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Cold weather

Cold weather is common all year in the Arctic and Antarctica, as well as at high elevations, and during winter in temperate areas. Cold weather is part of everyday life for the residents of these areas, as well as travellers who pursue winter sport or mountaineering, or who go for whale watching or to view the Northern Lights.

Understand
Cold threatens health by two distinct mechanisms: frostbite and hypothermia.
 * Frostbite is a result of the freezing of exposed skin and has effects similar to a burn, usually affecting the face, ears, fingers and toes. It can be quite painful and, in extreme cases, can lead to permanent damage.
 * Hypothermia is a decrease in the core body temperature due to inadequate protection from cold, and may occur even in relatively mild weather if clothing is inadequate or if it gets wet. Part of the danger is that hypothermia makes one feel tired and clouds judgement, so victims may sit down, stray away or do other things totally inappropriate for the situation.

Cold weather, especially when it produces hypothermia, is potentially lethal. Someone who falls into water at just above the freezing point and is not wearing protective gear has a life expectancy well under an hour, and longer exposure to less intense cold can also kill; in some cities, homeless people die from hypothermia every winter. In wilderness areas, or anywhere without warm shelter, you need three things to survive: skills, clothing and equipment. A serious deficiency in any of the three can be fatal, though high quality in any one can partly compensate for deficiencies in the others.

Keep in mind that clothing that feels adequate for short walks may be entirely insufficient to protect you against the cold when you have to stay outdoors for extended periods – this can be as simple as not finding a taxi when the nightclub has closed (because everybody is trying to get one), although the requirements are even higher when hiking or snowmobiling. Also remember that nights and early mornings can be much colder than midday temperatures. With windy, rainy, or snowy conditions, more protective clothing is required. Trying to just "tough it out", which may be possible in warmer climates, can be dangerous.

If cold weather is common and expected in your destination, indoor spaces are likely equipped with adequate heating and properly insulated. On the other hand, if the weather is much colder than what is normal there (and the buildings are built for), in the worst case indoor can be about as cold as outdoor.

You should never have to feel cold. Adequate equipment and sensible behaviour will let you feel comfortable and enjoy your stay in all but the most extreme conditions.

Apart from the cold itself, there are also some dangers from the ice and snow. These are discussed under related risks below.

Clothing
"Det finnes ikke dårlig vær, bare dårlige klær. There is no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothing."

- Nordic proverb attributed to Roald Amundsen, first man on the South Pole.

Near and below freezing point, you should cover your entire body. Don't neglect gloves, headwear or scarves. Be careful where clothes join, such as at wrists, the waist and the neck; too short a shirt will cool the back and an exposed wristwatch may cause frostbite in extreme temperatures. It is common to choose clothes that overlap considerably, or that include some method of sealing their edges (drawstring, elastic, velcro or fasteners), or even one-piece garments, to alleviate such problems.

The natural oil layer on the skin provides protection against cold. Avoid washing your face or using skin care products when you are going to be out in cold temperatures. Fat or oil lotions were once recommended, but not anymore; lotions with water or with alcohol which may dissolve fats should be avoided.

Cold air is often not the only thing you need to protect yourself from; trips into the wilderness often entail hiking or skiing through deep snow — something you don't want inside your boots or trouser sleeves. Some trees like spruces may have low-hanging branches with a great deal of snow on them (making them hang even lower) and an inadvertent light swipe may discharge all of it down your neck and back if you're not wearing a hood. If not removed, snow will melt into literally ice-cold water which will cool you down. If you plan to be outdoors in the cold for longer periods, a warm one-piece garment is often the best solution — it will keep you warmer as heat won't escape as easily and it will also protect you better from snow. The drawback is that they may be less flexible when you want to get rid of excess heat, e.g. when climbing a hill (or when you need an outdoor toilet).

Pay great attention to footwear. Boots should be high enough to protect the ankle and for snow not to enter (preferably also protected in other ways). The sole must be thick enough and the boot itself and socks should be warm. Often a thick pair of socks is worn over a thin one, with the thick layer being wool or another type of expressly thermal socks (depending on boots this may be needed at -5 or -20°C). Use removable insulating insoles. The footwear must not be too tight, as that restricts blood flow (essential to keep the feet warm) and lessens trapped air (your main insulation). Near the freezing point boots must be protected from wet snow, e.g. by waxing. Below -5°C (23°F) moisture is less of a problem, but sunshine may still melt snow on the boots. Consider gaiters when loose snow is to be expected. Also pay attention to the head; it needs plenty of insulation and good protection from wind. The circulation system is adapted to keep the brain warm, even at the expense of other organs; roughly a third of the blood supply goes to the brain. An unprotected head may not feel cold since the scalp has few nerve endings, but it can quickly drain the body of heat. There is also a risk of frostbite of the ears, which can be very painful. A hood protects the ears and (if extending forward) the face. Fur or similar at the edge of the hood further lessens wind chill. Scarves or balaclavas make the experience much more comfortable by keeping the neck warm, instead of having to keep the shoulders in a permanent shrug. Long scarves are also handy for covering your nose, chin and cheek when it gets extremely cold.

You also need mittens or gloves; mittens have less surface area than gloves, so they lose less heat. For driving, photography and some other activities, you need to use your hands. It is common to wear a light pair of gloves for that with thick mittens over them to keep the hands warm the rest of the time. There are even gloves with the finger tips left bare or covered with a fold, so that you can get them bare without taking off the gloves. These may be ideal for changing settings on a camera or opening a knot while minimizing heat loss. They are mainly used by some fishermen in cold climates. You could cut off the tips from normal gloves, or if you knit, make them yourself. Don't have these as your only pair unless you know they work for you.

Normal winter clothing
If you've always lived in a mild or tropical climate, traveling to a colder region during winter can be a big shock, even if you expect to be spending most of your time in an office building in a big city. The locals may be used to the cold, but you should bundle up. Consider making something like this your basic winter wardrobe:

 * For indoors: Your warmest clothes, including long trousers and long-sleeved shirts. Wear an undershirt underneath, and either a suit jacket, sweater, or sweatshirt on top.  Wool socks may be best, or you can wear two pairs of your normal socks. Since an icy draft across the gap between the top of your shoes and the bottom of your trousers is unpleasant, consider crew-length or knee-high socks. If you're wearing a skirt, consider warm leggings underneath, rather than pantyhose or bare skin. Wear closed-toe shoes or boots, and bring slippers (or an extra pair of socks) for walking around your hotel room.
 * For outdoors: Wear a thick winter coat, at least hip length.  Add a long scarf, a warm hat (or a hood on your coat), and winter gloves.  The hat should cover your ears.  The scarf can be adjusted to cover whichever part of your neck or head is coldest at the moment.  Consider waterproof winter boots (winter means snow, and in the city, snow means wet, dirty slush).  It can also rain during the winter, and icy-cold rain requires either a waterproof coat or an umbrella.  An umbrella can also be used to keep snow off you, if you go outside when it is snowing. If you think this won't be warm enough for your destination, add extra underlayers, such as full-length thermal underwear and glove liners, or perhaps a pair of mittens to go over your gloves.

Children's winter clothing
Special attention should be paid to clothing babies, children and youth correctly; children need warmer clothes than adults because they have a higher ratio of skin area to weight. The old joke that defines a sweater as "a garment that a child puts on when its mother feels chilly" actually describes a reasonable policy in many cases; children may not clearly communicate discomfort or symptoms, so adults must watch out for them. The cheek and nose of a baby should feel warm even in extreme temperatures. As a rule of thumb, a child needs one more layer of clothing than an adult in the same weather, and even more for babies. But don't go crazy, as having too much clothing is uncomfortable; a child shouldn't be sweating.

Children's garments can often be found at flea markets, as children grow faster than their clothes wear out. Check with a local family, to find the best places to buy and get advice when there. They may also be able to lend you what you need. In small towns there may be flea markets only occasionally, but the online equivalents may have good offers.

The usual options are:

 * One-piece snowsuit: This is sort of like the popular one-piece baby clothes regularly seen on infants, only windproof, waterproof, and made out of the same materials as a winter coat.  Pull it on, zip it up, add mittens and winter boots (for a child old enough to walk), and you're done.  Most commonly seen on the youngest children (and serious Arctic explorers).  Some have clips to attach mittens, to reduce the risk of one (it's always just one) getting lost.  Advantages:  No snow will creep in to bother tender tummies.  Disadvantage:  Getting it off fast enough to reach the toilet.
 * Two-piece snowsuit: For serious play in the snow, this approach usually has bib-style overalls, with a winter coat.  In other cases, it's just an insulated version of rain pants.  Add mittens or gloves, a hat if there's no hood on the coat, and winter boots.  Advantages:  Mix and match the pieces to your tastes and adjust for sizes.  Disadvantage:  Takes a little longer to get on.  The non-bib-style snow pants  may let snow leak in at the waist.
 * Winter coat: For going places.  Toss on a warm coat, maybe grab some gloves and a hat, and off you go.  Advantages:  Quick, not as bulky.  Disadvantages:  Limited protection for playing in the wet or cold stuff, or for being outside for a long time.
 * Bundle up the stroller: In addition to bundling up baby, use an insulated cover on the stroller, and a plastic rain shield on wet or windy days.  Insulated covers may be made with sheepskin or similar materials.  They often cover the whole seat in the stroller, and open with a long zipper.  With this approach, you can put fewer bulky layers on the baby, and still keep warm.  It is important that you do not just cover the baby on the upper side.  The cold is coming from beneath just as much, so add blankets or other warm things under the baby as well.

