:34, 3 November 2011 (UTC)).

Maybe have mindfulness based stress reduction by Jon Kabat-Zinn. He's the one that opened the first mindfulness-based institution used in western health care using meditation techniques regards U895075 10:29, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Sorry to bother again, but... There's a great book called "The Mindful Brain" by Daniel J. Siegel. He covers more of the specifics of brain anatomy and how mindfulness is expressed through these. Check it out... very cool. Look at me!!! regards, again U895075 10:30, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Sorry... one more thing... May I say... Your page is amazing. I know how tricky the formatting has been, but... you've raised the bar... Also... only a grounded and well-balanced individual could think of such a great topic. Betcha didn't think I'd add that bit... but I did... look at me!!! U895075 10:33, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Last time I annoy you.. I promise. A was discussing your page earlier with a neuropsychologist firned of mine who said she'd send a link that might be useful, and it's just arrived. To be honest, I haven't read much of it myself, but it comes from high authority... might be worth a look during the weekend before you finalise your chapter... Or not... See how you go... so.. Have a look at the site http://www.actmindfully.com.au/. It's the Australian site for a mindfulness type of treatment called acceptance and commitment therapy. It's got heaps of research under the 'free resources' page. good luck this weekend. Look at me again!!! U895075 10:38, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey! Your design and layout of your page area great! You have a lot of interesting information on here! I am very jealous that you have already done your audio for your assignment as well! Very organised!! Looking through some of your pictures had a messy layout, one cut a quote in half and another two were overlapping. I am not sure how to fix that, or if it's just my computer. Well done though, you've got a great assignment!! Ashleetronerud 00:19, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi :). You're page looks fantastic. I really like how you've provided myths and assumptions of mindfulness, its very original. Additionally, how you've contrasted mindfulness with mindlessness is brilliant. It provides a good alternative to just blurting out a whole lot of theory. The way you've done it assists in understanding the concept of mindfulness in a very coherent manner. I picked up some referencing 'errors' that you might want to fix up, namely in the pursuit of happiness section regarding et al. You've referenced correctly in the other sections so I'm assuming you haven't got around to it yet, but after mentioning the author once make sure to reference them as et al. afterwards. Overall, great chapter! Regards, U3033746 00:54, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Hey :) Your page looks great! One of the best ive seen. Great use of pictures and I really like the 'tips for mindfulness' section. Great work! LanaJ 02:16, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Really great topic. As previously mentioned, the myths and assumptions box was great. The font in the Introduction and In Pursuit of Happiness is larger than the rest. While these may be the important sections it is a little incongruent. Not sure if you want to change this or not. Quotes and pictures are great. Plus talking about mindlessness is helpful too. I like your summary. All in all, I like your page. Well done! Noodles&Wedges 04:46, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

You should include the DOIs for journal articles in your reference list. Also I think the pursuit of happiness section was a bit disjointed - I'd suggest maybe just making it a paragraph. Otherwise, great job! Danielle.d 22:07, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Really interesting information - very well done - Magnolia

Rfoster 03:21, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 03:02, 10 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
Engineering Projects/Engines/Howard Community College/fall2011/550 QSM

wikipage for new engine team of 2

Problem Statement
Can you make a running Stirling engine out of house hold materials?

Team Members

 * Chi
 * K.saunders

Summary

 * We set out to construct a working stirling engine out of basically tin can. this was to be done as an engineering project over the period of four weeks for design and its building.We basically began learning learning more about the engine as time went on by consulting with our professor and online. some tips like making the displacer to be equal to half of the volume of the tin can came along the way when we had already begun so we had to make augmentations . in this case we had to fix this by adding styrofoam to the already made displacer which later turned out to work just fine. The crankshaft we made out of copper jewelery wires. these were easy to bend into shape even though a little difficult to keep that way as they were a little too flexible.

