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Cultural Encounters/Leisure time

INTRODUCTION: RECREATIONAL SPORTS AND LEISURE TIME
''He who seeks rest finds boredom. He who seeks work finds rest.''

Dylan Thomas

Leisure time is universal, something that every human being needs and seeks. Hobbies, activities and interests all keep us from the boredom that well known Welsh poet Dylan Thomas outlined above. We will discuss the leisure time differences and similarities between five European nations.Even though we can generalise and stereotype on a national basis, leisure time is quite different in terms of culture.

Our goal is to see how the leisure time habits vary between different European countries, primarily focusing on Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia. In order to confirm what some might think as obvious.

For the survey, the majority of the people questioned were university students aged 18-25, with quite a homogeneous social and economic background. Despite this, it formed a good basis for our research, thus providing us with some in depth answers. Combining the survey results with national statistics and academic theories, we have reached some conclusions which are outlined in each of the topics below.

THE UBIQUITY OF SPORTS AND OTHER LEISURE ACTIVITIES IN THE TARGET COUNTRIES
To broaden our knowledge of sports tendencies in the five countries, we must first learn what the attitude of the people is towards it and the level of its popularity in the target country. Using Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia as the countries to be compared and contrasted, we found some interesting correlations between nations.

All the countries are interested in modern sports, whereas in Ireland and the UK traditional sports are more popular, which contributes to the preservation of their national identities and values. This relates back to the theory of essentialism, in which culture is perceived as a small, individual and unique unit in a nation. Culture is viewed as an entity and has features necessary for the construction of identity. This can be seen in the cases of Slovenia and Croatia, whose successful sports people are helping to contribute to a national pride and identity.

Each of the countries also had their own individual results which were interesting. Although Croatia is a relatively small country, it has respectable results in various championships, and sports are a very popular leisure time. Although football is by far the most popular sport, other sports are also gaining in popularity. Sports in which Croatian teams achieve good results, like handball, water polo and tennis are contributing to their rise. This is largely seen in the success in these sports at international competitions and in the Olympics.

Similarly to Croatia, the success of the Slovenian national teams is helping to create an identity on an international level. The majority of them considered basketball and skiing to be the most popular sports in Slovenia, with the most popular being football. Half of the participants claimed that hockey has become one of the four most practiced sports in Slovenia, especially thanks to Anže Kopitar whose remarkable achievements have put Slovenia on the map.

Germany is quite a versatile country concerning sports, with handball, tennis, cycling and basketball ranking highest according to popularity. Nearly 28 million Germans are active members in at least one sport club, including most those with the above-mentioned activities. In general, leisure activities prove to be beneficial for the German economy.

In Portugal, indoor sports are preferred. The most popular sports in Portugal are indoor soccer and indoor hockey in roller blades. Following are sports like tennis, handball and volleyball. Beach volleyball and surfing are particularly popular since Portugal has a big coastal area. Among the practiced sports are swimming, cycling, athletics, golf and gymnastics.

In Ireland, the traditional sports, hurling and Gaelic football, are still very popular. But also rugby and soccer. Some differences included sports such as horse riding, golf and boxing.

INVESTIGATING THE MOST PRACTICED AND PREFERRED SPORTSIn
In all the countries people practice recreational sports equally, but there are some differences when it comes to the selection of sports. Normally, according to the popularity of sports we can see which sports are practiced the most. In Croatia, Germany and Slovenia many people practice handball, tennis and basketball. Slovenians, Germans and Portuguese enjoy individual activities as well, such as jogging, swimming, fitness and walking. In Germany, dancing might also be considered a very popular sports activity people tend to engage in. The Irish and British practice traditional sports that were already mentioned, namely Gaelic football in Ireland, rugby in Wales and shinty in Scotland.

Croatians are passionate about their national teams, and they are active sport fans. They participate in sport activities in their leisure time, both individually and in groups. According to our survey football and basketball are the most popular sports that Croatians enjoy in their free time. Popularity of tennis and kickboxing is also increasing rapidly, mostly because young Croatian athletes have become successful in World and European kickboxing.

From the Slovenian perspective, eleven respondents of different ages consider jogging and hiking the most practiced and preferred sports thanks to numerous natural amenities. Many of them also mentioned the Path of Remembrance and Comradeship, a popular recreational walkway in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. Five of those surveyed practice swimming, football and tennis equally, depending on the time of the year. Summer provides Slovenians with the opportunity to go swimming and play volleyball either on the seaside or indoors. According to an established survey carried out in Slovenia ("How is the time?"), the balance between the genders is relatively small. Women dedicate 10% of their free time to sports and exercise, and men devote 11% of their free time to various sports activities, showing equality between the sexes.

In Portugal, swimming, playing football and volleyball are among the most preferred and practiced sports. There are also a lot of people that like to do things like dancing, surfing, playing badminton and tennis, jogging, cycling and also some combat sports like 	kickboxing, and of course playing football, especially among teenagers and/or work colleagues.

From the Irish perspective, the survey results showed that the most practiced and preferred sports were again the Gaelic games, in particular Gaelic football. Rugby came in a close second, perhaps due to the recent successes of the Irish Rugby team on the international rugby scene, in particular the Six Nations Cup ("Ireland Statistics").

DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN ACTIVE OR SEDENTARY LIFESTYLES
Having examined our unique survey, we have noticed the nations differ considerably by ranging from extremely active to somewhat sedentary lifestyles.

In Slovenia, out of thirty people surveyed, eleven of them have shown they lead a mixed lifestyle, neither too active nor too sedentary. Nine of them opted for the quite active lifestyle, here including sports, whereas five of them prefer to be quite sedentary. The sedentary lifestyle varies from reading, writing poetry, watching television, surfing on the Internet, composing and listening to music, playing video games and drawing. Only two of them have expressed their deep interest in their active lives, thus believing themselves to be deeply active and leading a healthy lifestyle. However, three respondents have shown no interest in spending their pastime in an active manner, and prefer to spend it in a more passive way by simply staying indoors.

Although Croatians are very fond of sports and physical activities, their leisure time is mostly a mixture of active and sedentary time. Leisure time in Croatia is usually dedicated to spending time with their family, which leaves little time for physical activities.

As far as Germans are concerned, they seem to engage more in active rather than sedentary activities. On average, Germans practice sports at least once a week, e.g. jogging and cycling. There is, however, the concern that the “modern-day work hours mean families have increasingly less free time to spend together, so the little free time that exists will be spent at home” (Wozny, 2009). This can, again, be confirmed by the fact that 50% of all German informants consider themselves as being neither very active, nor very sedentary as regards their leisure time activities, i.e. they pursue a mixture of active activities (e.g. jogging) and sedentary ones (e.g. watching TV).

In terms of Irish activity levels, it seems that the Irish people lead a mixed to inactive lifestyle. Out of fourteen people surveyed, six said they were quite sedentary, six said they were a mix, and only two said they were quite active. The active hobbies included walking and jogging, while many of the sedentary answers included reading, playing video games and watching TV. Most notably, the survey showed a decline in the interest of the Gaelic games, which had previously been shown to be popular within the country.

In Portugal, those surveyed said they were neither too active nor too sedentary. The next popular result was quite sedentary, since the Portuguese stereotype is being quite lazy. Even though it is just a stereotype, the survey showed that they tend to prefer more quiet activities, such as reading, playing and listening to music, watching TV and using the computer. Among the activities performed by people who are the most active are jogging, swimming, going to the gym, playing football and cycling.

