text:
Comparative law and justice/Liberia

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

192.133.12.108 19:43, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Basic Information
Liberia is a country located on the western shores of Africa was founed in 1822 by the free slaves that left variuos parts of America. It is a country made up of various ethnic groups, dialects, and customs. Ethiopia is the only country in Africa that was not colonized by Europe during the great "Scramble" for Africa and liberia had been controlled by america.The country had a rocky start with constant fighting between the natives and the new settlers. There are 3,441,790 people residing in Liberia. The capital of Libeira is Monrovia, with a population of 1,010,970. The coubntry gained it's independence on July 26, 1847. The official language is English but there are various dialects spoken by the ethnic groups that reside there. There are 16 ethnic groups that make up the Liberian population.95% of the population come from ideginios gropus such as Kpelle, Bassa, Gio, Kru, Grebo, Mano, Krahn, Gola, Gbandi, Loma, Kissi, Vai, Dei, Bella, Mandingo, and Mende. 2.5% of the population are Americo-Liberians and the rest are Congo people. The Kpelle gropu being the largest ethnic group is made up of 20% of the population, 16% Bassa, 8% Gio,7% Kru, and 49 % fall into the other Ethnic groups.44% of the people are between the ages 0-14 (male 760,989/female 758,554, 53% are between the ages of 15-65 (male 904,770/female 920,704) and only 2.8% are age 65 and over male 47,013/female 49,760). The country's total landmass:111,369 sq km Liberians enjoy beatiful weather during certain seasons of the year. The climate is often described as tropical, humid and hot. The winters are dry with hot days and cool to cold nights; summers are cloudy with frequent heavy showers known as the "rainy season" by the locals. The country borders Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ivory Coast. The North Atlantic Sea surrounds this tiny country that is approximately the size of Tennessee.Mount Wuteve is the largest mountain in Liberia. The three largest rivers are St Paul, St John ,and the Cestos River. Liberians have a wide range of religious beliefs but they are placed into three catergories as Christian, Muslim, and Indigenous Beliefs. 40% of Liberians are Christian, 20% are muslim, and 40% hold Idigenous Beliefs.

Brief History
Liberia was already an inhabitted country before African Americans (brought there by the American Colonization Society ) settled there in 1822. The country was made up various tribes and dialects. The natives of Liberia and the former slaves from America had tension and feuds almost everyday. The settlers recreated American society, building churches and homes that resembled Southern plantations. And they continued to speak English. They also entered into a complex relationship with the indigenous people -- marrying them in some cases, discriminating against them in others, but all the time attempting to "civilize" them and impose Western values on the traditional communities. The African Americans that arrived there also wanted to be free of any "white" rule so in 1847, so 25 years after settling in Liberia; they became Independent. The African Americans though small in number dominated the indigenous people for many years by creating laws that restricted them certain rights such as education, voting ,marriage, and even owning properties. The two groups live in direct contradiction of each other, as the country suffered numerous financial blows to it's economy. Liberia's first and seventh president was Joseph Jenkins Roberts. Roberts did not much to improve the situation between Americo-Liberians and Indigenous groups. The country flourished during its first couple of years of freedom but after a while they started to face a depression. The cost of imports was far greater than the income generated by exports of coffee, rice, palm oil, sugarcane, and timber. To relieve the pressure of poverty, Liberia borrowed from Britain several times. By 1909, the government was bankrupt and forced to borrow further, in large part from the United States. Liberians did not take it lying down by the 1920's the country expanded it's borders with new building projects to get the country up and running. In 1944 the newly elected President William Tubman allowed international investments in Liberia. With the discovery of new minerals in the country, President Tubman became modernizing Liberia. Along the coast of the country, schools, railroads, and hospitals were erected. Things became to turn around economically, but tension between the indigenous groups and the Americo-Liberians grew stronger. Under Tubmans' administration, new laws were enacted to grant voting and other rights for indigenous groups. Liberia became a founding member of the United Nations as well as Organization of African Unity. Tubman was heavily criticized for being too influenced by America due to his stand against communism. Though he started out making much needed change in the country, President became more authoritian, even changing the constitution. He served seven consecutive terms in office, gagged the press, and arrested those who criticize him. By 1971 the country was slipping into poverty again. Things became worse after Tubmans death, the vice President William Tolbert succeeded him. Tolbert 's tried to boost the country's economy but Tubman later years as president had severally damaged the country. Tolbert's cabinet opposed any effort he made to change the economy, especially his efforts to bring indigenous people into the government. In 1979 he tried to raise the taxes on rice, Liberia's main source of income, but this led to a violent uproar. Tolbert was killed the following year by Samuel K. Doe, a 28 year old indigenous master sergeant. 13 of his cabinet members were publicly executed.Doe formed a new government known as the People's Redemption Council. The majority of the people welcomed this new government at first, but they soon realized that Doe's regime was not much different than Tubmans in his latter years as president. Doe started behaving like a dictator; he rigged the election so that he would be president, he favored people of his tribe, giving them seats in the government, and started executing those who questioned him. Members of other indigenous tribes soon fled the country as violence against them erupted by Doe's army. The tribes settled in Ivory Coast, there they met Charles Taylor. Charles Taylor was a former cabinet member of Doe's, who fled the country after stealing money from the Liberian government. Taylor trained and organized men for a takeover. In 1990 Doe was captured and tortured to death by one of Taylor's rebel group. A civil was broke out between the Liberian Army and rebel groups. Hundreds of thousands of people fled the country as the war raged for five years. I lost many of my aunts, uncles, and cousins, during the bloodshed. Taylor called for a ceasefire after the Economic Community of West African States, the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, and the Organization of African Unity held a conference to end the war. Taylor kept his word and the war ended. In 1997 he was elected president. Liberia did not enjoy peace for long, Taylor did little to improve the country. He spent his time trying trying to increase his wealth and status. In 1999 another was broke out, led by the Organization of Displaced Liberians. The women of Liberia rose up and formed an organization known as the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace. The grouped met with Taylor forcing him to attend peace conferences in Ghana. With pressure from Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace, the U.S. and other international groups Taylor resigned and went into exiled in Liberia. The war ended in August of 2003. Two years later Ellen Johnson Sirleaf became president. Johnson Sirleaf is the first female president of Liberia and first female Head of Sate in Africa.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Economic Development.The Liberian Civil War tremendously devestated the countries economy.The Liberian economy relied heavily on the mining of iron ore and on the export of natural rubber prior to the civil war. Liberia’s economic freedom score is 46.2, making its economy the world’s 163rd freest in the 2010 Index. Liberia is also ranked 40th out of 46 countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa region, and the countries overall score is below the world and regional averages. The countries GDP is $836 million, with a $204.9 GDP Per Capita. Average annual income was not available but as of 2000 80% of the people fell below the poverty line. Liberia main imported material are fuels, chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods and foodstuffs from several Asian countries such as South Korea, Singapore, Japan,china, and Taiwan. Liberia spends $1.197 billion exporting goods like rubber, timber, iron, diamonds,tin, gold, cocoa and coffee from India,United States of America, Poland, Germany, and Belgium. The country has a high infant mortality rate; there are 138.24 deaths out of 1,000 live births. Female infants have a lower mortality rate than males with 122 deaths out of 1000, while male infants are a shocking 154 out of every 1000. Liberian females have a life expectancy of age 43, for males life expectancy is 41. 58% of the population can read and write. Males have a higher literacy rate than females. 73% of the male population can read and write while only 42% of women can read and write. Most males obtain 11 years of schooling, while females complete only 8 years of schooling, 3 less than men, and 2 less than the country's school life expectancy.

Governance
Liberia is a republic, which means that the people choose their leaders. The majority of the people have an impact on who gets to run the country and how they go about running the country. Liberia, due to its relations with America has a constitution which was established on January 6, 1986 hundreds of years after the country became independent.Liberia has a high level of governmental corruption, another causality of the countries' brutal civil wart. Like the U.S.there are three branches of government, executive, legislative, and judicial. Though all three branches are equal on paper, in practice, the executive branch runs the country and has the most power.The executive branch is ran by the President who is Head of Government and Chief of State.The executive branch is also made up of the Vice President and the Cabinet. Cabinet member's are elected by the president and confirmed by the state. The presidency is for 6 years and can presidents can serve for two terms. The country has a bicameral legislature system with 64 seats in the House of Representatives, and 30 in the House of Senates. Representatives serve a six year terms while Senators (excluding junior Seniors) serve a nine year term. The Judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

Elections
The voting age in Liberia is 18 and up, in order to vote, voters must have a valid registration card. Elections are held on the second Tuesdays of an election year Presidential election:There will be a two-round system for the offices of President and Vice-President. (The two candidates will run on a single ballot). A candidate needs to get an absolute majority of the votes, meaning at least 50% of all valid votes cast plus one vote. If none of the candidates has an absolute majority, a second round will be held with only the two candidates who had the highest votes. If a second round is held, the candidate with the majority of votes is elected

Senate: There are 15 counties in Liberia,Bomi, Bong, Gbarpolu, Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, Grand Gedeh, Grand Kru, Lofa, Margibi, Maryland, Montserrado, Nimba, River Cess, River Gee and Sinoe. Each of the 15 counties are allowed to have two seats in the Senate. Senate elections in Liberia follow a simple majority system, meaning the two candidates who obtain the highest and second highest numbers of valid votes casted will be elected.

