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Comparative law and justice/Vietnam

Brief History
BRIEF HISTORY: The Vietnamese first appeared in history as one of many scattered peoples living in what is now South China and Northern Vietnam just before the beginning of the Christian era. According to local tradition, the small Vietnamese kingdom of Au Lac, located in the heart of the Red River valley, was founded by a line of legendary kings who had ruled over the ancient kingdom of Van Lang for thousands of years. Historical evidence to substantiate this tradition is scanty, but archaeological findings indicate that the early peoples of the Red River delta area may have been among the first East Asians to practice agriculture, and by the 1st century BC they had achieved a relatively advanced level of Bronze Age civilization. • Vietnam conquered by French in 19th century • Occupied by Japanese in W.W.II • 1945 end of W.W. II • 1946-54 – Communist Viet Minh League formed and led by Ho Chi Minh; not recognized by France • French and Viet Minh fight for control of Indochina • 1954 – Viet Nam divided with DMZ; elections promised by UN; country to be re-united in 1956 • 1955-6 Ho Chi Minh controls Communist North (DMV); Diem, supported by U.S. controls South; U.S. delays • 1957 – U.S. has Special Forces troops involved in intelligence gathering and training of South Vietnamese, including the Montagnard indigenous people, in guerilla warfare – no official involvement • 1963 – Pres. Diem assassinated; 3 weeks later, Kennedy assassinated • March 1965 – first U.S. combat troops land • October 1965 – first draft card burned • 1968 peace negotiations begin in Paris • 1969 My Lai massacre exposed • 1973 agreement signed between U.S. and DRV; official withdrawal of U.S. • 1976 N. and S. Viet Nam reunited

General
Country's full name: Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cong Hoa Xa Hoi Chu Nghia Viet Nam). Capital: Hanoi.[1] Major Cities: Ho Chi Minh City is populated with 5.6 million people. Following is Hanoi with a population with a little more than half of Ho Chi Minh City, with 3 million people. Other major cities consists of: Danang, Haiphong, and Can Tho. Independence: Vietnam became independent from Japan and France on September 2, 1945. However, Vietnam remained under French control until the communist Viet Minh defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Public Holidays: "Official holidays are: New Year’s (January 1), Tet or Lunar New Year (movable date in January or February), Liberation Day to commemorate the fall of Saigon (April 30), Labor Day (May 1), and Independence Day to commemorate Japan’s withdrawal following its defeat in World War II (September 2).

Land
Land area: 125,622 sq mi (325,361 sq km) total area: 127,244 sq mi (329,560 sq km) Geography: Vietnam is borederd by the South China Sea and is part of the Indochinese peninsula. South of Vietnam is the Mekong River delta. North of Vietnam is China while Laos and Cambodia are to the West.

People
Population: (July 2009 est.) 88,576,758

Age structure (2009 est.) 0-14 years: 26.1% (male 12,069,408/female 11,033,738) 15-64 years: 68.3% (male 30,149,986/female 30,392,043) 65 years and over: 5.6% (male 1,892,505/female 3,039,078) Median Age (2009 est.) total: 27.4 years male: 26.4 years female: 28.5 years Population growth rate (2009 est.) 1.137% Birth rate (2009 est.) 17.73 births/1,000 population Net migration rate(2009 est.)> Year Net migration rate Rank Percent Change Date of Information 2008 -0.39 99  (2008 est.) 2009 -0.38 103 -2.56 % (2009 est.) 2010 -0.38 100 0.00 % (2009 est.)

Urbanization urban population: 28% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 3.1% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.) Sex ratio(2009 est.) at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female

Life expectancy at birth (2009 est.) male: 69.24 years female: 74.45 years total population: 71.71 years

Total fertility rate (2009 est.) 1.98 children born/woman Nationality noun: Vietnamese (singular and plural) adjective: Vietnamese

Ethnic groups: 85%-90% Vietnamese 3% Chinese 7%-12% French, Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Cham, and Montagnards

Languages The primary language in Vietnam is Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt).

Religions: Buddhist (7.6 million) , Roman Catholic (6 million) , Cao Dai (2 million) , Hoa Hao (1 million) , Protestant (500,000) , and Islam (50,000).

Economic Development
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: Between the early 90s and 2005, 29%-50% poverty decreased in the Country. This kind of progress unfortunately, depends on which city they lived in because most people prospered in the more urban areas like Ho Chi Minh City. However, rural area poverty also had some declination. In 1993, 66% and in 2002, 36%. Most of the poverty in Vietnam are in the rural areas in the northern parts of Vietnam and central highlands. Despite the progress, the World Economic Forum's 2005 Global Competitive Report ranked Vietnam as the 81st in growth competitiveness globally and 80th in business competitiveness. Ineffectiveness of the competition ranks are due to government corruption and poorly owned state banks. Economy in Vietnam is continuously growing at a rate of 7% per year. In 2003, tourism was at 2.4 million and 2004 international arrivals increased to 2.9 million. Between 1994 and 2004 tourism rates rose by 63%. International tourism consists of 27% from China, 8-9% from U.S., Japan and South Korea each. The unemployment rate in 2004 was 5.6% compared to 6.0% in 2002. Exchange rates as of December 2005 is 15,913D(dong) per 1USD.

Health
HEALTH:

Death rate (July 2009 est.) 5.98 deaths/1,000 population

Infant mortality rate (2009 est.) male: 22.64 deaths/1,000 live births female: 21.84 deaths/1,000 live births total: 22.26 deaths/1,000 live births

HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate (2007 est.) 0.5%

HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS (2007 est.) 290,000 HIV/AIDS - deaths (2007 est.) 24,000

Major infectious diseases(2009 est.) food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, Japanese encephalitis, and plague water contact disease: leptospirosis note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified in this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds degree of risk: high

Education
EDUCATION: 92% of eligble children were enrolled in primary education. Two out of every three of this 92% finished the fifth grade. Family income compared to tuition costs, books, uniforms, and transportation became less important than finding money to support members of the family so drop out rates were fairly high. However, location is also important. 96% of students in the city completed the fifth grade whereas students in the rural area are less fortunate and only 10-15% go pass the third grade. In the year 2000, 62.5% of students went into higher education. The Vietnam government however, is trying to make secondary education more easier to access.

Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 94% male: 95.8& female: 92.3%

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) (2000) total: 10 years male: 11 years female: 10 years definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 90.3% male: 93.9% female: 86.9% (2002 est.)

Courts and Criminal Law
(Pháp luật)

Punishment
The death penalty exists in Vietnam (Tử hình)

Law of the Sea
Luật Biển Việt Nam in Vietnamese.

Labor Codes
See: Bộ luật Lao động nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam 2012 The labor code is important to Vietnam. Where (foreign) criminal law has the presumption of innocence (to be be proven against with hard proof). The employee in Vietnam has the benefit of being upheld (not to be proven against without reasonable or hard proof). This is commonly discussed as the pro-employee rulings on labor issues. All employee contracts are expected to be in good standing order. Special statutory considerations for employees should be accounted for - even where employment contracts state otherwise. Judges will review workers' rights as a priority.

This is from traditional Asian culture and communist policy. Leadership orients the service (of employment). Employees that aren't opportunistic or willing to be new leaders are retained under proper treatment and rights. A disparity in wages is not necessarily an issue between leader and employees - indebtedness carries to the leader. Because of this culture, leaders can leave organizations with their main supporters. Therefore, protection of business-orientated intellectual-property is not a cultural priority.

In the diaspora, alternative business cultures can exist. Modern employment at foreign national organizations can obey international HR trends. See (Viet):Bộ Lao động - Thương binh và Xã hội

Socialist Law
See: Luật Công đoàn nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam 2012

Social-rights laws are a category of law in Vietnam, which is more than a subcategory of law dealing with issues (for morals and rights).

title: Comparative law and justice/Vietnam


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Comparative law and justice/Portugal

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
Portugal is ranked 110 in terms of its size and of its landmass. The population is ranked seventy-sixth in regards to the world with a population of 10,707,924. Portugal is located in Europe directly next to Spain. Portugal occupies 92,090 sqaure kilometers of land, the terrain of the land has mountains to the north and rolling plains to the south. Portugal's weather is different between the north and south of the country. Cool and rainy in the north and hot and dry in the south. The total population of Portugal is estimated to be around 10,707,924. Within this population Roman Catholics dominate most of the religions with 84.5%. 9% of the population's religion is unknown, 2.2% is Christian, 0.3% is other, and 3.9% is Athiest.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
Portugal's economy was in a steady decline up into the year 2007. Portugal changed their currency in 2002 to the euro. Portugal educational system seems to be struggling, as it is an unmoving and a unwavering obtacle. In 2005 the budget deficit was at an all time high at 6% and it declined in 2007 to 2.6% which was a great leap for them because they were not expecting such a cut to happen so fast. Portugal's GDP(2008 est.) is 235.6 billion. Which is ranked 48 compared to the rest of the world. Portugal prides itself on the production of grain, potatoes, tomatoes, olives, grapes, sheep, cattle, goats, swine, poultry, dairy products, and fish which is there main sources of agriculture. In their industry section of their country, textiles, clothing, footwear, paper, chemicals, auto-parts manufacturing, base metals, diary products, wine and other foods, porcelain and ceramics, glassware, technology, telecommunications, ship construction and refurbishment, and tourism are their main sources. The unemployment rate went from 8% in 2007 to 7.6% in 2008. 18 percent of the popuation is below the poverty line.