When it is really cold you need many layers to keep an infant warm. One set for a Finnish baby sleeping in : woollen underwear, one-piece indoor garment, tight hood, thicker middle-layer one-piece garment, mittens, thick soft boots, thick one-piece snowsuit with hood, sleeping bag, mattress, sheepskin on the mattress to sweep around the baby, blanket, wind-resistant stroller cover. Plenty of garment, but allows the baby to take the naps outdoors (with somebody regularly checking, of course – and not before gradually having been acquainted to the cold). Much less than this, and you cannot be outdoors with the baby for extended periods.

If you use a baby sling, you can keep the baby warm by your body, but make sure your coat is wide enough, and have a good scarf and enough clothing for being able to have the baby's face visible as appropriate. You probably want to test the configuration in demanding conditions before relying on it; you want to be able to adjust it so that both of you are happy and safe.

Materials
For materials, avoid cotton because it keeps moisture which can contribute to hypothermia. This is especially important for underwear, since if one breaks a sweat, cold and damp cotton feels like being dipped in a pool of cold water. Wool, silk and some synthetics are more suitable. Cotton jeans are just fine as outdoor wear as long as the temperature is well above freezing, but they should be avoided in severe conditions. Materials with many small pockets of trapped air — especially duck or goose down and some microfiber synthetics — are ideal for a middle layer, combining light weight with excellent thermal insulation. However, down is sensitive to moisture; when wet, it loses its fluffiness (in modern products the down is usually treated to make it somewhat water-resistant). Wool and fur are heavier but they also have insulating air pockets; wool is very good anywhere that it is protected from moisture, and keeps feeling warm even when wet (but becomes heavy and less hardy). It is often used for example in socks, sweaters or a cap worn under a hood. Woolen trousers are better than cotton, but not ideal if they get wet. Also cotton can be used in anoraks, where it is less likely to become wet (even tightly woven fabric usually breathes enough not to get wet in such use) and it becoming wet is less of a problem.

None of these materials are waterproof or wind-resistant, so you may need another layer for that. Fur worn as the Inuit (Eskimo) do — waterproof skin outside, insulating fur inside — sheepskin worn the same way, as many natives of Central Asia and the Caucasus do, or a more conventional parka with a waterproof shell over a warm lining are ideal (but the clothes should "breathe", i.e. allow enough air circulation). Down jackets and fur coats (except those made just for the looks) are usually made to be resistant enough in most cold weather.

The wind-resistant outer layer should usually be snow repellent. Waterproofness is not an issue in temperatures significantly below freezing, unless you need to cope with water (such as when fishing or whale watching). Traditional materials fare quite well, while technical clothes may not work as expected, unless specifically made for cold weather (moisture can freeze inside the watertight layer, thus blocking air circulation).

Wear
Several layers of clothing are often better than a single warm coat. Usually one should have at least a wind stopping outer layer, a warm sweater for breaks and other clothing as needed. At freezing long underwear (long johns) is advisable, at colder temperatures necessary. Pantyhose (tights) are unsuitable, as they (the tight thin types) make the legs feel warm by stimulating blood circulation in the skin, not by insulating.

The clothing should allow easy adjustments when you enter a windy area or start climbing a steeper hill. You should be able to add or remove layers depending on overall temperature. Clothing feeling warm at -5 °C is probably not at all sufficient at -20 °C (and such a drop in temperature from day to night is not extreme).

It is possible to stay warm with a short jacket and ski pants, provided the waist is well sealed, and that sort of outfit may be required for some activities. However, you could also consider a longer coat. People who spend a lot of time outdoors in the Arctic — such as the Russian Army and various northern tribes — often wear coats that reach well below the knee, and even city dwellers in cold areas often wear coats that go to mid-thigh to protect sensitive areas. For women, an ankle-length wool skirt is surprisingly warm when worn with good boots and stockings, quite likely good enough for an afternoon stroll in town even in the Arctic, though not for really severe conditions.

An additional concern is going in and out. On a cold day your clothing will quickly get uncomfortably warm indoors. Getting home or to your cottage from an outdoor adventure, it is easy to change clothing, but shops usually have no place to put the excess clothes, and changing underwear when going to a restaurant is awkward. Thus clothes easy to take off are better – often primarily a warm coat, headwear, scarf and mittens.

When staying overnight in a tent, hut or other primitive lodgings you should have clothes that are easy to dry. Boots or gloves with thick linings can be problematic. Carrying spare dry clothing — especially gloves, socks and boot liners or insoles — is a good idea anywhere, necessary on hikes.

The best way to get good equipment is buying it little by little (so that you have time to discover what works for you), with advice from experienced friends or going to speciality shops with good service. A good speciality shop should be able to sell you a complete set of equipment that fulfills your needs, but unless you know what you need, you will probably get unnecessarily expensive gear.

Tourist businesses may have good clothing to use during tours, and it may be possible also to rent clothing for all your stay, so that you can avoid buying gear that would be used only once. This is common practice e.g. for Santa Claus tours to Finnish Lapland. Taking your warmest dress along is useful also then, not to get too cold before getting the local clothes (especially if you are not met at the airplane) and to avoid renting if the weather turns out not to be severe this time.

Especially if going for extreme adventures, you should also have some time and advice for learning to know your clothes, both what to take when going out a certain morning and how to adjust them in different conditions.

Food, drinks and rest
Keeping warm requires energy and is much harder when hungry – or tired. Have enough food and enough snack and food breaks.

Raisins or other dried fruits are lightweight and good for instant energy. Fructose pills and some candies are also good. Chocolate, while high in energy, loses its taste when cold. Use these "fast" carbohydrates sparingly though, as otherwise your blood sugar level may swing wildly.

More drinking water is needed than in mild weather. Warm drinks, such as tea, coffee or hot chocolate, are also good for the mood. Water or drinks in ordinary bottles will freeze, use thermos bottles and local supplies (e.g. clean snow, if you have cooking equipment) instead, or keep a small bottle in a pocket inside the jacket. Avoid alcohol, as it affects blood circulation in the skin. Many northern peoples, for example Russians, like to warm up after returning home by drinking a glass or half a glass of vodka (and the English use a hot toddy). The alcohol gives a warm feeling and can be nice, but is a no-no in case of hypothermia, as you don't want the cold surface blood to rush to your heart.

Rest is important, as keeping warm is more difficult – and making bad decisions easier – when tired. But when really tired you must not rest until you find safe shelter, as continuing after the rest may be difficult, especially if part of the company is suffering from hypothermia. In such cases, do not let anybody sit down or stay still until the shelter is ready, warm and comfortable. Make sure everybody puts on their rest sweaters during ordinary breaks, too (especially those who feel too tired or cold to do so). When resting indoors, remove extra clothing so that you do not get too warm (and sweaty without noticing – this is a problem especially when shopping, as there is seldom any place to put your coat).

Moving is essential to keep warm. Especially with children, it is good to encourage games of tag, round dancing, or any physical activity during breaks, before they would otherwise become miserable or even passive. Adults are harder to engage, but often benefit the same way. Such activity should not make people wet with sweat though, and at extreme temperatures breathing gently may be important.

A sauna can be a comfortable way to recover from the cold. Don't get excessively warm, though.

Wind and moisture
Cold weather is much less dangerous when not combined with wetness or wind. Moist air will feel much colder than dry air at the same temperature, and wind will increase the cooling effect and thereby the frostbite risk.

Adjust labour and clothing to avoid sweating. The worst thing to do is to first get thoroughly sweaty and after this stand/sit/lie still in a cold environment. Avoid having your clothes and shoes get wet from melting snow or water. Avoid open windy terrain if you are near your limits. Get shelter for breaks. Use dry spare clothes as needed. Changing clothes may be uncomfortable, but you will feel better soon afterwards. Not changing will leave you miserable and vulnerable to hypothermia.

Cotton fares very badly in cold weather when moist or wet. One should avoid cotton undershirts if exercising and sweating; instead, wool and artificial fibers retain more of their insulating ability when moist. The same applies to socks; woolen socks are better than cotton socks.

Getting drenched at freezing temperatures, for example falling into frigid water, is an emergency. Without a change of clothes or going inside into a warm room, hypothermia quickly sets in. In cold water, useful movement is possible up to 10 minutes and survival up to 30 minutes. However, the immediate cold shock response can make one inhale water or even cause a heart attack. When saved from the water, the victim must get dry clothes with no delay (and may need warm shelter and possibly immediate medical care).

Transport
Cars should be equipped with a cabin air heating system for a comfortable ride and for safety. Moreover, the humidity from occupants' breathing tends to frost over the windows, and removing the frost requires flowing warm air. Gas stations sell winter-grade diesel and gasoline in winter; summer-grade diesel may cloud and freeze over. Car engines can be pre-heated with engine block heaters to prevent starting problems. Winter driving is more difficult than summer driving because of slippery roads; the traction is often too weak to permit accelerating, braking, or turning at anything close to what would be possible on dry roads.

Carry enough emergency equipment in the car to survive if it slides off the road and you need to wait to be rescued (or if thick snow on the road forces you to stop). The most important items are enough sleeping bags to keep everyone warm and some means of emergency communication – a cell phone or CB rig depending where you are. Food, beverages, candles and emergency flares are also a good idea. If a vehicle does crash or fail it is almost always best to stay in the car; this provides some shelter, avoids the risk of getting lost, and makes it easier for rescuers to find you.