Story
Problems we encountered while working:
 * Poor displacer. The displacer's problem was that it wasn't close to half the volume of the piston. It needs to be able to move a larger volume of air.
 * Lack of precision. The displacer rod hole through the piston lid allowed the air pressure to escape.
 * Crank shaft is too big. The crank itself needs to be a 1/4 the height of the cylinder so the displacer makes a full motion

Solutions we tried out: We worked on fixing the the displacer and the displacer rod hole. To increase the volume of the displacer we took a large chunk of Styrofoam and pushed it down till touched the soda can. We then took a marker and traced around the can. Because We wanted the Styrofoam to just fit inside the edge of the beer can we knew we had to remove all parts of Styrofoam that had marker on them. To evenly cut the Styrofoam we used the hot wire device and rotated the block about its center point. After shaving off all parts with marker on them the block of Styrofoam slid just inside the can. Once the block was in the can we set it next to the cylinder and cut it close to half the height of the cylinder.Through our various documentation, we were also able to make singular advancements and ideas towards working on the project. The problem above is a good example of the problem which quite held us back a bit.It also came after our initial design in which there was not enough air between the displacer and the tin can walls. It was only after Mr Foerster's advice that we discovered that air needed to flow between its walls for the engine to function. The displacer also has to he close to half of the tin ccan's internal volume.
 * Add a piece of Styrofoam to the old displacer so that it is closer to half the volume of the displacer.
 * Add a sleeve of something to reduce the volume of the displacer rod hole.
 * Wait to make the crank until the majority of the cylinder is completed so that the crank reaches a full range of motion.

Decision List
List all formal decisions made with links to their documentation such as a decision tree or decision matrix.

Software List
GOOGLE SKETCH UP Solid works

Time
Four weeks approximately 5 hours per week plus some individual work done on the side depending on the intensity.

Tutorials
Most projects consist of making instructions to jump start the next team, shrink the learning of tools and software to the minimum, advice on where to purchase materials, how to assemble, etc. Tutorials modified or created are described here with links.

Step by step instructions can be found here.

Next Steps

 * find a tin can with a smooth interior for the engine.
 * friction must be the enemy at all times.
 * use the lightest materials possible.
 * the crankshaft needs to be smooth as well. when the displacer rod is down, the power piston has to be almost fully up.
 * Build a working running model.
 * Make an instructional, time-laps video of an engine being constructed.


text:
Engineering Projects/Engines/Howard Community College/Fall2011/550 QSM

wikipage for new engine team of 2

Problem Statement
Can you make a running Stirling engine out of house hold materials?

Team Members

 * Chi
 * K.saunders

Summary

 * We set out to construct a working stirling engine out of basically tin can. this was to be done as an engineering project over the period of four weeks for design and its building.We basically began learning learning more about the engine as time went on by consulting with our professor and online. some tips like making the displacer to be equal to half of the volume of the tin can came along the way when we had already begun so we had to make augmentations . in this case we had to fix this by adding styrofoam to the already made displacer which later turned out to work just fine. The crankshaft we made out of copper jewelery wires. these were easy to bend into shape even though a little difficult to keep that way as they were a little too flexible.

Story
Problems we encountered while working:
 * Poor displacer. The displacer's problem was that it wasn't close to half the volume of the piston. It needs to be able to move a larger volume of air.
 * Lack of precision. The displacer rod hole through the piston lid allowed the air pressure to escape.
 * Crank shaft is too big. The crank itself needs to be a 1/4 the height of the cylinder so the displacer makes a full motion

