text:
Central Anatolia

Central Anatolia (Turkish: İç Anadolu) is a region of Turkey. It extends over the country's central plateau, which is mostly a steppe.

Cities

 * — the second largest city in Turkey, the capital of both the region and the whole country
 * (also known as Afyon) — a traditional city with an impressive hilltop citadel
 * — the site of the elegant, Seljuk-built Great Mosque, a UNESCO World Heritage site
 * — a fairly liberal riverside university town with pleasant bridges and sculptures
 * — a large city near Mt. Erciyes, a wintersports resort
 * — the site of Rumi's mausoleum, and many beautiful Seljuk monuments
 * — a town famous for its tile/faience tradition since Ottoman times; the hub for visiting the Temple of Zeus in Aizonai
 * — the capital of Cappadocia
 * — the site of a Seljuk Madrese complex, as well of the Congress of Sivas that planned the Turkish War of Independence.

Other destinations

 * — if you're around, the immense Temple of Zeus of this ancient city is well worth a visit
 * — a land of "fairy chimneys" and underground cities
 * — one of the earliest known towns (7500-5700BCE), a
 * — the ancient Hittite capital, a
 * — wetlands with birdwatching facilities and the views of the striking 'Rainbow Hills' across
 * — an unofficial name for the rocky countryside between Eskişehir, Kütahya, and Afyonkarahisar, scattered by numerous striking Phrygian tombs and sites
 * - the capital of the Phrygian kingdom (around 1200–700 BC), now an archaeological site and since 2023 a

Understand
Apart from the obvious steppe landscapes and the moonscape of Cappadocia, Central Anatolia offers a wealth of sights dating back to a diverse array of civilizations.

While the locals of the region nowadays are by and large known for their conservative worldview, pockets of youth-, and tourism-driven liberalism in Ankara, Cappadocia, and most particularly in the university town of Eskişehir make the contemporary culture of the region a quite diverse one.

History
Çatalhöyük, which existed approximately between 7500 BC and 5700 BC in the steppes east of Konya, was the first settlement ever found in the territory of what is Turkey today, and indeed it was one of the oldest spots with a sedentary lifestyle in all of the World.

The first major state that rose to power in Central Anatolia was the Kingdom of the Hittites, an ancient Indo-European speaking nation and contemporary (and often at war) with Pharaonic Egypt. The Hittites occupied most of Central Anatolia as well as large chunks of the neighbouring regions, as far south as Syria.

Later in the 10th century BC, the Phrygians arrived from northwest, most likely from Thrace in the southeastern Balkan Peninsula, settling in the western reaches of the region. The Phrygians carved still-impressive open air temples on the sides of sacred mountains for their mother goddess Cybele.

Invaded by the Lydians from the west and the Persians from the east, the region was then overrun over by the army of Alexander the Great who cut the Gordian Knot in Gordion, the Phyrgian capital, the ruins of which can still be seen about 80 km southwest of Ankara.

Then came the Celts in 278 BC, who once occupied all across Europe from the British Isles to Central Anatolia, and founded the Kingdom of Galatia in central northern parts of the region. They were defeated by the Romans, who kept the name and administered the region as the Province of Galatia.

Central Anatolia, Cappadocia in particular, was one of the hideouts of often-oppressed early Christians, who established underground cities and hidden churches to avoid persecution. The Byzantines kept the tradition of turning natural landscape of Cappadocia into a religious one, with gorgeously painted churches chipped into naturally-occurring "fairy chimneys".

After the Battle of Manzikert of 1071 which took place in Eastern Anatolia, the Turkic tribes started to appear in Central Anatolia, which is indeed the region with the longest history of Turkic settlement in what is now Turkey, possibly due to the similarity of the region to their homeland in Central Asia in terms of geography. The tribes united into the Sultanate of Rum (Seljuqs), which had its heartland in the region.

After the demise of the Sultanate, the regional administration dissolved into a number of smaller emirates, out of which an outsider one, the Ottomans, took over all others one by one. During most of the period of the Ottoman Empire, which centred itself more on the Marmara Region and the Balkans, the region was seen as a backwater—which may explain the absence of large scale Ottoman monuments in the region—integrating with outside markets only in the late 19th century with the arrival of the Berlin–Baghdad railway, one of the most ambitious projects of the age of colonialism.

Climate
The climate is semi-arid and continental; hot, dry summers (around 28-32°C during the day, 1-4 days of rain a month), mild (although in the case of spring, stormy) transitional seasons, and cold, snowy winters (around freezing during the day, 10-15 days of precipitation a month). Snow can stay on the ground for the majority of winter in colder locations.

Get in

While Ankara's Esenboğa is the main international airport in the region, it's not on par with the airports of most other capital cities as it has few international connections and you usually have to transfer via one of Istanbul's airports when approaching from out of country.

Konya, Kayseri , and Sivas also have airports with fairly frequent domestic services.

Ankara is well-served by passenger trains from almost anywhere in the country with a rail line. Most lines have at least one daily service. Eskişehir is served by trains from the northwest and west to Ankara, while trains from the east pass through Sivas and Kayseri first on their way to Ankara. Trains from the south also pass through Kayseri.

Well-paved and wide highways, usually in motorway standards, connect the region to all directions.

This is a dry landlocked region with few navigable rivers and no water transport for passengers. You might try your luck with a canoe instead.

Get around
Eskişehir, Ankara, Konya, Kayseri, and Sivas are the main regional hubs for buses.

Most of the Turkish high speed rail network is within the region; Eskişehir, Ankara, Konya, Karaman, and Sivas are served by frequent services between each other.

See

 * Seljuk-built monuments are found in several cities, particularly Konya, Kayseri, and Sivas. They have majestic portals and exquisite masonry.