When biking, snowmobiling or motorbiking, much more protective clothing is required than when walking. The wind easily finds its way through gaps and holes in the clothing. Protective glasses, face-covering balaclavas and possibly hard face shields can be used. Motorcycle helmets are usually equipped with vents that can be shut for cold weather. However, bike helmets are built for letting the wind in rather than keeping it out, and the cold wind can cause tremendous headaches. Using a tight-fitting warm hat is necessary, and some cyclists tape over the openings in the helmet from the inside.

Trains in general are less vulnerable to inclement weather than cars or buses. However, severe winter storms can knock out overhead wiring or block train routes. While problems like these are usually fixed within days, it sometimes happens that a train becomes stuck due to snow (as happened famously on the Orient Express both in fiction and in real life). Should this happen, help will usually be on its way and the wisest thing to do is keep calm and listen to the train staff.

Electronic devices
Few devices are designed for freezing temperatures and even fewer for extreme temperatures. Low temperatures are often accompanied by big temperature differentials (at least when moving in- or outdoors) and condensation caused by these, both of which are much worse for electronics than the cold is by itself.

You should not be too dependent on electronic gadgetry, as it is more likely to fail than in normal circumstances. You should also protect valuable or important devices, for example by carrying them under your outer clothing and letting them adjust to the temperature before turning them on. Batteries give more current when warm, so keeping spare batteries in a warm place until needed can help. A device such as a mobile phone can discharge its battery in quite a short time if kept on in a cold environment.

A few devices simply won't work at all under extreme conditions. Semiconductor manufacturers typically offer three or four grades of integrated circuit, “commercial” (0–40°C), “industrial” or “automotive” (specified to work at sub-freezing temperatures) and “military” (the most expensive parts for extreme conditions, -40°C or worse). No one would think of putting the cheapest “commercial” grade parts in a car radio, but a cheap handheld device? You'd be surprised how many corners sometimes get cut in mass-market consumer electronics.

Overnight stay

While sleeping in a tent or shelter is possible even in extreme temperatures – with adequate skills and equipment – staying outdoors overnight in freezing weather should be done only with great caution and careful planning, with a good enough sleeping bag and with good insulation to the ground (air mattresses for the beach are worthless, mattresses for hiking not necessarily enough). Everything outside the sleeping bag will freeze – and should it snow, anything left on the ground may be lost.

Most good sleeping bags are nowadays marked with a "comfort" and an "extreme" temperature. At the comfort temperature you are supposed to get a good rest (but conditions and people vary). If night temperatures are expected to come anywhere near the "extreme" point, you will not want to sleep outdoors without fire and good shelter. Remember that most weather forecasts cite day temperatures. A nightcap (your normal toque/cap may do if you can keep it dry) and good pyjamas might be needed. Also a sheet can make the sleeping bag a little warmer and more comfortable (special silk or synthetic sheets are sold for this purpose, much lighter than normal sheets).

If you intend to stay the night by a fire, be sure to collect enough firewood before going to sleep and to have a watch all the time. If there are many of you, you can take turns watching the fire. Skill is needed to use an outdoor fire effectively. A cloth can be rigged to protect for wind and snow and reflect the heat from the fire (cf. tarp tents; there are also tent substitutes made for this use). Having it a little sideways to the wind will lessen the effect of it catching smoke from the fire. Snow can be used to seal the gap between the ground and the shelter. A thick layer of twigs between the ground and the hiking mattresses will make the night feel considerably warmer.

When staying overnight indoors, make sure to get shoes and clothes properly dried (without overheating them). Unlike at home, things will not dry automatically in a wilderness hut. Avoid having snow melt on your footwear and clothes. Wilderness huts and mountain cabins often have wood heated stoves for warmth. If intending to use such shelters, make sure you have some experience in how to light a fire with possibly damp firewood (and wood heated stoves in general). The firewood may be outdoors under the eaves or in a separate woodshed. Usually some firewood is indoors, so that you get the fire going, but replenish from outdoors as soon as possible.

Emergencies
If you are away from inhabited areas you must be able to cope with emergencies yourself, at least for some time. Somebody who becomes disabled or wet (stepping through the ice of a river or even a ditch) may soon risk hypothermia.

If lost, you can dig a pit in the snow for protection against the wind, or rig a big cloth with ropes. A more elaborate option is building a wall from igloo bricks, which can protect a tent. A snow cave is a good option if you have the know-how, otherwise they are dangerous. If you can choose between open terrain on one hand and forest or other sheltered areas on the other, choose the latter for your camp, even if not in immediate vicinity. In most cases lighting a fire will help you greatly in keeping or getting warm, although this requires some skill. In any case, remember: necessity knows no law.

A disabled person must have good insulation from the ground and much warmer clothing than those who can stay warm by moving. You probably have hiking mattresses and blankets that can be used. Sharing a sleeping bag is a very good way of keeping somebody warm. In some cases you will have to construct some kind of sledge or travois (e.g. two young trees with a platform between them, carried by the thicker forward end and soft branches left in the other end keeping it afloat on the snow), but usually it is better to have the help come to you.

If somebody gets thoroughly wet boots or clothes, they must be changed without much delay. There might be a house nearby, where you can seek shelter. Otherwise you hopefully have enough spare clothes. Wet boots can still be used by having the foot and warm dry socks in a plastic bag inside the boot. You might want to camp soon to be able to dry the clothes at a fire (which will take a lot of time).

An acute threat of hypothermia is an emergency. Therefore, if exposed and without means of recovery from the situation, one should promptly ask for help, or in the absence of other means, seek shelter by any means necessary, not wait for the situation to get worse. In the event of getting lost in a foreign city at night without warm clothes or a cellphone, one should contact emergency services or anyone nearby, not wander around until hypothermia clouds the consciousness. It is especially important to tell youth and children to not wander around if they get lost, but contact an adult immediately.

Frostbite and hypothermia
There are two dangers in cold weather: frostbite and hypothermia. Frostbite means damage caused to skin and other tissues due to freezing. Although the mechanism is different, the effect resembles burns, and like sunburn, the condition might not get noticed until too late. This is especially true during physical activity such as trekking, or in windy weather. In theory, cooling the skin is painful, but cooling also lessens sensation. It is easy to ignore the beginnings of numbness, and then damage can occur unnoticed. Therefore awareness and active checking are needed. Watch out for white spots on your fellows' skin. The nose, ears, chin and cheek are the body parts most easily affected, especially in windy weather. Fingers and toes may also get frostbitten, but you will more easily notice them getting uncomfortable. However, when exercising in an already adrenaline-packed situation such as mountaineering, it is easy to ignore the numbness or pain, particularly in toes. Frostbite, if left unchecked in such a situation, leads to permanent damage and even amputation in a similar manner as third-degree burns. Active checking is necessary, and wiggling fingers and toes will help keeping them warm. Fingers can be placed in armpits to warm them. Children will often fail to report that their fingers are cold or damp; active checking by an adult is necessary.

Touching metal surfaces with bare skin can cause frostbite, and wet hands can get stuck. Aluminum is particularly bad due to its high thermal conductivity. Children might try to lick a metal rail or another surface, which instantly freezes the tongue, and the usual response, jerking back, tears off the frozen part of the mucous membrane, resulting in a bleeding wound. Many children in cold countries have tried this once, but not twice.

First aid in the field may include gently warming the affected area with a warm body part, for example putting cold fingers into the armpit or putting a warm palm over a cold nose. The main thing, though, is to protect affected areas from the cold so the frostbite will not get worse. Frostbitten skin is vulnerable to burns and frozen nerve endings will not report a problem; be very careful if warming up at a fire.

Once in warm shelter, you can just let frostbitten parts thaw naturally or assist the process by putting them in lukewarm or tepid water. Be prepared for some discomfort; thawing out a frostbitten part is often more painful than getting the frostbite. Do not use hot water; this both increases the pain and risks further injury to the skin. Consider having a glass of brandy or some such to dull any pain that may appear. You should always seek medical attention if a deep frostbite is suspected.

Hypothermia is overall reduced body temperature. It will lead to loss of initiative, sluggish thinking and irrational behaviour. Keeping on walking even when tired is important, not only to reach shelter, but also to keep warm. If you are trying to assist a hypothermia victim, you can usually get them to come with you provided they are still on their feet, but getting somebody to rise and start walking is much more difficult. In severe cases it is important to keep the victim at rest and to warm the victim slowly, without massaging, because cold blood from arms and legs can cause vital organs to fail. A person unconscious from hypothermia may appear dead, as heartbeats and breathing become slow and faint, but some have survived even very low body temperatures.

Sensitivity is highly variable between individuals: people with particularly good peripheral circulation may feel perfectly comfortable in -20 °C with thin gloves and a single-layer jacket, while others may need mittens on gloves and multiple layers of clothing. The elderly, the disabled and children are more vulnerable to frostbite and hypothermia. Another factor is how used you are to cold environments.

Related risks
Where there is cold weather, there is usually snow and ice, which in themselves can pose some risks.

The most common cause for accidents in winter is slippery roads, pavements (sidewalks) and especially steps. At a minimum, you need footwear with suitable soles. Summer shoes are usually very slippery on ice and snow, even some winter boots are deficient. The pattern should be deep enough, 5 mm (1/5 inch) or more, and the material soft enough in cold temperatures. Some boots have studs and there is studded add-on equipment for slippery conditions, suitable for most shoes and boots, for the heels or heels and sole. Heels should be low and wide. Sand, gravel or salt (calcium chloride) is often scattered on roads or paths to improve traction.