Brief History
In the 15th and 16th century portugal was a global maritime power. Portugal lost a large portion of its wealth when it's capital city, Lisbon, was struck by a servere earthquake in 1755. In 1910, the monarchy had been disposed, and for the next 64 years, an oppressive government ran the country. A left wing military coup turned the country into accepting democratic reforms. After accepting democratic reforms Portugal granted Independence to all of its African colonies.

Governance
Portugal is officially known as the Portuguese Republic. The government type is a Parliamentary Democracy.

Elections
In article 116 of Portugal's constitution, it explains the general principles of elections. Any person who is voting or who wants to be a candidate must register. There is a single registration system for all elections by direct universal suffrage. Election campaigns must follow rules in acordane to freedom of propaganda, equality of opportunity and treatment for all candidates involved in the election. Impartiality towards candidates on the part of public bodies. There is supervision of vote-counting. All citizens have the duty to collaborate with the election administrators only in ways recognized by the law. Vote casts are given to the respective candidate. After an election has occured the courts are to judge the regularity and validity of the acts of electoral procedure. Also article 129 explains the election system of Portugal. A candidate who recieves more than half the votes validly is elected the President of the Republic. Blank ballots are not considered as having been validly casted. If no candidate recieves the number of votes needed to gain office, then there is a second election on the twenty-first day following the date of the first election. Only the top two candidates who have received the most votes and who have not withdrawn from the election stand can still participate in the election.

Courts and Criminal Law
The Constitutional Court, was made by constitutional reform of 1982. The duty of this court judges whether legislative acts are legal and constitutional. Among other duties, this court also overlooks the ability of the president to carry out presidential actions and to examine international relations, treaties, and agreements by looking at if they are constitutional or not. Ten of its thirteen members are chosen by the Assembly of the Republic. The Supreme Court of Justice is designated the "highest court of law," but "without prejudice to the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court," and heads the court system that deals with civil and criminal cases.The first courts to try a case are the municipal and district courts. Then follows after the ruling courts of appeal. As of the early 1990s, there were four of these latter courts. The Supreme Court of Justice may serve as a court of first instance in some cases and as an appeals court in others. The Supreme Court of Administration examines the fiscal and administrative conduct of government institutions. As it is not concerned with the state's political decisions or legislation. One section of this court deals with administrative disputes. Below there are three courts of first instance. Another section deals with tax disputes and is supported by courts of first and second instance. In addition to these courts, there is a Court of Audit situated in the Ministry of Finance. This court Oversees the nominations, training, promotions, transfers, and professional conduct of Portugal's judges which are the Higher Council of the Bench and the Superior Council of the Administrative and Fiscal Courts. These bodies have the right to discipline judges whose conduct does not comply with the law. Also looking after the rights of the citizens is the ombudsman, elected by the Assembly of the Republic for a four-year term. In the early 1990s, this official received some 3,000 complaints a year from Portuguese who felt they had been improperly dealt with by state institutions.

Punishment
Anybody violating the law of Portugal whether knowingly or unknowingly will be arrested or even imprisoned. This is because Portugal believes that even if the convicted person is not a citizen of Portugal, you must abide by the rules set forth by the constitution. Portugal was one of the first countries in the world to abolish the death penalty during the 19th century. The Most amount of time that can be served in prison is 25 years, there is no life sentence. They believe that a person will be rehabilatated after 25 years. In 2001 Portugal decriminalized drugs for personal use.

Legal Personnel
The Public Prosecutors represent the State. They take criminal proceedings, defend democratic legality, and defend such interests which are indicated by law. The prosecutors as a whole have an independent and represent what is conformity with the law. Public Prosecutors are responsible magistrates. There power cannot be transferred, suspended, retired, or dismissed except as provided by law. The AttorneyGeneral has the power to appoint, assign, transfer, and promote the Public Prosecutors. Him or her being able to have such powers, also gives him the power to exercise disciplinary action against the Prosecutors. The Attorney General is the highest power in public prosecution. The law determines membership and power of the Attorney General's Office. The Attorney-General presides over the Higher Council of the Public Prosecution.

Law Enforcement
The police has the job of defending democratic legality and the rights and protection of the citizens of Portugal. The police rules are provided for by law and may not be used beyond what is strictly necessary. They can only do what is granted to them under the law. They cannot abuse there power and go over the top with the way they handle situations. There major job is the prevention of crimes. Which includes crimes against the security of the State, and to the rights, freedoms, and safeguards of citizens. The law determines the system governing the security forces, each of which has a single organization for the whole national territory.

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
The total prison population of portugal is 13,384 prisoners. The crime trend went up sharply in 2000 to 2002. Thefts have increased in recent years, raising the low crime rate. Travelers may become targets of pickpockets and purse snatchers, particularly at popular tourist sites, restaurants, or on public transportation. Possession and consumption of small quantities of narcotics were decriminalized in 2000 and legalized a year later.

Hover here

Family Law
Family Law in Portugal is quite similar to America's. Everyone has the right to start a family and marry on terms of complete equality. The requirements for and against marriage and its dissolution by death or divorce are regulated by law without distinction as to the form in which the marriage is or was contracted. Spouses have equal rights and duties with respect to their civil as well as the maintenance and upbringing of their children. Children born out of wedlock may not for that reason be the subject of discrimination. Parents have the right and the duty to bring up and maintain their children. Children are not to be separated from their parents unless they fail to perform their fundamental duties towards the former, and then only by judicial decision. Adoption is regulated and protected in accordance with the law.

Social Inequality
All of Portugal's citizens have the same social dignity and they are equal before the law. No one has any advantages or disadvantages before the law, because of his or her ancestry, sex, race, language, country of origin, religion, ideology, education, economic situation, or social conditions. The only inequality that is known to be in Portugal is against the working class.

Human Rights
The rights of all Portuguese citizens are protected by the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. It is also protected by the Portuguese Constitution. The purpose of the Portuguese Constitution is to ensure that all of its citizens are equal and they have the opportunity of equal justice, dignity and rights. Portugal's Constitution holds alot of information regarding the rights and civil liberties of each of its citizens. Their constituion is very similiar to the United States of America's constitution, and it covers the rights of citizens from A to Z. Articles 24 to 47 deal with the personal rights, freedoms, and the safeguards.The Articles 48 to 52 deal with the politcal freedoms. Articles 53 to 57 deal with all rights for workers. The article 58 to 72 deal with the articles of social rights, and the economics rights as well as the duties you have as a parent. If you want to actually read what the articles are saying go to this website http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/po00000_.html.

Works Cited==

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Comparative law and justice/Portugal


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Northern Arizona University/Environmental Ethics/Journals/Bianca B's Journal

Journal Entry #1 Just clarifying some things… “The extension of ethics, so far only studied by philosophers is actually a process in ecological evolution” (238). In this statement is Leopold trying to imply that “the land ethic” should be studied and furthered by the scientific community? If so, his argument must be and is in fact based on the idea of “social evolution” the idea that ethical obligations must-according to evolution (tendency to diversify and cooperate) extend to the land which we live; in order to completely embrace and promote diversity through preserving a healthy land. Leopold scientifically endorses the “land ethic” by describing a comprehensive land pyramid for people to attach and relate to. It would make sense that Leopold would use a land pyramid as an aid to describe the importance of relationships because in the quote mentioned above, he uses the word “ecological” which until about two seconds ago I did not know was based on this definition: 1. A branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environment 2. The totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment. The land pyramid is simply a pictorial representation of the concept of ecology. It helps people to realize the central concept that Leopold talks about: humans are not apart from the biotic community-not conquerors of it, but active members and effective participants- very important ones, since our scope of influence upon the entire community is so great. Leopold proclaims in the land ethic that “the most serious obstacle impeding the evolution of a land ethic is the fact that and educational and economic system is headed away from, rather than toward and intense consciousness of the land”. Thus, these are the things which must be changed. He surmises a conclusion for fixing this which depends largely on the sciences (as far as education goes) both physical and socail- geography, botany, agronomy, history, or economy…all utilized to teach ecology. Is this interdependency a direct correlation to the interdependency of the biotic/ ecologic community overall?
 * The land must have a right to continued existence