Solutions we tried out: We worked on fixing the the displacer and the displacer rod hole. To increase the volume of the displacer we took a large chunk of Styrofoam and pushed it down till touched the soda can. We then took a marker and traced around the can. Because We wanted the Styrofoam to just fit inside the edge of the beer can we knew we had to remove all parts of Styrofoam that had marker on them. To evenly cut the Styrofoam we used the hot wire device and rotated the block about its center point. After shaving off all parts with marker on them the block of Styrofoam slid just inside the can. Once the block was in the can we set it next to the cylinder and cut it close to half the height of the cylinder.Through our various documentation, we were also able to make singular advancements and ideas towards working on the project. The problem above is a good example of the problem which quite held us back a bit.It also came after our initial design in which there was not enough air between the displacer and the tin can walls. It was only after Mr Foerster's advice that we discovered that air needed to flow between its walls for the engine to function. The displacer also has to he close to half of the tin ccan's internal volume.
 * Add a piece of Styrofoam to the old displacer so that it is closer to half the volume of the displacer.
 * Add a sleeve of something to reduce the volume of the displacer rod hole.
 * Wait to make the crank until the majority of the cylinder is completed so that the crank reaches a full range of motion.

Decision List
List all formal decisions made with links to their documentation such as a decision tree or decision matrix.

Software List
GOOGLE SKETCH UP Solid works

Time
Four weeks approximately 5 hours per week plus some individual work done on the side depending on the intensity.

Tutorials
Most projects consist of making instructions to jump start the next team, shrink the learning of tools and software to the minimum, advice on where to purchase materials, how to assemble, etc. Tutorials modified or created are described here with links.

Step by step instructions can be found here.

Next Steps

 * find a tin can with a smooth interior for the engine.
 * friction must be the enemy at all times.
 * use the lightest materials possible.
 * the crankshaft needs to be smooth as well. when the displacer rod is down, the power piston has to be almost fully up.
 * Build a working running model.
 * Make an instructional, time-laps video of an engine being constructed.


text:
Tectonic hazards/Earthquake

An earthquake is a violent movement of the rocks in the Earth's crust which create waves of energy travelling through the Earth. Earthquakes are usually quite brief (and even somewhat repeated itself, known as an aftershock), but may repeat over a period of time. The study of earthquakes is called seismology.

Occurrence and Cause
Earthquakes usually occur where tectonic plates are in constant motion, in which these areas of constant motion (or violent motion) are usually at the edges of the plates. For example, several and several earthquakes have been recorded in the Western part of South America due to the constant motion between the South American plate and the Nazca plate. Earthquakes usually occur on faults, which are breaks in the Earth's crust formed by the sliding, pushing, or pulling of tectonic plates.

What causes earthquakes is elastic deformation, which is when rocks change in shape when pressure/forces is applied on them, but then return to its normal state after the pressure/force has gone (see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zGcnUUaYXv4 for better understanding). This is what causes earthquakes, and not plastic deformation, when permanent deformation occurs on a rock.

The cause of tectonics and M6.2+ strong earthquakes is in the externally forced magnification of Earth's oscillations. The magnification arises due to cumulative secondary gravitational effects making Earth masses overstir under the sum of gravitational forces from 2 other heavenly bodies in Solar system as they "align with Earth" (their angular velocities get in step with the Earth's) for more than 3 days. (see https://youtu.be/nTamffiES84 for better understanding). The discovery enables seismic antiforecasting (predicting of times without catastrophic earthquakes) anywhere on Earth, months ahead.

Elastic Rebound
This term is used to describe the abrupt return of elastically deformed rock to its original shape. Elastic Rebound is somewhat similar to a rubber band being stretched and then ripped. After the band was ripped into one whole string, the shape of the string came back to its original shape. This occurs when stress and stress is applied to a rock. So much stress, to the point the rock cannot withstand it! During the process of elastic rebound, energy is released. Some of this energy travels in what is known as "seismic waves", and these waves are the originators of some earthquakes.

Plate Motions and Earthquake Zones

 * See more at Plate tectonics and the structure of the Earth's crust

There is a specific plate motion, which can cause a specific fault (listed fault is the major type of fault at this plate motion):
 * Transform Motion occurs when two plates slip/shift past each other. This motion creates a strike-slip fault, which is when two blocks of Earth's crust shift horizontally.
 * Convergent Motion occurs when two plates collide with each other. This motion creates a reverse fault, which is when two blocks of crust are pushed together.
 * Divergent Motion occurs when two plates pull away from each other. This motion creates a normal fault, which is when two blocks of crust are pulled away from each other (or stretched).