 * Tuz Gölü means Salt Lake. It's in the very centre of Central Anatolia, between Ankara, Konya, and Aksaray. It's Turkey's second largest lake after Lake Van, but at most two metres deep.

 * Karapınar Desert 100 km east of Konya is an expanse of dunes, checked by afforestation from engulfing Karapınar town.

Do

 * Hiking — long-distance hikes in the region include:
 * The Phrygian Way, with three legs converging on Yazılıkaya.
 * The Hittite Trail, a collection of trails in the Hittite heartland around Hattusa (Boğazkale).
 * The Sufi Trail, a Sufism-themed hiking and cycling trail stretching from Istanbul to Konya.
 * Other areas are Cappadocia, which has several unofficial trails along its scenic valleys, and Aladağlar National Park east of Niğde, which features high-altitude trails as well as rock climbing routes.

Eat
Most of the local cuisine depends on wheat and mutton, two major agricultural products of this arid steppe region. Cappadocia, however, features some vegetable-based local food thanks to its more fertile soil and the Macedonian immigrants who were settled in the area in 1920s.

Drink
The main wine areas in the region are the Kızılırmak valley east of Ankara (particularly the towns of Kalecik and Akyurt, where the award-winning Kavaklıdere Winery is based), and Cappadocia.

Stay safe
Beware of ticks (kene) in the northern parts of the region (the rural areas of Tokat, Amasya, Çorum, Yozgat and Sivas Provinces), between April and October when they are active. The area is home to the ticks that belong to the Hyalomma genus, which are known to be a vector for the fatal Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF, Turkish: Kırım Kongo Kanamalı Ateşi or KKKA). Not all ticks in the region belong to this genus, but if you are unfortunate enough to be bitten by one, attend a hospital immediately, preferably with the tick itself (experts advise against removing it from your body yourself as this may result in its mouth breaking apart which may rise the likelihood of an infection and makes it harder for the medical staff to correctly identify the tick).

This is an area of long distances across monotonous landscapes so if you are driving, beware of road fatigue. A cup of coffee is always a good excuse to take a break now and then.

title: Central Anatolia


text:
Central and East Lombok

Central and East Lombok is a region of Lombok, Indonesia.

Cities

 * — administrative capital of the Regency of CentralLombok and nearby to the site of the new Lombok International Airport
 * — local service centre
 * — best known location in Lombok to witness traditional Sasak stick fighting.
 * — the small port on the east coast of Lombok
 * — local service centre
 * — district of traditional loom weaving
 * — administrative capital of the Regency of East Lombok
 * — a quiet traditional village on the southern slopes of Rinjani, local handicraft production includes black terracotta, basket making and fine, traditional forging of steel tools
 * — a quiet traditional village on the southern slopes of Rinjani, local handicraft production includes black terracotta, basket making and fine, traditional forging of steel tools

Talk
In central and eastern Lombok the people speak in local dialects of the indigenous Bahasa Sasak language of the Sasak peoples of Lombok. Bahasa Indonesian is spoken by many people especially the younger generations. In the tourism areas some people may speak limited English. In some areas catering to tourists there is slightly more likelihood of limited English speakers being available.

Get in
Public ferries provide services for both passengers and vehicles. Labuhan Lombok is on the mid east coast of the island and provides connections from Sumbawa east of Lombok.

Tanjung Lembar in the south west of the island is Lombok's main port and handles small freighters, fishing boats and the combination vehicle and passenger ferries arriving by sea from Bali westward of Lombok.

 * Alat Strait: Labuhan Lombok - from: Pototano, Sumbawa with 8 ferries providing 18 crossings per day.
 * Lombok Strait: Lembar Lombok - from: Padangbai, Bali, with 12 ferries providing crossings once every hour[8].

These ferries connecting to nearby Sumbawa are the principal facilities for road transport movement including sea borne passengers and private cars in and out of Lombok across the sea to and from the east. Disruptions on these routes can occur as the shipping operators on these routes will often suspend services due to breakdown or heavy seas.

Lombok International Airport (BIL) is south west of Praya in south central Lombok. This new international airport will provide facilities for wide bodied aircraft and more modern terminal facilities and cargo facilities.

Please see the main Lombok article for more details on the new international airport and connecting services to Central and East Lombok.

Get around

 * Rent a car
 * Rent a motor bike
 * Please see the main Lombok article article for more detailed information on driving in Lombok and ensure you obtain and use a helmet when riding a motor bike.
 * Metered taxis normally operate in the central and eastern area of Lombok however they will be hard to find in the more remote areas. Bookings can be made in advance by calling their radio dispatch service.
 * Bluebird *
 * Express *

See

 * The Gili islands of the east
 * The small islands of Gili Lampu, Gili Lawang, Gili Sulat and Gili Pentangan lie just off the beaches of the north east coast beaches

Eat
The Central and Eastern area has limited restaurants catering to tourists. The region has many small warungs and local eating houses selling local food at very reasonable prices. Be cautious with hygiene and ensure you are clear about what you are ordering.

Drink
Licensed premises such as hotels and some restaurants may serve alcohol. Do not expect alcoholic drinks to be openly served in this part of Lombok and please respect local sensibilities by avoiding drinking openly in public. Local coffee, tea, fruit juices, coconut juice and softdrinks (sodas) are normally readily available.

Stay safe
Try to keep off the roads at night and avoid travelling in the more remote areas on your own.

Lock up your possessions and never leave your luggage or personal items unattended.

Please see the main Lombok article for more details on health and safety.