Journal Entry #2 In January, Leopold accentuated how the land pyramid relates to different animals and what the phases (seasons) of the Earth mean to animals such as the “sober citizen mouse” and the “rough leg hawk”. He personifies the mouse and hawk in such a way that represents the core concerns of every living beingself interest for survival. This is exemplified when Leopold talks about what growing grass and snow means to the mouse-food and shelter and to the hawk-no opinion of grass and thaw of snow means food. This passage helps the reader to understand the differences between biotic levels and their relationships. However, I also feel that Leopold implies that since as humans, we can understand the connection between grass, snow, mouse, and hawk that we have a responsibility to recognize it’s importance and maintain its survival. I drew a picture however; I do not have a scanner so I shall attach another.

http://www.wallpaperbase.com/wallpapers/landscape/sunshine/sunshine_6.jpg


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Comparative law and justice/Russia

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
Russia is the largest country in the world by Landmass( 17,098,242 sq km), it is also ranked ninth largest in population. It is so large that it occupies a large portion of Europe and Asia. As of July 2009 the population in Russia is 140,041,247. The climate in Russia ranges variably from humid in the south to subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north. Winters in Russia vary from cool along the Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia. Summers vary from warm in the steppes to cool along Arctic coast. Some of the natural recourses found in Russia include major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, timber. The language spoken in Russia is Russian. Russia is not very religiously diverse. According to a 2006 estimate 15-20% were Russian Orthodox, 10-15% Muslim, 2% Christian. According to a 2002 census 79.8% of the people living in Russia were Russian other ethnic groups found in Russia include, Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 2%, Bashkir 1.2%, Chuvash 1.1%, other or unspecified 12.1%.

Economic Development, Health, and Education
The GDP in Russia is 2.271 trillion, ranking seventh in the world. The GDP per capita is 16,100 making it 73rd in world. Russia produces coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals. It also produces different types of machinery ranging from “rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; defense industries including radar, missile production, and advanced electronic components, shipbuilding; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment” Russia is ranked 152 in infant mortality rate with 10.56 deaths for every 1,000 live births. Females have a life expectancy of 73.14 years, while males have a life expectancy of 59.33 years. Russia has a very high literacy rate at 99.4%. This is due to the fact that Russia guarantees the right to an education in Article 43 of the constitution.

Brief History
Russia was founded in the 12th century when “the Principality of Muscovy, was able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding principalities.” In the beginning of the 17th century the new Romanov Dynasty continued to expand across Siberia to the Pacific. Then Peter I who ruled from 1682-1725 extended the territory to the Baltic Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. In the 19th century, more territorial gains were made in Asia and Europe. Then “defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament and other reforms.” The imperial household was overthrown in 1917 due to “repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire”. The USSR was formed after Vladimir Lenin and the communists seized power.The brutal rule of Iosif Stalin (1928-53) strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives.

Governance
Russia is a federation.In russia the "executive power resides with the President (Dmitry Medvedev), who is the head of state, and the Prime Minister (Vladimir Putin), who is the head of government. Under the constitution, the President appoints the Prime Minister. Legislative power resides in the two houses of Parliament: the State Duma (Lower House, 450 seats), and the Federation Council (Upper House, 176 seats)."

Elections
Just like in the United States, The president is the leader of the Russia’s executive branch, and the voting age in Russia is 18. Article 32 of the russian constitution gives citizens the right to vote and be elected, execept citizens who have been “recognized by court as legally unfit, as well as citizens kept in places of confinement by a court sentence.” .There are some requirements for becoming president.In order to become a candidate for president the person must be at least thirty-five years old, be a resident of Russia for at least ten or citizen of Russia. The current president of Russia is Dmitry Medvedev, he was elected in 2008. In Russia, the president serves a term of four years.Just like in the United States one person may only serve for two terms. The president “controls the Defense and Security Councils and is in charge of the country's foreign policy.” The president is also the commander in chief of the armed forces and "can appoint or dismiss top military commanders, and may declare martial law or a state of emergency." If for some reason "a president becomes unable to continue in office because of health problems, resignation, impeachment, or death, a presidential election is to be held not more than three months later. In such a situation, the Federation Council is empowered to set the election date" The sources of law in Russia include the Russian constitution, Federal constitutional law, Federal laws, and laws of subjects of federation. Administrative bodies issue the acts that must comply with the laws. Just like in the United States federal laws cannot cancel out cederal constitutional law.

Judicial Review
In Russia “The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body for civil, criminal, administrative and other cases under the jurisdiction of courts of general jurisdiction, carries out judicial supervision over their activities according to the federal law-envisaged procedural forms and provides clarifications on the issues of court proceedings (Article 126 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).” ” In Russia “the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is composed of its Chief Justice, first deputy and deputies of the Chief Justice, the justices of the Court and People’s assessors. court is made up of a chief justice It heads the judicial system of general jurisdiction, representing a supreme tier of this system.” ” Some of the duties of the Supreme Court in Russia include:

 * The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation acts as a court of first instance for cases of special importance or special public interest when it accepts them for consideration according to the legislation. The law determines a category of cases which are included in the sphere of activities of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation as a court of first instance . ”

 * The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is a cassation instance in relation to the federal courts of general jurisdiction of republics or oblast. ”

 * The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation supervises legality, validity and substantiality of sentences and other decisions of courts of lower level. ”

Punishment
Russia has not executed anyone since 1996 and the regulations of the Council of Europe prohibit it from doing so at any time in future. . Despite this fact the death penalty still remains in the law books. Its constitution states that “until its abolition, death penalty may only be passed for the most serious crimes against human life." All sentences do require a jury trial. Women are not eligible for the death penalty, along with men who were over 65 or under 18 at the time in which the crime was committed. No crime has a mandatory death sentence.

Russia only allows the death penalty for five crimes. On November 19, 2009 Russia outlawed the death penalty "saying a moratorium on capital punishment should remain in force until the nation fully bans executions."
 * murder, with certain aggravating circumstances (section 105.2)
 * attempted murder of a government or public official (section 277),
 * attempted murder of a person carrying out justice or a preliminary investigation (section 295),
 * attempted murder of a law enforcement officer (section 317),
 * Genocide (section 357).

Prisons
In 2002, both Russia and China also had prison populations in excess of 1 million.By October 2006, the Russian prison population declined to 869,814 which translated into 611 prisoners per 100,000 population. Punishment in Russia vary from “imprisonment, fines, reforming works without imprisonment, publicity, dismissal from office, deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or perform certain activities, restitution of financial damage, and additional punishments, such as confiscation of property and deprivation of special military or other ranks.” According to amnesty international “Torture and ill-treatment of detainees and prisoners were reported from throughout the Russian Federation. Methods detailed included beatings, electric shocks, suffocation with plastic bags and being forced to stay in painful positions for prolonged periods. There were also reports of rape in detention. Some detainees were denied necessary medical treatment.”

Legal Personnel
The judiciary in Russia is split into three sections, “the regular court system with the Supreme Court at the top, the arbitration court system with the High Court of Arbitration on top, and the Constitutional Court as a single body with no courts under it.” The courts of arbitration handle “dispute between business entities”. In Russia “there are eighty-two courts of arbitration with some two-thousand judges handling about three hundred thousand disputes annually.”

The regular court system is the people's court. It serves each city district or rural district. In Russia a decision made by the lower trial courts can be appealed through intermediate courts up to the Supreme Court of Russia.” Cases can be tried in different ways “a case can be tried by a presiding, professional judge and two lay judges called "people’s assessors," or by a panel of three professional judges, or by a single judge.”

Lawyers who choose to have a private practice in Russia “work mostly within colleges of advocates--self-managed, cooperative-type organizations there are about nineteen thousand advocates in more than one hundred colleges.” The colleges of advocates are created with territorial subdivisions--in the cities, regions (oblasts), Republics or autonomous entities. In its territory any college is represented by law firms or legal aid offices, which render all regular legal assistance to citizens: advocates counsel people, draft legal documents, represent plaintiffs or defendants in civil litigation, and provide defense in criminal proceedings.”

Law Enforcement
Russia has a decentralized police structure. Russia has a militia, which is a public agency, that is part of the executive branch of government. “Its tasks are protecting life, physical health, rights and freedoms of citizens; protecting property, and the interests of the state and society from criminal and other unlawful infringements. The Militia is authorized to use force to perform its functions.” The militia is divided into the criminal militia and the public security militia. The criminal militia “has the task of prevention, suppression, and exposure of criminal offenses that require a preliminary investigation; the organization of searches for persons who have escaped from bodies of inquiry; investigations under judicial bodies involving persons who avoid the execution of criminal punishment; investigation of missing persons and of other persons as the law prescribes.” On the other hand the public security militia “has the task of ensuring the personal security of citizens; ensuring the public security; protection of public order; prevention and suppression of criminal offenses and minor delinquencies; the disclosure of criminal offenses that do not require a preliminary investigation; investigation of criminal offenses in the form of inquiry; the rendering of assistance to citizens, officials, businesses, establishments, organizations and public associations.”