STEREOTYPICAL AND TRADITIONAL ACTIVITIES
Through the research we made, it was possible to see correlations between traditional activities from each country and cultural identities. Using Ireland as a case study, Hofstede’s research shows that by scoring 43 in the Long Term Orientation Category, Ireland is quite a “short term oriented society which drives a great respect for history and tradition”, so it is unsurprising that the survey showed the Irish still engaged in traditional activities such as Irish music and hurling ("What about Ireland?").

According to the respondents of the survey, drinking (alcohol) and hanging out with friends are the most typical activities performed by Irish people, with eleven out of fourteen people mentioning them in their answers. A further ten out of fourteen people said traditional Irish dance and music were also typical of the country. Gaelic games made an appearance, though not as popular as the music and dance. The more interesting answers included one who said farming and another who said going to mass, which would have been part of the traditional Irish lifestyle.

As for Germans, they regard several activities as being stereotypical of their own country. Among these are football, cooking, watching TV, as well as drinking beer. Interestingly, Germans, in general, tend to participate in only a few of them, e.g. cooking as well as watching and playing football. Roughly one third of all informants do not take part in stereotypical activities at all.

Croatians have football as one of its most stereotypical and popular activities. They also tend to take part in various competitions and socialise with their friends, including drinking. Previous research showed that these stereotypes are not necessarily correct, since football, although still very much popular, is slowly giving ground to a more sedentary lifestyle. Among those sedentary activities are drinking and hanging out with friends, watching football on TV and eating fast food.

As far as Slovenians’ stereotypical and traditional activities are concerned, they tend to pursue the hobbies that interest them the most. Our survey has shown that the leisure time differs significantly between men and women. On the one hand, almost half female respondents take up cooking and baking, only for pleasure. The other female respondents indulge in gardening, reading books and drinking coffee, and also in shopping and gossiping. On the other hand, most male participants either go to the gym or go jogging while listening to relaxing music. Half claim that it is very common for them to hang out with friends, especially in the evenings, when the consumption of the alcohol is also present. According to Eurostats' statistics, the amount of time devoted to watching TV is largely the same for both men and women. Reading does not seem to be that popular since women spend only 9% of their time on it and men only 7%. Another popular leisure time activity is socialising, to which women devote 21% of their time while men devote 18% of theirs. Women spend 11% of their free time resting and men spend only 12% ("How is the time?").

As for Portugal, the stereotypical activities tend to depend on location, either urban or rural areas. Portuguese are known to be very traditional, as proved by Hofstede's theory ("What about Portugal?"). The most important activities are cooking typical Portuguese food, going to the beach and surfing. Some common activities are fishing, listening to music, playing sports, eating fish and snails, playing computer and video games, singing and listening to Fado (traditional Portuguese music), among others. From this list, activities that people actually tend to do are cooking, reading, listening to music, going to the countryside, going to the beach and surfing, going to different types cultural activities and socialising.

CULTURAL EVENTS AND INDULGENCE FACTORS
We focused on the most prominent cultural events of our native countries (Croatia, Slovenia, Portugal, Ireland, and Germany) in order to outline some universal features when it comes to how we spend our leisure time. As a framework of reference we used the Hofstede country comparison which also includes the indulgence factor. “This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised.” According to this, cultures can either be portrayed as indulgent or restrained. While there are many similarities from one country to the next, the indulgence scores vary to a certain extent.

INMUSIC
INmusic festival is Croatia's biggest international open-air festival. It started in 2006 and is held in Zagreb annually. It takes place on Youth Island in the middle of Zagreb's Lake Jarun attracting young people from Croatia as well as the rest of the world. It includes a number of stages with internationally renowned indie rock, heavy metal and electronic artists. Some of those artists are: Arctic Monkeys, Franz Ferdinand, Nick Cave, Lilly Allen, Arcade Fire, Moby, Billy Idol, Iggy and The Stooges. The festival lasts for two to three days and besides the music programme offers its visitors accommodation in the fully equipped festival camp. In past few years INmusic festival has became one of the most significant cultural events in Croatia and has helped to put Zagreb on the map of cities that host the best summer festivals in Europe. National Geographic Traveler listed INmusic among the three world's must-see music festivals and Huffington Post listed INmusic festival among the 10 must- visit world music festivals.

SPANCIRFEST
Spancirfest is a street festival that is held annually in Croatia's city of Varazdin. It begins at the end of August and lasts for ten days. During these days the city's inner circle is filled with concert stages and street performers from all over the world. The festival itself consists of several smaller events like The Comedy festival, Children's plays, classical music, Jazz festival, puppet plays. It includes performances from acrobats, jugglers and street musicians. The goal of the festival is that the visitors themselves become its active pariticipants, and from there derives the second name of the festival – The festival of good vibrations. In the last sixteen years Spancirfest has become one of the most important summer events in Croatia and a prime cultural touristic brand of ancient city of Varazdin and its region. It attracts around 200,000 visitors each year.

CEST IS D'BEST
Cest is d'Best is an international street festival during which the streets of downtown Zagreb are transformed into a world of street theatre and circus. For five days performers including clowns, street musicians, acrobats, jugglers, fire eaters, mime artists, and magicians from all over the world occupy every inch of the city. The festival was started in 1996 by a Croatian street band called Kings of the Street with an aim of creating a festival that "preserves Zagreb’s identity, enlivens city streets and squares, bringing them back charm and optimism. It erases the borders between the established forms of culture and alternative culture, brings closer all generations of citizens through various cultural preferences because each and one of them can take part in the programme!" Cest is d'Best is the oldest street festival in Croatia and is creating many tourist attractions in Croatia's capital. Around 50,000 people see the programme of this festival every day.

MOTOVUN FILM FESTIVAL
Motovun Film Festival is an international film festival held annually in small Istrian town of Motovun. It was started in 1999 and usually takes place for five or six days in late July or early August. The festival is entirely dedicated to independent and low budget films. It includes around 70 films from all around the world, from feature films to documentaries, from short films to long films. All that matters is that the film fits in the open-minded atmosphere of the festival with its innovation. The films are screened outdoors in the evenings and indoors in a theatre during the day. The main reward at the festival is called The Propeller of Motovun (inspired by the well famous wind turbines located near Motovun). Some of the recipients of this award include Billy Elliot, Last Resort, Bloody Sunday, Punch-Drunk Love and Fish Tank. Today the festival is widely recognized as one of the most important film festivals on the territory of former Yugoslavia. In testimony to that is the newest award of the festival FIPRESCI- an award given by the Fédération Internationale de la Presse Cinématographique which is the oldest and most prestigious association of film critics with members from around 50 countries of the world.

THE LENT INTERNATIONAL SUMMER FESTIVAL
The Lent International Summer Festival launched in 1993, is one of the biggest open-air festivals in Europe and it features theatre, opera, dance, music and folklore performances as well as music busking, sport events, magic and acrobatic shows. Furthermore, it includes some sub festivals, such as the Children's Lent and the Lent International Jazz Festival. There are more than thirty stages scattered along the banks of the Drava river and every summer during those three weeks, Maribor, the second largest city in Slovenia, attracts world-renowned artists and a multitude of visitors from various countries. Slovenians associate Lent Festival with relaxed barbecues and excellent performances.