Go next

 * Mataram the islands main city and the provincial Capital and location of the islands current Selaparang Airport at Ampenan and including Cacranegara and Sweta
 * North Lombok, including Senaru, Mount Rinjani, Sembalun, Bayan and the lesser known north eastern Gilli islands.
 * South Lombok, including Sekotong, Banko Banko, Gile Gede and it's satellites, Kuta beach, Tanjung A'an and many more south coast surf beaches
 * West Lombok, including Batu Bolong, Lembar, Senggigi beach, Mangsit beach, Klui beach and further to the north Tanjung
 * Gili Islands in West Lombok
 * Sumbawa
 * Bali
 * Java
 * Komodo
 * Flores
 * Singapore
 * Malaysia

Connect
Central and Eastern Lombok has varying terrain and land use from urban townships to remote valleys bays and beaches. Accordingly mobile telephonary varies from reasonable to patchy to non-existent. The towns and built up areas normally have reasonable to good coverage from the two main operators.
 * Telkonsel is operated by Indonesia's Telkom. They provide GSM 2G and in some areas 3G reception and broadband wireless connections may be possible.
 * XL is also provides a wide coverage of 2G and in some areas 3G coverage.

Post office services are available in Mataram at the central post office. It may be prudent to use the main office in Mataram at Jalan Sriwijarya, Mataram, if required or the Kantor Pos situated in the regional city of Praya.

Post offices are described as Kantor Pos in Indonesia.

Hospitals

 * Please see the Lombok main article for a more comprehensive list of medical facilities available in Mataram.

Emergency service

 * Ambulance In emergency dial - 118
 * The reality is that unless within the confines of the main city of Mataram/Ampenan/Cakranegara an ambulance is normally too far away to provide prompt transport in the case of a true emergency. Most often a taxi, police vehicle or a private car is used to get someone requiring urgent medical attention to a hospital. The ambulances in Lombok are more often used in the role of assisted patient transport rather than for first responder/paramedic supported emergency assistance and transport.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Central and East Lombok


text:
Southern Papua New Guinea

Southern Papua New Guinea encompasses Central Province, Northern Province, and PNG's National Capital District, Port Moresby.

Cities

 * — the nation's capital, and the gateway to PNG for most visitors

Other destinations

 * — a collection of trading routes used to cross the Owen Stanley Mountain Range and travel from the south to north coast of Papua New Guinea for hundreds of years
 * — in Northern Province, Tufi is said to be the fjordland of PNG. Lovely setting and some good diving.

Orientation
The region has the following administrative divisions:

 * Central Province is on the southern coast of Papua New Guinea and surrounds Port Moresby. It has a population of around 200,000. Port Moresby is the province's capital, but there are plans to construct a new provincial capital at Bautama. Central Province gets most of its wealth from employment in Port Moresby and has little in the way of agriculture or natural resources.
 * Northern Province, also known as Oro Province, is a coastal province north of Port Moresby and Central Province, with around 150,000 people. It obtains income from oil palm plantations and some limited tourism at Tufi and from those who walk the Kokoda Track.
 * Port Moresby. Papua New Guinea's capital is one of the fastest growing cities in the world, with an average annual growth rate of 4%. Located on the Gulf of Papua it takes its name from Captain John Moresby, the first European to visit, in 1873. Like the surrounding Central Province it has a long dry season (April to October) and lacks the luxurious tropical vegetation of much of the country. If you are visiting PNG you will have few opportunities to arrive other than by landing in Port Moresby. There are some points of interest, such as the Hiri villages, the botanical gardens, the museum and PNG's parliament. But, otherwise, Moresby can be regarded as a stopover en route to much more interesting experiences.

Talk
Whereas Tok Pisin (Pidgin) is the main lingua franca in most of Papua New Guinea, in Central Province, Hiri Motu is a stronger lingua franca. However, with consideral immigration into Port Moresby from the Highlands and Islands the effective lingua franca of Port Moresby is now Tok Pisin.

Get in
See Papua New Guinea for details.

Get around

 *  Air Niugini connects Port Moresby with Popondetta, the capital of Northern Province.
 * Airlines PNG has flights from Moresby to Popondetta, Kokoda and Tufi.

See

 * Sogeri Plateau. At 600 m above sea level, it provides a welcome respite from the heat of Port Moresby. The plateau supplies fruits and vegetables to the capital and is a popular weekend trip for the inhabitants of Port Moresby. Beware of crocodiles.

Kokoda Track or Trail was a collection of trading routes used to cross the Owen Stanley Mountain Range and travel from the south to north coast of Papua New Guinea for hundreds of years. In the 19th Century it was used by Europeans keen to reach the goldfields on the northern half of the island. The track became famous during the Second World War when Australian troops and Japanese Forces fought a long battle to prevent the Japanese from reaching Port Moresby. Since then, and particularly in the past two decades, walking the Kokoda Track has become a major attraction for Australians. There are several trails that connect Owers Corner in the south to the Kokoda Valley in the north. These cross some of the most rugged and isolated terrain in the world, reaching 2,250 m at Mount Bellamy. There are hot humid days with cold nights, torrential rainfall, leeches and malaria. For masochists only.

title: Southern Papua New Guinea


text:
Central Angola

Central Angola is a region of Angola that comprises the provinces of Benguela, Kwanza Sul, Huambo, and Bié. Most of the region is occupied by the central highlands, known in Portuguese as the Planalto Central. The escarpment at the western edge of the plateau drops to the coastal plains in Benguela.