There are requirements that must be met in order to join the militia, “a person is required to pass professional training in specialized higher or secondary educational establishments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs or other state departments. To enter these establishments, a person must be 18-35 years old, have a secondary Education and no previous convictions. An officer serves a probation period lasting from 3 months to 1 year.”

Corruption
Police in Russia are very corrupt. Between the years of 2004 and 2005 “Interior Ministry statistics show that crimes perpetrated by police officers rose 46.8 percent … criminal charges, most often relating to corruption and abuse of office, were brought against 4,269 officials in 2005.”

A total of “1,270 police constables and 450 higher-ranked policemen had been charged in 2005 for covering up crimes”. Things are so bad that, former president Vladimir Putin fired the prosecutor general in June 2006 because he was “dissatisfied with his "ineffective" efforts to combat corruption.

Courts
Russia has an adversarial system. The Russian constitution contains rights to “jury trial, adversary procedure, the presumption of innocence, and the mandatory exclusion of illegally gathered evidence.” Russia introduced jury trials in 1993. In Russia the defendant has a right to a jury trial “in all criminal cases subject to the jurisdiction of the second-level courts of original jurisdiction, which includes formerly capital offenses such as aggravated murder, other serious felonies, and some lesser crimes. Registered voters are chosen as jurors from, “territorial jurisdiction in which the crime was committed. They must be at least 25 years of age and have no pending criminal cases or unexpunged criminal convictions.” The jury is made up of twelve jurors and two alternates. The defendant may “present evidence, make motions, obtain professional legal representation, have full discovery of the contents of the preliminary investigation dossier,make a closing argument, and appeal a judgment of either acquittal or conviction”

Crime Rates and Public Opinion
Crime rates in Russia are very high. Russia has a criminal code which serves as its only source of criminal legislation. The code classifies crimes into two categories: major offenses, such as rape, kidnapping, treason, espionage, crimes against the justice system, serious violent crimes, and murder; minor offenses such as offenses against property, hooliganism, and offenses against the public order. This classification helps determine the amount of time the offender will serve, as well as the “type of correctional institutions to which they are sent.” Russia has a big problem with human trafficking. In fact “Russia is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for various purposes; it remains a significant source of women trafficked to over 50 countries for commercial sexual exploitation. Russia is also a transit and destination country for men and women trafficked from Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and North Korea to Central and Western Europe and the Middle East for purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation”

In Russia the age in which a person can be criminally responsible is sixteen. Persons over 14 years old will bear responsibility only for murder, major bodily injury, rape, kidnapping, larceny, robbery, burglary, stealing of firearms and drugs, malicious hooliganism, and train catastrophe. The age for required or voluntary military service is 18-27 years. At age 17 men are registered for the draft.

Adoption
In Russia “local court judges in the area where the child lives approve adoptions. The judge’s decision is based on a review of the various documents in the case and a closed court hearing which usually lasts about an hour. The law requires the parents that are adopting to attend the hearing.” Even though the judge makes a decision on the day of the hearing, “it does not take effect for ten calendar days, during which time it can be appealed. Many judges waive the ten-day waiting period. This is entirely up to the judge, and seems to depend to some extent on the region and on the judge’s experience with international adoption cases.” Russia does not allow gay and lesbian couples to adopt.

Divorce
The Russian Court has jurisdiction in divorce cases on the following grounds
 * Where both spouses are the citizens of the Russian Federation.
 * Where the respondent spouse resides in Russia.
 * Where the respondent spouse has property in Russia.
 * In divorce, child/ spousal support cases when the plaintiff spouse resides in Russia.
 * In divorce cases when one of the spouses is a Russian citizen.

In Russia the irretrievable breakdown of marriage is still the only formal ground for divorce. Once irretrievable breakdown is shown, a divorce will be granted. De facto exists under Russian law which means that the court is not entitled to make any enquiry as to the grounds for divorce and divorce on the ground of mutual consent”. In the case “that one of the spouses does not agree to dissolution of the marriage, the court can order a reconciliation period of not more than 3 months. If after this period, either of the spouses wishes to proceed to divorce, the courts will establish irretrievable breakdown and grant a decree.”

Inheritance
In Russia “the main laws connected with inheritance are: the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, and the Fundamental Legislation of the Russian Federation on Notarial System. Russian Laws apply to the “inheritance of any property situated or registered in the Russian Federation.” According to The Global Property Guide:
 * Russian inheritance laws affect everyone who owns property in the Russian Federation.
 * Russian courts of general jurisdiction are competent to resolve inheritance cases.
 * A will is not the only form of testamentary provision allowed in Russian law.
 * An owner may legally dispose of his/her property before death.
 * Owner’s rights in real property must be legally determined.
 * The ownership of land by foreigners is restricted.
 * Persons under legal age can inherit property.

Citizenship Rights
Chapter two of the Russian constitution provides citizenship rights. These include full list can be found at, http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch2.html
 * The citizen of the Russian Federation may not be deported out of Russia or extradited to another state.
 * The Russian Federation shall guarantee its citizens defense and patronage beyond its boundaries.
 * The citizen of the Russian Federation may have the citizenship of a foreign state (dual citizenship) in conformity with the federal law or international treaty of the Russian Federation.

Human Rights
According to a 2009 report “human rights defenders, journalists and lawyers who spoke openly about human rights abuses faced threats and intimidation. The police appeared to be reluctant to investigate such threats and a climate of impunity for attacks on civil society activists prevailed.” When it comes to freedom of expression the report noted that “several human rights defenders and supporters of opposition groups faced criminal charges for expressing dissenting opinions or criticizing government authorities.” Unfortunately in 2009 “at least 87 people died in the course of the year as a result of racially-motivated attacks. Government officials acknowledged that this was a serious problem and called for harsh punishments for those convicted of such crimes. However, no comprehensive plan to combat racism and racial discrimination had been put in place by the end of the year.” Trial procedures did not always meet international standards of fair trial and there were continuing concerns about lack of respect for the rule of law. In some cases with a political context, the treatment of suspects amounted to persecution. The right of suspects to legal representation during investigation was repeatedly violated..”

Fundamental rights
Chapter two of the Russian constitution gives its citizens rights and liberties in these include:
 * All people shall be equal before the law and in the court of law.
 * The state shall guarantee the equality of rights and liberties regardless of sex, race, nationality, language, origin, property or employment status, residence, attitude to religion, convictions, membership of public associations or any other circumstance. Any restrictions of the rights of citizens on social, racial, national, linguistic or religious grounds shall be forbidden.
 * Man and woman shall have equal rights and liberties and equal opportunities for their pursuit.
 * Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought and speech.
 * Everyone shall have the right to life.

A full list can be found at, http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch2.html

title: Comparative law and justice/Russia


text:
Comparative law and justice/Pakistan

Basic Information
Pakistan is a country located in Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea, between India on the east and Iran and Afghanistan on the west and China in the north. The name "Pakistan" is came from two Persian words "Pak" meaning pure and "stan" meaning country. Pakistan covers 796,095 sq.km with a population of 176,242,949 according to population census July 2009. It is divided into four provinces:

 * Sindh,
 * Punjab,
 * North West Frontier Province
 * Balochistan

Climatically, Pakistan enjoys a considerable measure of variety. North and north western high mountainous ranges are extremely cold in winter while the summer months of April to September are very pleasant. The country has an agricultural economy with a network of canals irrigating a major part of its cultivated land, Wheat, cotton, rice, and sugar cane are the major crops. Among fruits: mangos, oranges, bananas and apples are grown in abundance in different parts of the country. The main natural resources are natural gas, coal, salt and iron. The country has an expanding industry. Cotton, Textiles, sugar, cement, and chemicals play an important role in its economy. National Hazards are frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in north and west; flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August).