In slippery conditions it is generally advisable to do a "penguin walk" with very short steps rather than the longer stride used in other circumstances. This reduces the tendency to slip because there is less horizontal force where the foot meets the ground. Also, if one foot does slip, your chances of recovering without a fall are better because your center of gravity is more nearly above the leg that still has traction. If you manage to put down your feet gently, with no sudden force in any direction, you can use nearly normal strides, but that strategy requires quite some concentration.

Snow safety
Even moderate snowfall – or wind causing snow to fly around – will reduce visibility substantially. It will also cover your trail in little time. In open landscape, like on mires, lakes and fell heaths, you will need some way to keep a course accurate enough to find shelter. Really thick snowfall can make it difficult even to find the route across a yard.

The snow will often hide dangers, such as cracks in the ice and clefts in the rock, or give the impression a cliff extends farther than it does.

In mountainous terrain avalanches are a real risk. Always use local warning services.

Even in town, falling ice or snow can be a serious danger. In particular, icicles may come off the edge of a roof and hit pedestrians below, and a heavy chunk of ice dropping several storeys is easily fatal. Note that ice sliding off the roof will hit the ground quite some distance from the wall, avoiding falling icicles is not enough. Sometimes you can identify both danger zones, keep clear.

Ice safety
The frozen sea, lakes and rivers may be inviting. A number of activities on frozen bodies of water – skating, snowmobiling, ice fishing and ice boating – are fairly common. During prohibition, bootleggers even ran truckloads of booze from Canada into the US across the frozen Saint Lawrence; those were quite heavy but reasonably safe with two meters of mid-winter ice. However, always seek knowledgeable local advice on which areas are safe. The ice may be thin or otherwise unreliable in some areas, even when thick in general. If the ice breaks, it is hard or impossible to get out without tools or assistance. Purpose-designed ice climbing picks, worn on a sling around the neck, are sold to ice fishers.

There may also be substantial dangers from the sheer speeds involved in some modes of moving. An ice boat is far faster than a normal sailboat, because of the low friction, and a good skater is much faster than a runner, but if you fall, ice is as hard as concrete. Skiers and snowboarders do not have to worry about the hardness of ice, but they also move fast enough that any mistake can cause serious injury.

Most importantly...
Have fun! Skiing, snowmobiling or snowshoeing in an Arctic night, with northern lights shining, is an unforgettable experience. Furthermore, whole modern societies live and work in cold climates, including children, the elderly, and the disabled. Winter or snowfall is barely an obstruction, with life in the society continuing normally. Just prepare with good clothing, do not be foolish, and take the simple precautions needed.

Amazing things
In countries where there are cold winters, winter swimming is popular among some, to harden the body or relax and enjoy the feeling afterwards. Usually a hole has to be made in the ice, so this is seldom real swimming, just a dip for a few seconds or a few minutes. Few do this without a sauna bath before and after, and some care is needed to avoid dangerous reactions to the cold. Those who do this regularly often swim in open water in the autumn until it freezes, so their bodies are used to the cold (some take cold showers to achieve the same), but some do this only occasionally, such as when visiting a friend's lakeside cottage, and partaking as a foreigner should be no problem, unless you have heart issues.

Russians, Belarusians, some Ukrainians and Poles, Nordic and Baltic peoples like to combine a sauna bath with a bath in the snow: sweaty from the heat of the sauna they smear snow on their bodies or roll in the fresh snow. Some of them drink alcohol in advance, for example vodka, to easily transfer the cold, but vodka and sauna are a dangerous combination.

Festivals
Many places have winter festivals that make full use of the cold weather for activities that would not be possible otherwise. Three of these stand out from the others with a large variety of ice and snow art works on display, and a fun experience for the entire family.

 * Quebec City, Canada — Quebec Winter Carnival (Carnaval de Québec)
 * Sapporo, Japan — Sapporo Snow Festival (さっぽろ雪まつり Sapporo Yuki-matsuri)
 * Harbin, China — Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival (哈尔滨国际冰雪节 Hā'ěrbīn Guójì Bīngxuě Jié)

title: Cold weather


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Travelling with children

Travelling as a family allows experiences to be shared. It can add interest to family time together away from the pressures of work and education. You can gain different perspectives on places when travelling in a group with children. It is often easier to get to meet local people, people can be friendlier, and when picking educational experiences for children you often learn something yourself.

However, it also often means extra preparation to ensure that you can all enjoy the experiences. You have to balance the needs of everyone in the group, and try and avoid many of the additional expenses that can apply to travelling as a group. You may have to deal with bored children in airports or on long trips, extra luggage when they get tired, and some frustration when they complain after going to all the planning effort when you could have left them at home with the grandparents.

Luckily, when you return home the crisis times seem to fade, and the memories of the activities together get remembered.

Who qualifies as a child?
You know what a child is, but when travelling the definition of a child varies. Normally it is based on age. There may also be minimum or maximum weight and height restriction on some attractions for safety purposes. It is also worth noting that often the definition of a child will differ for hotels, flights and travel insurance. For example while generally we accept that someone may be considered a child up to the age of 18, travel insurance may sometimes let a child remain on a parent's travel policy well into their 20s, depending on whether they are full-time students etc.

 * Infants and toddlers under 2 to 6 years – often no charge.
 * Children under about 12 or sometimes 14 years – child rates normally apply.
 * Young People/Teenagers often 14 to 18 years – child rates in some cases, often there are special youth rates, otherwise the normal adult rates apply.
 * Young Adults 18 and up – full-time students under 26 can qualify for discounts with an International Student ID. Some discounts apply to all people under 26. In some places, this is 16 and up.

Destinations
Often you are lucky enough to be able to choose your destination or the timing of the voyage. Is the destination you think about one that you want to experience with your children, or is it a place you actually would like to visit without them? If the latter, should you wait with it until your children are a bit bigger or when they happen to be doing something else?

If this is a journey you really want to do together, then you might still consider what destinations are the best given realities, such as the distance to be travelled (and the means of transport available) and the child-friendliness of whatever environment you will have to cope with. You may want to do a trade-off between the things you want to experience with your children, and things you can experience with them without everybody getting miserable because of practical issues. If you have a baby, think about development stages – trying to get a child who just learned to walk to sit still might be a fools errand.

If you haven't been travelling together, it could be wise to choose some easy destination first, to find out what you need to do (and pack) to get things work, and to get your children used to some unfamiliar things they will need to cope with: long times seated in a vehicle, not sleeping in their own bed, lots of strangers around, unfamiliar food, what have you.

Articles on travel with children to specific destinations:

 * Africa
 * Giza with children
 * Asia
 * Japan with children
 * Europe
 * Istanbul with children
 * London with children
 * Stockholm with children
 * Venice with children
 * North America
 * Charlotte with children
 * Mexico City with children
 * New Orleans with children
 * New York City with children
 * San Diego with children
 * Oceania
 * Sydney with children

See also destination guides with dedicated sections or substantial amount of content on travelling with children: Austria, Barcelona, Mayrhofen, Paris, Vienna, Rome.

By plane

In general, flying is the most uncomfortable way to travel both for children and their parents. In turn, it can also be uncomfortable for other passengers. However, it is the usually the fastest and often the only way to get to certain places, and for some trips you'll just have to brace and prepare for the inevitable. Try to find a direct flight to your destination, at off-peak travel times. The less time you spend walking through airports and clearing security check points, the better. You are going to have to carry plenty of extra baggage, and this will become a nuisance if you have to keep unpacking. A crowded airport is full of stimuli that can upset/excite/bewilder a young child, so travelling at a quieter time will make the journey easier. Sometimes the only option is a flight at times when children are supposed to be sleeping – unfortunately kids don't always sleep well on a moving plane.

Unaccompanied minors
Unaccompanied minors are children, typically 12 or younger, for whom the airline assumes some duty to care for them. They usually sit in a row down the back of a plane where a flight attendant will check on them during the flight. They will disembark last, and will only be handed over to the person identified on a check-in form. If the assigned person does not meet the child from the flight, the airline reserves the right to return the child to the origin immediately at the guardian's cost.

On some airlines such as Air New Zealand, children who are flying on the same flight but in a different travel class to their guardians (e.g. parents in business class, children in economy class) are deemed flying alone.

Some airlines (mainly low-cost carriers) will not accept unaccompanied minors, and impose restrictions on the supervision that must be provided to younger children, often that children 12 or under must be accompanied by a guardian 18-years or over. Some airlines may charge a specific fee for the service, or may charge indirect fees by not allowing online booking, or not allowing child discounts.

Generally a child must be over 5 to be accepted as an unaccompanied minor. Some airlines require all unaccompanied children under 12 to be registered this way, while airlines like KLM require it of all unaccompanied children under 15. Usually it remains an option for children until age 15 or 17, depending on the airline.

Sometimes the minimum age for a connecting flight is 8 years or over. Airlines never allow unaccompanied minors to transfer between different airports in the same metro area via ground transportation.

Some airlines, most notably British Airways, Qantas and Air New Zealand, do not permit male passengers to be seated next to unaccompanied minors. If you were assigned a seat next to an unaccompanied minor, you will be made to swap seats with a female passenger.