Other destinations

 * — near Kuito
 * — Angola's highest summit, near Huambo
 * — beautiful caves in a jungle-filled canyon near the small city of Sumbe, about four hours south of Luanda
 * — beautiful caves in a jungle-filled canyon near the small city of Sumbe, about four hours south of Luanda
 * — beautiful caves in a jungle-filled canyon near the small city of Sumbe, about four hours south of Luanda

Get in
Catumbela Airport

title: Central Angola


text:
Central Arkansas

Central is a region in Arkansas. The central region includes the Little Rock, North Little Rock Combined Statistical area which had 898,683 people in the 2013 census estimates and the Hot Springs Malvern Combined area which had 130,673 in 2013.

Cities

 * – the capital of the state

title: Central Arkansas


text:
Central Armenia

Central Armenia is Armenia's political, cultural, economic, and transit hub, home to the political and spiritual capitals of Yerevan and Echmiadzin.

Regions
Central Armenia includes the following marzes (political departments):

Cities

 * – Armenia's capital and the center of modern Armenian life.

 * – The ancient capital of Armavir province, believed to have been founded in the early 20th century B.C. by King Argishtis I of Urartu, and the one-time capital of the Urartian Empire.
 * – The former capital of Armenia (2nd century BC–5th century AD), located by the stunningly situated Khor Virap Monastery.
 * – The center of Aragatsotn region with interesting temple architecture.
 * – It is a good place to sleep to then climb Mount Aragats.
 * (Vagharshapat) – The spiritual capital of Armenia, home to the Armenian Catholicos, and is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
 * – A village best known for its temple, the only preserved monument in Armenia, which belongs to the era of paganism.
 * – The capital of in Kotayk Province and also home to the Makravank Monastery.
 * – This village boasts a very large cathedral built approximately in VII century. Also, popular for its nearby Dashtadem Fortress.
 * – Ski resort

Noteable towns and villages

 * – Interesting for its people and the nearby Kasagh basilica.
 * – Resort village located on the Hrazdan Canyon, inhabited by the Assyrian people.
 * – Popular for the nearby Amberd Fortress and the Surp Hovhannes Church.
 * – A village with an interesting church where alternating colors of stone,
 * – The creator of the Armenian alphabet, Mesrob Mashtots, is buried here.
 * – The creator of the Armenian alphabet, Mesrob Mashtots, is buried here.

Understand
This is the heart of the nation, with Yerevan at its center. Much of it is comprised of the Ararat valley, which is flat and dry most of the year, and provides spectacular views of Mt. Ararat on a clear day. The valley was split in half after Turkey invaded shortly after WWI, and the border is still a sensitive area, with Russian troops and bases guarding the Armenian side.

Talk
As with the rest of Armenia, Armenian and Russian are pretty much universally spoken, while English, French and German are spoken by few. English is of course gaining in popularity.

Get in
Most tourists arrive in Yerevan at Zvartnots International Airport, in the middle of this region.

Get around
You'll never be more than an hour away from Yerevan. Day trips can get you anywhere quite easily.

By marshrutka
Many regular marshrutkas head into the region from Yerevan's several bus stations, and between larger towns and cities.

By thumb
There are many cars crossing the region. So, you will not have issues finding someone to take you as far as you desire. Always offer a little tip in return—the equivalent of a marshrutka ride is common.

By taxi
You can hire taxis for 100 dram/km and about 1,500 dram/hr for waiting time if you want to do things at your own pace.

By tour
There are plentiful cheap, guided day tours offered by tour agencies all over Yerevan to place like Khor Virap, Garni/Geghard and Echmiadzin/Zvartnots.

By car rental
Car rentals are more expensive, but useful if you want to strike out on your own into Khosrov Reserve or just explore the Hrazdan Gorge at your own pace.

West end of Central Armenia

 * – At the very west end of this region is the town of Talin. Just west of the town center is the huge 7th century cathedral built much in the style of the Cathedral of Ani a few kilometers west, and the Cathedral of Aruch, a few kilometers east down the highway, and worth a visit also. Talin Cathedral also has a smaller, tiled roof church near the entrance to the grounds.
 * – 6 km south of Talin is Dashtadem Fortress, with a castle and church in the middle of a fortress. These are being restored, and are worth a side trip on the way to Gyumri in the north.
 * – This 7th century church, just a few hundred meters off the Yerevan-Gyumri highway, is an excellent example of early Christian architecture.
 * – 8 km further beyond Mastara Church is the village of Garnahovit with an excellent and quite large restored church with red tile roof from the same period.

Amberd Fortress and Byurakan Observatory and Church
On the southern face of Mt. Aragats, is a quick trip from Yerevan and a popular escape from the Yerevan summer heat. The fortress looms over a small church, and both overlook the Ararat Valley and Mt. Ararat across the valley. Further up the mountain is a nice lake which is the starting point for the hike up to the southern peak of Mt. Aragats.

Before reaching Amberd, the village of Byurakan offers the ancient. Tucked away behind some houses, it is marked with the old Christian cross used before the Armenian cross design came into use. The in the same village was home to Viktor Ambartsumian, a famous astrophysicist, and offers tours during the day, or star gazing at night. Also nearby is the, abandoned in its all Soviet glory. All are usually by appointment, though showing up and asking nicely has been known to work.

Ashtarak and Kasagh River Gorge monuments
The picturesque town of Ashtarak is less than half an hour from central Yerevan. It has 3 very old churches standing and 2 in ruins. It is also home to Ashtaraki Dzor Restaurant Complex—well worth a stop for a reasonably priced meal and nighttime entertainment show, all outdoors, and long popular with Armenians.

