text:
Laws of Zero

This page is based on an essay by Shadowjack, and may be read in its original form at this permanent link. Here, comment is interspersed; any user may comment constructively, the goal being education. Please sign comments. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

For the Wikipedia article, see Division by zero. The Wikipedia article is in the form of an essay, written without inline references; it represents "common knowledge," which is how many Wikipedia articles were originally written. —Abd (discuss • contribs) 14:54, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

Comment about this process should go on the attached discussion page. Laws of Zero

This article states the laws of zero as groups zi, zii, ziii, ziv, zv and in each of the groups are contained four units designated as ' " "' "". If that is not what is clear on reading this article then please be sure to check the "view history" file in order to find the original article.

 * The link at the top of the page points to the article as last edited by Shadowjack. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

The particular matter that has prompted this note is that students in different schools are prohibited from dividing by zero. The error is to confuse can not with must not, and the difference between rules and orders.

 * "Prohibited" is a social phenomenon, not a mathematical one. Division by zero is well−defined in most systems, particularly through approach to zero as a limit. Division of zero by another integer is also well−defined. What is undefined, usually stated as "indeterminate" is division of zero by zero, because N/D, with D −> 0 and N finite and not zero, approaches infinity, whereas 0/N remains zero for all values of N other than zero. As we will see, Shadowjack appears to rely on the latter relation, and thus declares that 0/0 equals 0.

 * Students are "prohibited" from avoiding division by zero because the result can be indeterminate; if it is treated as determinate, certain major errors can result. Shadowjack does not consider this problem.

 * We may define division from multiplication. If A * B = C, then C / A = B and C / B = A. The quotient of C / A can be defined as that number which when multiplied by A equals C. We may need to expand this definition slightly to handle division by zero. That is, there may be more than one number which satisfies the relation. The answer to the problem may be a set of numbers, or infinity.

 * If we ground mathematics in the study of existent reality, there is no zero outside of counting, and there is no infinity except as a pure concept. "Infinite" and "infinitesimal" are not measurable. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

In this theory, rules are a close approximation to actual laws built in to the construction either of nature or alternatively of the nature of the system. Orders are commands that are applied for some political reason, that need have no reference to nature nor to truth.

 * What Shadowjack states here is a general epistemological or ontological principle. The problem I see is that, while setting aside the "political," he substitutes his own ideas as "nature" or "truth." He is not alone in this! It is a fundamental epistemological error to confuse interpretation with reality. Shadowjack has not, so far, grounded his discussion in nature and reality, but simply manipulates ideas in ways that seem logical to him. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

The logical necessity of the sign labels and the system of mathematics is that we show division by zero, even if we are not exactly sure what that calculation gives. It is easily possible that division by zero gives a not obvious result similar to Q ! or e.

 * He has not stated this. Q is not defined here. e is a constant, an irrational number, which, however, is generally defined through approach to limit (the same as pi). −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

My own preferred answer is to say that division by zero either gives the result zero or alternatively does nothing and returns the original object number. Either answer is satisfactory to the logical necessity of showing the calculation.

 * There is no natural observation which involves division by zero. The problem arises entirely in language. Shadowjack, here, acknowledges that there is more than one "answer," "satisfactory" to logical necessities. The necessity is invented. From what I have stated above, we can see that a general answer to 0 / 0 is that it returns, not the "original object number" (I do not yet find Shadowjack's meaning clear), but the set of all numbers, unlimited (so infinity is, effectively, included.) That is, any answer from the set of all numbers satisfies the underlying multiplication, because 0 * N = 0. If N is infinite, the check is impossible to verify. We are, again, outside of the natural reality, we are looking at pure thought only, invented.

 * Does Shadowjack's answer, differing from my proposal, remain logically consistent? I don't know as I write this. I am, with most of us, a student. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

The only wrong answer in this system that is not by its nature obviously incorrect requires some explanation.

 * "Wrong" is undefined. This may seem picky, but if we are going to propose that most people are "wrong," we'd better be clear about what we mean. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

That is to make the usual mistake of people who touch on infinity mathematics to think that calculations by zero may reflect calculations by infinity, leading to the compounded mistake that zero equals infinity.

 * Let's see if he shows that. The concept of zero and that of infinity are linked, but, obviously, zero is not infinity. Rather, if we have N / Z, with any positive N, the quotient grows without limit as Z approaches 0. Hence we readily say that N / 0 is infinite.

 * The problem, of course, is what happens as N approaches zero. N / N is 1, regardless of the value of N, we easily think. That is an error, because if N equals 0, the quotient is *undefined*. It could be any number and satisfy the relation. I'll repeat, this problem arises only in language, the language of mathematics. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Calculations by zero and calculations by infinity do not give equivalent answers, although they must give coherent non-contradictory answers.

What I think may be the correct line into the infinity mathematics is to hypothesise that zero divided by zero approximates infinity. The problem is that a/a=1 and 1/1=1 but we know that 0/0 =/= 1. So we say that 0/0=0, even though we cannot justify the arbitrary change in rules.

But if 0/0 = ∞ that would make sense in regard to the requirement to use a higher order language to explain a calculation that we cannot prove at the level of the given mathematical signlabels. And if we then show the set equivalence we obtain ɸ < ɸ => ∞.

Now that may actually work because we are saying if the empty set contains the empty set then infinity.

 * This is not a coherent sentence. He is referring to what he does not explain. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Since that could be a necessary consequence of the empty set containing the empty set.

 * There are two meanings of zero. Shadowjack may be confusing them, here. Zero is the count of elements contained in the empty set. Zero is also a quantity on a continuum. The former is an integer, a count; the latter is a number, a value. Counted quantity exists as a basic distinction in language; it depends on the definition of objects to be counted, and "object" is, again, a creation of mind. It's quite a basic one! Objects are abstractions, resulting from the distinguishing of A and not−A. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Furthermore, if 0/0=/=1 and 0/0=/=0 and 0/0=∞, then we prove 0=/=∞ and 1=/=∞, which we would like to do.

 * Sure! What fun! I'm not sure what Shadowjack's notation means here. If 0 / 0 = {the set of all numbers}, then to give a specific value is to equate the set of all numbers with a particular number, which will then lead to obvious contradictions. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

To help oneself understand the calculations intuitively the following approach is useful: That is, to specify the difference between nothing, unity and multitude.

 * I'm going to assert that there is no difference. Why? "Because it's fun," and because doing so can lead to some very interesting insights. I'd never claim that this was "true." Merely useful. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Given one can intuitively suppose that nothing, unity and multitude must each be different to the other then specific understandings are coherent and non-contradictory. We can describe the existential operator infinity is an unlimited multitude for some kind of quantity, which is different to the universal operator infinity which is unlimited multitude of all of some kind of quantity. It means we are able to think about different kinds of infinity as infinity is applied to different measures of quantity.

 * That's done. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

One appropriate correct definition of infinity is: Bounded unlimited multitude.

 * "Bounded" is undefined, though he tries: −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

We say bounded, because particular. We say unlimited because if existant then without end. We say multitude because not nothing or unity.

 * How particular? If it is infinite and existent, yes, without end. But it is then everything, and it is then a unity, because if anything is outside of it, it is limited. It is itself. And it is precisely and exactly like nothing.

 * Now, there is a way out of this mess. The number of real numbers contained in the interval 0 to 1 is equal to the number of real numbers in any interval, that can be shown through one to one correspondence. So we can define a limited but unbounded set. It is limited by the bounds, but the count of members is unlimited.