Tickets
Age policy around child and infant tickets varies between airlines. As a general rule children under 2 often have the option of traveling sitting on your lap and not being assigned a seat. Lap infants can travel free on domestic flights in some countries and sometimes at a 10% fare on international flights. Airport and government charges are usually not applied to children under 2, thereby reducing ticket price further. They may not have the same baggage allowance as adults. Commonly when adults are allowed 20 kg, infants are allowed 10kg but exceptions exist and on "low cost carriers" nothing is included.

During take-off and landings infants on your lap should be held in an upright position facing you and against you, with your hands supporting their back and neck. Some infants are more comfortable nursing during these periods and most flight attendants will allow it. Saving a feed for the descent can make the baby much more comfortable. With some carriers a lap belt is available that loops into the adult belt and then around the lap infant for take-off and landings.

Consider putting infants with their own seat in an approved car seat appropriate for their age and weight. This is compulsory in the USA, and recommended in other jurisdictions. Still, best to confirm with your airline about it, as some airlines try to restrict carry-on, and other airlines will not permit an unsupported infant in a seat without a car-seat.

Some airlines do not have the facilities for infants to be booked through their website, and you must contact the call center or a travel agent. Your infant is recognized as an individual passenger on a flight and therefore you must book their ticket before flying. Turning up at an airport with an infant who has no ticket will cause difficulties at check-in.

Infants younger than two weeks may require a certificate from a doctor saying they are able to fly.

If you have infants under 6 months old on a long-haul flight you may be able to request a bassinet (baby bed) which attaches to the bulkhead. This can make long flights much more comfortable for the parent and child. The age, height and weight requirement for using a bassinet depends on the airline. Requirements are usually listed on the airline's website. There are also limited bassinet seating options depending on the aircraft. If you check-in after they have been allocated, then it will unfortunately not be an option for you.

For older infants, consider a bulkhead seat. Arm rests don't go up (the tray is in the armrest), and you have to stow your carry-on bags in the overhead compartment during take-off and landing since there is no seat in front of you. On the plus side, bulkhead seats have more legroom, often enough for moving around without disturbing the occupant of the aisle seat, and there is no seat in front for the child to kick. Some airlines will let you book these when you purchase tickets, others give them out at a first-come-first-served basis at check-in only. Airlines won't let you place infants on the floor at your feet to sleep. Many airlines allow carrying an FAA approved child car seat outside the normal allowances. Children between 2 and 12 must have their own ticket. Children this age are usually given a discounted rate (typically 75% of the adult fare) on full service international airlines, but usually have no discount on discount international or domestic airlines. Discounted children's tickets may have different baggage allowances, so check before packing. Children's meals are available on some flights offering meals. The usual rules for special meals apply, and they must be ordered in advance. Picky eaters may prefer to bring their own food from home.

Unaccompanied children are usually children under 12 traveling without a supervising adult. Not all airlines accept unaccompanied children, especially discount airlines. An unaccompanied child may be required to travel on a full adult fare, and additional fees may be charged. Unaccompanied children will need to be collected at their destination by a named caregiver and may be returned to their point of departure if not collected. Some airlines do not permit connections and no airlines permit connections to different airlines. In Russia a special official document is necessary that states that the child has permission to travel alone.

Seat allocation is important. At a minimum you want to be seated next to your child, but few airlines will actually guarantee that you are. Make sure you and your child are on a single reservation. Try and reserve your seats in advance, if the airline or agent permit it. Check-in early, and if you are not seated together make sure the flight manager is aware you are travelling with a child. If you still can't get a seats together, just make sure you get a window or an aisle seat, as these are easy to swap on board, whereas swapping a center seat can be a nightmare. Some low-cost carriers may require one adult in the traveling party to pay for a reserved seat next to the child while the rest of the party is assigned random seats unless they pay for seat reservations.

At the airport
Airports often have play areas as well as nursery or parent rooms with changing tables and rocking chairs for nursing.

Parents with smaller children can keep their hands free with a baby sling or baby backpack. Slings can be used on the plane with small infants and can give some privacy when nursing. Many parents find a stroller a lifesaver when flying, especially since it can carry not just the baby, but also some carry-on luggage. Some airports and airlines will let you keep a stroller with you until boarding, and the stroller is brought to the gate at arrival. Some airlines allow one stroller to be checked at the gate, in addition to normal baggage allowances. Check with your airline for size and weight limits. If you're boarding by bus, you will usually have to carry the stroller down the jetbridge stairs yourself.

You're often permitted to carry more liquids through security than would be otherwise allowed if they're clearly intended for the use by a child or infant.

In the air
Once in the air, flight attendants should be able to heat milk or water for a bottle, and point out which lavatories have changing tables. Pack a small grab-bag with one or two diapers and wipes for changing, since there's not a lot of room to move around in the lavatories and you won't want to bring your whole diaper bag. Flights with meals may include an infant meal with baby food, but you'll want to bring some favorite snacks in case this is not available.

Regardless of their age, if you're flying with kids you need to bring snacks for them.

Young infants are often content to nurse and sleep through a flight, while older babies will require some entertainment. Bring small bags of snacks and toys and dole them out every 10–15 minutes so there's always something new to play with. Small amounts of playdough, books, and crayons are good ideas. Avoid anything messy or with small parts that can get lost under foot. Anything too noisy will probably not be appreciated by other travellers. Take walks up and down the aisle every half hour or so and look for other babies and young children. Making a friend (and talking with other parents) can make the flight go faster. Infants dressed too warm for the cabin temperature might begin to cry.

Flying in a group can be fun as children can keep each other busy. On a large plane such as a Boeing 747 or Airbus A380, you will want to reserve the four seats in the middle. The armrests move up allowing for children to sleep. Another option if you're flying Air New Zealand or China Airlines is the Skycouch or Family Couch: a row of three economy seats which can convert into a flat "couch" by raising the legrests and retracting the armrests. It costs extra, and is not available on all aircraft models and flights, but it does give more room for children to lay down than buying regular economy seats. On smaller planes, pair one parent or older child with each of the younger children, and make sure everyone is supervised at all times.

Time also passes more quickly for children with video entertainment, like a familiar TV show for younger children.

If intercontinental flights seem too long for children, try planning a stopover or two in between. For example, Air Canada has a five-hour flight from St. John's, Newfoundland to London Heathrow for a trans-Atlantic trip, and Icelandair usually allows having a long stop instead of just a transfer in Iceland. Trans-Pacific flights are a bit more challenging, but Hawaii (or in some cases, Anchorage, Alaska) are possibilities. Look at a round globe (not a flat map) for more ideas. Keep in mind this will involve more take-offs and landings, as well as getting from one flight to another, so it's a trade off. In addition, it will probably cost a lot more as well, especially if you can't keep the trip to just one airline and its affiliates.

Pressure adjustment
Airplanes have internal pressure that while higher than ambient pressure at cruising altitude is lower than air pressure at the departure point. This means that during a flight, pressure will slowly fall, remain largely stable and rise again upon descent. Adults can usually deal with those pressure changes by swallowing. For infants, the buildup of pressure in the ears is painful and screaming is a natural reaction that somewhat mitigates the problem. Babies should nurse or drink something to help with the pressure. Teach older children to yawn and offer them gum for take off and landings. For toddlers, bring a spill-proof cup and have them drink something during take-off and landing. However, if they're asleep, don't wake them; they'll be fine.

You may not be able to keep your child from screaming but a small apologetic gesture towards fellow passengers can go a long way.

By car
You may want your children to use appropriate child car seats when travelling by car. They are as important as seat belts are for you. Some countries require this. In some countries child seats can be rented along with a vehicle, but you may still need to bring your own. It is well worth researching well ahead of time what you need to do and checking with your travel agent or car rental company to see what is ideal.

Tips for a long car trip

 * Try to break the trip up into small sessions. Keeping a young and energetic toddler confined to a car seat can be as stressful for them as it is for you. On the other hand, having a lot of sessions in a row is not necessarily better.
 * Take a music collection your child enjoys. From time-to-time children are more than happy to bop along to your choices because at that age they don’t have a say, or an opinion, but when they’re distressed, over-tired or just plain bored – you need a better trick up your sleeve. Soundtracks to films such as Jungle Book and Mary Poppins seem to do the trick for younger children as well as a selection of fun children’s stories on CD. When all else fails, try soothing classical music to keep baby cooing. An alternative way is to scan the local radio for music stations.
 * For toddlers and up, tablet computers can be a godsend. Pre-load them with child-friendly entertainment and games as you may not be able to get an internet connection while you are travelling. If your child already has a tablet and is familiar with it, buy them some new games that they haven't played yet and introduce them as you're travelling. Keep in mind that some children can get travel sickness using these while on the move.
 * Drive early. Adults are a lot better than kids at adapting their daily rhythm. If you start your tour before sunrise the kids might still sleep for a few hours in the car.
 * Take a selection of toys to keep them occupied. Keep a little rucksack in the car filled with books and toys and keep a selection of "non-toys" to pull out in an emergency. A glovebox road atlas is a good and safe option to raise a smile, as well as make them think they are playing with something that they are not usually allowed.
 * Frequent stops for fresh air, nappy changes and just plain freedom, are essential on road-trips. Pack a blanket and a sandwich to make these stops more fun for all.

Children do occasionally get travel sick and vomit on long car trips, especially when the road winds. Sometimes they do not give enough notice to pull over properly. Preparing for this eventuality will enable you to recover should it happen, just having water, soap and a cloth stop this being any more unpleasant than it has to be. Consider carrying travel sickness bags if you have older children who can use them. Otherwise a small bucket or ice cream container will suffice in a pinch, and even young children can often manage to make less of a mess.