Each of these motions creates a specific type of fault, which can cause earthquakes.

Earthquakes can happen on earthquake zones. Earthquake zones are places where a large number of faults are at/a lot of seismic activity occurs. An example of an earthquake zone is the San Andreas Fault Zone located in California. The San Adreas Fault was formed in the Cenozoic (also Cænozoic, Caenozoic or Cainozoic) era when the North American plate and the Pacific plates slid past each other, which formed a strike-slip fault known as the San Andreas Fault. This fault is the cause of several earthquakes in California, including the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.

Earthquake zones are places where a large number of faults are at. An example of this is the San Andreas Fault Zone in California.

Waves of an Earthquake
Waves of energy, or waves containing energy, that travel through the Earth are called seismic waves. Seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior/body are called Body Waves. These body waves are divided into two types of waves: P-waves and S-waves. Seismic waves that travel along the Earth's surface are called surface waves.

P waves, also known as pressure waves, travel through solids, liquids, and gases. These waves are the fastest type of body waves. They travel ahead of seismic waves, and thus being the fastest, are the first to be detected in an earthquake. These waves, when coming through rock, cause particles of that rock to move in a back-forth type of direction. To better comprehend this, imagine tapping jello. Jello, when taped, is momentarily deformed (by the pressure inside the jello), and then [the jello] reacts to the deformation by moving back to its original shape. This is a great example of how P-waves affect rocks.

Rock can be, in addition to being deformed back and forth, deformed side to side. After being deformed from side to side, the rock returns to its original position, and this is how S-waves, or shear waves, are created. These waves are the second fastest seismic waves. These waves can shear rock side to side, which means they stretch rock sideways. Though, S-waves cannot travel through parts of the Earth that are liquid, and are also slower than P-waves and arrive later. Thus, S-waves also have the name of "secondary waves".

Surface Waves move along the Earth's surface and produce motion mostly in the few kilometers of the Earth's crust. There are two types of surface waves: One type of surface wave produces motion up, down, and around. The other type produces back-and-forth motion like the motion produced by P-waves. Surface waves are different from body waves. How? Surface waves travel way more slowly and are a lot more destructive!

Tsunami
When the earth moves offshore in the ocean, it can cause a tsunami. A tsunami can cause just as much death and destruction as an earthquake. Landslides can happen, too. This is an important part of the Earth's cycle.

Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The magnitude of an earthquake and the intensity of shaking are measured on a numerical scale. On the scale, 3 or less is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 7 (or more) causes damage over wide areas.

title: Tectonic hazards/Earthquake


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Welcome to Motivation and emotion
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Tectonic hazards/Tsunami

A tsunami is a chain of fast moving waves in the ocean caused by powerful earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Tsunami has a very long wave. It can be hundreds of kilometers long. Usually, tsunami starts suddenly. The waves travel at a great speed across an ocean with little energy loss. They can remove sand from beaches, destroy trees, toss and drag vehicles, damage houses and even destroy whole towns.

The water will draw back from the coast half of the wave period prior to the wave getting to the coast. If the slope of the coast is not deep, the water may pull back for hundreds of metres. People who do not know of the danger will often remain at the shore.

Tsunamis can not be prevented. However, there are ways to help stop people from dying from a tsunami. Some regions with lots of tsunamis may use warning systems which may warn the population before the big waves reach the land. Because an earthquake that caused the tsunami can be felt before the wave gets to the shore, people can be warned to go somewhere safe.

title: Tectonic hazards/Tsunami


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Dealing with conflict

Introduction
This chapter examines conflict, or more specifically, how to deal with conflict resolution and the management of emotion during conflict. There are many areas of psychology that deal with conflict, and it is certainly a widely studied and fascinating topic. This chapter looks at conflict and conflict styles, and the differences between genders in their choice of conflict style. We will also be examining emotion's involvement in conflict and the way it affects us. Finally, ways to combat these effects will be explored, as well as what to do when these techniques don't work and how to leave conflict behind you.