 * Once again, we can see how the problem arises entirely in language. There is no real experiment that we can perform that produces an infinite count, or that measures infinitesimal values. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

In terms of minutae please note that our standard idea of a/a=1 only holds if a is a positive integer. If a is a negative integer or zero then all of the argumentation as to division of negatives by negatives or division by zero must be applied to a.

 * That's strange: −a / −a = 1 as well. Division by negatives is not a problem, if division is defined as the inverse of multiplication. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

See also:http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Zero_unity_and_infinity

 * This is another Shadowjack essay, it has been moved to and blanked, the link is to the last unblanked version at this point. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

zi': 0 + 0 = 0

zi": 0 - 0 = 0

zi"': 0 . 0 = 0

zi"": 0 / 0 = 0

 * This is the only unconventional claim in this series of identities. It effectively would equate, in practice, zero with the set of all numbers, because the set of all numbers satisfies the relation stated. Zero does not uniquely satisfy it. I have the sense that it can be shown that this proposed identity can lead to preposterous results, but I don't intend to do that today. If I've seen an example, it was over fifty years ago. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

zii':0. 1 = 0

zii": 1 . 0 = 0

zii"': 0 / 1 = 0

zii"": 1 / 0 = 0

 * Multiplying both sides of the identity by 0, and assuming that A / B * B = A (which can be the very definition of division), we end up with 1 = 0. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

ziii': 0. a = 0

ziii": a . 0 = 0

ziii"': 0 / a = 0

ziii"": a / 0 = 0

 * Ditto. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

ziv': 0. ~a = 0

ziv": ~a . 0 = 0

ziv"': 0 / ~a = 0

ziv"": ~a / 0 = 0

 * Again. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

zv': 1 - 1 = 0

zv": a - a = 0

zv"': ~a - ~a = 0

 * "Not A?". The meaning is unclear to me. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

zv"": a + ~a = 0

 * Let's say that the meaning is very unclear. Shadowjack has other pages where he gives logical notation, perhaps those might clear this up, but it looks incorrect. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

If the question is :"Why state the given laws of zero ?"

The problem is if not stated then we suppose that all in the whole world agree with the same not stated laws of zero even though we have no possible way of knowing what all in the whole world agree with.

 * There can certainly be a value in the study of what is routinely assumed without careful distinctions. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

An existing mistake is the earlier conditional statement that:

"What any one person knows, every person knows."

 * Only if we allow "every person" to "know" through the one person. Where was this "earlier statement"? It is not in this essay. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

And "If one person knows, then everyone knows."

 * What can be said without violating ordinary common sense is that "what one person knows is known by the set of all people." Notice that a possible error arises in equating "the set of all persons" with "everyone," in the latter, it is implied that each member of the set of all persons knows the matter. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

And "If everyone does not know, then no one knows."

 * That's just plain ridiculous. Some people may think that what they do not know is not known by anyone, but only in certain narrow areas where they imagine their knowledge is comprehensive. It's ridiculous even there, because it assumes a form of omniscience. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Which then means that everyone knows the laws of thought.

 * This would be a strange meaning for "knows." Everyone *experiences* what may be called the laws of thought, that is, everyone who thinks. But experience is not identical to knowledge. We may have knowledge without experience and experience without knowledge. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

But everyone does not know the laws of thought.

 * Indeed. Some people, faced with declarations from those who have studied and practiced "laws of thought," deny them. That denial is itself a product of the "laws of thought," as I would use the concept. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

And as stated it is not necessary that all intelligent decision makers must agree with each of the individual laws as stated. Using the laws of zero in this document we can provide examples.

 * Sensible. However, Shadowjack could be considering agreement/disagreement, as if agreement and disagreement are "decisions," i..e, choices, that must be made. Underneath Shadowjack's explanations and examples in this document is his way of thinking. he is following his own "laws of thought," those that apply to him. Or is he? −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

0 + 0 = 0 Zero plus zero is zero.

0 - 0 = 0 Zero minus zero is zero.

0 . 0 = 0 Zero multiplied by zero is zero.

0 / 0 = 0 Zero divided by zero is zero.

 * Again, the single idiosyncratic term.

These laws define zero. And the nature of zero as defined by these laws is the identity of zero.

 * "Identity" is an invented concept. Zero is defined without that extra identity, and works quite well without that definition. Shadowjack is here collapsing a definition based on four identities with a single indentity, that of "zero," as if "zero" were one thing and one thing only. Yet, as we have mentioned, "zero" is a concept, invented in language, not a measurable. The only zero that we experience is the zero of absence. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

The question raised by the other laws is whether the zero that results from the calculation is the exact same identity as the zero of the laws that define zero.

And we must say definitely not. Without any doubt.

 * That's remarkable. The first three identities define a different zero than the fourth. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

It requires we explain the concept of flavours used in hyperdimensional physics. The suggestion being that by applying a process of multiplying by one or a or not a we change the spin of zero to generate a different flavour.

 * What was it that Feynman said? Something along the lines of "if you cannot explain a thing in language a child can understand, you don't understand it."

But because the minuteness of the difference does not offer itself on our measuring system we show each zero as exactly same.

 * He is explaining away his lack of clarity. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Uniqueness of zero
There can only be one zero. For if z had the same properties, we would have

 * z + 0 = z

 * z + 0 = 0

Yes, okay. If z had the same properties as 0 then that would mean z = 0.

The properties of zero are as follows:

Zero is that entity which added to itself gives itself, subtracted from itself gives itself, multiplied by itself gives itself and divided by itself gives itself. If z has the same properties as zero then z = 0 and if z does not have the same properties as zero then z =/= 0.

 * Shadowjack is working from the assumption that his set of four identities consistently define zero. He is not doing what scientists do: attempt to disprove their hypotheses. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

If z does equal zero then z + 0 = z and z + 0 = 0 which only means we now know what the unknown variable z is equal to.

The law of identity states that two different entity are the same if in any function where one is used the other can be used to obtain the exact same result. So z = 0 if and only if the two sign labels can be exchanged in any area where one is used without altering the outcome of the calculation.

However this is useful if zero comes in different flavours. Because rather than saying the term (a - a) is the type of zero we are using in this instance instead we can say zv" = (a - a) and to obtain that particular zero we use the sign label zv".

Furthermore zv"' = (~a - ~a), ziii"' = ( 0/a ) etc.

The reason we would do such is to distinguish between the spin applied to zero in any instance.

 * Shadowjack has not explained his "varieties of zero." He has marked his examples with his special notation, but I have not seen that he has explained it. These are expressed as apostrophes, 1 through 4 of them. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

To clarify the reasoning behind this notion it is useful to refer to some theory of Kant. Since my explanation of some of the theory of Kant is distorted in order to explain a particular matter it is not to suggest that Kant said what I am about to state. Merely that what I am about to state is derived from study of what Kant said.

The particular useful understanding is to distinguish between concept, idea and notion.

 * Great. What would be dangerous is to assume that the concepts so distinguished are "true." In general, this kind of work is useful or not useful, and, of course, utility depends on context. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Concept, idea and notion can be considered similar in structure to element, atom and molecule.

 * Or to fruit, seeds, and apples. Clear? −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Elements are the basic unit matter that do not reduce any further in the field to which they are relevant. Atoms are a unitary building block of different sorts depending on the specific elements involved in what quantity. Molecules are the first complex made from the combination of different atoms.