LIFFe
The Ljubljana International Film Festival (LIFFe) is an international film festival which was established in 1989 and takes place every year in October/November in the capital, Ljubljana. It screens Slovenian and foreign movies which are then divided into various competitive categories, such as premieres, prospects, retrospectives, highlights, short movies, extravagance, etc. Films are screened at five different venues in Ljubljana and Maribor. The festival is one of the most prominent cultural events in Slovenia and its audience is constantly on the increase. Throughout the year the cinemas are frequently visited which reaches its peak during the festival.

ROCK OTOČEC
Rock Otočec is one of the largest Slovenian open-air music festivals that lasts for three days in June/July and features Slovene as well as international bands. It focuses on rock music and some other genres, such as punk, blues and world music. The festival is held close to the river Krka and Novo mesto, a town which is situated in the south-east of Slovenia. Visitors predominantly belong to the younger generations and usually attend annually. Besides the music performances the main attractions are games played in the mud and water that recreate the spirit of the Woodstock festival.

THE SLOVENE BOOK FAIR
The Slovene Book Fair occurs every November in Ljubljana and it features presentations of new books, workshops for children, exhibitions, debates, school presentations, book sales, etc. It appeals to a lot of Slovenian publishing houses and visitors that come from all over the country. “The Slovenian book publishing industry is active – to the extent that some people joke that Slovenians write more books that they actually read.” The abundance of literary works written in Slovene is especially evident at the book fair, which also serves as a meeting place.

ST. PATRICK'S DAY
March 17th annually is a significant date in Irish culture and heritage as natives and those of Irish decent celebrate the day of one of the patron saints of Ireland-St. Patrick. It is a time where anybody who has a positive affiliation with Ireland also celebrates and participates in what is essentially Ireland’s Day. During the two weeks prior to St. Patrick’s Day, the Irish population are actively encouraged to speak Irish to each other. Parades take place around the globe on St. Patrick’s Day during which time towns, villages and cities are a sea of green. There are music performances, street theatre, dancing, fireworks and it is a day for people to be patriotic and proud of their ancestry.

THE ROSE OF TRALEE
The Rose of Tralee takes place in Tralee in the south west of Ireland annually. This is a celebration of Irish culture and heritage as ladies of Irish origin both resident in Ireland and abroad qualify from their heats and then descend on the south west of Ireland in August for the Rose of Tralee Festival. The Roses travel around Ireland for a week before the two night televised show. There are male escorts for each rose who assist them and the festival is always a resounding success as families and friends of the Roses come to County Kerry to support them. Half of the roses perform on Friday night and the other half on Saturday night during which time, they are interviewed by a well-known television personality and they are judged on their poise, personality and performance.

FLEADH CHEOIL NA HEIREANN
Fleadh Cheoil na Ireann is a festival of Irish music, song and dance. Competitors qualify from county and provincial events and the All-Ireland competition is a fantastic event where the high standard from amateur musicians and artists makes entertaining viewing. This festival dates back to 1951 and since it began it has been a platform for talented individuals and groups to display their talents not only on the stage during the competitions but also on the streets and in the pubs especially at the provincial and national events. The youngest age group is under 12 and the eldest is the senior category which can be any age over 18. The All Ireland and sometimes the provincial competitions are recorded and televised at a later date. The festival of music is a credit to the sky high standard of Irish music, song and dance that exists in Ireland.

THE PUCK FAIR
The Puck Fair which occurs yearly in Killorglin Co. Kerry is a 400 year old festival in which “the goat is King and people act the goat”. This traditional fair which occurs in Killorglin, Co. Kerry in the province of Munster, Ireland sees street performances from musicians and talented artists. There are also fireworks and markets and it all culminates in a puck or male goat being crowned the King of the Fair. The festival is one of the highlights of the summer for both locals and visitors.

NOS ALIVE
Nos Alive is a music festival held in Lisbon in July. Popular headline acts from the rock, pop and indie music scene perform making Nos Alive a very successful and mainstream event. It lasts for three days, each is dedicated to a specific style of music. The festival brings together a mass of younger generations since it is considered a must-see event among them.

THE LISBON AND ESTORIL FILM FESTIVAL
The Lisbon and Estoril Film Festival is an annual international film festival that takes place in Lisbon and Estoril in the south-west of Portugal in November. It started in 2006 and features international films, animation, and documentaries. The best film is awarded the Silver Seagull Award. Besides movies the festival also organizes masterclasses, debates, reading sessions, exhibitions and shows. Among several other Portuguese film festivals this one is the most popular and well-received taking into account the popularity of alternative movies also.

FEIRA DO LIVRO DE LISBOA
Feira do Livro de Lisboa or Lisbon Book Fair is one of the oldest cultural festivals held in Lisbon and it has a nationwide mass appeal. The festival commenced in the 1930s and is held annually in the Eduardo VII Park every spring. It offers new releases at lower prices, old and rare volumes, book signings, book launches, concerts of classical music and traditional music like fado as well as traditional music from other countries including Brasil. Most of the books are in Portuguese, but there are also several publications in English, German and Spanish.

FESTIVAL DE VILAR DE MOUROS
Vilar de Mouros is a music festival mainly concentrated on Rock and Pop music. It was initiated by a doctor called António Barge in 1971 and it is known as the oldest rock festival in Portugal. It was not only designed for Portuguese people but also appealed to international guests. This festival was a great success as in excess 30,000 visitors turned up every year. Compared to other Portuguese festivals Vilar de Mouros was one of biggest festivals in Portugal that also introduced new music acts. It was considered as Portugal’s Woodstock-Festival, because of its free-mindedness. They mainly played Alternative Rock, Indie Rock and Hard Rock. However, in 2006 it took place for the last time due to a decrease in the number of visitors. In 2011 it was reintroduced to the public again, but with a slight change in the choice of music. They now mainly play electronic music and have changed the name to Energie Music Vilar de Mouros.

OKTOBERFEST
The Oktoberfest is probably one of the most known festivals in Germany, which attracts millions of people from all over the world every year. Its history dates way back to the beginning of the 19th century. Originally there used to be horse competitions, but in time there were more and more show booths, fairground rides and beer tents to enlarge the festival. Its duration was extended to two weeks and the date was forwarded to September. There was a bronze statue made which became one of the main symbols for the festival. After 1945 the derbies ceased to occur, except at the 150th and 200th jubilee as they had a symbolic meaning. In more than 200 years of history, only 24 events were canceled, which mainly were due to the wars. Today the Oktoberfest is very essential and representative for Bavaria, attracting many tourists who want to be part of this German tradition. There are more than 6,000,000 people visiting the festival ever year. The festival occupies an area of more than 42 hectares and employs more than 13,000 people each year. It is known for its variety of beer types, pretzels and women and men dressing up in Bavarian traditional clothing, which addresses every age group. In many places around the world the Oktoberfest is copied and gives the impression that Germany only made up of Bavaria.

ELBJAZZ
The Elbjazz festival takes place at the port of the city of Hamburg and is one of the most known music festivals based on jazz. The two founders of this event, Tina Heine and Nina Sauer, had the intention to make jazz part of the life of the people in Hamburg, so they appreciate this special genre of music. Elbjazz was first introduced to the city of Hamburg in 2010 and besides jazz it offers its visitors the opportunity to visit workshops, films, expositions and other supplementary events. Elbjazz is a two day festival taking place at the end of May covering almost any type of jazz played in different locations using all sorts of acoustics. This quite new and international festival gives many young professional artists the opportunity to prove themselves on one of the many stages. More than 50 concerts are performed during these two days and a survey which was conducted in 2012 has shown that each year almost half of the visitors coming to see this event had never been to a jazz festival before. Elbjazz now belongs to one of the important components of Hamburg and is worth visiting.