Child restraints
Sharing a seat belt with a child is dangerous. In the event of a collision or hard braking you will jolt forward and the weight of your body will crush the child against the seat belt. On the other hand, even if you hold a baby or toddler tightly in your arms, the force of a collision will catapult them. If you want your child to survive a crash, a good child car seat is the only option. You are often allowed to get your car seat on a plane outside the normal allowances.

Children should be seated facing backwards as long as possible, at least up to four years old and 18 kg, as the forces on their neck will otherwise be too strong in a crash, already in 50 km/h (30 mph). If you are not using your own car, check airbag configuration: children must not sit where there is an active airbag (except when forward facing with some modern ones, and airbag curtains). Children need a restraint until they are 10–12 years and 135 cm (the latter is a legal requirement in the EU), as the seat belt in itself is not designed for young or small bodies. Older children can get away with a booster seat holding the lap belt and raising the child to get the shoulder belt in the right position, provided they can sit properly all the voyage (which might not be the case if they are tired).

In more developed countries, child car seats may be compulsory, and imported ones may not be certified for use there. If so, you might have to get one locally.

Car seat regulations are lax in many developing countries and you may choose to carry your own. However, in many countries, especially in South Asia, taxis may not even be equipped with seat belts. In these countries, you will either have to learn to live without a car seat and safety belt, or carry your own car seat and hire a car equipped with working seat belts.

Several companies make small, portable, restraints that act as travel car-seats. These can be folded up and packed in a day bag for use in rental cars and taxis. These only work, however, if there are adult lap or shoulder belts. Also check their certified effectiveness.

Rentals and taxis
If you are renting a car, most rental companies rent you child and infant seats at an additional cost. Check that what they offer is adequate.

The availability of car seats and the legal requirement to use or provide one in a taxi varies from country to country and city to city – even from company to company: In London, black cabs are exempt from the car seat regulation, while minicabs must provide one on request.

If you want your child to be in a suitable restraint, either carry your own or check local regulations before traveling. Isofix connectors may be absent in some cars, especially older ones, so a car seat that does not need those may be preferable.

By public transport
Make sure your children are seated and/or holding on to something in case of sudden stops (for trains: switches). Also be aware of travelling at peak times when public transport can get very crowded – try to learn when these times are and travel outside them.

Like when travelling by car, a little rucksack with books, toys and similar may save your day on longer journeys. Something to eat and drink is also good to have, although try to avoid overly messy or smelly food for the sake of your fellow passengers and yourself. Don't forget the baby wipes!

Bus
Public buses, for the most part, don't have seat belts. This often leads to children, especially younger children, wanting to climb on seats and run around. Try to (calmly) emphasize that this is dangerous and that they should sit down or hold onto something, especially as some bus drivers will brake and accelerate sharply. Even small children have no problem in behaving well on short rides (and less problems on long rides), if this mode of transport is a familiar one – train at home if possible.

On newer long-distance or even regional buses, there may be seat-belts and buckling up may be mandatory. While carrying a child seat may be impractical, having a booster seat or something usable as one can be painless – and may allow your child to actually see the landscape without sitting on your lap. Like in cars, don't share a seatbelt, as you would crash your child. As the bus is heavy, accidents where seatbelts are critical are much more rare than with cars.

If you are on a double-decker bus, such as the famous red buses of London, going up to the top deck of the bus and sitting in the front seats can be a lot of fun! The views are often great and you can pretend you're driving the bus!

Long distance buses usually have quite cramped seating compared to trains and don't allow any running around. The main advantage they have over a car is that you don't have to focus on the road and thus can keep your children entertained. You should try to ascertain whether the bus has a toilet or how often it makes bathroom breaks before booking.

Train
Many parents prefer travel by train over most other forms of travel as it enables children to run around (do make sure that the children do not disturb other passengers), there is more space, bathroom breaks are no major problem and the changing scenery provides a conversation topic and distraction. Furthermore there is usually more space than on a bus or a plane to play board games or employ electronic entertainment and not having to focus on the road means you can engage with the small travellers much better. Trains are also inherently fascinating pieces of technology to many children and adults alike and there are both numerous works of fiction and things published by railway companies themselves to satisfy the curiosity of little train enthusiasts while on a train. With the exception of tilting trains, motion sickness – which can be a major problem on planes, buses and cars – is also much rarer on trains.

Especially local trains can be very full at rush hours. Long-distance trains may have compulsory seat reservation, but otherwise they also may be full occasionally. In some countries more or less all public transport is crowded.

Some trains have children's cars, with playing space, entertainment, a place to heat food for infants and a well equipped toilet. Get a ticket with seats in or near that car. On some trains you can book a small compartment for yourself. A sleeper cabin can be a great adventure!

In some countries trains have "quiet carriages". These are, as they are labelled, carriages for people who do not wish to be disturbed by needless noise. Ensure that you do not book these carriages or get seats there on boarding, as trying to keep most children quiet is a fool's errand.

If your train is late for a transfer, talk to the conductor, as your ability to run or adjust your plans are limited. They are often understanding. Some railroads (e.g. Deutsche Bahn) have a tool on their online booking system to select only connections with transfer times over a certain margin when booking, but you can certainly ask an agent to select such a train when booking at the counter.

While the problems in tunnels in terms of pressure in the ears are not entirely unlike on planes, most travel problems children encounter are lessened by trains having more space and running at or close to ground level.

Of all modes of public transport, trains also generally have the most generous luggage allowance (though you might wish for some help loading and unloading), which can be a godsend if you have small children that need more stuff than you could ever carry in a small carry-on piece. Check whether special measures are needed to get a baby carriage on board – it won't be appreciated in the corridor of a busy commuter train.

By boat
Going by boat can be a great way to cover a lot of ground with young children or a fun way to relax with the whole family. Before booking you'll want to find out some specifics, at least on some journeys:

 * Are there child or infant rates? Do they include any activities?
 * How safe is the boat for children? What sort of railing is there on the main decks and possible cabin balconies?
 * What sort of child-friendly food is there?
 * Is it possible to request an early dining time?
 * Is there a children's play room or children's club on the boat?
 * Is baby sitting service available? In the cabins? In the evening?

When aboard, find out if there are life vests and other safety/emergency equipment available for smaller children (they may be at a separate location).

Keep children close by at all times and always check whether there are dangers, such as insufficient railing.

Cruises
While some cruises are specifically geared towards families and children, almost all cruise lines now have some services for families. Before booking a cruise you'll want to find out some specifics:
 * Are the excursions suitable for children? How much walking is involved? Is it possible to visit the sites unaccompanied?

By foot

You may want to put some thought in how you are moving around when not using vehicles. Are your children used to walking moderate distances?

Are you planning to bring a pram or stroller? The models differ quite a lot in versatility, in easiness to pack in tight spaces, in what luggage can fit, in usability in cobblestone streets or on beaches, etc. Old towns were quite emphatically not designed for strollers or the likes and can be more of a hindrance than anything. Similarly, getting a stroller into a full metro can be impossible, so avoid rush hour.

A baby sling can be a good alternative, especially if streets and roads are in bad shape. Some slings can be used to carry even quite big children (up to school age and more). If considering this, be sure both you and your child are used to the sling you choose before you leave home. Specialized backpacks are also available, mostly for quite big children.

By bicycle
If your children are big enough and accustomed to cycling – and your routes and the traffic culture make biking safe – then all you have to do may be to find out what local law says about bikes and whether there is something in the traffic culture you and your children need to check up on and learn. Keeping strictly to the right (or left, if appropriate) may be more important than what your are used to.

Biking among cars is usually quite dangerous also for seasoned bikers, and in an unfamiliar (perhaps chaotic) driving culture, you may not want to trust your children not to make mistakes. Check routes more carefully than you would on your own and have some reliable practice for stopping to discuss the situation when traffic isn't what you expected. Probably one of the adults should go first, and if they stop, everybody should.

In many jurisdictions children are allowed to cycle on the pavement, pedestrian traffic permitting. Leading your bike on the pavement is usually allowed, but if pavements are crowded, this might not really be an option.

Small children can ride as passengers if your bike is suitably equipped. In some jurisdiction a child seat (a lighter version of what is used in cars) is mandated. There are also other arrangements, such as a (purpose-built) bike lacking front wheel used as trailer or real trailers with seats for small children (perhaps up to 6 years or so). Note that gravel from your tyres may fly in the face of anybody behind you – there are screens on those trailers for a reason. As the trailer is low and wide, it usually has a flag on a pole, making it more visible.

Hiring bikes and equipment for children may be significantly more difficult than hiring adults' bikes. Check ahead.

You certainly want to have biking helmets for your children. Use helmets yourselves also, to protect you (what happens to your children if you are hurt?) and to avoid any arguments about their necessity.

Children's passports
Increasingly, any child, including a newborn baby, needs their own passport, rather than being able to travel on their parent's passport. Check with your local authorities in plenty of time to get a separate passport for each of your children. You may also want to allow time to check into requirements for children's passport photographs, as some countries apply the same restrictions to photos of babies as they do to photos of adults. (For example, the United Kingdom used to require that a baby had a neutral expression on its face and was looking at the camera with the color of its eyes visible—a difficult feat for newborns!)

Many countries will require that all adults who have a legal parental relationship with a child agree to a passport being issued to the child. Allow extra time for the application if you think you will have any difficulty demonstrating this.