 * Okay. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

In the same way can we understand concept, idea and notion.

 * We could, perhaps. Whether we can or not depends on the foundation. There is no sign, so far, that Shadowjack is effectively communicating with anyone. Even if we can understand this essay, it is not terribly likely that we will. Now, let's see if I can prove myself wrong. If anyone cares to assist, welcome. This is a wiki. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Where concepts are the similar to elements, and in this context can be understood as the specific individual sign labels: a, ~a, 0, 1, +, -, etc. As such the individual sign labels meet the definition of elements since they are a basic unit matter that do not reduce any further in the field to which they are relevant.

Where ideas are similar to atoms, and in this context can be understood as the specific individual calculation of zero. So therefore, zero minus zero equals zero is an idea that involves the synthesis of the concepts zero, minus and equals. We know that the idea of zero minus zero equals zero is a different idea to the idea that zero plus zero equals zero because the concepts of the second idea are not the same.

 * Bringing in analogies can clarify, and it can confuse. It will only clarify under certain conditions. Otherwise it is just adding more words to a pile of uncomprehended words. My own training suggests that we suspend the chatter, that we recognize the operation of the mind behind all this thought and these words, and then see what appears. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Therefore we then know that 0 - 0 = 0 and 0 + 0 = 0 are two different ideas, definitely not one idea.

 * They are different and they are the same. "Definitely" could betray a rigidity of thought, if it is an insistence on one possibility out of many. Is it?

When we combine the four different ideas:

0 + 0 = 0 Zero plus zero is zero.

0 - 0 = 0 Zero minus zero is zero.

0 . 0 = 0 Zero multiplied by zero is zero.

0 / 0 = 0 Zero divided by zero is zero.

 * He is being repetitious, perhaps. He has already established the four identities he is working with. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Then we obtain a notion.

Where notions are similar to molecules and in this context can be understood as the synthesis of several coherent ideas involving related concepts.

The building from concepts to ideas to notions is called synthetic. The reduction from notions to ideas to concepts is called analytic.

 * And the conflation of different topics into a single essay is called "writing walls of text." No matter how interesting these excursions may be, in my training, it is called "drooling." Mea culpa, often. I am leaving off my commentary at this point, today. −Abd (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 29 December 2013 (UTC)

Translating the laws of zero into the language of sets provided in -> http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra we obtain:

 * Shadowjack had edited that article to take it outside what a top level project educational resource properly would be. Here is a link to the last version as edited by him.

zi': ɸ ^ ɸ => ɸ

zi": ɸ ^ ~ɸ => Q

zi"': ɸ v ɸ => ɸ

zi"": ɸ < ɸ => ∞

zii': ɸ v 1 => ɸ

zii": 1 v ɸ => ɸ

zii"': ɸ ɸ

zii"": 1 < ɸ => ɸ

ziii': ɸ v a => ɸ

ziii": a v ɸ => ɸ

ziii"': ɸ ɸ

ziii"": a < ɸ => ɸ

ziv': ɸ v ~a => ɸ

ziv": ~a v ɸ => ɸ

ziv"': ɸ < ~a => ɸ

ziv"": ~a < ɸ => ɸ

zv': 1 ^ ~1 => Q

zv": a ^ ~a => e

zv"': ~a ^ ~(~a) => !ɸ

zv"": a ^ ~a => e

And showing the equivalence relationship of shape not meaning between the two different languages we obtain:

zi': 0 + 0 = 0 <=> ɸ ^ ɸ => ɸ

zi": 0 - 0 = 0 <=> ɸ ^ ~ɸ => Q

zi"': 0 . 0 = 0 <=> ɸ v ɸ => ɸ

zi"": 0 / 0 = 0 <=> ɸ < ɸ => ∞

zii':0. 1 = 0 <=> ɸ v 1 => ɸ

zii": 1 . 0 = 0 <=> 1 v ɸ => ɸ

zii"': 0 / 1 = 0 <=> ɸ ɸ

zii"": 1 / 0 = 0 <=> 1 < ɸ => ɸ

ziii': 0. a = 0 <=> ɸ v a => ɸ

ziii": a . 0 = 0 <=> a v ɸ => ɸ

ziii"': 0 / a = 0 <=> ɸ ɸ

ziii"": a / 0 = 0 <=> a < ɸ => ɸ

ziv': 0. ~a = 0 <=> ɸ v ~a => ɸ

ziv": ~a . 0 = 0 <=> ~a v ɸ => ɸ

ziv"': 0 / ~a = 0 <=> ɸ < ~a => ɸ

ziv"": ~a / 0 = 0 <=> ~a < ɸ => ɸ

zv': 1 - 1 = 0 <=> 1 ^ ~1 => Q

zv": a - a = 0 <=> a ^ ~a => e

zv"': ~a - ~a = 0 <=> ~a ^ ~(~a) => !ɸ

zv"": a + ~a = 0 <=> a ^ ~a => e

See also: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Thinking_machines

The person stood looking for the longest time at the thing he was looking for. A passer by asked if he could help. Oh, would you mind said the person. Can you see it? Its over there. Pointing with his finger at a location near some bushes.

Hold on, said the passer by, I need to get closer. Okay, said the person, if you see it, let me know. And by the way, we have to be very careful it does not get away. I know how to catch it, so if you see it just point it out to me and I will be ready. Sure, said the passer by.

They both stood, straining their eyes in concentration trying to see the thing they were looking for, which another person thought was quite interesting so they came over to see if they could find out what was going on.

Oh, we are looking for something over there, said the passer by. We think it is hiding in the bushes. I have very good eyesight said the third person. If it is hiding in the bushes I assure you it will not escape my attention. Yes, said the passer by, but don't startle it or it may escape. Apparently there is a very clever way of catching it, so when you see it, just let us know and we will do the rest. Okay, said the other person.

Before too long there was a small crowd of people all gathered around the general area looking for the thing they were looking for.

The original person who had been looking in that direction had moved a small distance away and was looking at the crowd of people looking for the thing.

What are they looking at? asked somebody to the person. I am not quite sure, said the person, but it must be important to get so much attention. I think someone said that if they see it they can capture it, but they are not sure what it looks like, nor the exact method for capturing it when they see it.

Well I am a doctor so if they need the trained mind to assist in the exact method of capturing the thing I am sure I can show them how to do it. I had better let them know.

So then the doctor went over and spoke to the crowd of people and explained that he would know the method of capturing the thing when they saw where it was. That is a relief said the original passer by. We knew we would know it when we saw it, but we had no idea how to capture it. So it is lucky that you are here.

Say no more said the doctor. Just point it out when you can and we will take it from there.

There it is, said one of the people in the crowd. I saw it move just then. Hold on, I will show you exactly where it was. Yes, but what did it look like, said another person. If we knew what it looked like, then we would be more likely to see it for ourselves. Maybe it was nothing said a different person.

Don't say it was nothing, said the person who had seen it move. I definitely saw it move I tell you. There it is said someone else. It does move doesn't it. That is how we will catch it. Maybe we can't see it unless it moves, but when it moves we can see it. And if we can see it we can capture it.

The doctor with his trained mind decided it would be easier to know it if they saw the thing if they could determine where specifically it was hiding. So he thought if they could outline exactly the area within which the thing was hiding they would be in a better position to see it. For this reason he obtained a long length of rope and extended it in a large circle around the general area that everyone was looking at. That is a good idea, said another person. It is definitely inside that circle.