Brief History
Pakistan was one of the two original successor states to British India. In August 1947, Pakistan was faced with a number of problems, some immediate but others long term. The most important of these concerns was the role played by Islam. The territory of Pakistan was divided into two parts at independence, separated by about 1,600 kilometers of Indian territory. The 1940 Lahore Resolution had called for independent "states" in the northwest and the northeast. This objective was changed, by a 1946 meeting of Muslim League legislators to a call for a single state. Pakistan lacked the machinery, personnel, and equipment for a new government. Even its capital, Karachi, was a second choice Lahore was rejected because it was too close to the Indian border. Pakistan's economy seemed enviable after severing ties with India, the major market for its commodities. And much of Punjab's electricity was imported from Indian power stations.

title: Comparative law and justice/Pakistan


text:
Comparative law and justice/Cape Verde

Part of the Comparative law and justice Wikiversity Project

Basic Information
The Republic of Cape Verde is an island country, spanning an archipelago located in the Macaronesia ecoregion of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the western coast of Africa, opposite Mauritania and Senegal.The previously uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century, and attained independence from Portugal in 1975. The Cape Verde archipelago is located approximately 604 kilometres (375 mi) off the coast of West Africa. It is composed of ten islands (of which nine are inhabited) and eight islets. The islands have a combined size of just over 4,000 square kilometers. The islands are divided into the Barlavento (windward) islands (Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, São Nicolau, Sal, and Boa Vista) and the Sotavento (leeward) islands (Maio, Santiago, Fogo, and Brava). The largest island, both in size and population, is Santiago, where the capital of Praia is located. Though Cape Verde's islands are all volcanic in origin, they vary widely in terrain. A still-active volcano on the island of Fogo is the highest point on the archipelago (elevation 2,829 meters). Extensive salt flats are found on Sal and Maio. On Santiago, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau, arid slopes give way in places to sugarcane fields or banana plantations spread along the base of towering mountains. Cape Verde’s climate is milder than that of the African mainland; because the island is surrounded by the sea, temperatures are generally moderate. Average daily high temperatures range from 25 °C (77 °F) in January to 29 °C (84 °F) in September. Cape Verde is part of the Sahelian arid belt, with nothing like the rainfall levels of nearby West Africa. It does rain irregularly between August and October, with frequent brief-but-heavy downpours. A desert is usually defined as terrain which receives less than 250 mm of annual rainfall. Cape Verde's total (261 mm) is slightly above this criterion, which makes the area's climate semi-desert. Cape Verde's isolation has resulted in the islands having a number of endemic species, particularly bird and reptiles, many of which are endangered by human development. Endemic birds include Alexander's Swift (Apus alexandri), the Raso Lark (Alauda razae), the Cape Verde Warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis), and the Iago Sparrow (Passer iagoensis). The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds including the Cape Verde Shearwater. Reptiles include the Cape Verde Giant Gecko (Tarentola gigas). Hurricanes that form near the Cape Verde Islands are sometimes referred to as Cape Verde-type hurricanes. These hurricanes can become very intense as they cross warm Atlantic waters. As of 2007, Cape Verde is classified as a developing country after being promoted from Least Developed Countries status. About 20% of the population lives on less than $1.25 (U.S.) a day.

Economic Development
The development plan adopted in 1991 sought to transform Cape Verde into an open-market style economy. The development priorities include the promotion of the service-sector industries such as tourism, fishing, maritime services, and transshipping. In 1994, the government announced a five-year plan to develop the fishing industry, focusing mostly on lobster and tuna. A free-trade port was projected, and offshore banking was planned. In 1997, the government adopted a four-year development plan that focused on debt management and sustainable development. Cape Verde entered into an $11 million three-year Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in April 2002. Economic growth and international reserves increased in 2002, and inflation fell. The fiscal deficit was lower than expected, the balance of payments was stronger, and investment increased. The government that came into office in 2001 focused on implementing tight monetary policies and improving the social and economic infrastructure. A new tax package was scheduled to be implemented in 2003.

Economy
This island economy suffers from a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, tourism, and public services accounting for about three-fourths of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of food production in GDP is low. About 82% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances supplement GDP by more than 20%. Economic reforms are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Future prospects depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, the encouragement of tourism, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program. Cape Verde became a member of the WTO in July 2008.

Health
Medical facilities in Cape Verde are limited, and some medicines are in short supply or unavailable. There are hospitals in Praia and Mindelo, with smaller medical facilities in other places. The islands of Brava and Santo Antão no longer have functioning airports so air evacuation in the event of a medical emergency is nearly impossible from these two islands. Brava also has limited inter-island ferry service. Malaria exists in Cape Verde, although not to the extent found in mainland Africa. The risk of contracting malaria is mainly limited to the island of Santiago, with a higher risk from July to December. Infant mortality rate: total: 41.35 deaths/1,000 live births male: 47.39 deaths/1,000 live births female: 35.12 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)

HIV/AIDS
According to Ministry of Health estimates, since the beginning of the pandemic through December 2004, 1,489 Cape Verdeans have been infected with HIV, translating to a relatively low HIV prevalence rate. Of these identified cases, 800 (53.7 percent) contracted AIDS and 53 of those died from complications related to HIV/AIDS. At the end of 2004 there were 1,063 people living with HIV, and 374 of these with full-blown AIDS. In 2004 alone, 260 people became newly infected with HIV, and 123 of these people are living with AIDS. According to 2004 fi gures from the national HIV/AIDS Commission, 50 percent of HIV cases are between 25 and 49 years old; and among teens, girls accounted for more than half of new HIV-positive infections reported].

Education
In the pre-independence period, education in the country followed the Portuguese system. Education under the independent government has been patterned after the program of popular education carried out in the liberated areas of Guinea-Bissau. The program stresses universal literacy and primary skills, with advanced education geared toward agricultural and technical skills for production. In 1998, primary schools had 91,177 students and 3,219 teachers, with a student to teacher ratio of 29 to 1. Secondary schools had 31,602 students and 1,372 teachers in the same year. As of 1999, 99% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 48% of those eligible attended secondary school. Primary education is compulsory and lasts for six years. Projected adult illiteracy rates for the year 2000 stand at 26.5% (males, 15.7%; females, 34.7%). As of 1999, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.4% of GDP. According to official policy, compulsory primary education begins at age six or seven and lasts for six years. It is followed by secondary schooling, which is divided into two phases of three and two years, respectively. Universities located in Cape Verde include the Jean Piaget University of Cape Verde (2001) and the University of Cape Verde (2006). There are also institutes for teaching and nurse training and for engineering and maritime technology.

Brief History
Uninhabited on their discovery in 1456, the Cape Verde islands became part of the Portuguese empire in 1495. A majority of today's inhabitants are of mixed Portuguese and African ancestry. Positioned on the great trade routes between Africa, Europe, and the New World, the islands became a prosperous center for the slave trade but suffered economic decline after the slave trade was abolished in 1876. In the 20th century, Cape Verde served as a shipping port. In 1951, Cape Verde's status changed from a Portuguese colony to an overseas province, and in 1961 the inhabitants became full Portuguese citizens. An independence movement led by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau (another former Portuguese colony) and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was founded in 1956. Following the 1974 coup in Portugal, after which Portugal began abandoning its colonial empire, the islands became independent (July 5, 1975). On Jan. 13, 1991, the first multiparty elections since independence resulted in the ruling African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) losing its majority to the Movement for Democracy Party (MPD). The MPD candidate, Antonio Monteiro, won the subsequent presidential election, and was easily reelected in 1996. In 2001, Pedro Pires became president.

Modernization
In an effort to take advantage of its proximity to cross-Atlantic sea and air lanes, the government has embarked on a major expansion of its port and airport capacities. It is also modernizing its fish processing industry. These projects are being partly paid for by the EU and the World Bank, making Cape Verde one of the largest per-capita aid recipients in the world. Disenchantment with the government's privatization program, continued high unemployment, and widespread poverty helped defeat the MPD in elections held in Jan. 2001. The PAICV swept back into power and José Maria Neves became prime minister. In 2006, incumbent Pedro Pires was reelected president.

Citizenship
By Birth: Birth within the territory of Cape Verde does not automatically confer citizenship. The exception is a child born to unknown parents. By Descent: Child, at least one of whose parents is a citizen of Cape Verde, is granted citizenship regardless of the country of birth. By Naturalization: Cape Verdean citizenship may be acquired upon fulfillment of the following conditions: Person must have resided in the country for at least five years. Person who makes a sizeable investment in Cape Verde may be granted citizenship without the residency requirement. Marriage: Person who marries a citizen of Cape Verde is automatically eligible for citizenship upon request.

Political conditions
Following independence in 1975, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) established a one party political system. This became the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) in 1980, as Cape Verde sought to distance itself from Guinea-Bissau, following unrest in that country.

In 1991, following growing pressure for a more pluralistic society, multi-party elections were held for the first time. The opposition party, the Movement for Democracy (Cape Verde)Movement for Democracy (MpD), won the legislative elections, and formed the government. The MpD candidate also defeated the PAICV candidate in the presidential elections. In the 1996 elections, the MpD increased their majority, but in the 2001 the PAICV returned to power, winning both the Legislative and the Presidential elections.

Generally, Cape Verde enjoys a stable democratic system. The elections have been considered free and fair, there is a free press, and the rule of law is respected by the State. In acknowledgment of this, Freedom House granted Cape Verde two 1s in its annual Freedom in the World report, a perfect score. It is the only African country to receive this score.

Executive branch
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and as such proposes other ministers and secretaries of state. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President. The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the most recent elections were held in 2006.

Legislative branch
The National Assembly of Cape Verde National Assembly (Asembleia Nacional) has 72 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation.