Representatives:There are 64 seats in the House of Representatives. Each of those seat will correspond to an electoral district. The 64 districts are defined by the NEC on the basis of voter registration results. Each of the 15 counties are divided into districts that correspond to an approximately equal number of voters. The more voters registered for a county, the more seats that county will receive. However, each county is guaranteed by the law to receive no less than 2 seats/districts. The candidate who obtains a simple majority in his or her electoral district will be elected to that seat. Voters will vote for a candidate, not for a party.

Judicial Elections: The members of the Supreme Court are elected by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Each of the five justices have lifetime tenure. Below the Supreme Court are 15 circuit courts, one in each county.

Judicial Review
Liberia does have Judicial Review on paper but the Executive branch runs the country. The executive has more power in practice over the government and the people than the other two branches. There is a strong role for judicial review in Liberia because thought the branches are separate, they are not equal.

Courts and Criminal Law
The Liberian Supreme Court is the highest in the country and is modeled after the U.S. Supreme Court. The Court gets its power from the 1839 Constitution of the American Colonization Society.With several constitutions under it's belt (There have been two Constitutions of Liberia since its inception as a sovereign Republic:* the 1847 Constitution of Liberia and* the 1986 Constitution of Liberia the Supreme Court always retained it's judicial powers. Article VII of the 1984 constitution outlines the powers and structure of the court. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction and original jurisdiction.Appellate jurisdiction is the power of a court to review decisions and change outcomes of decisions of lower courts. Besides the Supreme Court there are 15 circuit courts located in each of the 15 districts. Circuit courts have original jurisdiction in serious cases that include offenses such as rape, aggravated assault, and murder. Along with the circuit courts are magistrate courts which hear both civil and criminal cases. In very serious cases/matters including rape, murder, or burglary, the magistrate courts must refer to Circuit Courts after preliminary hearings are conducted.

Punishment
Punishment in Liberia tends to be more about humiliating the offender than rehabilitating the offender. Since Liberia is a mixture of African and American culture, the punishments are a unique blend of the two worlds. The country is suppose to let the court punish the offender but many of the victims and their family take actions into their own hands. Liberia has two types of punishments, sanctioned and unsanctioned punishments like the U.S. and customary punishments. Sanctioned punishments include long and harsh prison sentences and excessive fines; those awaiting trial can be held in prison indefinitely. Unsanctioned punishments in some ways are harsher than sanctioned punishments, the offender and his or her family are stigmatized for the rest of their life. Offenders are treated with contempt, and society never lets them forget what they did, regardless of what there crime was. Liberia was pro capitol punishment up until 2005, for certain crimes such as terrorism, armed robbery, and carjacking, but later resurrected some elements of it.Statutory Rape is punishable by no more than ten years in prison, though the legislatures are trying to pass laws that have longer and harsher prison terms form rapists. Under current Liberian law, rape is a first degree felony if the rapist inflicts serious bodily injuries on the victim, and faces the death penalty or life imprisonment. Penalties for possessing, using, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Liberia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Liberia uses corporal punishment to enforce school rules. Customary law has trial by ordeals. The chief of each clan follows customs and traditions to decide a person's guilt or innocence. Clan chieftains use the traditional practice of trial-by-ordeal to resolve criminal cases. The Supreme Court ruled that trial-by-ordeal is unconstitutional. The grounds for the ruling was because one of the ordeals involved placing a heated metal object on a suspect's body in an attempt to abstract the truth. Though unconstitutional,the practice continues under an executive order. Human rights group are still trying to abolish trial by ordeal practices throughout the country. They have yet to prevail as of 2004. Liberia does have corporal punishment. Corporal punishment can be used when students are often late, misbehaving, not studying, getting answers wrong to a question, engaging in inappropriate behavior with the opposite or same sex, and for lying. Teachers have various forms of punishments that they use such as lashes, standing in the corner, kneeling in rice, and being called degrading names. The saying it takes a village to raise a child is taken seriously and literally in Liberia. People other than parents can spank and use other forms of punishment on a child. Growing up as a child, if I did something wrong, my grandparents would punish me, then my aunt and uncles would call and lecture me for a hour, on top of that my cousins would tease me for days. Children have no right to privacy or rights in Liberia as far as the parents are concerned.

Legal Personnel
Liberia has an adversarial court system. The key actors in the Liberian court system are the Judges, lawyers, and the police. To be a judge in Liberia you have to complete 8 years of graduate school. The University of Liberia for example offers two programs for attaining a Bachelor of Laws Degree - three (3) years morning Program and 5 years evening Program. Upon completion of their courses, students have to pass the Bar exam in order to practice law at the the lower courts either as an attorney or a judge. After at least three years of practice as an Attorney of Law, another bar examination can be taken to allow admittance to practice in the Supreme Court of Liberia and to be considered a Counselor at Law.

Law Enforcement
The law enforcers in Liberia are very corrupt. The police are ill equipped and largely incapable of providing effective protection or investigation. The Armed Forces of Liberia, the Liberia National Police, the Antiterrorist Unit, also called the Anti terrorist Brigade, and the Special Security Service (SSS), are the country's law enforcement groups. These security forces are ineffective and only add to the country's high crime rate. They are known to torture, beat, and otherwise abused or humiliated citizens. The Government investigated some of the alleged abuses by the security forces; however, offenders rarely were charged or disciplined. Liberia National Police are in charge of the country's internal security.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
The crime rate in Liberia is high, and is exacerbated by the high rate of unemployment. Liberia ranks 138th out of 179 countries in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index for 2008. In 2004 Liberia had a 16.8 murder rate per 100,000. Robbery is on the rise due to the country's high level of poverty and unemployment. Sexual violence consistently comes first or second (after armed robbery) in monthly police crime listings in the capital Monrovia. The youngest rape survivor was a 21 month old girl. The Liberian government set up a rape and sexual abuse court in 2008, so far only 4 cases have been processed and tried. There is a huge discrepancy between the medical and police report when it comes to rape. Women are afraid to speak because of the taboos that are associated with rape and sexual abuse. People, especially women and young girls feel afraid to travel by night and day. Money laundering scams has also risen.

Rights
Liberia laws as stated before are based on American statutory laws and cutomary laws. The people get their rights from the Liberian Constituion. According to the Constitution, statutory laws and common law of the formal legal system govern all Liberians, whereas the old Rules and Regulation Governing the Hinterland refer to the adjudication of cases for “civilized people” and “natives.”

Family Law
There are two types of regulations concerning marriage, divorce, and adoption in Liberia. There are tribla regualtion and "civilized" regulations. 30% of Indigenious men practice polgamy, but 'civilized" men practice this as well. In indigeniuos marriages the male pays a dowry known as a 'brideswealth" to the family of the girl he wishes to marry. Marriage is viewed as a process not as an event; the man can make payments towards his futre bride. Once the woman is married she has no rights under customary laws. She belongs to her husband. The brideswealth also gives the husband full custody of any child born to his wife during their marriage. Customary law does not allow the woman to inheirt anything after her husband dies, she does not even have custody of her children after the husband dies. The legal age for women to get married is 18, for males 21 but customary laws and traditional allow for a girl to be married at age 12 or 13. The civil marriages on paper guarantees women the same rights as their husband but in practice this is not the case. The government passed a new civil law recognising shared child custody, but in the matter of parental responsibility it appears that discrimination against women persists. Family decisions are generally made by the male, with strong inputs from his family (particulary his male relatives). Currently there are not any written laws geared towards elders, but people are seriously frowned upon if they do not take care of their aging or sick parents.

Social Inequality
Children are highly valued as potential workers and supporters of their parents in old age. Under cusotmary laws children have no rights. They are there to work, help, and obey their parents. They start working at a very early age. The Constitution provides children with a little more freedom than customary laws. Under constitutional laws children are protected from abuse, but this is not always the practice. Liberians define abuse differently than Americans. Women under statutory laws are promised the same rights as men but women in Liberian society are burdened by traditions. Husbands are allowed to beat their wives. The country is making progress in some areas, for example, In 2006, the government passed a law punishing spousal rape. Prior to 2006, spousal rape was not considered rape, let alone a crime.

Human Rights
Liberia's Constitution is very similar to the America's Constitution. Article 11 of the Liberian Constitution says a. All persons are born equally free and independent and have certain natural, inherent and inalienable rights, among which are the right of enjoying and defending life and liberty, of pursuing and maintaining and security of the person and of acquiring, possessing and protecting property, subject to such qualifications as provided for in this Constitution. b. All persons, irrespective of ethnic background, race, sex, creed, place of origin or political opinion, are entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, subject to such qualifications as provided for in this Constitution. c. All persons are equal before the law and are therefore entitled to the equal protection of the law. Articles 11-15 are a reflection our First Amendment rights, freedom of religion, freedom of the press, etc. Article 21 gives Liberians the right to counsel, speedy and fair trail, search and seizures cannot be conducted without a warrant, and excessive bails and fines cannot be imposed on a person. On paper people have these rights but it practice that is another story. The Government's human rights record remained poor, and there were numerous, serious abuses in many areas. Liberia is a member of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. TRC investigates gross human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law that occurred in Liberia between January 1979 and October 14, 2003 during the civil war. TRC seeks to reconcile and forgive, assist and aid, and seek the truth. The group primary focus is on women, children, and ex-combatants. The organization seeks justice against abuses which include massacres, rapes, unlawful killings and economic crimes.

title: Comparative law and justice/Liberia


text:
Comparative law and justice/Haiti

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Haiti is located in the western third of the island of Hispaniola between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. The country is two thirds mountainous, while the rest of the country is marked by great valleys, extensive plateaus, and small plains. The land covers 10,641 sq. mi; approximately the size of Maryland. The capital of the country is Port-au-Prince, it is also the seat of government. Port-au-Prince is also the largest city with an estimated population of over a million. The country lies in the hurricane belt and is subject to severe storms from June to October, and occasional flooding and earthquake. In 2008, the country suffered from four tropical storms which severely damaged the transportation infrastructure and agricultural sector. Agriculture is an important component and account for 66% of the labor force. The country's exports and imports include apparel, oil, cocol, mangoes, coffee; and food, manufactured goods, machinery, transport equipment, fuels and raw materials respectively. The coun try suffers from extensive deforestation, soil erosion, inadequate supply of portable water. The country's natural resources include bauxite, copper, calcium, carbonate, gold, marble, and hydropower. The monetary unit is the Gourde. Haiti has an estimated population of over 9 million people. The birth rate of the population is 29.1/1000. The infant mortality rate is as follow: 59,69/1000 live births. Life expectance at birth for the total population is 60.78 years. Life expectancy for male is 59.13 and female 62.48. Ninety five percent of the population is black while five percent is mulattoes and white. illiteracy is a significant issue for the country with only 52.9% of the population being literate (able to read and write). the literacy rate for male is and female is 54.8% and 51.2% respectively. Catholicism is practised by 80% of the population. The official languages of the population are Creole and French.