Then to determine exactly where within the circle the thing was they placed four posts evenly spaced around the circumference of the circle and then tied two ropes diagonally across the diameter of the circle to make four quadrants. And then to make it really easy to work out which quadrant of the circle the thing was hiding in they connected each of the posts together by a rope to make a square.

Immediately the person who had seen it move spoke up and said that it was in the upper right quadrant. And a different person said no it isn't, they thought it was in the lower left quadrant. But the person who had seen it move said yes, that is where it was before it moved. But it moved from the lower left quadrant to the upper right quadrant.

So now everybody focused their attention on the upper right quadrant to make sure it didn't get away.

How big is it, asked someone who had just turned up. Well it is smaller than one quadrant of the circle, said another, but apart from that we are not sure. Well if we put a rope from each corner of the upper right quadrant diagonally to the opposite corner we can work out where in the upper right quadrant it is.

Only if you are sure, said the person who had seen it move.

Is it smaller than one of the quadrants of the upper right quadrant? asked one of the observers.

Hold on, let's jump on it, said one of the other others. What do you mean? said another.

Well, if it is smaller than one of the quadrants of the upper right quadrant, then if all of us jump on it at the same time one of us is bound to catch hold of it. The important thing is if you get hold of it don't let it go until the rest of us have been able to tie it down. We should all agree to jump on a different quadrant of the upper right quadrant and then no matter which bit it is hiding in it won't be able to escape.

Good idea, they all agreed. At the same time then, let's jump on it.

For more information as to the shape of the object used to outline the area where the thing was hiding please follow the hyperlink: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Geometria

For a complete index to the various articles I have used to introduce these and related patterns, please follow the hyperlink: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Deductive_logic

title: Laws of Zero


text: User:JoshuaWalker

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:JoshuaWalker


text: User talk:JoshuaWalker

title: User talk:JoshuaWalker


text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Time management

Comments
Hey, You could put in something about Zimbardo's Time Perspective. Goodluck with it.Mlac 11:36, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

Heading casing
looks like you figured out your boxes, congrats!Yapp84 21:23, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Very interesting information - good research - Magnolia

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 10:37, 27 November 2011 (UTC)

-- Jtneill - Talk - c 06:18, 11 December 2011 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Kcchouette

 * 1) REDIRECT Talk:Kcchouette

title: User talk:Kcchouette


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User:Adityajoardar9

Aditya Joardar has been prominent member of Wikimedia organization, edited several articles in Wikipedia, Wikimedia and Wikiversity. Visit his websiteAditya joardar's official website

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title: File:CLTI.DiffEQ.1.A.20111105.pdf


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Category:Resources needing categories

List of resources believed to be uncategorized with. See also Special:UncategorizedPages for pages with no categories including this category. Both lists are mutually exclusive, as only one can be true for a resource.

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User talk:Kernoweger

Introduction to Cornish/Pronunciation
Hello. I have reversed the blanking of this page. If you decided that you didn't want it, the correct procedure is to put   at the top of the page so that a custodian will delete it. Hope this is useful.--Poetlister 18:27, 5 November 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kernoweger


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Spanish/Verbs/ampliar/Definition

extend, enlarge, broaden

title: Spanish/Verbs/ampliar/Definition


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User:Pdiddyjr

I am Pdiddyjr and I am found on all Wikimedia projects under this username. I am British and I live in South-East England. I am 13 years old and was born in 1998. Unlike some people, my birthday is not a school day. You can count on me, because my school is not a prep school. I am also a very clever person - if you were to weigh my brain, the scales would blow up!

title: User:Pdiddyjr


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User talk:Pdiddyjr

My talkpage is good as a help desk for this site. However, I will not tolerate the following on my talkpage:
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title: User talk:Pdiddyjr


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth

"The ultimate value of life depends upon awareness, and the power of contemplation rather than upon mere survival                                      ~Aristotle"

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Introduction
While the main focus of this chapter is on the possibilities of positive change following a traumatic event, it is important to begin with difficult reminder that traumatic events can produce negative outcomes and emotional distress. However, the question of whether recovery and personal growth are attainable following a traumatic event will be addressed in this chapter, and if the answer is yes - how can these be attained? The definition of trauma and the consequences it has on the emotional aspects of an individual is outlined below, along with some common reactions, and in more serious cases, disorders that may develop following a traumatic experience.

What is Trauma?
Trauma is defined as a deeply distressing or disturbing event that is experienced or witnessed by an individual. The word trauma is derived from a Greek work meaning ‘wound’. A great deal is known about the treatment for physical trauma – how to mend wounds, fight infections and undergo surgery ect but how do we go about treating the effects of psychological trauma? First, it is important to define what trauma is and the different facets it can occur (Harvard Mental Health Letter, 2003).

McCann & Pearlman (1990) define psychological trauma by following three criteria: The first criteria listed is to distinguish the difference between experiencing difficulties as a result of a traumatic event and experiencing difficulties when no traumatic event has occured. While generalised suffering is at times severe, there needs to be a clear definition in order to discuss relevant treatment for recovery from a traumatic event. Many of us will experience some form of trauma throughout our lifetime, however depending on the severity of the trauma and the surrounding circumstance the psychological trauma that remains will vary among individuals. In other words, it is not the trauma that will determine the psychological damage but the individual’s experience of the event (Jaffe, Segal & Flores, 2005). The traumatic event itself is not the primary focus when seeking treatment, rather it is the emotional aftermath. For example, recent research has revealed that psychological trauma can result from common occurrences such as the breakdown of a significant relationship, a minor car accident, or the loss of a job. On the other end of the psychological trauma can be a result of a more serious event such as war, natural disaster or abuse. Therefore, one person’s reaction to a traumatic event may differ to another person (Foa & Meadows, 1997).
 * It is sudden and unexpected
 * It exceeds the individuals perceived ability to meet its demands
 * Disrupts the individuals cognitive functioning and personal schemas

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Common reactions following a traumatic event
Individuals who experience a traumatic event typically go into a state of emotional shock and while there are common reactions to trauma each individual responds in their own way. The most common reaction to trauma is the most obvious emotion, and that is fear. Other common responses are:
 * Fear response – at the time of the event fear is usually the overwhelming emotion, this could be fear of being physically injured or even killed. For some, the initial fear to certain sights, smells or sounds associated to the event can persist for weeks, months or even years. These fears can become paralysing and greatly impact the individual physically, socially and emotionally.
 * Feelings of guilt – sometimes guilty feelings arise as a result of others being seriously harmed during the traumatic event (this is known as survivor’s guilt). The individual may have guilt present due to something they had to do in order to survive, or finally, feeling that the event may have been avoided if they ‘did’ something different.
 * Negative self-image – the view of one’s self is often affected after a traumatic event and low self esteem may be present as a result.
 * Depression – feeling a sense of sadness and/or loss in interest in previously enjoyable activities is common after a traumatic event (National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center).

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
According to the Diagnostic And Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2000), posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is the development of symptoms following exposure to a traumatic event. The individual experiences:

 * Intense fear
 * Helplessness or horror as a response to the traumatic event
 * Distressing recurrent and intrusive recollections of the event

These recollections may occur via flashbacks, in dreams or feeling as though the traumatic event was actually occurring again. PTSD symptoms result in avoidance behaviours and unbalanced physiological arousal and is characterised by overwhelming memories from the past and is essentially a dissociative phenomenon, due to a failure to integrate trauma into the declarative memory system. As a result of this, trauma can be continuously positioned at a sensory and somatic level – the term somatic means mind/body; so the trauma can be unconsciously triggered and physically re-experienced without conscious memories being present. This is why a dissociative state is linked with symptoms of PTSD and as a consequence the individual is constantly in a state of high arousal, which is extremely difficult for the individual to modulate both psychologically and biologically (De Zulueta, 2006).