Courts and Criminal Law
The judicial system is composed of the Supreme Court and the regional courts. Of the five Supreme Court judges, one is appointed by the President, one by the National Assembly, and three by the Superior Judiciary Council. This council consists of the President of the Supreme Court, the Attorney General, eight private citizens, two judges, two prosecutors, the senior legal inspector of the Attorney General's office, and a representative of the Ministry of Justice. Judges are independent and may not belong to a political party. In October 2000, a female judge who was known for taking strict legal measures in cases of domestic violence was transferred from the capital to the countryside. Separate courts hear civil, constitutional and criminal cases. Appeal is to the Supreme Court. Reforms to strengthen an overburdened judiciary were implemented in 1998. Free legal counsel is provided to indigents, defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty, and trials are public. Judges must lay charges within 24 hours of arrests.. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the Government generally respects this provision in practice. The Constitution provides for the right to a fair trial and due process, and an independent judiciary usually enforces this right. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of politicization and biased judgement in the judiciary. Cases involving former public office holders still are under investigation. For example, the investigations continued in the case of the former prime minister accused of embezzlement in the privatization of ENACOL (a parastatal oil supply firm) in which he allegedly embezzled approximately $16,250 (2 million Cape Verdean escudos) from the buyers of the parastatal. The case of four persons accused of church desecration in 1996 also was under investigation. These individuals filed a complaint with the Attorney General against the judiciary police for alleged fabrication of evidence.

The Constitution provides for the right to a fair trial. Defendants are presumed to be innocent; they have the right to a public, nonjury trial; to counsel; to present witnesses; and to appeal verdicts. Free counsel is provided for the indigent. Regional courts adjudicate minor disputes on the local level in rural areas. The Ministry of Justice does not have judicial powers; such powers lie with the courts.

The judiciary generally provides due process rights; however, the right to an expeditious trial is constrained by a seriously overburdened and understaffed judicial system. A backlog of cases routinely leads to trial delays of 6 months or more; more than 10,780 cases were pending at year's end. In addition the right of victims to compensation and recovery for pain and mental suffering are overlooked, due both to the low damage assessments imposed and ineffective enforcement of court sentences.

Correction Facilities
There are only about 600 inmates in Cape Verde's prisons, with a rate of about 150 per 100,000 population. Prison conditions are poor, and they are severely overcrowded. The former President's July 2000 amnesty did not reduce the overcrowding. Sanitation and medical assistance is poor; a doctor and a nurse were available and prisoners were taken to the public hospitals for serious problems. Psychological problems were common. Although women and men are held separately, juveniles are not held separately from adults, and pretrial detainees are not held separately from convicted prisoners. According to a 2000 study by the Ze Moniz Association (AZM), there were reports that guards abused female prisoners.

Abuse Against Women
Domestic violence against women, including wife beating, remains common. The Government and civil society encourage women to report criminal offenses such as rape and spousal abuse to the police; however, longstanding social and cultural values inhibit victims from doing so, and according to the media, such reports remain rare. Nevertheless reporting of such crimes to police continue to increase and the media continue to report their occurrence. Violence against women has been the subject of extensive public service media coverage in both government- and opposition-controlled media. While mechanisms to deal with spousal abuse exist in theory, in practice these mechanisms neither ensure the punishment of all those responsible nor effectively prevent future violence. Women's organizations continue to seek legislation to establish a special family court to address crimes of domestic violence and abuse; however, they made no progress in achieving such legislation. In 1998 the Parliament revised the Penal Code, widening the definition of sexual abuse and strengthening penalties against abusers. The law protects certain rights of the victims; however, does not ensure the right of compensation.

Child Abuse
Child abuse and mistreatment, sexual violence against children, and juvenile prostitution are problems, exacerbated by chronic poverty, large unplanned families, and traditionally high levels of emigration of adult men. The media have reported cases of sexual abuse against children and adolescents. The inefficiencies of the judicial system made it difficult for government institutions to address the problem.

Trafficing in People
The law does not prohibit trafficking in persons, and illegal trafficking in economic emigrants to various points in Europe is believed to be a thriving business. Visa and related fraud are involved in the trafficking of economic emigrants who are smuggled into Europe; however, there are no reports that these persons are trafficked into forced labor or debt bondage. The country is a transit point for traffickers, and trafficking has become a concern for local authorities. Several press reports noted that the police have arrested some persons, traffickers as well as victims. In 2000 such cases involved fewer than 30 persons. The Government was cooperating with European authorities, neighboring governments, and foreign embassies to deal with the problem.

Drug Trafficing
Detailed information on drug trafficking for Cape Verde has not yet been located; however, according to the CIA Factbook, Cape Verde is used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe.

Punishment
Cape Verde has no Capital Punishment and there are no prison sentences over 25 years.The last execution was performed in 1835, when the islands were part of the Portuguese Empire.

Law Enforcement
The police, which were controlled by the military in Cape Verde until 1994, are now separate and answerable to civilian authority. Detailed information on Cape Verde's police and police organization has not been obtained; however, the police in Cape Verde have been discussed in the 2001 Human Rights Report. According to the Human Rights Report, the Government controls the police, which has primary responsibility for maintenance of law and order. Some members of the police and prison guards have committed human rights abuses. The Constitution prohibits such practices; however, despite government efforts to control beatings by police, there have been credible reports that police continue to beat persons in custody and in detention. While mechanisms for investigating citizen complaints of police brutality exist in theory, in practice these mechanisms neither ensure the punishment of those responsible nor prevent future violations. In addition in some instances of violence against women, the police did not protect the victims effectively. There were reports that immigration authorities harassed Nigerian citizens. Following its January 2001 election, the Government began investigating allegations of human rights abuses by police; however, no subsequent action was taken. The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the Government generally observes these prohibitions. The law stipulates that a suspect must be charged before a judge within 48 hours of arrest. Police may not make arrests without a court order unless a person is caught in the act of committing a felony. The courts have jurisdiction over state security cases, and there is a functioning system of bail.

Adoption
Adoption Agencies:  Cape Verde does not have a local adoption agency, nor does the U.S. Embassy in Praia know of an international adoption agency that works with Cape Verde at this time. There are, however, orphanages in Cape Verde that can release a child for adoption. Should prospective adoptive parents wish to hire a Cape Verdean attorney to assist with the adoption, a list of attorneys may be obtained from the U.S. Embassy in Praia. If an American prospective adoptive family is interested in a child who has living biological parents, Cape Verdean law requires the biological parents to legitimate the child in order to relinquish their parental rights. (A sizeable percentage of Cape Verdean children are born out of wedlock.) Even if this step to comply with Cape Verdean law is undertaken, however, the child may still not qualify as an “orphan” under U.S. immigration law, which is extremely difficult when there are two living birth parents. Eligibility Requirements for adoptive parents: Must be between 25 and 60 years old; Must be able to exercise full civil and political rights in their home country; Must possess good morals and economic means to ensure the complete development of the child; Must have apparent good health and reasonable education; The difference in age between the prospective parents and child must be more than 16 years and no more than 40 years. After an adoption has been granted, an adoption decree (Certidao de Adopcao) may be requested from the District Court for Families and Minors (Tribunal de Familia e Menores da Comarca) in Santiago (Praia) or Sao Vicente (Mindelo) or from the District Court (Tribunal da Comarca) on all other islands and in areas outside Praia, Santiago, and Mindelo, Sao Vicente. Adoption decrees must be requested from the court where the adoption was granted.

Marriage
Legal and church weddings are uncommon in Cape Verde. More often than not, a woman will simply sai di casa (leave her family's house) to move in with her boyfriend. This is often occasioned by the woman becoming pregnant. After four years of cohabitation, a relationship acquires the status of common-law marriage. While polygamy is not legal, it is customary for men (married or not) to be sleeping with several women at once.

Divorce
Alot of times divorce is not allowed by the woman so divorce is not common in Cape Verde. Divorce Certificates (Certidao do Divorcio) are issued by the Conservatoria dos Registos on the island where the divorce was decreed.

Human Rights
The Republic of Cape Verde recognizes the citizens' equality of all before the law, without distinction of social origin or economic situation, race, sex, religion, political or ideological convictions and social condition and it assures the full exercise for all the citizens of the fundamental freedoms. The Republic of Cape Verde stands in the popular will and has as fundamental objective the achievement of the economic, political, social and cultural democracy and the construction of a free, fair and jointly responsible society. The Republic of Cape Verde will create progressively the indispensable conditions to the removal of all of the obstacles that can impede the human person's full development and to limit the citizens' equality and the effective participation of these in the political, economical, social and cultural organization of the State and of the cape-verdean society.