 * A little down the river is Oshakan Village, where the creator of the Armenian alphabet, Mesrob Mashtots, is buried in the village church.
 * Just north along the river (and highway) is Mughni, with an interesting church where alternating colors of stone form black and red bands around the cupola.
 * Further north is Ohanavan village with . This restored monastery is perched atop the cliffs and has a great view of Mt. Ara.
 * just east of Artashavan village shares the same great views of the gorge and Mt. Ara. You can hike from one to the other in the gorge. Great architecture, carvings, details.
 * Much further north is the town of Aparan, whose inhabitants are the butt of jokes which pin them as not the brightest folk. The very ancient, black, just a few meters from the main highway is worth dropping into on your way to Lori Marz.

Northwestern Kotayk
The northwestern parts of Kotayk are mountainous, forested and popular with Armenians as places to go and relax. Hankavan, Tsaghkadzor, Bjni and Aghveran are all well known by Armenians as places where nature is nice, and relaxation is possible not far from Yerevan. Each place has different things to offer, but all offer hills, mountains and forest.

 * – An old Greek village, is furthest from Yerevan and offers isolation, hot springs and sparse accommodation.
 * – A ski town (see the "Do" section) offers a multitude of accommodation options, a beautiful monastery, restaurants and bars.
 * – Has a grand old church, ruins of a fortress, a gorgeous canyon, and springs.
 * – Has a good selection of places to stay including the new, luxury Artur's Resort. Nearby are the hot springs in Arzakan.

Garni Temple and Geghard Monastery
These are absolutely obligatory stops for any visitor to Yerevan, for good reason. , a small Roman temple built in the first century by the Armenian king is incredibly sited atop basalt cliffs, and has a ruined bathhouse and the foundations of a temple in the fortified compound as well. Arguably the most awe-inspiring site in Armenia is the 13th-century, much of which is carved out of the solid stone of the mountain it abuts. Once housing (and still named after) the lance that pierced Jesus' side, it is sited at the end of a canyon, surrounded by steep rock mountains, with fortified walls, holy springs, an upper chamber with unparalleled acoustics and many intricate khachkars. Monastery of Geghard together with the Upper Azat Valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Sardarapat Monument and Museum
Most in the Armenian Diaspora know the famous song Sardarapat about the battle fought here which saved Armenia from complete annihilation by Turkey after WWI. The is large and looks out over today's border with Turkey, drawn after that battle. Adjoining is Armenia's largest ethnographic museum, with a large collection of artifacts from different parts of Armenia. Well worth a visit if you like to see how people lived back in the day.

Echmiadzin Cathedral
The, founded in 301 by St. Gregory the Illuminator and rebuilt and added to for over 1,700 years now is the heart of the Armenian Church, and seat of the Catholicos of all Armenians. The altar is built over an ancient pagan fire worshiping pit (accessible from the museum behind the altar), the inside has some interesting frescoes, altar, lamps, and thrones. The intricate bell tower entrance is an addition from the 1800s, and the surrounding grounds have gardens with examples of khachkars from throughout Armenia and further. Near the new entrance gates are a few exquisite khachkar examples from Jugha (now in Azerbaijan), which had by far the largest khachkar collection in the world. The thousands of khachkars which remained there were destroyed during this decade by the Azeri government.

Two other important churches in the same town, both honoring Roman virgins who were martyred for refusing to marry Armenia's heathen king are.

Khor Virap
Deep in a pit at, Armenia's Christianity began. Imprisoned here for his heretic faith, St. Gregory the Illuminator was not released until he cured Armenia's king of a terrible disease (some legends say he had turned into a boar). The king, in gratitude converted himself, and Armenia with him, into the first officially Christian nation in the world. The fortified monastery sits on a small hill in a very flat Ararat Valley. The view of the mountain is the best you'll get, though the monastery otherwise is not so remarkable. 45 min from Yerevan, this is an easy morning trip, or a quick stop along the road heading to Southern Armenia.

Other sites worth visiting

 * and the Khosrov cave
 * – UNESCO site and impressive ruins of a 7th-century Armenian cathedral, right by the international airport which is named after it.
 * and the Khosrov cave
 * – UNESCO site and impressive ruins of a 7th-century Armenian cathedral, right by the international airport which is named after it.
 * – UNESCO site and impressive ruins of a 7th-century Armenian cathedral, right by the international airport which is named after it.

Do

 * Ski – Tsaghkadzor has long been Armenia's only ski resort. New ones are reportedly coming, but for now, this is the place to go. The lifts are all brand new, and new runs have been developed. Many hotels old and new offer a place to stay, as do many homes.

Hiking

 * Mount Aragats – Armenia's highest peak, and a popular climb from mid-July to mid-September when the snow pack is mostly melted.
 * Mount Ara – This one has a crater inside it which is a relatively easy climb, and if you head left you can sit upon the nose. Do not descent in steep and slippery areas, the rocks can crumble and you risk severe injury. Stick to the solid, milder slopes.

Other peaks are much more difficult and should be undertaken after consulting a guide or book.

Eat
Outside of Yerevan, Central Armenia has a limited food selection to offer. Some of the bigger towns have restaurants or bistros, but outside of this and a small number of roadside barbecue (khorovats) joints, there is very little.

Drink
Drinks and sometimes bars are available where food is served.

Stay safe
Central Armenia is very safe for residents and visitors alike.

title: Central Armenia


text:
Central Asia

Central Asia is a rugged, arid region, historically coveted for its position between Europe and East Asia with the legendary Silk Route, rather than for its resources, although petroleum, natural gas, and mineral reserves have become more important in modern times. Central Asia contains a wealth of historic sites and natural wonders without the large throngs of tourists found in Europe or other parts of Asia.

The region has no exact boundaries, but is usually considered to include all of the landlocked "-stans", listed below. All but Afghanistan, (which is sometimes categorized as part of South Asia) are former Soviet republics, most of which have so far have retained authoritarian, secular governments. They are home to generally poor, primarily Muslim peoples, mostly speaking various Turkic languages. Several of the peoples were historically nomadic, although some states are attempting to recover the nomadic traditions that were suppressed or lost during Soviet times.