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Therapeutic Interventions
Therapeutic interventions have been developed with the aim of assisting individuals who are experiencing emotional trauma. As each individual varies in their response to treatment there is a number of different treatment types listed below, having knowledge of various approaches available will allow the individual to employ the treatment method that best suits them. The treatments discussed in this section are all types of Cognitive Interventions and following this, types of talking therapy and somatic psychotherapy are discussed.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
Cognitive-Behavioural Treatments also known as CBT is an approach that is one of the most common and well established form of treatment for emotional trauma and PTSD. CBT is the process of reconstructing the thoughts of an individual with the aim of producing more a more positive view, while challenging any negative thoughts that are present. There are many different types of CBT and a couple of these will discuss below (Foe, 1997).

Psychoeducation
There is a common notion that ‘power is knowledge’ and this view can be applied to individuals who are in the process of overcoming their emotional trauma and reach their goal of growth and recovery. Harvey, Bryant & Tarrier (2003) apply this principle to treatment in an approach called Psycho-education, where the individual is provided with information about common symptoms following a traumatic event. This typically occurs during the initial treatment and is linked with psychological debriefing (which is discussed below). The primary aim of this approach is to assist the individual develop an understanding of their symptoms and to determine a foundation for treatment.

Exposure Therapy
Prolonged imagined exposure involves the individual to vividly imagine the trauma for long-lasting periods. The therapists assists the individual by providing a narrative of their traumatic experience, a typical exposure therapy session lasts for 50 minutes. Potential benefits from this approach are habituation for the individual, which is a process of desenstizing them to the traumatic event, this aims to decrease anxiety and fear associated with the trauma. Another primary aim is to define the trauma as a distinct event that is not suggestive of the world being a threatening or dangerous place (Harvey, Bryant & Tarrier, 2003).

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
Eye movement desentization is a treatment in which the individual is asked to imagine and distressing image that is associated with their traumatic event, along with any bodily sensations that are appropriate to the image. While holding this in their mind, the individual also follows with their eye, the therapist finger. This treatment is repeated until distressing aspects of the imagery are reduced and more positive cognitions emerge in relation to the trauma. Chemtob, Tolin, van der Kolk & Pitman (2000) have found eye movement desentization to be an effective form of treatment for emotional trauma and furthermore PTSD. However, efficacy depends upon the individual’s ability to clearly imagine one particular distressing component of the trauma as oppose to many different images at the one time.

Psychological Debreifing
There is a general consensus within society that talking about a problem will alleviate feelings of sadness or ‘pent’ up emotions but is there any scientific evidence behind this view? Bisson, McFarlane & Rose (2000) conducted research and has shown that psychological debriefing (PD), a type of talking therapy, is effective in treating emotional trauma. It is typically a single session crisis intervention that occurs soon after the traumatic event (usually within a few days). It aims to reduce and possibly prevent the individual experiencing unwanted recurrent memories, by verbally expressing internal feelings that have arisen because of the event. However, further analysis has shown that PD is not an indicator of preventing later diagnosis of PTSD. Although in most studies individuals felt a sense of relief and felt that debriefing was a positive to their current situation, therefore it is viewed as a valuable tool in alleviating the initial symptoms of emotional trauma.

Somatic Psychotherapies
Recent developments in effective treatment of emotional trauma include somatic psychotherapies. Remember, the term somatic means brain and body, somatic psychotherapies aim to draw on the mind and body together during treatment. The idea is that in order to change our body we need to engage the brain also – from how we think and feel to the neurobiological connections also. Somatic therapy is an approach that uses physical expressions to release the energy stored in the body following a trauma. The aim of this is to retune the neurological system into equilibrium. An example of this would be a person may re-enact the traumatic event and push their attacker away by forcefully pushing against a wall or a pillow. However, this treatment type requires the confrontation of intense emotions so it is important to find a therapist whom you feel a strong sense of trust and bond with (Linley & Joseph, 2005).

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Can a Traumatic Event Have a Positive Impact?
It is clear that traumatic events can produce many negative outcomes, but what about the possibility of a positive impact from negative events? This concept that 'gain can result from a loss' is fairly new to the field of scientific psychology, however historically there has been vast amounts of literature and philosophies that has conveyed the idea that personal gain is to be found in suffering (Linley, 2003). This idea is central to the existential-humanistic tradition of psychology or positive psychology – wherein the focus is more on understanding and enhancing psychological well-being as well as alleviating distress and maladaptive functioning, the latter known for me traditional psychology (Joseph & Linley 2008).

Lets take a closer look at this concept with regards to scientific research. Tedeschi & Calhoun (1996) produced interesting evidence revealing that individuals experience a positive change in self perception following a traumatic experience, the study showed that some burn victims believed their experience occurred to make them better people. A striking statistic of eighty-three percentage of survivors of a sunken ship claimed they felt more experienced about life after the event. Further studies into the positive outcomes from those who have experienced trauma through combat reported that individuals felt a sense of comradeship, enhanced coping skills and appreciation of life.

Recovery and growth is not something is an easy process, it takes courage and resilience and usually will require the help of a professional, but it most defiantly is achievable. According to Joseph & Linley (2005) individuals can experience a process called negative accommodation wherein their worldview fundamentally changes after the traumatic event and as a result a self-destructive worldview can evolve. If this occurs, it can be unlearned and replaced with positive accommodation which is a process of reconfiguring the thoughts and view that the individual holds post traumatic experience. This can be achieved by employing the cognitive behavioural interventions that were discussed earlier in the chapter.

Postraumatic Growth
Tedeschi & Calhoun (2010) are viewed as the pioneers to the research of posttraumatic growth. They have defined the term posttraumatic growth as an individual’s experience of considerable positive change arising from the struggle with a traumatic event. The research they have conducted together with the already existing literature has revealed that the following changes can occur as a result of posttraumatic growth:

 * Increased perception of competence and self-reliance
 * Enhanced acceptance of one's vulnerability and negative emotional experiences
 * Improved relationships with significant others
 * Increased compassion and empathy for others
 * Greater efforts directed at improving relationships
 * Increased appreciation of own existence
 * Greater appreciation for life
 * Positive changes in one's priorities
 * Stronger religious/spiritual beliefs
 * Greater personal intimacy with God
 * Greater sense of control and security through belief in God
 * Greater meaning about life and suffering through religion

It is not surprising that certain kinds of personal qualities such as, optimism and openness to experience could increase the likelihood of an individual to engage in some form of posttraumatic growth. However, the presence of these qualities is not imperative for traumatic growth to occur. What is vital to the process is the degree to which the individual cognitively connects to aspects of the previous event, along with the social environment of the individual. Tadeschi & Calhcoun (2009) argue that cognitive awareness is fundamental to posttraumatic growth. This hypothesis is proven in a number of studies, in particular, a study by Bower, Kemeny, Taylor & Fahey (1998) of bereaved HIV positive men found an explicit link between purposeful, repetitive cognitive processing and experiences of personal growth. Similar results were revealed with a study of university students who documented their thoughts and feelings in a journal as well as working on cognitively reconstructing their emotional aspects of the traumas they were coping with (Ullrich & Lutgendorf, 2002). Cadell & Regehr (2003) reviewed numerous studies examining the importance of social support, and the effects it has on assisting individuals to combat the symptoms of a traumatic event. If the individual who is experiencing emotional trauma surrounds themselves with people whom they trust and feel comfortable disclosing to, they are more likely to engage with the available social support. Typically individuals who have encountered trauma, seek to restore equilibrium in their life, and they do this by a process of revaluation and reflection. This process of meaning-making following a trauma can result in personal growth and wisdom.