Cape Verde Constitution on Human Rights:
TITLE II -- RIGHTS, LIBERTIES AND GUARANTEES CHAPTER I -- INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS, LIBERTIES AND GUARANTEES Article 26 (The right to life and to physical and moral integrity) 1. Human life and the physical and moral integrity of the human person shall be inviolable. 2. No one shall be submitted to torture, cruel, degrading or inhumane penalties and treatment and, in no circumstances, shall there be death penalty. Article 27 (The right to freedom) 1. The right to freedom shall be inviolable. 2. Freedom of thought, of expression, of association, of religion, of cult, of intellectual, artistic and cultural creation, of demonstration and the remaining freedoms established in the Constitution, by law and in general or conventional international law, received in the internal legal order, shall be guaranteed. 3. No one shall be obliged to declare his ideology, religion or cult, political or trade union affiliation. Article 28 (Right to freedom and security of person) 1. Anyone shall have the right to freedom and security. No one shall be deprived, in part or in whole, of his freedom, save in case of a condemnatory judicial sentence for the commission of acts punishable by law with imprisonment penalty or by judicial imposition of security measures. 2. The preceding paragraph shall not apply to the deprivation of freedom for the time strictly necessary to the attainment of the objectives set, in accordance with the conditions established by law, in one of the following cases: a) Imprisonment "in flagrante delicto"; b) Strong evidence of the commission of voluntary crime punishable with imprisonment penalty, whose maximum limit is more than two years and insufficiency or inappropriateness of measures of provisional liberty; c) Non-compliance with the condition imposed on the indicted person under the regime of provisional liberty; d) Detention or imprisonment to secure the obedience to judicial decision or the presence before the judicial authority competent for the practice of or compliance with a judicial act; e) Subjection to security measures, assistance and protection of minors or of senior persons who by law shall enjoy the same status as the former; f) Imprisonment or detention of persons against whom extradition or expulsion proceedings is underway; g) Disciplinary imprisonment imposed on military and police agents with a guarantee of appeal to the competent court in accordance with the law, after exhausting all the hierarchical means. 3. Any detained or imprisoned person shall be immediately informed, in an unequivocal and understandable manner, of the reasons for his detention or his imprisonment and about his constitutional and legal rights and he shall be authorized to contact counsel directly or through his family or person of his confidence. 4. The detained or imprisoned person shall not be obliged to make statements. 5. The detained or imprisoned person has the right to the disclosure of the identification of those responsible for his detention or imprisonment or for his interrogation. 6. The detention or imprisonment of any person and the precise place where he is found shall be conveyed immediately to the family of the detained or imprisoned person or to the person he indicates, with a summary description of the reasons which led to his detention or imprisonment.

title: Comparative law and justice/Cape Verde


text:
User talk:Egm6321.f09.team5.risher

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title: User talk:Egm6321.f09.team5.risher


text:
Digital Libraries/Digitization

 * Older versions of the draft developed by UNC/VT Project Team (2009-10-07 PDFWORD)

Module name
Digitization

Scope
This module covers the general principles and application of the digitization process to build a collection for digital libraries.

Learning objectives:
By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
 * a. Explain the standard process of digitization projects, from initiating the project, to selecting and creating materials, making them accessible to users, and maintaining the collection of digitized materials.
 * b.Demonstrate the critical issues and challenges of the digitization project (e.g., the potential uses, legal and financial considerations, preservation, and technical feasibility).
 * c.Practice digitization, by creating a small-scale collection of digital objects.

5S characteristics of the module:

 * a. Stream: Digitization creates a stream of data entering the digital library.
 * b. Structure: The concept of structures may apply to deal with the technical standards related to the digitization process, and to manage the digitized resources.
 * c. Spaces: The physical storage issues, such as where the digital resources will be stored, and where the network server will be located, can be discussed relative to spaces. Also, images and video work with 2-D spaces, digitization of sculpture and buildings relates to 3-D spaces, and digitization of archaeological sites relates to 3-D as well as 4-D (considering spatial-temporal connections).
 * d. Scenario: Digitization is a process, with workflows. There are a variety of scenarios related to capturing, transforming, and managing the resulting data.
 * e. Society: N/A

Level of effort required:

 * a. Class time: 1 1/2 hour
 * b. Student time outside class: 4 hours
 * i. Reading before the class starts: 2 hours
 * ii. Homework assignment: 2 hours

Relationships with other modules:

 * 2-a: Text Resources, 2-b: Multimedia
 * 2-a and 2-b can be taught prior to 3-b. The nature, structure, composing factors, and formats of various types of digital objects (e.g., text, images, video, etc.) are reviewed in 2-a and 2-b, while 3-b covers the general process of digitization regardless of the object types, and related issues to consider.
 * 4-b: Metadata, cataloging, metadata mark-up, metadata harvesting
 * 4-b covers uses of metadata and metadata standards related to the context of digital libraries in general. In 3-b, the scope is narrowed and covers the issues about assigning metadata to digitized materials.
 * 8-a: Preservation
 * One of purposes of digitization is to make materials accessible and usable for a long-term period of time. 8-a covers the related technology, standards, and policies concerning the preservation of digital objects.
 * 9-a: Project Management
 * While 3-b explains the administrative decision-making processes, mainly focusing on activities related to digitization, 9-a deals with the issues of the overall process of building and maintaining a digital library.
 * 9-e: Intellectual Property, 9-f: Cost/Economic Issues
 * The comprehensive review of legal and economic issues regarding the overall aspects of digital libraries is introduced in 9-e and 9-f.

Prerequisite knowledge required:

 * a. None

Introductory remedial instruction:

 * a. None

1. Definition

 * a. Born digital vs. being digitized
 * b. Digitization: “The conversion of an analogue signal or code into a digital signal or code” (Chowdhury & Chowdhury, 2003; Lee, 2001)
 * i. Analogue examples
 * Clocks, or speed indicators, with the hands showing the continuous change of moments
 * Natural vision, voice, or hearing
 * ii. Digital examples
 * Digital Images: “Electronic snapshots taken of a scene or scanned from documents, such as photographs, manuscripts, printed texts, and artwork” (Cornell University Library, 2000: A more detailed explanation about digital images is available at http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/intro/intro-01.html)
 * Digital clocks, digital speed indicators, and digital photos, videos and sounds
 * (More examples and a detailed explanation about digital objects will be introduced in the 2-a: Text Resources, and 2-b: Multimedia modules.)
 * iii.	Digital Conversion/Representation of Analog
 * An electronic process that transforms the continuous tones, waves, lines or images into segments, dots or bit streams, with assigned values, without changing the original contents
 * Benefits:
 * a. Easy to duplicate
 * b. Easy to edit, or reformat (Flexibility)
 * c. Easy to store and maintain
 * Drawbacks & Risks:
 * a. Possible change of the value of the original object. (e.g., the physical form of the historic documents)
 * b. Authenticity, version control
 * c. Migration
 * d. Reader or viewer software dependency

2. Digitization Process

 * Figure: Steps involved in digitization (Chowdhury & Chowdhury, 2003, p. 106, Fig. 6.1)
 * a. Potential and Intended uses
 * i. Expecting frequency of use
 * ii. User needs to access digital resources
 * iii. Security or access to use issues
 * iv. Control unauthorized access and use
 * v. Shared collection, collaboration, and consortium
 * b. Considering issues before digitization
 * i. Intellectual nature of the source materials
 * Enhancing the intellectual value of the resources
 * ii. Legal restrictions
 * Copyright protection of the resources
 * Resource collection from the public domain/electronic databases
 * ‘Fair use’
 * Using for educational purpose
 * Collecting resources which are no longer under copyright
 * Orphan works
 * iii. Finance
 * Available funds
 * Staff resources (skills, experiences, training costs)
 * Time cost
 * Cost for digitizing, maintaining and updating materials
 * iv. Preservation considerations
 * Possible damage to the original resources from digitization
 * Protection when handling
 * v. Technical feasibility
 * Technical infrastructure for institutes
 * Hardware and software
 * Usable equipment, facilities, and tools
 * Standards (file formats, metadata schema, indexes, storages, etc.)
 * c. Selecting materials for digitization
 * Figure: Selection for Digitizing: A Decision-Making Matrix (Hazen, Horrell, & Merrill-Oldham, 1998, available at: http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/hazen/matrix.html)
 * i. Types of materials (texts, images, photos, videos, etc.)
 * ii. Vulnerability of the source materials
 * iii. Physical attributes of materials (sizes, conditions, colors, etc.)
 * d. Actions for digitizing
 * i. Scanning
 * Resolution, color, file formats, display requirements
 * File format standards:
 * Table: Common Image File Formats (Connell University (2000), Available at: http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/presentation/table7-1.html)
 * Table: Digital Master Images-Sample Technical Specifications for Photograph Collections (Peterson (2004), Available at: http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/tp/DgtlMastersSamplSpecsSelctdRcmndFinal7_2004.pdf)
 * ii. Quality control
 * iii. Conversion / Compression
 * e. Processing for use
 * i. Metadata assignment
 * ii. Indexing (metadata vs. full-text)
 * iii. Searching and browsing