On December 5, 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered a new island that he claimed for Spain and named it Hispaniola. The new comers quickly occupied the island and exploited it for its gold. The natives who refused to work were killed or sold into slavery. In addition, the Europeans brought with them infectious diseases to which the natives were not immune. And thus, these diseases were the chief cause for the rapid \deaths and the decline of the native population called the Tainos. In 1917, the Spaniards began importing slave labor. Hispaniola soon became a haven for pirates. As Spanish colonist moved closer to the capital city, Santo Domingo, French pirates established settlements on the northern and western parts of the island. In 1964, French claimed control of the western part of the island, and in 1697 Spain officially relinquished the western third part of Hispaniola to France in the Treaty of Ryswick. The French colony became one of the healthiest in the Caribbean. It was called La Perle des Antilles and became France's richest colony because of the immense profit from sugar, coffee, and indigo industries. this was made possible due to the labor of African slaves. It is estimated that between 1764 and 1771, the average importation of slaves was between 10,000-15,000, by 1786 about 28,000, and, from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 40,000 slaves a year; and by 1789 the slave population totaled 500,000.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
The country is comprised of 27,750sq/km. Thirty eight percent of the population are between the ages of zero to fourteen, while fifty eight percent are between the ages of fifteen to sixty five and the rest is sixty five and older. The birth rate is twenty nine per one thousand population. The infant mortality is roughly sixty per one thousand live births. The life expectancy at birth is about sixty years of age. The total literacy rate is about fifty three percent.[1] The education system there although sophisticated is not available to the majority. There is no free system of education for the poor and thus the illiteracy rate is rather elevated. In addition, even the middle class who can afford an education for their children are left with the less sophisticated schools. there is no organized health system in the country. The majority of the population often defer to natural medicines for their health problems.

Regarding economic developments, there are no longer many. Some of the exports include apparel, oils, cocoa, mangoes, coffee. However, most of the natural resources of the country are left untapped and the people rely more on imports for their needs. A situation that has deepened the country's debt and crippled its ability to develop financially. Their imports include food, manufactured goods, machinery, transport equipment, fuels and raw materials.

Governance
The president is elected by popular vote every 5 years. The prime minister is appointed by the president and is ratified by the National Assembly. The prime minister in turns appoints the ministers and secretaries of state. The prime minister enforces laws and along with the president is responsible for national defense. The National Assembly of Haiti consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The chamber of Deputies is comprised of 99 members, elected every 4 years, while the senate consists of 30 seats, 1/3 elected every 2 years.[2]

Judicial Review
The legal system of Haiti is based upon the French Napoleonic Code system, the Roman civil law system. The judiciary consists of four levels: the Court of Cassation, Courts of Appeals, Civil Courts, and Magistrate Courts. Judges of the Court of Cassation are appointed by the president for 10 year terms. Government prosecutors are appointed by the court and act in civil and criminal cases alike. Although the constitution mandates the separation of the police and military, the Haitian armed forces controlled law enforcement and public security until 1995.[3] In addition, though the constitution calls for an independent judiciary, all judges sine 1986 have been appointed and removed at the will of the government. Also, political pressures affect the judiciary at all levels. The justices of peace issue warrants and adjudicate minor infractions. While the Supreme Court deals with questions of procedure and constitutionality. Haiti accepts compulsory jurisdiction of the International court of Justice. In 1936, the president Stenio Vincent drew up a new constitution that provided a legislature and a judiciary totally dependent on the executive branch. The new constitution stated that the government makes the constitution, the laws, the regulations and agreements.[4] The law requires that detainees appear before a judge within forty eight hours, except when they were arrested in the act of committing a crime or when they were detained pursuant to a judicial warrant. However, in reality prisoners spend lengthy periods of time in jail while they await trial. In addition, the no bail system further lengthens the pretrial detention period. Officials are required to file charges at least two weeks prior to trial. Detainees have a right to counsel however it is not provided by the state. They themselves must pay for it. However, because of extreme poverty most accused are not able to afford an attorney and are therefore left at the mercy of the justice or injustice system. Haiti is ravaged by political corruption. The country has been ranked as one of the most corrupt nations. The international Red Cross reported that Haiti was 155 out of 159 countries in 2006.[8][11]

Criminological research and studies in Haiti lacks the data needed for more refined analysis. There are no sound data on numbers and types of offenses committed nor any information sufficient to study offenders. The bourgeoisie in Haiti is composed mostly of light-skinned people (whites and mulattoes). In this relatively affluent class, emphasis is given to lightness of skin as a prerequisite for being socially and economically accepted. The country people (peasants), who are still linked culturally to Africa, account for 80 percent of the population.[12][9] In Haiti, luxury goods are in short supply and salaries are low, so that a minority group may be seen as monopolizing the 'good life. a lack of opportunities, education for the major part of the population, the constant political unrest, create a palpable situation in the country. This could produce a socioeconomic frustration among the lower class that fuels crime and delinquency. Some of the factors that make country most vulnerable to crime and violence include the drug trade and trafficking of weapons.[6] Murder rates in the Caribbean are at 30 per 100,000 population annually, higher than for any other region of the world and have risen in recent years for many of the region’s countries. Assault rates, at least based on assaults reported to police, are also significantly above the world average. These reported rates are highly sensitive to the level of trust in the local police in general and the willingness to report domestic violence, in particular.[6] Victimization surveys are needed to even approximate true levels of assault, yet standardized victimization surveys have rarely been undertaken. Violence against women affects a significant percentage of women and girls in the Haiti. Police statistics offer only a very imperfect picture of violence against women, since the majority of these incidents are not reported to police. To get a more precise idea of prevalence rates, one must use victimization surveys that focus on violence against women. One such regional victimization survey revealed that 48 percent of adolescent girls’ sexual initiation was “forced” or “somewhat forced” in nine Caribbean countries.[11] It is a difficult task to attempt to assess crimes statistics in Haiti. Crime is certainly underreported. In addition, there are many instances where people justice is practiced.

Law Enforcement
There is no data available for crime. As for public opinion of the justice system, there is no trust in the government. It is widely believed that someone can be bribed and paid for leniency or acquittal. There is no justice since everyone is only looking out for their own interests.

Social Inequality
Haiti has a long history of human rights violation. Political killings, kidnapping, torture, and unlawful incarceration are common practices. Lengthy pretrial detention is also a problem. The number of Haitian citizens imprison without trial is staggering. Lawyers are intimidated from defending their clients through intimidation and violence. In addition, lawyer immunity is under constant threat. Although the constitution guarantees freedom of expression, many journalists practice some measure of caution to protect themselves from retribution. For instance, during the second Aristide administration there were reports that members of the press were killed for supporting opposition movements. Abuse against women and children are common. Rape although illegal scarcely result in prosecution of the offenders. Countless children suffer from malnourishment and lack of educational opportunities. Poverty has forced at least 225,000 children in Haiti's cities into slavery as unpaid household servants, and still this number is thought to be an underestimate. The Pan American Development Foundation's report states that some of those children, mostly young girls, suffer sexual, psychological and physical abuse while toiling in extreme hardship. The report recommends Haiti's government and international donors focus efforts on educating the poor and expanding social services such as shelters for girls, who make up an estimated two-thirds of the child servant population. Young servants are known as "restavek", which means "stays with”. According to the UN, 50 per cent of young women in the violent shantytowns of Haiti have been raped or sexually assaulted. The laws hardly protect those children from abuse of any kind. Of the handful of victims who seek justice, a third are under 13.[8] [10] The Haitian Parliament has so far failed to promulgate the 2005 Presidential decree on sexual violence into law and the government has yet to establish a legal framework to protect women and girls from all forms of violence. However, Haitian authorities have taken some positive steps towards addressing violence against women and girls: Haiti has signed regional and international human rights treaties for the protection of women; it has established a Ministry of Women’s Affairs and Women’s Rights; and in 2005 the 2006-2011 National Plan to Combat Violence Against Women was adopted. However, little has been achieved in implementing these commitments. A survey in 2006 shows that rape is often used as both a tool and outcome of violence.[9] Because of the lack of official response, most of those who rape and attack women and girls are not brought to justice and are able to continue committing these crimes with no fear of punishment. For many girls, surviving sexual violence means remaining silent. Haiti does not have specific legal provisions on domestic violence although some forms of domestic violence are addressed by existing legislation. Haitian law excuses a husband for murdering his wife if she’s found in an adulterous affair; however the wife doesn’t enjoy the same right.