What is conflict?
We all have to deal with interpersonal conflict. It can be very unpleasant and at times reach critical levels. Conflict can be defined as perceived incompatibilities between parties' held desires, needs, and wants (Bell & Song, 2005). Behfar, Mannix, Peterson and Trochim (2008) suggest two different forms of conflict, including relationship and process conflict. Relationship conflict includes disagreement resulting from personal differences, and usually results in tension and friction (Behfar, Mannix, Peterson and Trochim, 2008). Process conflict, on the other hand, is disagreement over how to divide and delegate responsibility, and the best way to approaching and completing tasks (Behfar et al., 2008). Bodtker, Jameson, Jordan and Porch (2009) also argue that conflict can be viewed as a process involving three separate components: the physiological component, the cognitive component, and a communicative or expressive component (Bodtker et al., 2009). All three are relevant to both the management of emotion and conflict resolution itself.

What is conflict resolution?
Conflict resolution is the reconciliation, resolution and transformation of a situation so that the end solution is sustainable over a long period of time (Bar-Tal, 2011). It is also indicated by acceptance and acknowledgement of mistakes and wrongdoing, forgiveness, and agreement to future peace between the parties (Bar-Tal, 2011). Developmental psychologists have stressed the importance of the management of conflict as it enhances the development of social skills, morality and cognition (Horowitz, Jansson, Ljungberg & Westlund, 2008). It also fosters an understanding of the concepts of negotiation and reciprocation (Horowitz et al., 2008).

Conflict styles
Conflict styles refer to the way in which someone reacts to another person when a conflict situation occurs (Calhoun, Cann, Norman & Welbourne, 2008). It is suggested that there are two main factors that guide decision making when in conflict, and these are concern for yourself and concern for the other party (Calhoun et al., 2008). There are four theorised types of conflict style, based on these concerns (Calhoun et al., 2008):
 * 1) An integrative style of conflict involves high concern for both yourself and the other party, and typically involves wanting the best outcome for both people (Calhoun et al., 2008).
 * 2) An avoidant conflict style incorporates low concern for both parties, which usually results in a lack of any effort to solve conflict (Calhoun et al., 2008).
 * 3) A dominating conflict style is characterised by a high concern for ones own outcomes, with an aim only to get what you want without much concern for the other party (Calhoun et al., 2008).
 * 4) An obliging style of conflict is when one holds high concern for the other party and a low concern for the self (Calhoun et al., 2008). This usually means conceding to the other party without worrying about what we want (Calhoun et al., 2008).

This theory, while clear and concise, could be viewed as too simplistic. One could easily consider that many more factors would be involved in our handling of conflict, including our mood, the person we are in conflict with, and the circumstances surrounding the conflict. While people may gravitate toward a certain style of conflict resolution, it is also unlikely we would use the same method of conflict resolution with every person and in every situation. However, even when taking into consideration the simplicity, it is easy to see how being aware of your own conflict style and working out how others approach conflict is useful. With this information, we can be aware of our own strengths and shortcomings and have more of an idea of where others are coming from in conflict situations. This in turn makes it easier for us to get the best all round outcome.

Quick Quiz - What is your conflict style? I tend to think about others over myself when in conflict. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="2"}

{People often tell me I avoid conflict situations. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="1"}

{When in conflict, I worry about my aims and goals above others. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="4"}

{I am confident in my ability to compromise effectively during conflict. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="3"}

{I put little effort into solving conflict. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="1"}

{In conflict situations I can get aggressive and controlling. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="4"}

{I tend to give into others in conflict situations. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="2"}

{I think in conflict the best outcome is for both parties to get what they want. + Yes. - No.
 * type="" coef="3"}

0-2 points = Avoidant Style; 3-4 points = Obliging Style; 5-6 points = Integrative Style; 7-8 points = Dominating Style; and 8+ points = You tend to apply more than one style to your resolution of conflict.