Permission to travel with children
A parent travelling alone with their children (single parent or not) can often be asked questions at immigration about the status of the other parent. Usually a straightforward reply will suffice to satisfy the immigration official. A parent with a different surname to the child may have additional questions to satisfy immigration. Some countries recommend, others require, a letter from any legal guardian who is not travelling with you, agreeing to your travel plans, or documentation of court orders granting you sole custody or similar arrangements. A signed letter to the effect of "I, parent to NN, know and approve of the travel of my child with their parent X" can smooth things over a lot. Some countries have further legal requirements for a particular type of documentation, even for domestic travel. Check with the appropriate department of your destination to make sure.

Friends or relatives travelling with children should seek advice from the authorities at the origin and destination as to what, if any, documentation they may require. An informal letter as above (signed by both parents) can be handy even if no documentation is legally necessary.

In general, if court orders apply to the care of children, for example following a divorce, you may wish to seek legal advice as to whether there is any risk of them being challenged at your destination. Take particular care if your child or your child's parents are citizens or possible dual-nationals of the destination country – or regarded as such: some countries ignore denouncements of citizenship.

Do
Take your time. If you try to visit a destination as in adult company, you will soon be miserable. Children often do not understand the grandness of the destinations: a toddler at the Rotterdam Zoo may well be most interested in the ants on the walkway. A picnic, a nap, a visit to a small playground, all of which are simple things you could as well do at home, will help the children keep their good temper. Indeed, keeping things much like at home may be key when children are becoming tired or otherwise might get grumpy.

Attractions such as swimming pools and amusement parks generally require younger children to be supervised by an adult caregiver or responsible older child. Age limits vary but if the child is getting in at the child rate, expect supervision to be required. If in doubt, ask.

There are "family" tickets to many attractions and sometimes on trains etc. Always check this option, as they may in effect give the children free tickets. Often they include two adults and two children, regardless of relationship. However Deutsche Bahn is notoriously insistent that the "free children tickets" discount only applies to actual (grand)sons and (grand)daughters.

Trips to child-friendly amusement parks such as Disneyland, Legoland, or those at the Gold Coast may keep children keen and even be enjoyable for adults. Wildlife sanctuaries or places where children can get up close with animals, or museums with dinosaurs or any other interests your child has, can all keep kids occupied and may make them put up with the "boring bits" of the trip their parents want to do.

Especially with smaller children, the important bit is to really have time for them; be attentive to their questions, observations and thoughts. If worries about the schedule or distractions around made you just rush forward and give orders rather than your ear to them, try to compensate at some nice place where they have your full attention – and make sure you really listen this time.

Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding is by far the easiest way to feed infants and young children on a trip. There's no preparation or utensils required and nothing extra to pack. If you are planning a voyage, then you might want to continue longer than you else would; many countries recommend 5–6 months of exclusive breastfeeding (letting your baby taste a bit of your food at any meal when old enough, but no formula), and partial breastfeeding to an age of 1½–3 years. In some cultures, partial breastfeeding is common significantly later.

While several countries, including Canada, Scotland and Sweden, and several US states, have laws guaranteeing a mother's right to nurse in public, it may be illegal in others – or just not universally accepted, legal or not. Usually breastfeeding just requires some discretion such as choosing a private place or using a sling for privacy, but it is best to be aware of legal and cultural issues before you arrive.

Mothers with new or colicky infants should be aware of the effect of introducing new or spicy food into their diet, as this can change the flavor of their milk. Also discuss whether any medication you need for the journey is safe for the child.

Bottlefeeding
Preparing milk or formula for young children while travelling requires some planning. On an extended trip or road trip it may be worth bringing a small electric kettle for boiling water unless you know you will have facilities available. Bring a bottle brush and soap for cleaning bottles or pumps in bathroom sinks. Find out what to do if the water may be unsafe. Check the availability of formula at your destination, or bring your own. Travel may not be the best time to try changing formula. If your child has special needs (such as soy based, organic or wheat-free formula), check that these are available at the destination. Mothers who are expressing and storing breastmilk for bottlefeeding will need to check on appropriate refrigeration facilities.

Restaurants
Many restaurants can accommodate young children and serve children sized meals. However, checking before booking a table is always wise. Some restaurants cater especially for families and offer permanent special deals or activities such as paper and pencils or a playing corner. In some countries, such as Finland, it is customary to have a special menu with a few common and neutral dishes for young children. The restaurant may also accept your bringing food for children too young to appreciate the restaurant's offers.

Evening meals
If your children aren't accustomed to eating dinner late in the evening, they may want your familiar evening meal. This can require some planning, as few hotels have facilities for preparing food and eating at your room, grocery stores may be closed at the time you arrive, and the foodstuff your children are accustomed to may be absent from the local store shelves.

Sweets
Sweets and juice are a multi-purpose tool. They can be used as a reward system in boring times. For example. Child says: 'I'm bored!' Parent says: 'If you sit still and read your book for another half an hour, we can park at a rest stop and eat some cake.'

Chewy sweets and suckers are also great for relieving the pressure on a child's ears when landing and taking off in an airplane. Have these ready, especially for younger children who are flying for the first time.

Use this tool restrictively, though. Too much sweets is never good, and it can both cause travel sickness and upset the normal eat and sleep rhythm. Depending on your child and what you have been doing at home, the "sweets" don't have to be unhealthy. Chewing on a carrot can work as distraction and variation in the same manner sweets would. Some children may appreciate local things uncommon at home, such as fresh peas bought at the open-air market or the farm you visited. Be aware that some healthy sounding sweets, such as dried fruit, often contain large amounts of (added) sugar.

Drink
Places that serve only or primarily alcoholic drinks may prohibit children, either due to the local laws or due to the owners' belief that they'll make more money if they provide an adults-only environment. Check the local bylaws before entering bars, nightclubs, and restaurants. There may be a special family entertaining area that that can be used or an attached restaurant.

Tap water can not be presumed safe to drink in many countries of the world. Parents need to take precautions to ensure children don't drink unclean water. Provide bottled water, sodas, or other drinks for them. Show them how to brush teeth with bottled water. Parents with babies will want to plan how to prepare bottles. Bringing your own pre-mixed formula (sold in disposable sterile bottles) is a good solution for shorter trips, but if weight or airline restrictions become an issue, powdered formula and locally purchased bottled water may work better. If your children are breastfeeding (and you find spaces for that, see above), then most of the problem goes away – plain bottled water and safe local food pose no big challenges.

Sleep
Many accommodation places are set up for adult singles and couples. Travelling as a group of three or more may require you to reserve an extra room or a special family suite. You should always reserve accommodation well in advance so that the proprietor can make appropriate arrangements, such as installing an extra bed. There may be additional charges for extra people as well.

Although there are hotels especially catering to families, most hotels built to be hotels, especially modern ones, are standardized to the two-per-room concept (often with the option of an additional bed) and optimized as to square meters per room. Older or odd buildings and other kinds of accommodation often have rooms more suitable for families. Some youth hostels have suitable facilities. Cottages are quite a safe bet, although you should check the standard (you probably want to avoid surprises such as lack of hot water).

In some locations there may formally be strict rules about number of persons in a room (enforced by booking software), while the proprietors could not care less and are happy to make needed arrangements. A phone call before doing the booking can help in such situations.

Hotels often offer in-house babysitting services or can refer you to a local service. You might also want to check facilities such as playing yards or parks in the vicinity. Check the language issue.

A vacation rental or a second home might provide security and comfort suitable for families with children.

Campsites are often very family friendly and you can either use your own camping or caravaning equipment or – at least at the bigger, more popular sites – rent a tent or caravan already built for you, or a cottage. Some of the companies that offer such services are so family-oriented that their default nomenclature for a party of guests is even "family" (though they of course also take the business of anyone not a family if they so chose).

What to take for your trip
The physical environment when travelling may have a negative effect on your child. To be prepared, you should consider bringing a few helpful provisions:
 * Child-friendly motion sickness pills
 * Lip balm and moisturizer for dry skin
 * Paracetamol (called acetaminophen in the US)
 * Sunscreen (check suitability for children)
 * Child car seat sun visor

Children are messy at the best of times. When they are in a car or on a plane, they make even more mess than usual. Do not give them full glasses of juice or watery puddings. Very importantly: keep your bag of cleaning essentials close by – not locked away in the overhead compartment, or in the boot of the car. Messy incidents will happen at the most inopportune times.

Here is a basic checklist to consider:
 * Wet wipes – an absolute must
 * A bag to throw rubbish in
 * A change of clothes for you and your child, packed in a plastic bag – trust us, you could very well need it, and the plastic bag makes a nice place to store the wet or dirty ones.
 * Extra wet wipes
 * Spare nappies for the babies, and a travel potty for the toddlers
 * A tea towel or two
 * More wet wipes
 * Have we mentioned wet wipes yet?

Don't forget plenty of materials to keep the kids entertained and fed. Bring more toys and snacks than you think you'll need, and load up a laptop or tablet with videos and games.

For infants

 * Magnets for a fridge are very popular with infants at 7-10 months. (They like to remove them from the fridge and then put them back on. This is an exercise for the arms.) Go for rubber magnets with no sharp edges, no more than twice the size of the child's palm.

For bigger children

 * T-shirts with funny stamps.
 * Various presents according to age.