1.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html 2.http://countrystudies.us/haiti/ 3.http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1982.htm 4.http://www.unodc.org/unodc/search.html?q=haiti 5.https://wits.nctc.gov/FederalDiscoverWITS/index.do?N=0&Ntt=haiti&Ntk=All&Ntx=mode%20matchallpartial 6.http://search.who.int/search?q=haiti+health+&ie=utf8&site=default_collection&client=_en&proxystylesheet=_en&output=xml_no_dtd&oe=utf8 7.http://gb1.ojp.usdoj.gov/search?btnG.x=0&btnG.y=0&btnG=Search&q=haiti&site=OJP&client=ojp_frontend_new&proxystylesheet=ojp_frontend_new&output=xml_no_dtd 8.http://www.interpol.int/Public/Search.asp?ct=Data&q1=haiti+&Search=Search&cboNbHitsPerPage=20 9.http://amnesty.org/en/ai_search?keywords=haiti+human+rights&op=Search&form_id=search_theme_form&form_token=9718652a71b333f2a498f74ba045bd32 10.http://www.nyulawglobal.org/Globalex/Haiti.htm 11.http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/latinamerica/6783415.html 12.http://www.nationmaster.com/country/ha-haiti/gov-government

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Comparative law and justice/Haiti


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Comparative law and justice/Sierra Leone

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
Brief History

Geography Sierra Leone, on the Atlantic Ocean in West Africa, is half the size of Illinois. Guinea, in the north and east, and Liberia, in the south, are its neighbors. Mangrove swamps lie along the coast, with wooded hills and a plateau in the interior. The eastern region is mountainous.

A group named Bulmon were thought to have been the earliest living natives of Sierra Leone. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the land and gave Sierra Leone its name, which means “lion mountains.” Freetown, on the coast, was ceded to English settlers in 1787 as a home for blacks discharged from the British armed forces and also for slaves to hide and make easier to runaway. In 1808 the coastal area became a British colony.

This then lead to Sierra Leone becoming an independent nation on April 27, 1961. A military coup overthrew the civilian government in 1967, which was in turn replaced by civilian rule a year later. The country declared itself a republic on April 19, 1971.

Work Cited: Pearson,. "Sierra Leone ." Sierra Leone 2000-2009: n. pag. Web. 29 Apr 2010. .

Economic Development, Health, and Education
This country has a tropical climate type of weather, with a diverse environment. Including savannah’s in rainforest. The main city is Freetown, which also is the capital, the largest city and their economic center. English is Sierra Leone’s main language. It is spoken at schools, government administration and the media. However, the Krio Language which is a language derived from English and several African languages. It is native to the Sierra Leone Krio peoples. It also is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of the country. The Krio language is spoken by 97% of the country's population.

Population 6,017,643 (July 2005 est.); 5,732,681 (July 2003 est.); 5,232,624 (July 2000 est.)

Death rate 20.61 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)

note: refugees currently in surrounding countries are slowly returning

Maternal Mortality Ratio 2000 deaths/100 000 births (2000 est.). Sierra Leone's MMR is the worst of any country in the world, according to the 2000 WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA report.

Infant mortality rate total: 143.64 deaths/1,000 live births female: 161.06 deaths/1,000 live births male: 125.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) total: 146.86 deaths/1,000 live births Total fertility rate 5.72 children born/woman (2005 est.) 5.86 children born/woman (2003 est.) 6.08 children born/woman (2000 est.) HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 7% (2001 est.) people living with HIV/AIDS: 170,000 (2001 est.) deaths: 11,000 (2001 est.) Nationality noun: Sierra Leonean(s) adjective: Sierra Leonean Ethnic groups 20 native African tribes 90% (Temne 30%, Mende 30%, other 30%) Creole 10% (descendants of freed Jamaican slaves who were settled in the Freetown area in the late-18th century) Refugees from Liberia's recent civil war Small numbers of Europeans, Lebanese, Pakistanis, and Indians Religions Muslim 46% indigenous beliefs 29% Christian 25%

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics)

Governance
Constitutional democracy.

Elections
Political System: Democracy President: Ernest Bai Koroma (APC) [since 17 September 2007; elected 2007] The President is elected by direct popular vote for a 5-year term. Electoral System: Two Round (Run-off). Note: A candidate must obtain at least 55% of the vote to avoid a second round. House of Representatives [unicameral] (124 Seats) 112 members are elected by direct popular vote in single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post (simple majority) system; 12 are Paramount Chiefs are indirectly elected to represent each provincial district; members serve 5-year terms. Political Situation since Independence 1961-1967 Democracy 1967-1968 Military Regime 1968-1971 Emerging Democracy 1971-1978 Restricted Democratic Practice 1978-1991 One Party State (APC) 1991-1992 Multiparty Transition 1992-1996 Military Regime 1996-1997 Emerging Democracy 1997-1998 Military Regime 1998-2002 Emerging Democracy 2002-       Democracy 2007 Freedom House Rating: Political Rights - 4, Civil Liberties - 3, Status: Partly Free Next Scheduled Presidential Election: 2012

Judicial Review
(1)The Judicial power of Sierra Leone shall be vested in the Judiciary of which the Chief Justice shall be the Head.

(2) The Judiciary shall have jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal including matters relating to this Constitution, and such other matters in respect of which Parliament may by or under an Act of Parliament confer jurisdiction on the Judiciary.

(3) In the exercise of its judicial functions, the Judiciary shall be subject to only this Constitution or any other law, and shall not be subject to the control or direction of any other person or authority.

(4) The Judicature shall consist of the Supreme Court of Sierra Leone, the Court of Appeal and the High Court of Justice which shall be the superior courts of record of Sierra Leone and which shall constitute on Superior Court of Judicature, and such other inferior and traditional courts as Parliament may by law establish.

(5) The Superior Court of Judicature shall have the power to commit for contempt to themselves and all such powers as were vested in a court of record immediately before the coming into force of this Constitution.

(6) Save as may be otherwise ordered by a Court in the interests of public morality, public safety or public order, all proceedings of every Court, including the announcement of the decision of the court, shall be held in public.

(7) Nothing contained in subsection (6) shall prevent a court from excluding from its proceedings persons, other than the parties thereto and their counsel, to such an extent as the Court may consider necessary or expedient or in circumstances where publicity would prejudice the interests of justice or any interlocutory proceedings; or in the interests of defense, public safety, public morality, the welfare of minors or the protection of the private lives of persons concerned in the proceedings.

(8) In the exercise of the Judicial power conferred upon the Judiciary by this Constitution or any other law, the Superior Court of Judicature shall have power, in relation to any matter within its jurisdiction, to issue such orders as may be necessary to ensure the enforcement of any judgement, decree or order of the Court.

(9) A Judge of the Superior Court of Judicature shall not be liable to any action or suit for any matter or thing done by him in the performance of his judicial functions.

(10) The Judges of the High Court shall be entitled to sit as Justices of Appeal, and the Justices of Appeal shall be entitled to sit as Justices of the Supreme Court whenever so requested by the Chief Justice.

(11) Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding subsections, any Justice of Appeal may, on the request of the Chief Justice, sit and act as a Judge of the High Court.

(12) Every such person, while sitting and acting as a Judge of the High Court, shall have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of, but not otherwise be deemed to be, a Judge of the High Court.

(13). The provisions of subsections shall apply mutatis mutandis to a Justice of the Supreme Court sitting as a Justice of Appeal.

(14) Neither the Chief Justice nor any Justice of the Supreme Court or of the Court of Appeal or a Judge of the High Court may take any part in the hearing of any appeal from his own judgment or the judgment of a panel of judges of which he was a member.

(15) No office of Judge of the High Court, Justice of Appeal or Justice of the Supreme Court shall be abolished while there is a substantive holder thereof.

(16) Every court established under this Constitution shall deliver its decision in writing not later than three months after the conclusion of the evidence and final addresses or arguments of appeal, and furnish all parties to the cause or matter [determined] with duly authenticated copies of the decision on the date of the delivery thereof.

Courts and Criminal Law
The Special Court for Sierra Leone was set up jointly by the Government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations. It is mandated to try those who bear the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law committed in the territory of Sierra Leone since 30 November 1996.

Currently, the three cases heard in Freetown have been completed, including appeals. The trial of former Liberian President Charles Taylor is in the Defence phase at The Hague.

Punishment
Corporal punishment is seen in this part of Africa and others. It is literally the infliction of punishment on the body mostly on children.In Sierra Leone and in most other parts of Africa, battering is the most common form of corporal punishment. However, governments have found it more difficult to ban this form of punishment because Africans believe children should not be handled softly.

Legal Personnel
Type: Republic with a democratically elected president and unicameral parliament. Independence: From Britain, April 27, 1961. Constitution: October 1, 1991. Political parties: The Political Parties Registration Commission was formed in late 2005 to review registered parties to see whether they still met registration requirements. Most of the parties are inactive. Major parties--Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), All People's Congress (APC), and People’s Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC).

The Legal Personnels inscrips that they began organazations to assign Law Officers of the Department of the Ministry and Justice. They were to develop a group from their choice from the United Nations Programme (UNDP) and the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL),to organize the training of over 300 Local Court personnel in the Southern part of Sierra Leone and Eastern and Northern provinces of Sierra Leone.