PLEASE TAKE NOTE: This survey was self created and so has not undergone reliability and validity testing. While it may be enjoyable and possibly informative to complete, before one can take it as a scientifically supported survey it will need to undergo proper testing. Please see the below link for the method of construction. Conflict Style Survey Creation

Gender and conflict styles
Men and women favour differing conflict styles. Women prefer a social approach to conflict resolution, with everyone collaborating and reaching a consensus on a solution (Barrier, Brahnam, Chin, Hignite,& Margavio, 2005). As discussed earlier, this is most indicative of a integrated style of conflict (Calhoun et al., 2008). Men, on the other hand, are more likely to avoid conflict (Barrier et al., 2005).

Horowitz, Jansson, Ljungberg and Westlund (2008) propose that women prefer an affiliative style of conflict resolution and men a non-affiliative approach. This is another tip to keep in mind when assessing the best way to approach conflict resolution. If one can see what angle another one is approaching conflict from it makes it easier to perhaps become less frustrated and more understanding. A study of 163 undergraduates which discovered these differing styles found that since a social approach to conflict resolution tends to be more productive it may well be that men are less effective at conflict resolution than women (Barrier et al., 2005).

Emotion in conflict
One of the hardest parts about conflict resolution is the heavy involvement of emotion. Perceptions of incompatibility, as earlier mentioned, often produce emotions and influence conflict (Bell, 2005). In fact, the processing of conflict has been hypothesised to be promoted by emotion (Kanske & Kotz, 2011).

Brain imaging studies have confirmed this, with a performed study showing faster activation of the ventral, dorsal and right anterior cingulate cortex during conflict processing when also paired with the presentation of an emotional stimulus (Kanske & Kotz, 2011). There was also activation of the amygdala (Kanske & Kotz, 2011).

Bell and Song (2005) proposed that our emotional appraisal of a conflict situation is indicative of behaviour and conflict resolution style. Specifically, blame and concern, and where it is placed, are stipulated as motivating factors in both emotions and the type of conflict resolution a person will display (Bell & Song, 2005). Knowledge of this fact can help us to not get carried away by a conflict situation and keep our emotions from preventing resolution. Remembering that the conflict may be speeding along your emotional experience and not letting it take you over is vital.

Emotions and outcomes
In an interesting study by Sanford (2007), the outcomes of differing types of emotion are examined. In his model, Sanford (2007) discussed what he calls hard and soft emotion, and their involvement in conflict and resolution. Hard emotions include anger and aggravation, and soft emotions include hurt and sadness (Sanford, 2007). In his sample of 276 married people, hard emotion was consistently linked to more negative communication, and less positive communication (Sanford, 2007). This shows anger as a possible detrimental factor in conflict resolution. That being said, the sample was of married people only, with an average marriage time of 17 years (Sanford, 2007). This is not exactly representative of normal conflict - married couples should have an intimate knowledge of each other, and obviously a different type of relationship to friends or coworkers. To examine this model against differing types of relationships would be preferable. However, it does demonstrate how negative emotion can become destructive in times of conflict, and highlights the importance of emotion management in these situations.

Goals for emotion regulation
An interesting aspect of conflict to consider is the roles that our goals for staying calm may play. Rothbaum, Rusk and Tamir (2011) conducted a study which it was found that the types of goals one has for one's emotion regulation can also affect the outcomes. Performance goals refer to the desire to prove to others one can effectively regulate emotion, while learning goals refer to striving to improve emotion regulation with no external pressure (Rothbaum, Rusk & Tamir, 2011). This study discovered that those who employed performance goals were more prone to rumination, depression, thought suppression and a low belief in their ability to regulate emotion (Rothbaum et al., 2011). Those who engaged in learning goals were more likely to experience cognitive reappraisal, which consists of reevaluating a situation and viewing it in terms of positivity (Rothbaum et al., 2011). The sample size was small and only consisted of undergraduate students, which may not be a representative sample. The theory is also limited in that it is hard to believe that there are only two types of goals one may employ in a conflict situation. A more expansive model may be warranted, however in basic terms, it provides a good foundation for better emotion regulation during conflict.