EXTRASCHICHT
ExtraSchicht is a festival based on the transformation of industrial sights into cultural locations. This festival can be viewed as the flagship for the changes taking place in the Ruhr area from being an industrial area into a service-oriented society. In 2001 ExtraSchicht was introduced to the population for the first time. Since then it annually attracts thousands of people who participate in this concept of culture, art and nature. This shift from coal and steel to culture, theatre and dancing can be seen in each location former being a production unit changed into various event locations like halls, museums and many other things. The route of cultural heritage stretches over 400 kilometers, which shows the development of the region in a unique way. ExtraSchicht usually takes place in June where the industrial sites are put in a play and several travelling opportunities with public transport are provided for the visitors. Accessibility and mobility are of essential importance because 50 sites are provided for the visitors. Tickets include the use of public transport and the specially provided shuttle transfers during the event. More than 200,000 people come to see this special night event every year.

BOCHUM TOTAL
Bochum Total is an internationally known and very popular Rock- and Pop- Festival taking place in summer and lasts for four days. It first took place in 1986 and since then is very popular among a wide age group and has steadily grown to one of Europe’s biggest Rock- and Pop- Festivals. It is known to be situated in the most popular pub quarter of Bochum called Bermuda3eck and was founded by two university students. The idea was to enrich the cultural awareness of Bochum and its inhabitants. Bochum Total is free for the general public and gives more than 80 bands the opportunity perform on stage and introduce themselves to an audience. There are many famous bands which made their first music experience at this special festival, but there are also internationally known artists meeting with their fans. It is obligatory for the bands to play live. Also the supplementary events are of great importance covering workshops for bands, book fairs, literature, comedy and handcraft which also attracts people interested not only in music but also in other cultural activities. Some of the most important facts about this festival is the use of green energy only meaning water power and the avoidance of waste. Furthermore glass is prohibited within the grounds of the festival to avoid people injuring themselves. Since the year 2000 the number of visitors has doubled and it now reaches almost the number of approximately 1,000,000 visitors per year which is a huge success.

CONCLUSION
Through the use of both original and established data, we found some interesting points and unique information about the target countries; Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia.

We believe the common activities and sports between all the countries could lead to a cultural exchange. In order to engage in a foreign activity appropriately, it is also useful to know about the tradition and the original culture of that activity. The common practiced sports across the countries, such as football, also enable cultural exchange because they allow people to participate in a shared cultural identity.

When it comes to attending sports events, gender differences also apply. Men tend to visit sports matches more often than women. Croatians and Slovenians mostly attend handball, basketball and ice hockey events, whereas Germans, in addition to those, enjoy boxing as well. Portuguese also attend handball and basketball games. In Ireland, it is very common for the Croke Park stadium in Dublin to sell out in the nation-wide finals of both hurling and Gaelic football. These nations often attend rugby matches also.

Leisure time activities enable the transfer of cultural elements between selected countries and cultures, but they also facilitate the countries' ability to preserve their cultural identity and tradition. Furthermore, we believe that sports can foster intercultural communication which most have experienced first hand during sports activities. While conducting our survey we have confirmed the common assumption that sports are an important aspect of a nation’s everyday life, and that leisure time is used differently in each country.

Croatia's, Portugal's and Germany's low indulgence scores are demonstrative of their restraint when it comes to attending cultural events. This highlights that they tend to limit their desires in order to comply with social norms. Slovenia scored 48, which indicates that there is no preference. On the other hand, based on Ireland's high percentage, it is evident that the Irish population is inclined to participate more in cultural events and give in to their impulses. Some of the aforementioned cultural events can be labelled as global and have a mass appeal, whereas others are culturally bound and quite specific, even local.

title: Cultural Encounters/Leisure time


text:
Dating and romance

Introduction
The following study was conducted within the context of the 2012 Erasmus Summer School in Scotland. The aim of the research was to gain insight into the differences and similarities in the area of dating and romantic relationships. People from the six following nations participated in the survey: Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal, Scotland and Slovenia. The research method included a questionnaire that was distributed among the participants of the Summer School and local Glaswegians between the age of 19 and 30. Due to the common European context of all participant nations, our research would show more similarities than differences between dating habits and relationships in the respective countries.

Meeting People
When it comes to meeting new people, all participants listed similar dating locations. The most commonly mentioned places were clubs, bars, pubs, social events and friends’ parties. The workplace and university was frequently mentioned as well. Internet dating platforms were only mentioned once as a means for meeting potential partners. Nevertheless, none would go out with the intention of meeting ‘the one’ but with hopes, however, of meeting new people.

The findings show that pick-up lines are neither used seriously nor popular regardless of the country in question. People who use them seriously are regarded as acting in a ridiculous manner. Pick-up lines are rather used as jokes and as ironic conversation starters, for example "Do you know how much a polar bear weighs? ... No? Me neither, but it's enough to break the ice." Instead, most resort to casual conversations and an indirect expression of interest, such as offering to buy a drink or asking for a dance.

Once you have met someone you like, an appropriate venue must be chosen for a date. This is where certain differences in the customs of the countries were encountered. All agree that cafés and pubs are a good place to get a drink, a coffee and to engage in private conversation. While Croatians and Slovenians prefer not to go to restaurants on their first dates, Germans and Portuguese find this to be very common in their countries. Germans and Portuguese also commonly go to the cinema on their first dates. For the Irish and Scottish it is not unusual to go out for dinner or to get take-away food.

For the purposes of this research casual relationships an be defined as primarily based on the physical aspect of a relationship and are mostly not exclusive. Non-exclusive relationships allow dating more than one person at the same time. In contrast, serious relationships are exclusive and include a stronger emotional bond between partners. It is a consensus that the type of relationship people are looking for depends on their age and not their country of origin. The need to search for a serious relationship generally arises in the mid-20s. However, the Germans tend to look for serious relationships somewhat earlier and more often. The Irish look for both casual and serious relationships as well, but the serious are seen as a natural next step in life after finishing school, when a steady income is being earned.

Relationship Rules
One of the most common “rules” of relationships is concerned with exclusiveness. The discussion whether a relationship is going to be exclusive or not is most commonly encountered in Germany and Croatia. Germans typically clarify this point at the very beginning of a relationship, whereas in Croatia this takes place within a month or two. The Irish and Scottish generally assume that a relationship as such is exclusive from the very beginning, as is the case in Slovenia, where the status of the relationship is usually not discussed. The Portuguese, just as the Germans decide on the first date, yet the exclusivity of the relationship has to be stated explicitly, or it will be assumed that the relationship is not exclusive. This matter cannot be left unsaid if the relationship is supposed to be called serious.

An interesting difference in the way the Irish express their interest in other people’s love life in comparison to other countries was found. Instead of asking the otherwise commonly used question of “Are you seeing anyone?” the expression “Are you kissing anyone?” is used.

Establishing Rules
Concerning the public display of affection, it is generally accepted in most countries as long as it is restricted to holding hands and moderate kissing, with the exception of Ireland. Here the smallest public display of affection is frowned upon and commented with “get a room”, as is the case in other countries when the line is crossed.