Law Enforcement
[] Penal system in Sierra Leone [] Sierra Leonean police officers [] Prisoners and detainees of Sierra Leone ( [] Prisons in Sierra Leone

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Murder rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants.

Latest rates.

Countries: Iraq 89 Honduras 57.9 Sierra Leone 50

Since 1991, the civil war between the Sierra Leone government and the Liberia- backed rebel Revolutionary United Front (RUF) has crippled the country. Then in May of 2000 the crisis peaked as the RUF took 500 UN peacekeepers hostages.

Rights
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor

The government generally respects the human rights of their citizens. However, there were serious problems in a number of areas, including: security force abuse, including rape, and use of excessive force with detainees, including juveniles; police theft and extortion; poor conditions in prisons and jails; official impunity; arbitrary arrest and detention; prolonged detention, excessive bail, and insufficient legal representation; restrictions on freedom of speech and press, although fewer than in the previous year; government and chiefdom detention and harassment of journalists; harassment of opposition party supporters by ruling party members; widespread official corruption; societal discrimination and violence against women; female genital mutilation (FGM); child abuse; trafficking in persons, including children; forced labor, including by children; and no child labor laws.

Family Law
In Sierra Leone Customary Family Law, marriage is polygamous with the woman in a subservient position with no legal access to her husband's inheritance. Such access can only be through the husband or on his demise by remarriage to his relatives or through the children if they are of age at the time of death. A woman cannot be divorced on the basis that the spouse is unfaithful or suffering from an STD. Terminal illness may provide a ready home and carers for AIDS' orphans and HIV/AIDS victims.

Family Law(s) Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Child Divorce Extramarital Relations Female Foster Home Care HIV Infections HIV Seropositivity Humans Incidence Legislation Male Marriage Sierra Leone Spouses Wills

Social Inequality
In the African, gender inequality is worse than it used to be decades ago. Evidently, westernization may have brought many benefits but gender equality was not one of them.While men in many African countries are on the forefront of political and corporate leadership, women are on the forefront of community development and home leadership.

They have been a channel of economic empowerment, which has in turn given women much needed self-esteem. On the home front, many men have not been able to provide capable leadership mainly due to career demands and downright laziness or indifference. This has left the woman as the de facto decision maker in the home.

However, the woman’s economic handicaps greatly restrict this decision-making leaving the economically empowered man as the decision maker:This is similar to some anthropological tribes where the women have no say and in the early Greek civilization. The solution can be to gender inequality lies not in this kind of imposing. It starts off in the boardrooms and classrooms. they shouldnt lie and blame them for their mistakes. All these are recipes not of gender equality but for gender confusion.

The solution to gender inequality in Africa lies with the African woman. As she falls away from the mans imitation for originality in search of dependence for independence and ignorance for knowledge.Then women will finally begin to realize their full potential in Sierra Leone, as for most of the African countries.

Human Rights
Not to recently the country of Sierra Leone declared an Investment in the health sector ,needed to implement free care policy. November 16 2009

Human rights observers reported that detention conditions frequently fell below minimum international standards because of overcrowding, lack of access to food, unhygienic conditions, and insufficient medical attention. Prison cells often lacked proper lighting, bedding, ventilation, and protection from mosquitoes. In August human rights observers reported that the Prison Department had been curtailing diets to inmates for several months. Twenty prisoner deaths occurred during the year, allegedly as a result of acute malnutrition, lack of hygienic conditions, malaria, and heart failure.

Prison Watch reported that there was a shortage of prison staff, and sometimes officers were not paid regularly. In Kono seven staff members were not paid for two months, and in Moyamba, an officer had not received his salary in three months. Consequently, guards provided only minimal security, and abuse of prisoners and prison breaks occurred. Prison Watch received reports that prison guards sold prisoner food rations to supplement their meager salaries.

Conditions in holding cells in police stations were poor, especially in small stations outside Freetown. Cells were dark with little ventilation. Men and women were held in separate cells; As for minors what we learned from class i over read that they are trying to prevent juveniles from being detained with adults, and 73 minors were imprisoned with adult offenders before in Pademba, Bo, Makeni, Kambia, Kenema, and Kailahun. Police sometimes would release juveniles suspected of committing crimes to avoid incarcerating them with adults.

(http://www.globalissues.org/article/88/sierra-leone)

As you can see Sierra Leone is not to sturdy and they need to create some kind of democracy or law to ensure minors wont be imprisoned with adults and to provide better food care and health for the prisoners they would need to clean up the facilities. Also paying the guards their riffle salaries will come have to come in to play if you want your security to be tight and less scandalous.

Amnesty International video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-E9RL6OXvs)


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User:Kiss0o0

== Anime (Crayon Shinchan)==

Introduction: Anime is a transform of manga, Japanese comic book. Comic book was first introduce to young children to help them build up the hobbit of reading. As time go on, the propose of had shifted. The story line become too fantasy; pictures over taking the words; Entertainment become the only propose for comic book.

In this twenty-first century, technology is a big part of our life and to communicate through these technologies, we would do so through language. “In this spirit, researchers have started to explore how immigrants across the globe are using online spaces to aid in the formulation and/or continuation of their various ethnic identities and affiliations across geographic borders.” (BLACK) So, learning a foreign language is becoming a very universal trend. “Moreover, with the fast-paced propagation of new media and technologies, novel fan practices and ‘virtual’ communities based around popular culture seem to spring up on a daily basis.” (BLACK) Examples of technology popular culture would be anime, drama, music, comic and etc, which is accessible through the internet and is very convenient for all ages to utilize. “What role does popular culture play in their identity development and literate and social practices?” (BLACK) In this page we are going to talk about the different aspect of learning a foreign language through watching anime.

positive
 * different languages translation
 * subtitle
 * creative and fantasy

Positive Ideas: Learning foreign languages through watching anime is definitely on the high end of the positive side. First of all, there are many positive reasons for watching anime. Anime comes in many different languages, especially through the internet, for the purpose and benefit of internet users around the globe to enjoy. With the many different language versions, there are also the ones with subtitles which stream account users edited to better suit the audience for understanding the content in translations. Secondly, with high definition quality, the graphics are better than before and it makes watching anime even more authentic. Then, with the wide range of different types of anime, language learners are free to choose anime that are of their own interest and of their own preference, instead of watching or listening to something that is mind-numbing. Also, it is easier to continue something to one’s own interest rather than the opposite. “As an example, Lam’s (2000) innovative work includes an in-depth case study of a Chinese immigrant who created and maintained a website devoted to a popular Japanese singer.” (BLACK)

negative
 * PG/R language
 * trend: bad influence

Negative Ideas: However, even with all these positive thoughts, there are still some down fall as to learning foreign languages through anime. That is for learners that does not have any or what so ever background at all to the foreign language, then watching custom made anime would not be such a good idea to learn the foreign language from. Due to the culture, tradition, context, society and many other differences in languages, one simple example would be slang terms or sarcasms; it would be very difficult to understand what is going on in an anime without at least some background to the language. Unless the very basic level foreign language learner is only looking to get a very basic idea of what anime is like then it would not be a problem. If not, it is not really recommended for that kind of usage. Another reason would be because just by watching anime alone would not do well to an effective language learning experience. For the reason that, communication is a very important portion to language learning, so just watching anime is not enough, one would need to actually go out to the real world and converse with actual people that are different than the communication in the anime world.

In Japan, Crayon Shinchan is really famous and popular anime but some parents dont allow their children to watch it. There are too many bad contents in Crayon Shinchan such as bad wording, violent, and PG actions. Since we often hear bad words in Crayon Shinchan, so some parents think it will give bad influence to their children. For example, person A was not allowed to watch it when she was elementary school. Because her parents thought the Crayon Shinchan will give her bad affect not only words but also acts, so person A couldn't watch the Crayon Shinchan.

personal experience

Person A who speak Japanese and Chinese and learning English.

Chinese/Chinese subtitle = Learning Chinese character -> writing skill Because Person A can listen and speak Chinese but hard to write and read them. For person A watching Crayon Shinchan with Chinese version in Chinese subtitle helps to improve the reading and writing skill, since he/she can learn a lot of new vocabularies.

English/English subtitle = Learning listening skill Because Person A does not have enough English listening skill, so she needs the subtitle to watch Crayon Shinchan. Through the subtitle person A can understand what they are speaking and also can learn a lot of new vocabularies.

Japanese/English subtitle = Learning English phrase Person A is still learning English, so when he/she can't understand with English version, she will watch the Japanese with English subtitle version. Then she will understand the content and also she can learn how to use English phrase by watching it in Japanese.

personal feeling

Watching anime in other languages helps us a lot to improve our language skill. It is useful method not only for the listening but also for the reading skill. Also watching anime is not difficult and we can learn other languages with fun. In addition we can learn more native and conversational language.

Watching anime sometimes is better than reading a book from that language. In a text book, they only teach you the formal way of speaking the language. You can communicate using the language but never fit in. The conversation in anime is informal. You can learn not only the content, but also the culture, tradition, slang etc from that language.

conclusion

It is really helpful that watching anime to improve language skill. Especially Japanese anime is famous and popular not only in Japan but also in all over the world. However, depends on the anime, some of them will affect bad influence to children. If we can choose appropriate anime, watching anime will help us a lot to improve our language skill.