The other side of anger
While anger is often viewed as a destructive force in conflict, others have argued for its usefulness. Dweck, Gross, Halperin and Russell, 2011) conducted a study regarding Israeli and Pakistani relations. The results showed that anger increased willingness for compromise, but only in the absence of hatred (Dweck, Gross, Halperin & Russell, 2011). While it is a very specific conflict situation and can therefore not necessarily be generalised to all conflict resolution, it does demonstrate the constructive use of anger in conflict resolution (Dweck et al., 2011).

Conflict escalation
Conflict escalation is the opposite of what most people in conflict want. We want conflict resolved quickly and efficiently. The conflict bias spiral states that conflict can spiral because we are likely to perceive bias in the one we are arguing with (Kennedy, 2010). Kennedy (2010) says that we think the other person cannot view the situation objectively due to factors such as self-interest. This is more likely in the case of a disagreement or conflict, and the bigger the conflict, the larger the bias (Kennedy, 2010).

De Dreu (2005) suggests that conflict escalation is also a result of ego defensiveness. Since humans inherently want to maintain a positive view of themselves, when something threatens to damage that positive self-concept we can become angry and aggressive (De Dreu, 2005). Due to the fact that challenges and threat are parts of conflict, this can increase the chances of hostile encounters between parties (De Dreu, 2005). However, these focus on only one aspect of conflict, as not all conflicts involve threats and challenges to the self. Despite this, they provide a good overview explanation of why some, and not all conflicts escalate.

Keeping your cool
Keeping calm has benefits in effective conflict resolution. This is demonstrated in a study by Borbely, Botvin, Brooks-Gunn, Graber and Nicholls (2005) which examined sixth graders in role play conflict resolution scenarios. Assertiveness with no aggression was seen as the most effective conflict resolution style with both peers and parents (Borbely, Botvin, Brooks-Gunn, Graver & Nicholls, 2005). While an interesting insight, it would certainly be interesting to see a study such as this with more emotionally intelligent adults.

Kennedy (2010) suggests non-counter arguing listening as an effective method for conflict resolution. This allows you to examine another point of view without being critical, and also has the benefit of letting the person you are in conflict with feel heard (Kennedy, 2010). This is also likely to decrease the chance that one will slip into the cognitive bias spiral discussed earlier (Kennedy, 2010).

One could also consider if trying to listen with a non-biased perspective you could be seen as having an element of control over your thoughts. If a higher level of control is present then it would further assist in the management of emotion as well as the resolution of a conflict situation.

Keeping your cool may also be beneficial in the long term. A study of Turkish students showed that conflict resolution and peer mediation training led to decreased levels of aggression (Gurler et al., 2010). Post intervention, the students displayed more constructive, restorative and peaceful classroom behaviour (Gurler et al., 2010). This study was done with 11 year olds (Gurler et al., 2010), bringing into question sample representativeness and also is consistent with a cultural bias which makes it hard to generalise to a larger population. However, the implications, particularly within this topic, are great.

If practicing conflict resolution can lead to decreased levels of aggression, then we can quite literally apply the philosophy of practise makes perfect. The more we practise controlling emotion, it is suggested through such studies as this (Gurler at al., 2010) the levels of some of those emotions may decrease with time. This is a great, positive way to approach learning to manage emotion during conflict resolution.