For cultural/historic reasons, sometimes the term "Central Eurasia" is used to include the six countries listed here as well as Mongolia, western China (Xinjiang, Tibet, and Qinghai), Iran, Pakistan, and the provinces of Russia that border Kazakhstan.

Countries
Much of Central Asia was once ruled by the Persian Empire and some definitions of the region would include Persia, now called Iran. Various other regions — Mongolia, Western China (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia), and parts of Russia (Buryatia, Chuvashia, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Tuva, Altai, Khakassia) — have cultures that are largely Central Asian, and are included in the region by authorities such as UNESCO.

Cities

 * — Meaning "Grandfather Apple" due to the area around it being where apples were domesticated, Kazakhstan's former capital has an almost European feel to it and is the most socially progressive city in Central Asia.
 * — Turkmenistan's capital, with weird dictator monuments galore and natural gas wealth ostentation.
 * — Kazakhstan's dreary, cold northern capital.
 * — the leafy and drowsy capital of Kyrgyzstan.
 * — a 2,500-year-old Silk Road city in Uzbekistan and UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 * — the sleepiest Central Asian capital by leagues and a jumping-off point for anyone going to Tajikistan.
 * — Afghanistan's capital and hub for, well, anyone who has to go to Afghanistan.
 * — another of Uzbekistan's world-famous 2,500-year-old Silk Road cities, and also another UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 * — Uzbekistan's capital, whose ages-old history lies below Soviet-era construction, and by far the region's biggest city, at some 3 million.

Other destinations

 * — A post-apocalyptic ecological disaster area of a dead sea, filled with the empty husks of overturned rusting boats and seashells that once moved with life in this now dead region.
 * — The breath-taking sight of five turquoise-blue lakes, connected by waterfalls, surrounded by barren wasteland in Afghanistan.
 * — Also spelled Shymbulak, Central Asia's most accessible ski resort (no helicopters needed), outside Almaty.
 * — Simultaneously Central Asia's strangest and most jaw-dropping attraction, the Gates of Hell is a vast flaming crater hundreds of miles from civilization in the middle of the inhospitable Karakum Desert.
 * — An absolutely gorgeous alpine lake, and perhaps Central Asia's most iconic natural wonder.
 * — What was once the largest city in the world until its destruction by the Mongols is now the jewel in Turkmenistan's archeological crown.
 * — A ruined Parthian fortress-city comprising a UNESCO World Heritage site within easy striking distance of Ashgabat.
 * — A rugged and beautiful section of Tajikistan in the trekking and climbing-friendly Fann Mountains.

There are two regions that were historically important and are culturally coherent but today are divided among several countries:
 * - The main Silk Road route from China into Central Asia
 * - On the main trade route from Central Asia to Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent

Understand

Central Asia is an area that was, until the late 20th century, inaccessible for independent travelers. That has all changed, although the traveler will still often come up against a wall of Soviet-style bureaucracy. Corruption is also an issue in most Central Asian countries, although most governments have made attempts to reduce red tape in an attempt to grow their tourism industries. Despite this, Central Asia is increasing in popularity amongst travelers who want to experience one of the world's last great frontier lands, and the strong Islamic tradition of hospitality means that you will likely be treated as a revered guest by the locals, particularly in rural areas.

History
Historically and geographically diverse, Central Asia is an interesting region. The earliest recorded people (for whom we have names) were nomadic Indo-Iranian peoples called the Saka/Scythians, who roamed across the Central Asian steppes as far west as Romania and as far south as India. At one time large parts of it were part of the old Persian Empire and were taken by Alexander the Great when he conquered that empire. Later, parts of it were ruled by Alexander's successors or by newer versions of the Persian Empire. By the sixth century BCE, a new group of Indo-Iranian people, the Sogdians, began founding cities and forts at strategic points along the Silk Roads, including the magnificent cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva, as well as other cities which didn't last the test of time, like Merv and Old Panjakent.

As a bridge between Europe and Asia, the region was the home of the Silk Road, the ancient trading route between the two continents from a few centuries BCE until it was mainly replaced by sea routes after 1500 CE. The area has seen much upheaval and conflict, from the expansion of Buddhism (which spread through Central Asia on its way to China) and Islam to the destructive Mongol invasion. By the end of the 19th century, most of the region had been conquered by the Russian Empire, with only Afghanistan remaining independent as a buffer state between the British Empire in India and the Russian Empire. This period of intense geopolitical competition between the British and Russian Empires in the region is often referred to as the Great Game.

Following the Russian revolutions that brought down the Russian Empire in 1917, the parts of Central Asia that had been conquered by the Russian Empire became part of its successor state the Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained independent but went through a turbulent history, resisting a Soviet invasion throughout the 1980s, then was taken over by the radical Islamist Taliban, then invaded by a US-led coalition. Many Soviet citizens (including Ukrainians and Koreans) settled in Central Asia's Soviet republics, with Baikonur as centre of the Soviet and Russian space program, and Semipalatinsk as a nuclear test site. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet republics in Central Asia gained their independence, but have maintained close political and economic ties with Russia since their independence, with Russian remaining the most common second language, and significant ethnic Russian minorities. However, China is rapidly expanding its influence through large infrastructure projects in the region as part of its Belt and Road initiative. Although the former Soviet republics in Central Asia have a Muslim majority, due to the fact that religion was heavily suppressed by the communist Soviet government, they tend to be more secular and relaxed in their religious observances than Muslims in the Middle East, though the Islamic tradition of hospitality is still very much alive.