References:

http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/validate.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=2&year=2006&article=5_Black_ELEA_3_2_web

http://www.famitsu.com/game/coming/__icsFiles/artimage/2007/11/05/pc_fc_n_gs/kureyon1104syugo.jpg

title: User:Kiss0o0


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Language policy

Each of the nations' governments has its own set of rules and regulations pertaining to their country's use of certain language(s), often times favoring one language over another. Having a languag policy promotes a national language or official language/s. A national language is a "language in widespread and current use throughout a specific country or in parts of its territory, and often representative of the identity of its speakers. It may or may not have the status of an official language." Official language is "a language that has legal status in a particular legally constituted political entity such as a State or part of a State, and that serves as a language of administration." A nation's language policy also protects regional and ethnic languages from extinction by giving it prominent status in their respective regions and ethnicities.

Barnard Spolsky, a leading Language professor and researcher, considers language policy as having three components: language management, language practices, and language beliefs or ideologies. Language management refers to the planning of how the selected language policy can be enacted and practiced. Language practices refer to the selection of the language to be used on the policy, and language beliefs or ideologies refer to the reasons why such language was chosen.

Spolsky's three components of language policy are seen in the Philippines' language policy.

Language Policy in the Philippines

Overview: There are about 55 countries whose official language is English or has English as one of its official languages, and this includes the Philippines. The Republic of the Philippines is located in the Southeast Asia. It is comprised of 7,107 islands and has three main divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. According to Ethnologue, there are 175 individual languages in the country, 4 of which have no known speakers.

Language Management: The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (the present constitution), Article XIV defined the nation's national language and official languages:

Article 6: The national language of the Philippines is Filipino. As it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages. Subject to provisions of law and as the Congress may deem appropriate, the Government shall take steps to initiate and sustain the use of Filipino as a medium of official communication and as language of instruction in the educational system.

Article 7: For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein.

The use of Filipino and English as mediums of instructions in schools are regulated by the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports (DECS) since 1974 on their Department Order No. 25, s 1974 "Implementing Guidelines for the Policy on Bilingual Education." The English language is used for the classes on English, Science, Mathematics, and other technology subjects, while Filipino is used for the rest of the subject areas. Regional languages can be used as initial literacy languages, especially for Grades 1 and 2. This is to ensure that the children understand the concept of language learning. Language Practices and Beliefs or Ideologies:The aim of the language policy is to instill national pride, identity, and unity among the Filipinos by the use of one national language (Filipino), and to enhance learning and develop international relations through another language (English).

Currently, most business transactions are dealt with in English (for major corporations) and Filipino (mostly for local businesses). International travelers should not have any problem conducting any transactions in the nation as long as they can communicate in English with the locals. The media is also dominated by these two languages, ranging from newspapers, TV shows, and radio broadcasts, to literature. References

title: Language policy


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General Psychopathology

Welcome to the General Psychopathology educational page.

-This page is new, and currently under basic construction-

This project is aimed toward facilitating basic understanding of Psychopathology to include the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) utility and mental illness descriptions. In addition to these principles, the intention of this page is to encourage referencing and dialogging the different viewpoints (concerns, pros, cons) about this topic. Medical professionals and researchers will mostly likely be concerned with the content of this page. Everyone is invited to participate however.

We intend to create a subsection that provides insight to the next DSM update, the DSM-V.

Any input and assistance in expanding this project is greatly appreciated.

Sections

 * Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
 * Methods for Assessing Psychopathology
 * Cultural Considerations
 * Treatment

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (General)
- The DSM-IV-TR is the most recent version which is inclusive of standardly accepted diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. Draft information about the DSM-V can be found here

 * The manual is laid out in a "Multi-Axial" format to allow for a systematic encoding and reporting of a patient's clinical presentation. Standard description of the (5) Axes are as follows:

Axis I: Clinical Disorders and Other Conditions That may Be A Focus of Clinical Attention

 * Axis I is reserved mainly for diagnoses which are considered of clinical attention.

Axis II: Personality Disorder/Mental Retardation

 * Axis II is dedicated to reporting Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation. It can alternatively be used for noting prominent maladaptive personality features and defense mechanisms. It is important to note that the listing of Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation on a separate axis ensures that consideration will be given to the possible presence of Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation that may otherwise be overlooked, due to attention on Axis I disorders.

 * Axis II may also be utilized to indicate prominent maladaptive personality features that do not meet the full criteria for a Personality Disorder. Additionally, the habitual use of maladaptive defense mechanisms may be indicated on Axis II.

 * Axis II Disorders
 * Paranoid Personality Disorder, Schizoid Personality Disorder,Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, Histrionic Personality Disorder, Narcissistic Personality Disorder, Avoidant Personality Disorder, Dependent Personality Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, Personality Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, Mental Retardation

Axis III: General Medical Conditions

 * Axis III is reserved for coding and communicating a patient's medical conditions that may be relevant to the psychological condition. Many Axis I disorders include ". . . Due to a General Medical Condition" in which are properly annotated on Axis I and Axis III.

Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems

 * Axis IV is dedicated to reporting psychosocial and environmental problems that may affect the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of mental disorders (Axes I and II). A psychosocial or environmental problem can be defined as a negative life event, an environmental difference or deficiency, a familial or other interpersonal stress, an inadequacy or social support or personal resources, or other problem relating to the context in which a person's difficulties have developed. So-called positive stressors, such as a job promotion, should be listed only if they constitute or lead to a problem, such as when a person has trouble adapting to the new situation. It should be noted that psychosocial problems may develop as a consequence of a person's psychopathology or may constitute problems that should be considered in the overall management program.

 * When evaluating for Axis IV problems, the clinician should only note those psychosocial and environmental problems that have been present during the year preceding the current evaluation. However, the clinician may choose to note the aforementioned problems that occurred prior to the previous year if these lucidly contribute to the mental disorder or have become a focus of treatment.

 * Axis IV Disorders:
 * Problems with primary support group,Problems related to the social environment,Educational Problems,Occupational Problems, Housing Problems, Economic Problems, Problems with access to health care services,Problems related to interaction with legal system/crime, Other psychosocial and environmental problems

Refer to DSM-IV-TR for a detailed description of each problem.

Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning
 * Axis V defines an individual's "global assessment of functioning" or "GAF score." The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) is a numeric scale (0 through 100) used to rate the social, occupational and psychological functioning of adults.  Often, a clinician will note a client's GAF score within the Axes as "IV: GAF = ##."  The scale used is below:

 * 91 - 100 Superior functioning in a wide range of activities, life’s problems never seem to get out of hand, is ought out by others because of his/her many positive qualities. No symptoms.

 * 81 - 90  Absent of minimal symptoms (e.g., mild anxiety before an exam), good functioning in all areas, interested and involved in a wide range of activities, socially effective, generally satisfied with life, no more than everyday problems or concerns (e.g., an occasional argument with family members).

 * 71 - 80  If symptoms are present, the are transient and expectable reactions to psycho-social stressors (e.g., difficulty concentrating after family argument); no more than slight impairment in social, occupational, or school functioning(e.g., temporarily falling behind in schoolwork).

 * 61 - 70  Some mild symptoms (e.g., depressed mood and mild insomnia) OR some difficulty in social, occupational, or school functioning (e.g., occasional truancy, or theft within the household), but generally functioning pretty well,has some meaningful relationships.

 * 51 - 60  Moderate symptoms (e.g., flat affect and circumstantial speech, occasional panic attacks) OR moderate difficulty in social, occupational, or school functioning (e.g., few friends, conflicts with peers or co-workers).

 * 41 - 50  Serious symptoms (e.g., suicidal ideation, severe obsessional rituals, frequent shoplifting) OR any serious impairment in social, occupational, or school functioning (e.g., no friends, unable to keep a job).

 * 31 - 40   Some impairment in reality testing or communication (e.g., speech is at times illogical, obscure, or irrelevant) OR major impairment in several areas, such as work or school, family relations, judgment, thinking, or mood (e.g., depressed man avoids friends, neglects family, and is unable to work; child frequently beats up younger children, is defiant at home, and is failing at school).

 * 21 - 30   Behavior is considerably influenced by delusions or hallucinations OR serious impairment in communication or judgment (e.g., sometimes incoherent, acts grossly inappropriately, suicidal preoccupation) OR inability to function in almost all areas (e.g., stays in bed all day; no job, home or friends).

 * 11 - 20   Some danger of hurting self or others (e.g., suicidal attempts without clear expectation of death; frequent violent; manic excitement) OR occasionally fails to maintain minimal personal hygiene (e.g., smears feces) OR gross impairment in communication (e.g., largely incoherent or mute).

 * 1 - 10    Persistent danger of severely hurting self or others (e.g., recurrent violence)OR persistent inability to maintain minimal personal hygiene OR serious suicidal act with clear expectation of death.

The DSM V
 * In May 2013, the APA will publish the much anticipated DSM V. While nothing has been finalized, there is more transparency and openness in the creation of the latest DSM incarnation than ever before.  Detailed information regarding potential changes to the DSM V can be found at the website www.DSMV.org.  It is rumored that the most significant change proposed is the inclusion of dimensional assessments for depression, anxiety, cognitive impairment and reality distortion that span across many major mental disorders. This means that while a clincian may diagnose an eating disorder, they can also rate these four dimensions so as to better characterize the patient.

Methods of Assessing for Psychopathology (General)

 * Pathology is assessed in numerous ways and using a myriad of techniques for information gathering and data synthesis. Some examples of how pathology is assessed include:

The Clinical Interview:
 * The clinical interview is a valuable tool for gathering key information from the patient. Example categories for such an interview include:,
 * Chief complaint
 * History of the current illness
 * Past history
 * Family history
 * Educational history
 * Social history
 * Medical history
 * Mental status examination

 * Using the structure of these categories (interview structures can vary significantly) a clinician can usually formulate a Diagnostic Impression and estimate a Treatment Plan.