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Summary
Tedeschi & Calhoun (2004) put it simply with the statement that out of loss there can be a gain. Overall these gains are generally reported in areas of increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships and awareness of increased personal strength. Numerous studies have found that posttraumatic growth is possible that is, with the aid of certain treatments. These treatments include, CBT, psycho education, exposure therapy, eye movement desensitization, psychological debriefing and somatic psychotherapies. Individuals who possess certain personal qualities such as resilience, courage and optimism are at an advantage of achieving posttraumatic growth; however it is not necessary in order to achieve growth if an individual does not already have these qualities Tadeschi & Calhcoun (2009). Social support has also been found to increase the chance of posttraumatic growth Cadell & Regehr (2003) conducted a meta-anaylisis that revealed positive interpersonal relationships assist the individual in the process of posttraumatic growth.

While the concept of posttraumatic growth is relatively new to the field of psychology, the philosophies behind it have been around for centuries, much like much like the message of the symbol of the yin-yang that from a negative there can be a positive and vice versa. However, posttraumatic growth is an area that is now gaining more scientific interest and is being studied more abundantly than in the past – this will allow individuals to know more about posttraumatic growth and how it can be achieved. Remember that each individual reactions differ to a traumatic event, and one treatment that may work for someone may not work for another. It is important to keep this in mind, and find the best method of therapy that suits you.

Revisit the 'key questions' listed at the beginning of the chapter - now that you have read the chapter have a go at answering them.

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Related book chapters

 * Motivation_and_emotion/Book/Growth_through_adversity
 * Motivation_and_emotion/Book/Handling_stress
 * Motivation_and_emotion/Book/Managing_life_change

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text:
Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Fear

Comments
Hey D, Nice to see a start! I look forward to seeing this develop! 58.169.10.222 02:57, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

What an interesting topic - and I loved the ghost logo at the top. This should be a topic that is introduced at both primary & high schools. You should develop this further and get it published - and collaborate with a graphic artist to include a children's workbook - very well done - Magnolia

Rfoster 02:25, 7 December 2011 (UTC)


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Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence in children

Overview
This chapter looks at the development of emotional intelligence and understanding in children (Birth-12years). Going through the development from a baby whose emotional ability ends with crying to a middle child who is able to understand complex emotions, how they should be applied in social setting and have the ability to read the emotion in someone’s face even if they are not intending to show it.

Infancy (Birth to 2yo)
Newly born infants have a highly restricted range of emotions which they are able to utilise. Wolff (1969) described infants as having only cries of pain and anger. However over the first year of life versatility and emotional expressiveness begin to develop rapidly. As infants develop they not only gain versatility in emotional expressiveness but they also learn how to regulate and gain control over their own emotions. By six months infants show some capacity to limit emotional upset or the onset of negative emotions by turning their face away from the adverse stimulus or sucking on objects in order to calm themselves (Mangelsdorf, Shapiro & Marzoff, 1995)

In order to study the development of infant’s emotional repertoire, Carroll Izard and colleagues (1995) took video tapes of infants ranging in age from 2 months to 9 months as they were being exposed to either positive or negative emotion provoking situations such as being reunited with their mother after a separation, watching a jack in the box pop out unexpectedly or having a toy rudely snatched away. Izard observed clear differences between in the types of facial expressions between the situations. Along with this, clear baby to baby similarities were seen when given the same stimulus, showing that different emotions were being evoked by each event. To establish how closely the infant’s facial expressions matched well known emotional states, Izard invited adult judges who did not know the babies to view the recordings of the baby’s facial expression without being given any information about the causal event. The adults were consistently able to identify anger, interest, sadness, disgust and joy on infants as young as two months old. Infants aged 7 months and over are able to display fear consistently. By the second year of life more complex emotions such as shame and embarrassment will start to display along with the very first signs of emotional self- awareness.

Often overlooked in the emotional development of infants in the first year of life is their first real emotional relationship, their attachment to their main caregiver (usually the mother). This relational bond is quite possibly the most important relationship of all as it sets the foundations for positive forward emotional development. The foundations that are laid by this growth of mutual love and closeness exert a strong base in which the infants feel secure about his or her surroundings and are able to explore the world around them and form a healthy emotional bank. Research by Brazelton (1984) demonstrated the emotionally security in initial attachment which allows the infant to develop a sound emotional spectrum. New born infants who were in a state of emotional distress after being left in a room by their mother were played recordings of pleasant sounds such as a piece of soft orchestral music, a soft woman’s voice reading poetry, a flute song or a bird singing. Neonates consistently preferred the sound of the woman’s voice even though it was not their mothers. The sound of the woman’s voice was shown to sooth heart rate, relax tense muscle and diminish crying, returning the infant to a calm emotional state more effectively than the other so.

 * Summary

Preschool (2-6yo)
From age two to six children gain increasing control over their feelings, along with the ability to regulate new emotions such as fear and sadness. They begin to gain ability to stem impatience and the ability to wait quietly and pay attention when necessary (Eisenburg et al., 2000). These skills are vital parts of the preschool/kindergarten aged child who needs to have the ability to control outburst of anger and tears as well as sit quietly and pay attention. The school environment is key to the development of emotional understanding during this age period. Children learn to not only control their own emotions, but to identify emotions of others from facial expressions as well as developing an understanding as to what may have cause the emotion in the first place ie. A school yard dispute. Empathy is one of the new emotions that is displayed in this period with children beginning to show comfort to a friend in distress weather in the playground or the class room.

Perhaps the most important development during this period which aids in emotional development is the acquisition of language. As the child grows in their conversational ability vocabulary is increased. This allows the child to express their emotional states. As well as this their continual conversations with peers and family in different environment enables them to understand, through conversation what emotion their friends are feeling, why they are feeling that way and how they can help. Through this they gain valuable insight into the cycle of emotions and how they start, play out and become remedied.

When family members converse about their feelings children gain valuable insights into the emotions of others. Judith Dunn (1996) found that 3-year old who came from families where emotional expressiveness was common displayed a better understanding of their ‘friends’ emotions than those whose families were less expressive. They were also better at resolving disputes through showing a higher emotional intelligence than their peers and clearly demonstrating a better formed understanding of the causes and consequences of positive and negative emotions. Pre-schoolers develop an awareness of the links between emotion and desire from around the age of three (Wellman, 1993). This enables them to understand and predict that if a person’s desires are met, that person will feel emotionally gratified or that desires can become frustrations if not met and cause negative emotions such as anger, sadness and disappointment. This was demonstrated by Peterson & Slaughter (2003) when showing children a cartoon scenario of o child of similar age falling into water or not getting the desired drink, the children were able to attribute the cartoon figure as being sad or disappointed even if it is not the emotion that they would feel in the same scenario.

The time period between two and six builds greatly on the foundations of parental attachment during the baby stage. Many children exit this stage with the ability not only to understand emotions of their own or to understand emotions of others but with the ability to converse with their peers and adults about emotions.