The physical and emotional aspects of the relationship progress after one or two months in Croatia. This varies in Germany, depending on age, type of relationship pursued and the question of mutual trust. Emotional progress must generally be made in serious relationships before physical progress is made. Thus, it generally takes between 4-5 months before physical contact goes beyond kissing and holding hands, which occurs after a few dates, as “light” physical progress is often made faster than emotional. In Portugal, about a month passes before people decide they are serious about a relationship, and 2-4 months before the relationship progresses physically. The emotional aspect follows the physical, as in Germany. In Slovenia and Scotland, 1 to 3 months pass before physical progress is made.

When things get more serious
In Slovenia, Scotland and Germany it is common to meet each other’s friends sometime within the first month, whereas in Portugal, Croatia and Ireland friends are generally met as soon as possible. Meeting the parents occurs in Croatia, Slovenia and Germany after about 3 to 6 months, but in Portugal and Ireland this generally happens as late as possible though there are small differences. In Portugal parents are met after one year at the earliest, but the meeting is delayed as much as possible, depending on the partners’ relationship with their own parents. In Ireland people arrive at this stage as late as possible or not at all. In Croatia, this step is also a question of age. The older the partners are, the less important the parents’ approval of one´s partner becomes.

People in Slovenia decide to live together after about one or two years and make plans regarding children and marriage around the age of 30. In Ireland and Scotland people also decide to live together after a year or two if they are in their mid to late 20s. However, it is uncommon in Croatia to start living together with your partner before marriage and partners usually live with their parents.

Nevertheless, those that do decide to live together, do so after 1-2 years of relationship and in the mid-20s age-group. Nowadays in Portugal, people decide to move in much sooner than before the crisis, which was only after 1-2 years, due to financial necessity. The decision regarding marriage depends upon age in Croatia. Therefore, the earlier partners started their relationship, the longer it takes for them to get married. The older partners are the shorter the amount of time. In Slovenia marriage is planned around the age of 30, while couples in Portugal find it very important to have a certain financial stability and a place to live before they get married, but it is usually not done before the age of 28.

Conclusion
The research confirms the initial thesis that the nations in question do not differ greatly in their dating and romantic relationship habits. However, there are some areas in which different answers were provided, such as preferences in public display of affection and the pace of physical and emotional progress of the relationship. Further research should be conducted to gain insight into the reasons for the differences encountered.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dating and romance


text:
Cultural Encounters/"Nice to meet you!"

Over the course of the Erasmus IP Cultural Encounters Summer School mindsets and outlook regarding people and their practices when it comes to social interaction and how these practices differ across cultures were broadened. The greeting etiquette and the cultural mores concerning hospitality in six different cultures (Croatia, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia) were observed and are summarised below.

It was concluded that certain cultures prefer more physical contact than others and that a greeting can go as far as defining the relationship between friends and family, professors, foreigners and guests.

PERSONAL SPACE
Meeting new people is a common experience that may cause a feeling of discomfort while communicating for the first time. The root of this problem lies in the clash between different cultural backgrounds. After discussing the issue with the national groups participating in the summer school (Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal, and Slovenia), it was concluded that it mostly depends on differing perceptions of personal space. In all of the countries analysed, the idea of personal space is quite similar. People generally tend to create a distance between themselves and people they do not know. For example, at bus shelters all of them would maintain a safe distance and on buses they would rather sit alone than share a seat with a random stranger. The differences and similarities in how people perceive personal space have been thoroughly studied in the field of cultural studies, as they serve as an important starting point for the comparison of cultures. Edward T. Hall developed the concept of proxemics, which aims to describe how people behave and react in different types of culturally defined personal spaces. In his work, Hall emphasized the impact of proxemic behavior (the use of space) on interpersonal communication. Hall defined personal space as the immediate space surrounding a person. Body spacing and posture, according to Hall, are ''unintentional reactions to sensory fluctuations or shifts, such as subtle changes in the sound and pitch of a person's voice. Social distance between people is reliably correlated with physical distance, as are intimate and personal distance.''. Hall also notes that different cultures maintain different standards of personal space. Realizing and recognizing cultural differences improves cross-cultural understanding, and helps eliminate discomfort people may feel if the interpersonal distance is too large (stand-offish) or too small (intrusive). The concept of personal space within any culture is, therefore, something to be respected and the same could be said for greeting habits.

GREETINGS: A PRACTICAL GUIDE
Greetings across cultures can differ greatly and the data collected reflects this. Croatia, Germany, Great Britain and Slovenia are markedly less tactile than the Portuguese when it comes to greeting friends, family and foreigners.

GREETING IN CROATIA

 * Meeting people for the first time

When Croatians meet other people for the first time, they usually shake hands, say Hello, nice to meet you (Bok, drago mi je sto smo se upoznali) and briefly introduce themselves. It differs slightly depending on the social situation. When meeting peers, for example, Croatians tend to greet them in a fairly relaxed and casual way. It is common, however, to greet one's superiors such as people older than oneself in a more polite and formal manner, so as to show respect.

 * Acquaintances

When it comes to acquaintances, people in Croatia usually greet them with a simple Hello, how are you? (Bok, kako si), which is usually followed by a conversation on what is new in everybody's lives. Croations tend to keep their distance and avoid physical contact so as not to seem intrusive. Invading someone’s personal space is not something Croatians are comfortable with. Nevertheless, they meet acquaintances in a manner that is relaxed and casual, but still not as open as when meeting friends or family members.

 * Academic and professional settings

In academic or professional settings, Croatians always greet in a formal way. A simple Good day (Dobar dan) is enough and is usually followed by a brief question of any kind. It is polite to show respect for those who are professionally on a higher level. More specifically, Croatian students address their professors by using their academic title and surname, or by using both their first name and surname. On the other hand, during the Summer School, we have noticed that the Irish tend to address their professors in a more informal way, which is quite different from what the Croatians usually do.

 * Friends & family

This subcategory is the most informal way of greeting other people in Croatia. It is so complex because there are not any fixed rules as to how the members of family or friends should be greeted. When meeting friends, Croatians act casually and physical contact is not avoided to such an extent. For instance, it is acceptable to hug friends upon meeting them. Croatians sometimes give each other a kiss on the cheek as well, depending on the friendship level or individual habits. But mostly, they hug and then continue chatting. Furthermore, Croatians meet members of their family with a kiss or a hug, especially when meeting relatives whom they have not seen for a longer period of time. But, when it comes to grandparents, it is obligatory to give them a kiss.

It can be concluded that people from Slovenia and Croatia have similar ways of greeting each other, which can probably be explained with the fact that these two countries are geographically close.

GREETING IN GERMANY

 * Meeting people for the first time

When the German people know someone new, the norm is to shake hands while introducing themselves or being introduced, and just saying Hello (in this case,Hallo).