 * Information from other resources can be vital in completing the diagnostic impression. These include records from school, previous treatment records, laboratory work, journals or timelines of difficulties, and reports from friends and family.

Face-to-Face Testing:
 * This type of testing includes many of the stereotypical psychological tests known in popular culture. Face-to-face tests assess a range of functioning (emotional to intellectual) can be broken down into two categories: projective and objective.

 * Projective tests tend to be open-ended and attempt to tap into a person's internal, emotional workings. These tests tend to vary in the degree of psychometric robustness. However, some (Exner’s Comprehensive System for the Rorschach and HIT) have developed systematic evaluation systems that are based on normative samples. However, many reviewers of these systems continue to point out inconsistencies among clinicians’ scoring and interpretations.

 * Objective tests use standardized measures to assess functioning. What is meant by objective is a test that likely 1) has developed its questions or method of gathering information from well established constructs (e.g. cognitive processing speed), 2) is reliable in the sense that taking the test over and over or with different examiners would yield consistent results, 3) gives clinically valuable output (e.g. a degree of symptom presence such as mania), 4) has standardized scores that are based on a sample population representative of the intended test takers.

 * Projective tests include: Sentence Completion, House-Tree-Person/Kinetic Drawings,Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Rorschach Inkblot Test.

 * Objective tests include: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wechsler Intelligence, Scale for Children (WISC), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML).

Neuropsychological Testing
 * The focus of this type of testing is likely to relate one's behavior to Central Nervous System (CNS) causes. Specialized tests are used to measure one's performance on tasks and then compare the results to other people who may have verified CNS abnormalities. This process may give additional clues to clinicians about potential early onset of CNS diseases, potential structural abnormality, and potential functional degree of difficulty expected of the patient.

 * Some of the tests used include:
 * Bender Gestalt
 * Trail Making Test
 * Stroop Test
 * Tower of London
 * Rey Complex Figure
 * Repeatable Battery for Neuropsychological Assessment (RBANS)
 * . . . and the list goes on . ..

 * Neuroimaging is a similar and very much related field. Brain imaging techniques can be used in conjunction with neuropsychological tests. The "pros" of using both techniques to identify illness is that imaging gives visual insight and analysis of brain function, while neuropsych testing can measure the range of expressed behaviors of the person. Imaging techniques afford the opportunity for less cultural biased assessment, whereas normative results from traditional psychological tests have to be carefully designed and used appropriately in order to be less-biasing in their results.

 * Some of the imaging methods used include:
 * Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 * Quantitative Electroencephalogram (qEEG)
 * Computerized Tomography (CT)
 * Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
 * Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
 * Radiography Imaging (PET / SPECT)
 * Diffusor Tensor Imaging (DTI)

Self Reports
 * Self reports are considered one of the most commonly used methods in psychological assessment. While clinical interviews and projective assessments are technically considered 'Self Reports', they are traditionally Objective Tests which utilize a restricted response format, such as true/false answers or using an ordinal scale (typically from 1-4). Examples of well known self reports include
 * The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
 * The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
 * California Personality Inventory
 * Child Behavior Checklist
 * Beck Depression Inventory

Medical Records

 * Records are a key source of tracking, updating, communicating, and confirming symptoms that may lead to diagnostic management. Likewise, collateral reports, both formal and informal, such as reports from teachers, associates, and other professionals serve to better validate the diagnostic process.

 * Traditional health records may be maintained on paper and/or electronic form, such as electronic or web based databases.

 * With technology upgrades, demand for remote doctor consultation, and ever increasing interest in research-based treatments, medical records too are changing to accommodate more efficient care. How so? There is a movement that is shaping the medical record to become streamlined, universally interpretable, and even can offer predictive outcomes and treatment recommendations. Again, how so?  offers tools called Problem Knowledge Couplers. These tool can be grossly described as type of flow-chart based application that takes user input (e.g. the medical chart), compares the data to a database of other charts and archival data, and then offers diagnostic impressions. The goal of these “Problem Oriented Medical Records” is to use the shared knowledge of decades of collected medical data to instantly inform clinicians of the potential prognoses their patient may expect, therefore leading to earlier successful intervention, again based on up to date clinical data from many clinicians. Thus, greatly reducing the liability of longer treatment periods, misdiagnosis, and relying less on the clinician’s individual experience (e.g. as earned from professional education, conferences, reading journals, etc.) and more on the collective experience of many clinicians.

 * Some of these couplers include:
 * ♠Clinical psychology syndromes:
 * Depression and Anxiety Diagnosis
 * Depression and Anxiety Treatment Choices
 * Memory Problem or Confusion Diagnosis

Medical syndromes related to health psychology interventions.
 * Diabetes Management
 * Failure To Thrive Diagnosis in Children Aged 2 to 5
 * Fainting Diagnosis
 * Headache Diagnosis
 * Menopause Management
 * Weight, Diet, and Exercise diagnosis and management
 * Sleep problems
 * Substance risk / cessation

Cultural Considerations (General)
-Mental health and other medical conditions are significantly influenced, created, or modified by the cultural context. In non-jargon, this means that what one culture calls an "abnormal" condition or behavior may vary from another culture.

-Another project is underway to cover the considerations that should be given to one's culture when it comes to psychopathology. See*Culturally Specific Syndromes.

 * A closer look at Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and cultural factors:
 * It is important to note that PTSD is treated and assessed using measured developed and normed on western cultures. Stress is often manifested differently by different cultures.  For example:

 * Bhutanese refugees found that most often distress is conceptualized in terms of angered gods, dissatisfied spirits or some form of witchcraft.
 * Youth in Palestine with trauma histories reported a preponderance of conversion fits, behavioral problems and psychosomatic complaints.
 * "Weak Heart" syndrome among Khmer refugees that closely resembles PTSD and panic disorder.
 * Salvadorian refugees often describe their distress in terms of nervios (nerves; matters of mind, body and spirit) and calor (heat; one of several bodily phenomenon included in nervios).
 * Rural Guatamalans are more likely to understand war-related distress in terms of susto ("fright sickness") and the previously noted nervios.
 * Afghans describe their war-related distress in terms of jigar khun ("blood liver," dysphoria associated with experiences of loss), asabi (a combination of nervousness and anger) and fisha-e-bala (feeling highly pressured or stressed).

Treatment (General)
A variety of treatments have come from a long history of experimentation, research, and practice. Several methods of psychopathology treatment will be listed here:

Psychotherapy:
 * Psychoanalysis

The original development of Psychoanalysis (also known as psychoanalytic psychotherapy) is commonly attributed to the Austrian  physician Sigmund Freud, although modern psychoanalysis combines the research and ideas of hundreds of other practitioners and psychological theorists. Moreover, psychoanalysis is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior through 1) a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; 2) a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and 3) a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness. It should be noted that there are at least 22 theoretical orientations of psychoanalytic thought and Psychoanalytic treatment are known to vary as much as the differing theories do.

Freudian psychoanalysis, as developed by Freud himself, refers to a specific type of treatment in which the "analysand" (analytic patient) verbalizes their thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems, and interprets them for the patient to create insight for resolution of the problems.

 * Behavioral Therapies (Cognitive, Behavioral Analysis, Exposure)

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) aims to help the patient overcome difficulties by identifying and changing ineffectual thinking, behavior, and emotional responses. This is done by helping patients develop skills to modify beliefs, identify distorted thinking, relate to others in different ways and change behaviors. It is based on the theory that a thought or idea must precede a mood, meaning there must be something that a person thinks that leads them to feel a certain way. This, in turn, will lead to the way in which people act and that these actions are heavily influenced by the way individuals see themselves and think others see them. CBT is a relatively short-term form of psychotherapy (a type of counselling) that can be used for the treatment of a wide range of psychological disorders. Oftentimes, CBT involves 'homework' which is completed by the patient in between sessions as well as frequent meetings with a clinician.

Behavior analysis (or applied behavior analysis aka ABA) is a school of psychology based upon the foundations and principles of behaviorism. ABA is the process of systematically applying interventions based upon the principles of learning theory to improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree, and to demonstrate that the interventions employed are responsible for the improvement in behavior. Behavior analysis has proven to be a particularly effective learning tool for helping children with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain new skills.

Exposure therapy is a type of behavior therapy in which the patient confronts a feared situation, object, thought or memory. Sometimes, exposure therapy involves reliving a traumatic experience in a controlled, therapeutic environment. The goal of exposure therapy is to reduce the distress, physical or emotional, felt in certain situations. Exposure therapy may be used in dealing with anxiety, phobias, and post-traumatic stress.

 * Family and Couples Therapy

Family therapy, also known as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on working with couples and families to nurture development and change within their environment. Theoretically, change is viewed in terms of the interacting systems between family members (since all family members are part of the system). Further, Family and Couples therapy emphasizes family relationships as a determining factor in psychological health.

Psychopharmacology:
 * Medications may be used alone or in conjunction with psychotherapies

Psychosurgery:
 * Historically, psychosurgeries evolved from experimentation and blunt dissection.
 * Brain surgery is still used to intentionally alter behaviors and medical conditions.
 * A Corpus callosotomy is a procedure used to prevent seizure activity (epilepsy) from spreading between the left and right hemispheres.
 * Gamma knife surgery is used to non-invasively alter structures with precision.