 * Summary

Middle childhood (6-12yo)
Emotional competency is often used to refer to this period. Children become increasingly skilled at understanding their own and others emotions. They gain further ability to express subtle emotions, self-regulate inner feeling and mood as well as conforming to the social norms for displays of emotion. Carolyn Saarni (1999) proposed that in this period the development of a well-rounded ability to experience, understand and express both positive and negative emotions requires a set of eight skills.

 * 1) Awareness of one’s own emotional state
 * 2) Perception of the emotional state of others
 * 3) Acquisition of a vocabulary of emotional terms
 * 4) The capacity for empathic involvement in emotional experiences
 * 5) A capacity to self-regulate and cope with strong negative feelings
 * 6) Awareness for the need of emotional display management, which may include control and concealment in social situations.
 * 7) Awareness of the role played by positive and negative emotions in social relationships
 * 8) Emotional self-acceptance and self-efficacy

Along with this set of skills it has been shown that the most noticeable change in emotional development comes within social interactions, with specific changes to fear and anger.

Children in this period may not erupt in to anger of throw a tantrum as often as seen in the younger years however bursts of anger tend to be more potent and last longer. An increased emotional perception causes children to pick up very subtle and indirect provocations which would not affect a younger child with less perceptive ability. For example a small child is aware of direct bullying but is unable to pick up on a sarcastic tone of voice or an implied put down which requires a higher emotional and social understanding (Winner, 1988). With this skill comes the ability for a child to become angry about an injustice that has been committed toward someone other than themselves, or may even show general outrage at issues such as animal cruelty or social inequality.

Ken Rotenburg (1985) studied anger in children aged 6 to 12 years of age by asking them to give a detailed account of the last time they lost their temper. He found that many of the children reported an incidence where their anger was reactive rather than proactive and most often regarded an outburst in response to someone else’s hostility or toward the physical environment. The three most common triggers were physical attack, verbal insult and the blocking of the child’s important goal. Results were consistent between age groups with the only difference being that children over the age of eight were able to reliable distinguish between accidental and intentional causes of harm in a conflict situation. This is one of the main reasons why older children are able to restrict their anger, they understand that not all harm is intentional and are able to decide to react to a situation, whereas smaller children cannot perceive this difference and become angry even if there were no intentions of harm or conflict. It is in this stage of development that the first true signs of a difference between the sexes appear. Carol Gilligan (1982) conducted many in depth interviews with girls in boarding schools and found that they attributed their feeling of injustice to not being listened to. They referred to many instances where they felt they had been unfairly dominated by someone in a social conversational on a topic that they cared about, or ignored when they were allowed to finally speak. Gilligan suggested that this develops into a primarily female source of anger with the male equivalent being physical contact.

Fear change and develop as children mature. Many fears as an infant such as loud noises are no longer as intense in middle childhood; however fears which require imagination such as scenarios involving ghosts or potential bad experiences become more common due to an increased cognitive capacity which can consider hypothetical possibilities. Results below show main fear concerns by middle aged children (king et al, 1989).

 * 1) Not being able to brush your teeth (63%)
 * 2) Being hit by a car (62%)
 * 3) Earthquakes (59%)
 * 4) A burglar in the house (48%)
 * 5) Snakes (41%)
 * 6) Death or dead people (39%)

A further study brought to light differences between the sexes (Spence & McCathie, 1993). A longitudinal study was under taken with both boys and girls. Initialy boy reported fewer fears than their female peers and the ones they did suffer to be less intense. After two years the children were interviewed and fears which displayed the largest degrease were darkness, getting sick and parental punishment. Boys were less fearful of strangers and physical injury, girls remained just as fearful as before. Although fear was decreased, those who originally scored highest on fearful events still did the same, showing a clear difference between the situational emotional development of some children versus others. In general terms fear as an emotion decreases with age, with the exception of phibias due to the child better understanding the world around them and having the ability to self-regulate their emotional state.

 * Summary


text:
Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Social support and achievement

Introduction
Social support may be defined as the persons or networks of people used regularly to assist in achievement of goals. It is beneficial to realise that our social networks have an influence in our lives either in a positive or negative way. Social support is essential if a person is to achieve their set goals. Social support can be used to achieve goals set in different aspects of life. This may include issues or goals related to psychology, sports, public health, learning, social health, risk management, medicine, and nursing. Improvements of the lifestyles of people have been one of the most vexing problems in society. Among the many attempts aimed at improving human life, social support has been proven one of the most instrumental approaches. Social support emphasises on strengthening social relationships among different persons of varying ages. It proposes that people will live happier lives in an environment where they are recognised. It also proposes that people will lead more fulfilling lives if they live in a society where their social and emotional needs are nurtured. This chapter will look at how social support can be used to help persons achieve their goals.

Discussion
The importance of social support in achieving life goals rests on claims that people who experience more social support achieve their goals better than those who lack social support. The argument originates from a developing recognition of the problems that most people both young and old face while trying to achieve their goals and the value of social relations in the process. Social support generates motivation for persons to achieve by building self-confidence and making goal achievement appear attainable. Those offering social support act as role models in communicating the importance of social support and showing people how goals can be achieved. Social support also creates a sense of confidence and mental safety that allows people to take risks, accept errors, ask for assistance, and accept failure. In social support, there are three different levels or distinct subtypes identifiable: the perception of social support by the recipient, the supportive action they receive, and the level of integration a person experiences with in a social network. These three levels lead to three types of social support namely perceived, enacted, and socially integrated support. In perceived support, the recipient expects that social support providers will deliver sufficient help in times of need. Enacted support involves supportive actions such as guidance while socially integrated support is determined by the degree at which the a person is linked to the members of a social network. Family relations, acquaintances, and membership in organizations are what lead to socially integrated support. It is, however, surprising that the three types of social support are weakly related to one another. Each has distinct patterns of connections in health, personality, and individual relationships (Barrera, 1986; Uchino, 2009). For instance, perceived support is associated with better psychological health while socially integrated support is associated with outcomes in physical well being such as mortality. On the other hand, enacted support is associated with poor psychological health (Bolger, Zuckerman & Kessler, 2000).

Social support and stress buffering
Research has shown that social support shields persons from dangerous effects of traumatic life events such as the death of a partner or job loss. The relationship between events and poor psychological or bodily health is weaker for persons with high social support than for persons with low social support. This weak relationship between stress and wellbeing for people with maximum social support is often taken to mean that social support has shielded persons from stress effects. Research has, however, shown that the ability of social support to buffer stress is more realised in perceived support than in enacted or socially integrated support (Cohen & Wills, 1985), (Barrera, 1986).

Social Support and Health
Social support has been constantly linked with psychological and physical health. The health of persons offered with high social support is usually better compared to the health of those offered with minimal or no social support. In mental health, persons offered with low or no social support show more sub-clinical signs of hopelessness and anxiety compared to those offered with social support of high degree (Cohen & Wills, 1985), (Barrera, 1986). Additionally, people with minimal social support have more rates of serious psychological disorders compared to those with high levels of social support. Some of these psychological disorders include panic, social phobia, dysphemism and eating disorders (Lakey & Cronin, 2008). Research supports the importance of social support by indicating that among people infected with schizophrenia, those offered minimal social support usually show more symptoms (Norman et al., 2005). Additionally, persons having low social support are more prone to committing suicide, alcoholism, and drug abuse (Stice, Barrera & Chassin, 1998; Wills & Cleary, 1996). In physical health, those with low social support die sooner than those with a high level social support (Uchino, 2006).