Pregnancy and childbirth
Travellers, especially those on long trips for business or study, may have children born while outside their home country. Aside from making sure that local birthing or medical facilities meet your requirements (including budget; also if there are complications), you will wish to make sure that your child's birth is sufficiently well-documented that you can at some point take them home!

If you are already pregnant, consider whether, when and how to travel, and whether your destination is safe. Some of the considerations apply if you get or plan to get pregnant during your stay.

 * Risk of pregnancy complications, miscarriage or premature birth varies between pregnancies, and you should consider your own risk when planning travel where you will be away from your own medical practitioners, or away from medical facilities of the kind they are used to. Statistically, the safest weeks to travel are between the 18th and 24th week.
 * Many vaccines (specifically, live ones) are not considered safe for pregnant women (or often even women who are planning a pregnancy) to receive due to a risk to the health of the fetus. You might not be able to travel to destinations that require vaccinations you haven't had before getting pregnant. A waiver for the yellow fever vaccine can sometimes be obtained, depending on the prevalence of yellow fever at your destination. Some inactivated vaccines are considered safe, including varieties of the influenza vaccine and Hepatitis B. Even if you don't normally get vaccinated for influenza, some doctors may advise you to take this precaution as the disease can be more severe in pregnant women. In any case, consult a medical expert at least 6 weeks before travel.
 * The mosquito-borne Zika virus can cause severe damage to a child in the womb. There are defences, such as long sleeves and mosquito repellents, but there is no vaccine and no cure. The epidemic has ended, but the US and Canadian governments advise pregnant women to talk to a health care provider before travel to areas with a risk of Zika, and to take precautions against transmission.
 * Malaria, in addition to its danger to the woman, can also cause miscarriage or premature birth. Not all anti-malarial drugs are safe to take during pregnancy.
 * You should seriously consider getting comprehensive medical or traveller's insurance that would pay for you to be medically evacuated if needed. Should you plan on travelling to a country with restrictive abortion legislation, the need may include situations where an abortion is needed for medical reasons, but not legal or available at the destination.
 * Travel at high altitudes is not advised.

Some forms of transport have their own issues:
 * Air travel is not recommended for pregnant women beyond 36 weeks (earlier for complicated pregnancies or multiples), and most airlines impose restrictions on pregnant women close to term. You may need to present a letter to the airline from your doctor stating that you are less than 36 weeks pregnant and that it is safe for you to fly. Inquire with your airline. Also keep in mind that pregnant women have an increased risk of developing deep vein thrombosis (DVT), or blood clots. If travelling by air, get up and walk around to stretch regularly.
 * When using a seat belt, make sure to fasten it below your belly.

Some activities are not safe for pregnant women, particularly alpine and water skiing and scuba diving. Unaccustomed strenuous activity, hottubbing or saunaing might also cause complications. Check with your health provider, but in general the guideline is to maintain about the same level of activity that you did before pregnancy.

If you aren't very early in your pregnancy, you must take into account the possibility of giving birth unexpectedly. Make sure to check where to call and how to handle the situation.
 * What birthing centre are you planning to use? How do you get there? If planning to give birth "at home", how will you call a midwife? What are the procedures if there are any complications?
 * What about emergency births? Can you get an ambulance quickly? Should somebody staying with you get a quick course on how to assist if needed, especially if things don't go as they should?
 * Check with your home country's embassy about how to register the child's birth and apply for or record their citizenship.
 * Children born in some countries become citizens of that country by right of birth, with any benefits and liabilities that follow; see Medical tourism. If they don't, you will not only have to establish their citizenship of your home country but also meet any visa requirements and so on for them to stay with you.

Insurance
Check that pregnancy related illness, childbirth itself and medical care for a baby born while travelling are covered by your travel insurance if you're outside the reach of your normal healthcare arrangements. Pregnancy is usually considered to be a pre-existing medical condition that you must disclose to your insurer, and which will have limited coverage, particularly after the 30th week. Pregnancies that you don't know about at the time of application might not be covered. Read your travel insurance documents carefully.

No insurance policies cover expenses associated with a full term birth – but reciprocal arrangement with your domestic social security policies, or your foreign employer's policies, may cover them at least in part. Some may cover a very premature birth but then may not cover the baby's healthcare costs (which would likely be considerable).

Most travel insurance policies do not cover multiple pregnancies (twins, triplets etc) or any pregnancy that is the result of medically assisted conception (fertility drugs, IVF etc) even with an additional premium. If you do get cover for a higher risk pregnancy it will not extend as far into the pregnancy as cover for a naturally conceived singleton pregnancy; it will probably only extend to 15 or 20 weeks. It is close to impossible to get cover for any pregnancy that has already had complications.

Remember that you can't just "fail to mention" pregnancy (or any other information) to an insurer: failing to disclose relevant information invalidates the policy.

Stay safe
Your children should have age-appropriate knowledge of what to do when lost. Have an age-appropriate plan, and make sure everyone knows what they are going to do before setting out.

Younger children should always carry a card with their name, your name, contact details (hopefully including a mobile phone and accommodation details). It is too much to expect a young child to remember all this in an emergency situation. Children below school age may not even be able to tell strangers their names, especially if they're lost, frightened, and don't speak the local language.

Consider giving older children (usually at around 10) a mobile phone, or money and instructions on how to use a public phone.

An example of a plan could be for a child to go to last place they knew you were together, while the adult retraces their steps. Another plan includes nominating a particular location to meet on a particular trip.

Teach children who you would like them to approach. Consider whether you would like them to approach someone in uniform, which is something most children will recognize. Conversely, you should also teach your kids what kinds of people and situations to avoid.

There may be dangers neither you nor your children are accustomed to from home: deficit railing, rocky shores, wildlife big and small, toxic substances, lack of sidewalks, what have you. Check in advance and plan how to cope.

Stay healthy
Children may have special health needs while travelling:

 * Very young children may not be able to receive any vaccines, even routine ones, and will be very ill if infected with the associated diseases. Check with a healthcare provider about travelling with a child who is not vaccinated, either by choice or for age reasons.
 * Your healthcare providers can advise on the suitability of travel vaccinations for older children, if they cannot receive them you may wish not to travel to some destinations. Some children have difficulty swallowing tablets, and if they cannot, it can make things like malaria prevention extremely difficult (many tablets cannot be crushed; while some can, always check with the prescribing doctor or a licensed pharmacist before doing so with any given medication). Practice e.g. with M&Ms (a candy resembling medical tablets in shape and size).
 * Children may have difficulties swallowing pills without chewing them. It might be worthwhile to test and train at home, e.g. by using pills instead of liquids for things you give to your children anyhow (such as vitamin D during winter darkness in some regions).
 * Children get cold faster than adults. If in a cold climate or participating in winter sports, your children may need warmer clothes than you do, and it's likely that by the time you feel the cold your children are already on the way to hypothermia.
 * Children suffer motion sickness more easily than adults, particularly since they are usually relegated to smaller seats with less visibility. You might need to give them travel sickness medication and prepare to clean up if they are sick. Regular pit stops on car trips to let them get out and walk around help. If possible, choose seats with windows at the right height and in the front in buses.
 * Children and especially babies have trouble equalizing their ears on airplanes; see Pressure adjustment above.
 * Train your child a couple of weeks beforehand to brush their teeth and rinse out of a water bottle (if appropriate) and to wear slippers in the hotel rooms as well as flip flops in the shower to avoid picking up any foot fungus. Spraying feet with a fungicide may be a good preventative measure, but ask your physician first. If the doctor approves, consider making it routine for a while before leaving.

Cope
Make sure your kids are well rested before any long distances of travel. You do not want to bring a tired and grumpy child through security, or have them squirming and complaining in the coach or car. Do not overfeed your kids before a trip either. You do not want to get up every ten minutes to go to the bathroom with them and you do not want them to vomit.

Make sure your child has enough to keep him or her busy, entertained and satisfied for the duration of the trip. Think about all the on-flight entertainment available for adults – drinks, food, movies, sitcoms, soaps, documentaries, newspapers and music. Now double that and you are somewhere close to what your child needs.

Pack a rucksack full of toys for each child (they will use it the whole holiday), including one or two new ones that are wrapped. These do not have to be expensive: a sticker book, a new matchbox-sized car, a small can of cheap modelling dough, or a book with mazes or other pencil-and-paper games will all work for different ages. Don't let them open them until they get on the plane or in the car. Build up the excitement for them. Versatile toys that can be reused in various ways, like craft supplies and construction kits, are better than single-function toys. Also consider making a toy wallet full of little surprises for the child to explore.

If you are packing something that needs batteries then make sure you have spares. If it is an item with rechargeable batteries, such as a handheld console, make sure it is fully charged before you leave and keep the charger handy. For items that can be charged via USB, such as tablet computers, it is worth investing in a decent external battery pack so you can recharge while on the move. There are also adapters for using the 12V system of cars.

If you think you might want to leave a toddler in a kindergarten or with a babysitter, it's always a great idea to first make such an experience in your home country, in less unfamiliar conditions:
 * make sure a toddler is generally comfortable to stay without parents with a stranger [and with other children]
 * escape a language barrier that is much more likely to be found when travelling
 * avoid putting time-sensitive travel plans for a day at risk

Motion sickness, traveler's diarrhea, or even just a bit of unexpected bump while your child is holding an open cup of juice can mean you may need to access and re-distribute your suitcase's contents pretty quickly. Think about how you could deal with dirty laundry if you need to, both while you're still en route and after you have arrived at your destination. Bringing lots of disposable plastic bags is recommended.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Travelling with children