Regarding meetings with acquaintances, the norm is to wave and to say Hello, without shaking hands or establishing any other physical contact.
 * Acquaintances

When it comes to greeting university teachers, the Germans, for instance, shake hands with the ones they have developed a certain relationship with over the years of their studies and address them formally(unless they are native speakers of English, who prefer to be addressed more informally). In more formal circumstances, first names are never used. Age is, therefore, an important factor when it comes to choose the appropriate register in any given social settings.
 * Academic and professional settings

In Germany, dependent upon the relationship between them, two friends might greet one another with two kisses on the cheek for girls or a brief hug. Interestingly, in what seems to be a typically German practice, students will knock on the table a couple of times to greet a group in a classroom situation and also to express gratitude when a class has finished. Germany seems to be the most reserved nation when it comes to personal contact. It is typical for most German homes to have an intercom system so that they can be prepared for their guests. For the most part relatives and friends would be greeted with a hug or a handshake with the exception being a more formal greeting for some family members. Mostly, Germans greet without too much physical contact, although it depends on the circumstances concerning the relationship or for how much time they have not seen each other.
 * Friends & Family

GREETING IN IRELAND
When meeting someone for the first time in Ireland, it is imperative to maintain a person's bubble as the Irish dislike strangers invading their personal space. The typical greeting for a stranger is a handshake with the greeting Nice to meet you. The other person will then respond with a simple You too or Pleasure.
 * Meeting people for the first time

When greeting acquaintances or neighbours, the conventional greeting is say Hello or Hi and gossip about anything new occurring in your lives. However, it is not unusual to hear What´s the craic? or What´s the story? being exchanged when walking down the street. This is just another way to inquire about something new in a person's life. When passing on the street, it is usual to wave, nod or smile as a greeting.
 * Acquaintances

When greeting someone in a professional or academic setting, it is conventional to shake hands or wave to a colleague, boss or professor. In the Irish context, the use of informal address forms is rather common. Therefore, while one may be addressed quite formally as Mr. Smith, it is more common to address most of people by their first name. For colleagues of all levels it is perfectly okay to refer to them by their first name.
 * Academic and professional settings

When greeting friends and family in Ireland it depends entirely on what the specific person is comfortable with. Generally speaking, it is usual to hug friends and family members in greeting and once again in farewell. For some people they still appreciate keeping their personal space, and some destroy boundaries altogether and kiss their friends and family. It is also typical in Ireland to insult a friend or family member and show your affection that way.
 * Friends & family

GREETING IN PORTUGAL

In Portugal, greeting someone for the first time can be confusing. Usually, the way the Portuguese behave in these situations depends on the context and how their interlocutor is introduced. This mostly happens because of the distinction between T and V-forms in Portuguese language, something that can lead to awkward situations in which people only avoid addressing their interlocutor. Under informal circumstances (young people meeting another friend's friend, someone older addressing to someone younger) it is normal for the Portuguese to kiss twice and to treat the interlocutor by their first name, even though T or V-forms can be used depending on the situation, especially between adults, while in more formal ones the rule is to shake hands, between men or women and to call the interlocutors by their academic degree or only by Senhor (Mr) or Senhora (Miss or Mrs), using the V-form. In both situations, formal and informal ones, the greeting is Olá, prazer em conhecê-lo! (Hi, it is a pleasure to meet you!).
 * Meeting people for the first time

As always, greeting an acquaintance is also a complex process in Portugal – age and academic degree are often considered, if not always. Business partners use to shake hands; non-professionally related two women or a man and a woman can kiss twice on the cheeks, while men always shake hands; children are always kissed twice.
 * Acquaintances

From elementary school until the end of high school, the Portuguese teachers usually call the students by the T-form and their first names. On the other hand, students always call teachers professor and their first names, except in elementary school, when it is acceptable for little kids to only call their teachers by their first names. However, university teachers prefer to address students using the V-form, even though only using their first names (with no need of Mr, Miss or Mrs). Apart from elementary school teachers and students, who share a more emotional bond, there is almost no physical contact between both parts. In working places, colleagues can be called using T-form our V-form, always depending on their age and position in the hierarchy. If colleagues occupy rather distant positions or have different academic degrees, the use of Mr, Miss, Mrs or academic titles can be considered, as well as V-forms. It happens a lot facing bosses, who usually prefer to be treated with the higher consideration given their academic degrees and, of course, by a V-form. However, there are always some exceptions to this rule.
 * Academic and professional settings

For the Portuguese, physical contact is the norm when greeting both family and friends. Therefore, when meeting a friend or a relative (mainly parents or siblings) they kiss and sometimes hug. Overall, the Portuguese are more tactile when it comes to greeting friends and family members, whereas in other countries, especially from Northern Europe, people are more reserved in this respect. For the Portuguese, hugs and kisses are frequent on a daily basis, not only when greeting or saying goodbye, but also in random situations. The Portuguese also express their emotions often, as saying they love their parents or friends at the end of the day or when they are grateful for something important. When friends or family meet, they most likely ask for each other's kids or even the whole family, their jobs and usually its diseases (even a headache would be a discussable subject).
 * Friends & family

GREETING IN SLOVENIA

 * Meeting people for the first time

When meeting someone for the very first time, Slovenians will typically introduce themselves and shake hands, looking the other person in the eye. This may be followed by a Nice to meet you (Me veseli). Unlike in Portugal or Spain, hugging and kissing when meeting someone for the first time is not customary and should be avoided, as it may produce an uncomfortable atmosphere.

In Slovenia, acquaintances usually greet each other with a simple Hello (Zivjo) or the more formal Good day (Dober dan) and a wave. When seeing an acquaintance in the street, it is not unusual to greet the person with a nod and a slight smile without saying anything.
 * Acquaintances

In academic and professional settings, Slovenians greet each other by smiling and saying Good day. Colleagues of the same professional level might be more informal with each other (saying Hello), but a considerable physical distance will typically still be maintained. Unless specifically given permission to do otherwise, Slovenians address their superiors such as college professors and bosses with the formal pronoun (Vi instead of Ti) and do not call them by their first name.
 * Academic and professional settings

There are no hard-fast rules when it comes to greetings between friends. Close female friends, as well as close male-female friends, will often hug upon meeting each other, but this is by no means a necessity, as some friends will be satisfied with a simple Hi (and maybe a wave). Generally speaking, the level of physical contact between friends will depend on the individual relationship. Slovenians are slightly more prone to physical contact when greeting family members. They will typically hug and give each other three kisses on the cheek when greeting a family member whom they have not seen in a while. Family members who see each other every day, on the other hand, may not be so generous with physical affection. This is of course very personal and varies from family to family.
 * Friends & family

As a rule, one can survive in Slovenia without initiating any kind of physical contact with other people, with the exception of shaking hands. It is better to respect people's personal space and wait for them to initiate physical contact first than to be too invasive.

OTHER SITUATIONS
ACADEMIC E-MAILS

When sending emails to university staff all cultures observed preferred to use formal language. It was remarked that in some of the countries (for example, in Portugal) university teachers must be addressed with their full academic title in any email; in Croatia and Slovenia, the use of a formal introduction to an email is implemented and signing off is always done formally.

FOREIGNERS

People of the same nationality usually greet foreigners the same way they would meet people of their own nationality. Generally, it is common to shake hands and introduce yourself when meeting for the first time. But, physical contact is usually avoided in those situations. After interviewing some of our colleagues from Portugal, we found out that it is common for the Portuguese to kiss twice on the cheek when meeting other people. Furthermore, the Portuguese would not be too intrusive if they were not sure what the foreigners' customs were. Moreover, some of our Irish colleagues shared their experiences with meeting people of different nationalities, and they noticed that for example, Scottish people, who are usually more reserved, might also hug a foreign person whom they are meeting for the first time. Nevertheless, Scottish people would adapt to the cultural ways of the person in question. When it comes to communication with speakers from other cultures, majority of the students represented at our Summer School would start the conversation in English since it is the most commonly spoken language. In fact, English is used by one billion speakers around the world because it has achieved a lingua franca status, which was a result of the Globalization phenomena that occurred in the 20th century. English is used by both native and non-native speakers. In today’s multilinguistic and multicultural Europe, using English as a lingua franca does not inhibit linguistic diversity. On the contrary, it unites more than it divides, because it is viewed as a means of enabling understanding. .