Population increase and modernization have taken its toll on the environment. Central Asia is dependent on a few water sources, some of which, especially the Aral Sea, are near depletion.

Some Central Asian countries are beginning to find their feet and offer good traveling options. There are parts of Central Asia that have hardly seen a traveler before, and there are many wild and beautiful landscapes to be explored. That is not to say the region is bereft of problems, chiefly a lack of infrastructure and stifling bureaucracy.

People
Central Asia is a diverse place, with the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Turkmen traditionally being nomadic, and the Uzbeks and Tajiks traditionally being sedentary. Turkic peoples make up the bulk of the population in the northern part of the region (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and parts of Uzbekistan), while Indo-Iranian peoples make up the bulk of the southern populations (Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and parts of Uzbekistan). The westernmost (historically Turkic) parts of China were historically more tied with the peoples in Central Asia, but now are seeing an increase in ethnic Han Chinese populations.

Understand that self-identification is an especially touchy issue in Central Asia, more so than most of Europe. Parts of China (Notably Tibet and Xinjiang) have a native population that has in many instances advocated for secession from China. Often they emphasize their Central Asian identity, something not well-understood by outsiders. For example, Mongolians and Buryats tend to emphasize their historical ties with the Turkic Muslims to the west (despite being Mongolic Buddhists of the Tibetan Rite) and are offended by being compared to the Chinese, and some even call themselves Europeans (by virtue of Russian influence). Language may not even be a useful distinction between peoples, as plenty of Tajik-speaking people in Samarkand will consider themselves Uzbek while their Uzbek-speaking next-door neighbor might call themself a Tajik.

This situation is not unique to Mongolic peoples; Tibetans are well known in the West for their disdain for China and any ties they may have to it. Many people in Tatarstan and Xinjiang, among other places, would emphasize their Turkicness over any connection to China or Russia.

The problem goes the other way as well. Many Chinese are quick to point out that the Qing Dynasty (and the earlier Tang and Han Dynasties) controlled parts of Central Asia, including some land no longer controlled by the Chinese.

From Kyrgyz to Tibetans, a history of tribal politics have left Central Asia at once totally isolated from the outside world, and intimately connected to whoever conquered them.

Talk
Much of Central Asia speaks a language from either the Iranic, Turkic and Mongolic language groups, often influencing each other.

 * Turkic languages are Uzbek in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, Kazakh in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmen in Turkmenistan. A significant population speaks Karakalpak in western Uzbekistan. Kazakh is spoken as a majority language in the westernmost province of Mongolia.
 * Iranic languages belong to the Indo-European language family. Persian (Farsi) is spoken in Iran, with Dari and Pashto being the dominant languages of Afghanistan. Tajik is spoken in Tajikistan. (Farsi, Dari, and Tajik are - depending on the source - either dialects of the same language or very closely related separate languages à la Croatian and Serbian.) Other Iranic languages are spoken by minority groups in the Pamir regions of Tajikistan and Afghanistan (and very small populations in far-western China).
 * Mongolic languages are scattered across the region, from Mongolia and Inner Mongolia (in China), to Buryatia and Kalmykia (in Russia).

With the exception of Afghanistan, Russian is widely spoken in the countries of Central Asia due to their history as part of the Soviet Union. Many older people in Mongolia can also speak Russian, due to Mongolia being an independent satellite state of the USSR, but fewer and fewer young Mongolians are learning the language, instead opting to replace it with English or Chinese.

English is compulsory in grade school education in all of the Central Asian states plus Mongolia, but most people have a rudimentary grasp on the language at best, and the quality of said education may be very poor. However, every year more and more people choose to study and become proficient in English, and you can find English-speaking guides in every country in the region.

Get in
As mentioned above, the definition of "Central Asia" can be controversial. One reason why the one used on this page is useful, however, is visas.

All Central Asian countries except for Kyrgyzstan require visas for visitors from a lot of countries, and the difficulty of getting them may range from a minor hassle to virtually impossible if not on a tour or with a guide. Before issuing a visa, some countries will require a letter of invitation, often best obtained via a specialist travel agency. Some hotels will issue letters of invitation for confirmed reservations. Some nationalities may be excluded from the requirement to have one at all. Start working on your visas well in advance, as it may take weeks for the gears of bureaucracy to grind through your application, and make sure you comply with any local police/bureaucracy registration requirements after you've arrived.

Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have liberalized their visa regimes in the 21st century, so citizens of most Western countries no longer need a visa to visit.

By plane
The hub for the region is Tashkent, Uzbekistan, which has the most flights to destinations outside Central Asia. Unfortunately the airport also has a reputation for being unpleasant, and it is best to avoid flights which arrive here late at night.

There are also increasingly good options for flights to Almaty, Kazakhstan. You can fly here directly from London, Frankfurt, Beijing, Seoul, Moscow, Riga, New York, and various others.

Most Afghans and Pakistanis travel by air to Islamabad or Lahore and go by road to their final destinations.

Turkish Airlines offers (relatively) routine flights to each of the Central Asian capitals from Istanbul. These flights usually arrive in Central Asia sometime between 2 and 3 am, and tend to depart back to Turkey in the early mornings as well.

Almost every major city in the region will also offer flights to/from Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, due to the region's overwhelming Muslim population. Travelers coming from other Muslim-majority countries might find it easier to connect in Jeddah, especially around the Hajj, as airlines will offer flights from Jeddah for dirt cheap in order to fill up the planes.

Flights from large, regional cities (like Khujand in Tajikistan or Ferghana in Uzbekistan) to Dubai, Istanbul, and Jeddah are becoming more frequent, but they may still only run once a week.