Expression and discussion
Its not healthy to keep your emotions bottled up. One needs to learn how to express feelings in a healthy way before it leads to escalated conflict. Talking about your feelings with others can help you pinpoint what the problem is. For example, a study by Koerner, Sillars and Smith (2010) involved playing back conflict discussions between parents and teens in conflict situations. They found that there was misattribution of feelings to the other parties that were escalating conflict (Koerner, Smith & Sillers, 2010). This involved parents overattributing negative thoughts and avoidance, and even overattributed the level of agreement a spouse was lending to the teen (Koerner et al., 2010). Conversely, they underattributed times when the teen was able to admit they were in the wrong (Koerner et al., 2010). Teens on the other hand tended to overattribute controlling thoughts to their parents (Koener et al., 2010). In the discussions, it also became evident that parties focused on different aspects of discussion, with parents focusing on relations between parties and teens more concerned about the content of the conflict (Koerner et al., 2010).

This study again focuses on only one kind of relationship, and examining the same theories of misattribution in different types of conflict would be fascinating. However, it provides a good foundation on which to help manage and regulate emotion and conflict. If one is open and honest about their feelings, and in turn listens with an open mind to the other party, a more objective view of the situation can be attained, and conflict may be easily resolved before reaching a high level.

When a third party intervention is necessary
People are not perfect, and sometimes a third party is necessary. When all the above hasn't worked or hasn't gotten you anywhere, an objective intervention can work wonders on a tough conflict situation. Its possible to use an uninvolved acquaintance or friend, or you can use dispute resolution services such as the ACT Conflict Resolution Service.

Types of interventions
There are different types of intervention strategies, and each one can be applicable to different conflict situations.
 * 1) An Intervention of Power involves the third party coming up with a solution and enforcing it on the parties without prior approval (Buitinga, Peterson & Struik, 2009).
 * 2) A Coaching of Process intervention is when the third party tries to create an environment in which a solution is reachable, including positive motivation and communication (Buitinga et al., 2009).
 * 3) In an Arbitration intervention, the third party hears both sides of the conflict from the people involved and reaches a verdict (Buitinga et al., 2009).
 * 4) Finally, in a Mediation intervention the third party forges a bond with those in the conflict and helps them to reach a compromise (Buitinga et al., 2009).

Knowledge of these intervention methods can help you realise both that others may have different strategies for dealing with conflict, and that different strategies may apply to different conflict scenarios. Using this knowledge, you can learn to manage the emotional side of conflict and deal with it in a healthy and efficient way.

Moving on
Moving on can be one of the hardest parts of conflict resolution. It can be hard to forgive and forget, and not to hold a grudge. The Valuable Relationship Hypothesis theorises that we are more likely to reconcile with those we value (Horowitz et al., 2008). This is another valuable fact to keep in mind when moving on from conflict resolution. Our emotions may still be raw post conflict, and it is important to remember not to let them rule us in all situations.

In accordance with the Valuable Relationship Hypothesis, it is important to consider that relationships we consider to be important are not the only important ones. Particularly in employment situations, many relationships we may not see as valuable still need to function after conflict resolution. Conflict is a natural part of life and the aim for resolution should not be total elimination (Bar-Tal, 2011). Conflict helps us to create both social change and development (Bar-Tal, 2011). Halperin and Schwartz (2010) suggest that increasing hope, guilt, fear and anger and decreasing hatred has a useful outcome after reconciliation has occurred. Sizing up whether the parties are ready to move on can also help to increase the chance of prolonged reconciliation (Halperin & Schwartz, 2010).

Summary
In conclusion, we all deal with conflict at points in our life and we are all likely to deal with it in a variety of methods. Emotion is an integral part of conflict and it is important to remember this and not let the emotion control your conflict behaviour. Arming yourself with knowledge of your own methods of dealing with conflict, and ways to recognise others methods, is key. If you are not aware of what you are experiencing it makes it that much harder to manage. Seeking to improve your abilities to regulate your emotion also appears to be a useful tool in better dealing with conflict. Finally, if things get too hard it is also important to know when to ask for help. If you use this steps wisely you are on your way to dealing with conflict in your life in a healthy and improved fashion!


text: Category:Earthquakes

title: Category:Earthquakes