Evidence-Based Practice

The term evidence-based treatment (EBT), evidence-based practice (EBT) or empirically-supported treatment (EST) refers to preferential use of mental and behavioral health interventions for which systematic empirical research has provided evidence of statistically significant effectiveness as treatments for specific problems. There is a threefold rationale for the use of EBT/EBP which 1) aims to improve quality and accountability for practice, 2) create a shared vocabulary and concepts for practice and 3) stimulate evelopment of evidence base for treatment. Historically, EBT/EBP has favored time-limited therapies such as CBT and because of this, and other reasons, there has been some controversy over the use of EBT/EBP as a tool for managed care companies to manage costs rather than best treat patients.  Recent research has found validity for both behavioral and psychoanalytic therapies.

Treatment Environments

 * Inpatient care - is psychological care given to a patient at a hospital or residential facility. Patients are admitted both voluntarily or involuntarily. Moreover, hospitalization is typically for major diagnostic, surgical or therapeutic services, where the individual’s condition or response to medication must be closely monitored. For example, if the patient is suicidal, destructive, or poses a risk to others, a hospital stay may make sense. If the patient has a chemical dependency or alcohol problem, a inpatient hospitalization may be required during the detoxification stage to monitor symptoms during withdrawal.

 * Outpatient Care - can be defined as any psychological care service where the patient is not confined to the care facility. Thus, Outpatient care may be provided in a doctor's office, clinic, the patient's home or even a hospital outpatient department. It should be noted that outpatient treatment at a clinic or hospital is often supplemented by medications administered at home. Moreover, outpatient services have become the typical care environment for most mental health and chemical dependency treatments
 * Partial hospitalization - also called a therapeutic day program, can occur all day during the week, provide evening programs, but no overnight care. This type of care provides therapy and support while guiding the transition to the patient’s home environment. Partial Hospitalization treatment is utilized for mental health treatment, as well as alcoholism and chemical dependency treatment.

Organizations / References Closely Related to Psychopathology
- There are many groups whose focus is on aspects of psychopathology, which include research, education, treatment, advocacy, and policy. A snapshot of these organizations is listed:
 * United States Government: In 2001, the President of the United States issued an Executive Order supporting community-based services and programs for individuals with disabilities. Within this order, the President’s New Freedom Commission On Mental Health was formed. http://www.mentalhealthcommission.gov/background.html. The Commission conducted a year of study and informed the President that mental illness is shockingly common, recovery from mental illness is a real possibility, but the systematic delivery and accessibility of services was imperfect. A lengthy report by Hogan (2003) lists ideas for what a transformed mental health system would look like.
 * Society for Research in Psychopathology
 * American Psychopathology Association
 * National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI): advocates for people with mental illness, their family and friends, and other support resources. NAMI offices are local, within communities.

title: General Psychopathology


title: File:Egm6341.s10.Team2.Hw2problem3c.jpg


text:
University of Florida/Egm6341/s10.team3.aks/HW2

(4) Derive the composite trapazoidal rule and composite simpson's rule from simple trapazoidal and simple simpson's rule
Ref Lecture notes [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg9.pdf|p.9-3]]

Problem Statement
Show Simple Trapazoidal rule[[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg7.pdf|p.7-1]] $$ \Rightarrow $$ Composite Trapazoidal rule [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg7.pdf|p.7-1]]

and

Show Simple Simpson's rule [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg7.pdf|p.7-2]] $$ \Rightarrow $$ Composite Simpson's rule[[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg7.pdf|p.7-2]]

Solution
Composite Trapezoidal rule

From Simple trapezoidal rule we have ,

$$ I_1 = \frac{h}{2}[f_{\text{o}}+ f_1] $$

$$    = h [\frac{1}{2}f_{\text{o}}+\frac{1}{2} f_1]     $$

similarly we have

$$ I_2 = h [\frac{1}{2}f_1+\frac{1}{2} f_2] $$

$$ I_3 = h [\frac{1}{2}f_2+\frac{1}{2} f_3] $$ . . . . $$ I_{\text{n-1}} = h [\frac{1}{2}f_{\text{n-2}}+\frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n-1}}] $$

$$ I_{\text{n}} = h [\frac{1}{2}f_{\text{n-1}}+\frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n}}] $$

Summation of all of above expression gives

$$ I_{\text{n}} = h [\frac{1}{2}f_{\text{o}}+(\frac{1}{2} f_1 +\frac{1}{2} f_1)+(\frac{1}{2} f_2+\frac{1}{2} f_2)+.....+(\frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n-1}}+\frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n-1}})+ \frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n}} ] $$

$$ = h [\frac{1}{2}f_{\text{o}}+ f_1 + f_2 +.......+ f_{\text{n-1}} +\frac{1}{2} f_{\text{n}}]$$

Hence Proved..

Composite Simpson's Rule

From Simple Simpson's rule we obtain ,

$$ I_2 = \frac {h}{3} [f_{\text{o}}+4 f_1 +f_2] $$

where $$ h = \frac {b-a}{2}$$

Similarly

$$ I_4 = \frac {h}{3} [f_2+4 f_3 +f_4] $$

$$ I_6 = \frac {h}{3} [f_4+4 f_5 +f_6] $$ . . . . $$ I_{\text{n-2}} = \frac {h}{3} [f_{\text{n-4}}+4 f_{\text{n-3}} +f_{\text{n-2}}] $$

$$ I_{\text{n}} = \frac {h}{3} [f_{\text{n-2}}+4 f_{\text{n-1}} +f_{\text{n}}] $$

After Summation of above terms we obtain

$$ I_{\text{n}} = \frac {h}{3} [f_{\text{o}}+4 f_1+(f_2+f_2)+4f_{\text{3}}+(f_4+f_4)+4f_5+f_6.......+(f_{\text{n-2}}+f_{\text{n-2}})+4 f_{\text{n-1}} +f_{\text{n}}] $$

$$ I_{\text{n}} = \frac {h}{3} [f_{\text{o}}+4 f_1+2f_2+4f_{\text{3}}+2f_4+4f_5+f_6.......+2f_{\text{n-2}}+4 f_{\text{n-1}} +f_{\text{n}}] $$

where n = 2k  and k = 1,2,3,4.....

Hence Proved

= (14) Prove =
 * $$e^{(3)}(t) = -\frac{t}{3}[F^{(3)}(t)- F^{(3)}(-t)] $$

Ref Lecture [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg15.pdf|p.15-2]]

Problem Statement
Prove that

$$ e^{(3)}(t) = - \frac{t}{3}[F^{(3)}(t)- F^{(3)}(-t)]$$

where

$$ e(t)= \int_{-t}^t f(x(t))\, dt - \frac {t}{3}[F(-t)+4 F(0)+F(t)] $$

Solution
$$ e(t)= \int_{-t}^t f(x(t))\, dt - \frac {t}{3}[F(-t)+4 F(0)+F(t)] $$

$$ e(t)= \int_{-t}^k f(x(t))\, dt +\int_{k}^t f(x(t))\, dt - \frac {t}{3}[F(-t)+4 F(0)+F(t)] $$

$$ e^{(1)}(t)= (F(-t)+F(t)) - \frac {t}{3}[- F^1(-t)+F^1(t)] - \frac {1}{3}[F(-t)+4 F(0)+F(t)] $$

$$ e^{(2)}(t)= (-F^1(-t)+F^1(t)) - \frac {t}{3}[ F^2(-t)+F^2(t)] - \frac {1}{3}[-F^1(-t)+F^1(t)]-\frac {1}{3}[-F^1(-t)+F^1(t)] $$

$$ e^{(2)}(t)= (-F^1(-t)+F^1(t)) - \frac {t}{3}[ F^2(-t)+F^2(t)] - \frac {2}{3}[-F^1(-t)+F^1(t)] $$

$$ e^{(3)}(t)= (F^2(-t)+F^2(t)) - \frac {t}{3}[- F^3(-t)+F^3(t)] -\frac {1}{3}[F^2(-t)+F^2(t)]- \frac {2}{3}[F^2(-t)+F^2(t)] $$ $$ e^{(3)}(t)= (F^2(-t)+F^2(t)) - \frac {t}{3}[- F^3(-t)+F^3(t)] -(F^2(-t)+F^2(t)) $$

$$ e^{(3)}(t)= - \frac {t}{3}[- F^3(-t)+F^3(t)] $$

$$ e^{(3)}(t)= - \frac {t}{3}[ F^3(t)-F^3(-t)] $$

Hence Proved ..

(12) Show Derivation

 * $$\alpha^{(1)}(t) $$

Ref: Lecture Notes [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg15.pdf|p.15-1]]

Problem Statement
Show derivation that
 * {| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left"

$$
 * $$\displaystyle \alpha^{(1)}(t)= F(-t) + F(t)
 * $$\displaystyle \alpha^{(1)}(t)= F(-t) + F(t)
 * style = |
 * }

Solution
From (4) in [[media:Egm6341.s10.mtg14.pdf|p.14-2]], we can write down the expression of $$ \alpha(t) $$

Given :

f(x(t)) = F(t)

Let there exists $$ g^1(t)= F(t) $$

$$ \alpha(t) = \int_{-t}^t f(x(t))\, dt                  = \int_{-t}^t F(t))\, dt                  = \int_{-t}^t g^1(t))\, dt

= g(t)- g(-t) $$

$$  \alpha^{(1)}(t) = \frac{d}{dt}[g(t)- g(-t)] $$

$$ \Rightarrow \alpha^{(1)}(t) = g^1(t)- (-g^1(-t)) $$

but $$ g^1(t)= F(t) $$

$$ \Rightarrow \alpha^{(1)}(t) = F(t)+F(-t)) $$

Hence Proved ,