SOME CONCLUSIONS
Through the analysis of the greeting strategies in the countries represented in our project, we have seen that greetings are an important aspect of any culture. Furthermore, according to the acculturation theory, those who are newcomers to a certain culture should adapt to the new ways of greeting in that society. However, the theory of Third Culture also argues that one should not sacrifice one’s identity when coming in contact with another culture and that a happy medium can be achieved in communicating across cultures. Tolerance and openness is a key for a successful intercultural communication. When it comes to greetings, hospitality and politeness, different values between new acquaintances may result in a cultural clash, if certain social interactions are not carried out in accordance with the customs of a nation. This could, in turn, hinder the future development of that relationship. The high diversity of cultural and linguistic backgrounds in today’s changing European landscape requires constant intercultural sensitivity to a degree not normally experienced by mono- or even bilingual speakers in their native languages. Through our own experiences we have found that in our intercultural encounters, culturally-considerate greeting can serve as a solid foundation for building long-lasting intercultural relationships. Intercultural communicative competence allows us to communicate despite and across national, linguistic and cultural boundaries, being also the first step to enriching our lives.

HOSPITALITY
Apart from different ways of greeting people, there are also certain differences as far as receiving guests is concerned.

The warmest welcome is to be expected in a Portuguese home. Normally, they would greet their guests with a warm hug and a kiss, engage in an informal conversation and offer them a drink, usually water or coffee, or something to eat. It is also alright to pop in unannounced, so making a specific appointment is not necessary. However, the formality of the greeting itself depends on the age and social status of the guests.

There are some similarities when receiving guests in both Croatia and Slovenia. To friends or family who come over more often they would usually just say a simple "hello" or "hi", whereas if someone you have not seen in a while came over they would greet them with a kiss and maybe a handshake. Normally, the guests will take off their shoes and in some homes they will be offered slippers. The host will also always offer a drink, like coffee or juice, and maybe a bite to eat. Announcing their visit is not of much importance, but usually the guests would phone to check if anybody was home.

Great Britain and Ireland have more or less the same practices when it comes to receiving guests and their hosts would start a casual conversation to greet guests. However, the British are more open to physical contact and they are more likely to offer a handshake. Both would also offer their guests something to drink or eat. The Irish would also be polite enough to receive guests who arrive unexpectedly.

Germany seems to be the most reserved nation in this matter. It is typical for most German homes to have an intercom system so that they can be prepared for their guests. For the most part relatives and friends would be greeted with a hug or a handshake with the exception being a more formal greeting for some family members. Mostly, Germans greet without too much physical contact, although it depends on the circumstances concerning the relationship.

All in all, apart from Slovenians and Croatians, who share similar hospitality practices, each of the other countries mentioned seems to have different customs when receiving guests and this must be taken into account.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
When it comes to greetings, hospitality and politeness, different values between acquaintances may result in a cultural clash. If certain social interactions are not carried out in accordance with the customs of a nation, it might cause a bit of awkwardness and some might find certain ways of conduct insulting. This could, in turn, hinder the future development of that relationship. The high diversity of cultural backgrounds requires constant intercultural sensitivity to a degree not normally experienced by mono- or even bilingual speakers in their native languages.

All in all, greetings are a defining part of any culture and according to the acculturation model theory those who are not familiar with the norms belonging to a certain culture should adapt to the new ways of greeting in that society. More tolerance is needed of other cultural mores and the practices of people, which can differ greatly from one cultural reality to the next.

title: Cultural Encounters/"Nice to meet you!"


text:
Cultural Encounters/National stereotypes

This section of the IP Erasmus Database deals with stereotypes. A stereotype is, according to the Oxford Dictionary (2014), “A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.” The definition of a stereotype itself tells us that putting labels on the representatives of other cultures and nationalities before we actually come in contact with them is an oversimplification, therefore we should strive to avoid it. In order to do so, one has to be open to other cultures, eager to acquire factual knowledge about them and be able to accept other perspectives and perceptions of the world. A person who manages to act in that way acquires intercultural competence and is described by Byram (1998) as "/s/omeone who has knowledge of one, or, preferably more cultures and social identities and has the capacity to discover and relate to new people from other contexts for which they have not prepared directly." In this section, we describe some of the stereotypes that are usually attributed to the nationalities participating in the Summer School, namely Croatia, Germany, Ireland, Portugal and Slovenia. We also tackle some of the stereotypes that people have about Great Britain, the country where the Summer School has taken place for the last three years. The theoretical basis for this section of the database is a research conducted by Geert Hofstede (2011), which compares nationalities in terms of different cultural aspects; Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, Pragmatism and Indulgence. All of the results can be seen graphically in the Relationships section of this webpage.

National stereotypes about Croatia

Being part of the Balkan Peninsula, Croatia is often perceived as a talkative and friendly nation, but also loud, rude and sometimes quarrelsome. This stereotype probably comes from the fact that Western European countries have seen them as “barbarians” throughout their history, because they were sometimes falling behind when it comes to following the modern currents. Hofstede´s research (2011) shows that they are in fact still a patriarchal society with a clear hierarchical structure, as their score on the Power Distance scale is very high (73). Croats are often perceived as patriotic, probably because of their war for independence, which only ended in 1995 and motivated its people to express how proud they were of their country and heritage in a more excessive way. Even though a lot of people still believe this to be true, Hofstede´s findings (2011) challenge this stereotype. Croatia scored relatively high on the Pragmatism scale, which means that they do not have too many difficulties adapting to new socio-political circumstances and are not too attached to their traditions.

National stereotypes about Great Britain

British people are often described as very polite, proper and sophisticated with a negative tendency towards being stiff, snobbish, unemotional or obsessed with class and status. This feature is, for example, reflected in the American idiom ‘to keep a stiff upper lip’, which, according to the Urban Dictionary (2005), describes a general obstinacy or stubbornness. Princess Diana´s death is often said to be the trigger of this change as many people showed their emotions and cried in public that day. As a consequence, a lot of people think that the proverbial ‘stiff upper lip’ is about to die out.

There are various stereotypes ascribed to the different parts of Great Britain rather than to the whole country. For example, a typical image of a Scot is a man dressed up in the traditional clothes, including the widely known kilt and the sporran, which can be described as a pouch made out of leather or fur.

National stereotypes about Ireland

Irish people are all stereotypically thought to be "ginger" or have red hair. As well as having this distinct hair colour, of which there are many variations, they are also thought to have blue eyes and an unfortunate amount of freckles. They are described as tall and well-built with wide shoulders being a common attribute.

They are also said to be loud and outspoken and can at times be seen as intimidating towards other more reserved cultures. The Irish accent, which to a lot of people conveys an aura of mystery and attraction, was voted the "Sexiest accent in the world" in 2009, according to a study presented in The Telegraph (2009). Furthermore, another stereotype regarding the language of the Irish is that they speak very fast and sometimes don't enunciate well, which can be confusing for both native and non-native speakers of English.

A stereotype that is shared by many Europeans and concerns Irish people´s personal traits is the belief that they are patriotic, headstrong and proud. The history of Ireland has significantly contributed to the reinforcement of this stereotype, as Ireland became independent from its neighbour Great Britain in 1921, and the tensions from the past still exist even today.