Social Support and Adolescence
Teenagers require strong social support to help them maximise their abilities and attain their goals. As teenagers age, they have to deal with many life changes such as the onset of puberty, physical changes, dress codes, introduction into drugs, sexual exploration, and finally the balancing of lines between adhering to rules and exploration of personalities (Torgrud & et al., 2004). Challenges of this number are hard to cope with, and social support has been found to be instrumental in helping teenagers reduce stress levels as well as encourage them to achieve their set goals, and plan (Stice, & et al., 2002)

Social Support and Disease Prevention
Social support helps in preventing diseases by modifying the supportive features of social environments. Theoretically social support intervention can be more cost effective than treating diseases after they occur. Gottlieb states that if interventions are focused on creating new support systems, strengthening the existing ones or training people in general social skills, then this would immensely help in strengthening their own support systems (Gottlieb, 1978). Researchers note that there is a positive correleation between health and well being though others such as Kiesler have raised doubt about the claims. Kiesler argues that the research carried out in this field is not conclusive enough to have social support being used in the formulation of health policies (Kiesler B., & .et al., 1981). However, research has shown to some extent social support can be instrumental in preventing diseases such as hypertension and depression. People who have strong social support systems are claimed to have a lower risk of suffering from hypertension or depression than those who lack it.

Social Support and Personality Improvement
Research that has been carried out on the relationship between social support and health is mostly correlational. From the research on social support and personality, two basic questions arise: are there any effects of social support on matters of health beyond effects of stable differences in sociability, and is personality influential in the role, development, and maintenance of social support. The first question seeks to explore the possibility of social support being merely an alternative for personal factors for instance social anxiety and social skills. According to Heller, there is a possibility that social competence influences both support levels and well-being. He continues to say that social competence also influences feelings of personal control, social anxiety, and introversion- extraversion (Heller, 1990).

Social support has been attributed to helping people suffering from social anxiety. People suffering from this condition are referred to social support programs that are designed to control it and help these people function in society in a normal way. There are, however, those who have doubt on the effectiveness of using social support to treat or manage these conditions. Kiesler argues that the problems need to be solved before social support strategies are employed. He states that if the relationship between support and health were attributable to influences of personality on both health and support only then social support intervention would be fruitless (Kiesler B., & .et al., 1981). Though personality may offer a better explanation than support in certain situations, there has been consensus that personality is not accountable to all sources and functions of social support. Research carried out shows that there are relations between support and well-being on some functions, but not others. This relationship depends on population, and the circumstances (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Seeman, 1984). For the second question raised on whether personality plays a role in determining support levels, it would be wrong to make assumptions that the availability of support is determined solely by the social surroundings. Personality factors that are associated with sociability must be considered and play a crucial role in development of social networks in view of support availability maintenance and mobilization of support (Heller & Swindle, 1983). In summation, personality factors are vital in the development of a person’s personality. People in strong support groups will tend to have more postively adapted personalities than those who lack social support.

Social support and Recovery from Diseases (Illness)
The relationship between social support and recovery from physical illness may be viewed based on how support affects the health behavior and or the mobilization of the immune system. The information a person receives from others about proper health care and managing illnesses may have an influence on perceived and actual ability of a person to make conscious health related decisions. This may include non-professional patient care, which may have a direct impact on the well-being of the patient and information received from peers may be used to make decisions on complying with medical regimens and performance of health care behaviors. Social support has also been claimed to help improve the immune system of a person. This is achieved by having a feeling of belonging, elevated sense of worth, and security engendered by social support (Jemmot & Locke, 1984). The support induced by elevations in self esteem, the ability to cope, and motivation to get well have been claimed to help in mental health recovery by influencing the emotional and cognitive states associated with the disorder or by increasing compliance with medical regimens (Kiecolt-Glaser & et al., 2002). It is likely that the role of social support in both etiology and recovery are, to some degree, similarly mediated. On both cases, support may influence health through the promotion of self-care and immunologic competence. Future work on how support can help achieve the goals of recovery from disease should be structured or focus on these mediators and on the emotional and psychological states that trigger these mechanisms. This work should also recognise that support is a complex concept that can only be understood when research is designed to investigate specific conceptions of support that are theoretically linked to the process under consideration.

Social Support and Learning
Social support is necessary in psychological learning since it eases the clients understanding of certain disorders and their role in health maintenance. There are specific learning styles that help clients in poor health to discover their responsibilities and thereby lessening the apprehension and uncertainty that often goes together with a therapeutic regime. Research shows that individual behavior has an effect on the inspiration of people to take on that specific behavior (Lakey, 2010). People wish to evade adverse consequences while desiring promising ones. If one anticipates a positive consequence from a behavior or believes that there is a high possibility of a positive result, then the chances of that person engaging in that behavior are very high. Since this behavior is reinforced with promising outcomes, then this makes a person more likely to repeat that behavior. Social support and learning in psychology is determined by both psychological and environmental factors. Social learning in psychology outlines three conditions for persons to learn and model their actions. These include attention, maintenance, reproduction, and motivation (Lakey, 2010).

Social Support theories linked to Health
Several theories have been proposed to explain the effects of social support in the field of health. One of these theories explains how social support helps persons to deal with stressing occasions, the other explains how it can be used to sustain wellbeing, and the last theory explains how it can become part of a changing personality profile all through a person’s life. The central theory is stress and coping social support theory, which tries to explain the buffering effect in stress and social support (Cohen & Wills, 1985). This theory assumes that social support shields people from adverse health effects of traumatic events by influencing how they reason and deal with these events. According to this theory, activities are only stressful if people are pessimistic and cope with the events inefficiently. Coping in this theory comprises of planned conscious activities such as relaxation. The theory is evident in researches dealing with the effect of stress buffering on social support. The major drawback facing the theory is that it cannot be applied to enacted support since this support does not lead to better health effects (Barrera, 1986; Uchino, 2009).

In Life span theory, Uchino tries to explain the trait-like feature that links social support to physical health (Uchino, 2009). The theory asserts that social support grows all through a person’s life span, especially in childhood connection with parents. According to this theory, social support grows in tandem with individual characteristics such as low aggression, low neuroticism, and high hopefulness as well as social and adaptive skills. When brought together, support and other personality effects influence health by improving health practices such as weight management and avoiding health related stressors such as divorce. The theory is evident in that perceived support comprises of individual traits and is connected to adaptive personality features and connection experiences (Lakey, 2010), (Uchino, 2009).

The last theory is the regulation theory, which focuses on the relational aspect of alleged support and explains the effects of perceived support in mental health (Lakey & Orehek, 2011). Perceived support is relational, and research shows that there is a weak relationship between this support and enacted support. This means that the relationship between perceived social support and psychological health is based on other procedures besides stress and the ability to cope. It is thus hypothesised that people control their sentiments through ordinary discussions and shared events. This regulation is considered relational since the providers, discussion topics and actions that help control emotions are an aspect of personal taste(Lakey & Orehek 2011), (Lakey, 2010).

Summary
In this chapter, we examined the role of social support in goal achievement. We found that people live happy lives when they experience high levels of social support. Our findings suggest that when people seek to improve their lives, then they should not overlook social support. A multiple level of social support, that is, support from different persons, is necessary in goal achievement. This is because those with only one source of social support tend to feel unsupported when their social supporters are out of their reach.


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