3. Digitization Projects

 * a. Google Books Library Project
 * i. Partnership with about 18 libraries including Harvard University, Oxford University, Stanford University, and the University of Michigan (MBooks - Michigan Digitization Project, http://www.lib.umich.edu/mdp/)
 * ii. Digitizing the full text of out-of-copyright books of libraries and making them available with no charge through Google Book Search (http://books.google.com/)
 * iii. Library Partners: http://books.google.com/googlebooks/partners.html
 * iv. University of Michigan Library/Google Digitization Partnership FAQ: http://www.lib.umich.edu/files/services/mdp/faq.pdf
 * b. Open Content Alliance (OCA) (http://www.opencontentalliance.org/)
 * i. An international consortium among cultural, technology, nonprofit organizations to build a permanent archive of a digital collection of text and multimedia content.
 * ii. Announced in October 2005 by the Internet Archive
 * iii. Scanning books and uploading them to the Open Library
 * Copyrighted books: getting permissions from copyright holders
 * iv. Operating the Open Library (http://www.openlibrary.org/)
 * About 200,000 scanned books are currently available to the public for free.
 * Comparing to the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org/): offering text, audio, moving images, web content and software for public use
 * v. Contributors & Partners: university libraries in U.S., Canada, the European Archive, the National Archive of U.K., HP Labs, MSN, O’Reilly Media, Yahoo!, etc.
 * vi. Video: Libraries Going Open! (http://www.archive.org/details/oca_2007_movie)
 * c. The Library of Congress: American Memory (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/habs_haer/index.html)
 * i. 1990-1994: Nation’s Memory
 * Digitizing some of the Library of Congress’s unparalleled collections of historical documents, moving images, sound recordings, and print and photographic media
 * ii. 1994: American Memory historical collections
 * Received $13 million in private sector donations to establish the National Digital Library Program
 * Partnership with $45 million in private sponsors from 1994 through 2000.
 * iii. Storing more than 9 million documents about U.S. history and culture
 * iv. Organizing documents with about 100 thematic categories based on their original format, their subject matter, or who first created, assembled, or donated them to the library.
 * v. Including manuscripts, prints, photographs, posters, maps, sound recordings, motion pictures, books, pamphlets, and sheet music
 * vi. Related resources:
 * Library of Congress Technical Standards for Digital Conversion of Text and Graphic Materials (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/about/techStandards.pdf)
 * Technical Q&A about copyright, metadata, preservation, scanning, conversion, text-markup, etc. (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/about/techIn.html)

Required readings for students

 * i. Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2003). Chapter 6, Digitization (pp. 103-119). In Introduction to Digital Libraries. London: Facet Publishing
 * ii. Cornell University Library. (2000). Moving theory into practice: Digital imaging tutorial. Retrieved September 3, 2008, from http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/tutorial/contents.html
 * iii. Smith, Abby. (1999). Why Digitize? Washington, DC: Council on Library & Information Resources. Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub80.html

Recommended readings for students

 * i. Liu, Y.Q. (2004). Best practices, standards, and techniques for digitizing library materials: A snapshot of library digitization practice in the US. Online Information Review, 28(5), 338-345.
 * ii. Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute (2002). III. Selecting Materials: An Iterative Process, In the NINCH Guide to Good Practice in the Digital Representation and Management of Cultural Heritage Materials. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/ninchguide/III/
 * iii. Hazen, D., Horrel J., & Merrill-Oldham, J. (1998). Selecting Research Collections for Digitization. Washington, DC: Council on Library & Information Resources. Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/hazen/pub74.html

Suggested readings for instructors

 * a. Introduction to Digitization/Digitization Handbooks
 * i. Baxes, G. (1994). Digital Image Processing: Principles and Application. New York, NY: Wiley.
 * ii. Besser, H. (2003). Introduction to Imaging (rev. ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Getty Research Institute. Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/introimages/index.html
 * iii. Lee, S. (2001). Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc.
 * iv. Lesk, M. (2004) Chapter 3, Images of pages. In Understanding Digital Libraries. (2nd ed) (pp. 61-90). San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
 * v. Peterson (2004) Digital Master Images-Sample Technical Specifications for Photograph Collections, available at: http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/tp/DgtlMastersSamplSpecsSelctdRcmndFinal7_2004.pdf
 * vi. Puglia, S. (2000). VI, Technical primer. Andover, MA: Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC). Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.nedcc.org/resources/digitalhandbook/vi.htm.
 * vii. Vogt-O'Connor, D. (2000). IV, Selection of materials for scanning. Andover, MA: Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC). Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.nedcc.org/resources/digitalhandbook/iv.htm.
 * b. Standards/Rationale
 * i. Conway, P. (2000). II, Overview: Rationale for digitization and preservation.  Andover, MA: Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC). Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.nedcc.org/resources/digitalhandbook/ii.htm.
 * ii. Peterson, K. A. (2004). Digital Master Images-Sample Technical Specifications for Photograph Collections, Retrieved January 31, 2008, from http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/tp/DgtlMastersSamplSpecsSelctdRcmndFinal7_2004.pdf
 * iii. Wisser, K. M. (2007). North Carolina ECHO guideline for digitization. Retrieved January 31, 2007, from http://www.ncecho.org/dig/digguidelines.shtml
 * iv. Technical Advisory Service for Images (2006). File naming. Retrieved January 31, 2008 from http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/creating/filenaming.html
 * c. Practices/Projects
 * i. Brancolini, K.R. (2000). Selecting research collections for digitization: Applying the Harvard Model. Library Trends, 48(4), 783-798
 * ii. Macklin, L.L., & Lockmiller, S .L. (1999). Digital Imaging of Photographs, A Practical Approach to Workflow Design and Project Management. LITA Guides #4. American Library Association, Chicago.
 * iii. University of Michigan, Digital Library Services (2001). Assessing the Costs of the Conversion: Making of America, The American Voice, 1850-1876. Retrieved November 2, 2007 from http://www.lib.umich.edu/files/services/dlps/moa4_costs.pdf
 * e. Digitization for Special Resources
 * i. Brown, M.S. & Seales, B. (2000). Beyond 2D images: Effective 3D imaging for library materials.  Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Digital Libraries, 27-36.
 * ii. Gertz, J. (2000). Digitization of maps and other oversize documents. In Skitts, M. (Ed.), Handbook for Digital Projects: A Management Tool for Preservation and Access. Andover, MA: Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC). Retrieved November 2, 2007, from http://www.nedcc.org/resources/digitalhandbook/intro.htm.

Exercises / Learning activities
'Homework assignment: Building a digital image collection' This assignment provides an opportunity for the students to create digital objects and process the objects to be used as a part of an art image collection of a hypothetical digital library that the class members will build together.

This is a class project to build a small scale digital library of art images publicly available in the local area. Students are asked to create digital images, taking pictures of art sculptures in the area and building a photo collection. (If the university offers digitization equipment such as a scanner, the students would scan images of art sculptures to create the digital files, instead of taking pictures.) The guidelines for this assignment are as follows.

 * 1) Take a picture of any 3 art sculptures in the local area. It can be a school statue, local art work, historic clock, or any other types of sculptures, available to the public. Any type of digital cameras can be used for this project. You can use yours or borrow one from the university lab or library.
 * 2) With the picture of the images, create an archival master file and two derivative images - one for full screen viewing and one thumbnail.
 * 3) After creating the three files of each art work, assign core metadata for each master file.
 * 4) Upload the images and related metadata to the web space provided by the instructor.
 * 5) Write a short report describing the digitization and documentation procedure.
 * 6) View the images and related metadata of others’ additions to the collections and compare them to yours considering the following issues.
 * i. The image creation and metadata description of an art sculpture submitted by multiple students
 * ii. Copyright, intellectual property right issues: Who has the intellectual property rights to the images?

The class will have a discussion session on the assignment at the beginning of the next class.

Instructors need to provide specific guidelines to the students about how to create digital files, the file formats, sizes or resolution for the collection, core metadata elements, etc. Instructors can use the discussion section of Blackboard or similar courseware, or create a simple version of a digital library with applications, like Greenstone. It is important that the database of the collection is available to the students to view their own works as well as those of others.

Glossary

 * a. Analog: Describes a device or system that represents changing values as continuously variable physical quantities (Webopedia: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/a/analog.html)
 * b. Digital: Describes any system based on discontinuous data or events. (Webopedia: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/d/digital.html)
 * c. Metadata: Data about data. A schema for describing data objects, or the data that describes a specific data object (see Module 4-a: Metadata, for detailed explanation.)
 * d. Thumbnail: A reduced-size digital file of an image or picture for easy browsing and recognizing of the brief impression or content of the original file

Contributors

 * a. Initial author:
 * Sanghee Oh
 * b. Jeff Pomerantz, Barbara Wildemuth, Carol Perryman, Eunyoung Yoo, Stacy Kowalczyk, Edward A. Fox

title: Digital Libraries/Digitization


text:
User talk:Pmlinediter

PLEASE POST ALL COMMENTS/SUGGESTIONS AT MY NEW USER TALK PAGE. Ottava Rima (talk) 17:32, 18 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks Ottava. Pmlinediter 17:33, 18 September 2009 (UTC)

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