Irish people are believed to be relaxed and laid back when it comes to almost anything. They are fun and interesting to be around, sometimes doing unconventional, random things just for the "craic" (fun).The stereotype about the Irish as a fun-loving nation can be supported with Hofstede´s findings. Taking Hofstede´s research (2011) into account, we see that the Irish centralise the importance of having fun, as their score on the Indulgence scale is 65.

The stereotype of the Irish centralising the importance of fun also has a negative side to it, since Ireland has long been considered as a nation of heavy drinkers. Their somewhat dependence on alcohol is more often than not the primary stereotype associated with the nation and most non-Irishmen refer to the Irish as drunks. They are seen to be boisterous and sometimes aggressive with bar-fights thought to be a common feature of Irish socialising. According to Deborah Conden´s article entitled “Calling Time On Our Drink Problem…” medical expenses treating alcohol induced maladies in Ireland in 2003 reached the amount of €2.4 billion. These illnesses occurred due to the fact that Irish people were consuming 12.1L of pure alcohol a year, the next closest at 9L was its neighbouring country – Britain (2003).

All in all, Irish people are described as being extremely friendly and helpful with a renowned, culturally accepted importance of maintaining standards in society, while maintaining the international image of being positive, warm and fun. Besides their high Indulgence result, they also score very low on the Power Distance scale, which means that there is no rigid hierarchical structure and that power is equally distributed throughout Irish society (Hofstede 2011). This may reaffirm the stereotypical image of the Irish as friendly and warm people.

National stereotypes about Portugal

Portugal is a small country, located at the ‘edge’ of Europe. It is common to refer to Portugal as “the country next to Spain” or even as a Spanish region. Portugal is often associated with sunny weather and beaches, surf, golf, food (especially fish), wine (mainly 'porto' wine) and Fado. Their easy-going lifestyle may be connected to them scoring extremely high on Hofstede´s Uncertainty Avoidance index (99/100), which means that they need exact rules for everything; otherwise they would just do as they pleased (Hofstede 2011).

There are a lot of stereotypes concerning the physical appearance of the Portuguese, for example, their men are believed to be extremely hairy. The stereotypes regarding the appearance of the Portuguese women are quite contradictory. On one hand, Portuguese women are often considered to be elegant and sexy, while on the other hand a lot of people believe them to have an excessive amount of facial hair. They are also said to be emotional, nostalgic and sad. These characteristics are probably ascribed to them because of their love for Fado music.

Concerning the Portuguese, they are commonly thought of as lazy. This is generally seen as a characteristic of South-Mediterranean countries, because of the climate and the cultural habit of taking an afternoon nap. In truth, they don't have the Spanish 'siesta'. The only people that nap in the afternoon are those who work in the fields. This daily routine is mostly associated with the Alentejo region (a Southern region of Portugal), where people get up at 4am to work.

It is also common to think that Portuguese people always arrive late to an event of any kind and they are usually not seen as hard workers or as very diligent. It would appear that the Portuguese tend to adapt to their surrounding environment and that this helps to determine the quality of their work. They are also very respectful and honest when in different countries and communities. Taking Hofstede’s research (2011) into account, it seems that the Portuguese adapt easily when they find themselves in an unknown setting. Nevertheless, they preserve their tradition within their own culture, which can be supported by them scoring very low on the Pragmatism scale (28/100). This also confirms the stereotype of them being very religious.

In connection with them being very traditional, many people believe that apart from religion family is a central value for the Portuguese. This stereotype seems to be a fair representation of Portuguese culture, since the households often tend to be very complex, with families consisting of up to three generations living under the same roof.

National stereotypes about Slovenia

Slovenes are usually perceived as a reserved and hard-working nation, which, according to Jason Blake (2011), lacks their Southern neighbours' temperament. With only about 2 million inhabitants, Slovenia is a small country. It is usually difficult for foreigners to locate Slovenia on the map, or to differentiate them from their neighbours. This stereotype probably has to do with Slovenes themselves often stressing the smallness and insignificance of their country.

Even though they are perceived as a rather reserved people foreigners also think of them as kind, warm and hospitable. There also are several stereotypes within the country that people from one region have when people of another region are in question (e.g. people from Štajerska region are perceived as loud, people from the Gorenjska region are considered stingy and people from the capital are thought of as posh, etc.). However, these characteristics only show when Slovenes from different parts of the county meet.

Slovenes are often believed to be very modest, which can be connected with their reluctance to stick out from the crowd. According to Blake, “Slovenians do not like to stand out. They have a moderation for everything but food and drink, they avoid risk, and they are nowhere near as temperamental as their southern neighbors. […] Those Slovenians who put themselves on display, or speak too loudly or too much, are a reviled species. Bragging is abhorred.” (2011, 55). In Slovenia, deviating from the norm - be it in a positive or negative way - is frowned upon. Blake even describes it as “the national sin” (2011, 55). This general tendency to mediocrity (connected with their collective self-consciousness) explains why Slovenes score very low on Hofstede's Masculinity index (2011), meaning that they aren't competitive, assertive, and don't strive to heroism, despite them being a hard-working nation.

National stereotypes about Germany

The most common preconception about Germans that is most prevalent in peoples’ minds is that Germans are tall, blond and blue-eyed. However, these features are more common amongst the northern European, especially the Scandinavian countries. The heights, looks, and eye-colours of Germans are much more diverse than their Scandinavian neighbours.

Germans are generally perceived as highly organized, punctual and overly bureaucratic and as a nation that works hard, but also knows how to have fun. They strive for success and place a high value on money, which is clearly visible by the fact that Germany has managed to manoeuvre itself around the economic crisis of the last few years and still has a very low unemployment rate (Statista 2014). These personal traits also contribute to the stereotype that Germans are rude, private, rigid and cold.

The research conducted by Hofstede (2011) supports the findings above. Low scores in Power Distance (35) and Indulgence (40) and higher scores in Individualism (67), Masculinity (66), Uncertainty Avoidance (65) and an especially high score in Pragmatism (83) are the main features attributed to Germany in his research. For instance, according to Hofstede “[c]ommunication is amongst the most direct in the world following the ideal to be ‘honest, even if it hurts’ – and by this giving the counterpart a fair chance to learn from mistakes.” Thus, Germans can easily be perceived as being rude, although it may not be their intention. This is further supported by the low Power Distance score and the high Individualism one. Their tendency to work hard is supported by their high score in Masculinity, whereas the other stereotypes mentioned in the section above can be attributed to the high score on the Uncertainty Avoidance scale and the low score on the Indulgence one.

Another attribute that is often associated with Germans is heavy drinking. A lot of Germans do enjoy drinking beer which can be seen, for example, at Oktoberfest. Every year thousands of people drink huge amounts of alcohol at Bavaria’s most famous celebration of beer. Alcohol is part of the German lifestyle, especially for younger people. One possible reason for that could be the early drinking age of 16 for wine and beer in Germany. Furthermore, alcohol can be bought in the majority of grocery stores and other places, like fuel stations, at very cheap prices.

To sum up this section, our research suggests that a lot of the stereotypes people have about the countries we analysed can be supported with factual data, at least to a certain degree. However, there were some stereotypes that appear to be an exaggerated, oversimplified or even completely incorrect depiction of a particular nation. Stereotypes are certainly a means by which we rationalise and cope with the increasingly hectic world we live in. However convenient this may be, we should strive to remain impartial and open-minded, not relying on stereotypes when interacting with members of another culture.

Other contributions

National stereotypes about Egypt

The image of Egypt that is often created in the media is a country full of sand and pyramids with only few cities.