Travel between Central Asian cities by plane often requires making a connection in a third country's airport. In practice, this usually means connecting in Istanbul, Dubai, or sometimes Urumqi. Due to its colonial heritage, many Russian cities connect with Central Asian cities.

From Russia
Trains going to Central Asia leave from Moscow Kazansky station. Trains go to Tashkent (56 hours/US$80), Almaty (78 hours/US$120), Bishkek (75 hours/US$70), Samarkand (85 hours/US$100), and others.

There are trains from Moscow to Dushanbe, but the route crosses through Turkmenistan, which does not grant then-and-again style visas for that route. So unless you want to get off the train in Uzbekistan before it enters Turkmenistan, race the train to where it reenters Uzbekistan and hop back on, this train option is for all intents and purposes not a viable option.

From China
There is a line from Urumqi, China to Almaty, but the bus is quicker. An interesting option is the challenging crossing from Kashgar, China to Kyrgyzstan through the Torugart Pass. This was a major link on the old Silk Road.

From Iran
As of June 2024, the border is open to foreigners at the Mashhad-Ashgabat crossing (but it can close on a whim), and there are buses running between those cities.

From Pakistan
Traveling to different areas of Pakistan is quite easy by train, bus or taxi. The route from there into Afghanistan via the Khyber Pass is not safe. The Karakoram Highway North into China is challenging but possible. It gets you to Kashgar; from there routes to Central Asia are either difficult (west to Bishkek) or long (swing north to Urumqi and then Almaty).

By boat
There is an irregular service between Baku, Azerbaijan and Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan, although this is most often cargo shipping that can take the occasional traveler but won't provide for them while they're aboard. Situations are common where legal/bureaucratic issues can keep a ship just out of port for days if not weeks while customs/bribes are cleared, which can seriously delay any onward plans and can run the risk of the traveler running out of their provisions.

Get around
Getting between Central Asian countries is tricky. Borders can close seemingly on a whim and travel to certain regions of countries can be restricted if there is even a hint of unrest in the region. Perhaps the surest method of traveling between borders would be to fly from one capital city to another and then take ground transportation once in the new country. It used to be practically impossible to get into Turkmenistan, and you can still only get a visa if you're part of an officially-recognized tour (or a diplomat or the lucky, lucky journalist). With the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in the fall of 2021, entry requirements into Afghanistan are unknown, so you're probably not going to be able to just waltz across the Amu Darya river between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan/Tajikistan. Get as many visas as you can before you leave. If not, make sure you're "stationed" in one country and have time to deal with the bureaucracy at each embassy before you go. However, most Central Asian countries will grant visas to foreigners at their embassies in other Central Asian countries with little-to-no hassle (e.g. an American can get a Turkmenistan visa in Dushanbe), so some travelers opt to park themselves in one country while they get the visa for another.

Unlike other regions of Asia, transport infrastructure is generally underdeveloped, meaning that Central Asian countries have very bad public transport, limited highways and rail infrastructure, and low car ownership rates. Although countries like Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have improved infrastructure such as constructing more highways and Central Asia's only high-speed rail line (between Tashkent and Bukhara), much of Central Asia suffers from underinvestment when it comes to transport funding. While a car is necessary to get around in rural areas of Central Asia, be aware that the roads can be unpaved or haven't been paved since Soviet times and can be in poor condition.

Intracountry travel really depends on which country you're in. In Turkmenistan there are restrictions on independent travel outside of the capital, so you must be on a tour to visit other parts of the country. In Tajikistan, massive mountain ranges and generally-poor road quality mean that drives between cities take many more hours than could be expected from the distance. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have rail networks and highways connecting major cities. Kyrgyzstan has highways but also mountains, so falls between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in terms of travel ease. Almost 40 years of war have made travel in Afghanistan extremely dangerous.

Many Central Asian drivers drive like they're in a real-life game of Mario Kart, which can be unnerving for travelers coming from societies where calmer driving is the norm.

See
Central Asia is a land of rugged extremes and historical beauty. Soaring mountains tower over pristine alpine lakes in Kyrgyzstan, near-inhospitable sandy deserts blanket Turkmenistan and western Uzbekistan, and the lonesome Great Eurasian Steppe races across Kazakhstan. Many mountain climbers come to Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to train for their Everest or K2 summits, while some people go to the vast steppes simply to get away from it all. While this article cannot hope to list every single natural or historic site in Central Asia, the following sites stand out from the rest:

Natural sites
The Western Tien-Shan mountain range in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan is listed as a world heritage site.

Some natural sites that are popular with tourists include:

 * Issyk-Kul Lake — Kyrgyzstan
 * The Pamir Highway (M41) — Tajikistan
 * Fann Mountains — Tajikistan
 * The Aralkum (formerly the Aral Sea) — Uzbekistan
 * Altyn Emel National Park — Kazakhstan
 * Yangykala Canyon — Turkmenistan

Historic sites
Being smack-dab in the middle of the Silk Road(s), every Central Asian country boasts at least one major historic site from that period, and quite a few boast sites from before the Silk Roads, before Islam, and even before the development of urbanization. Unfortunately for the ancient history lover, most structures in ancient Central Asia were made of mud-brick, which does not last the test of time well. So, with some exceptions, most sites date from the medieval era. Many Central Asian governments are devoting considerable time and resources to restoring/protecting their historic sites, so in some places (especially Samarkand) what you see is a reconstruction/renovation and is often not the original. That shouldn't dissuade you from visiting these sites, though.

The most notable sites per country include:

Uzbekistan:

 * The Registan, Gur-e Amir, Afrosiyab, and Ulug Bek's Obervatory, all in Samarkand.
 * The Ark or Qala, a well-preserved historic fortified town, in Khiva.
 * Practically all of the old city of Bukhara has been preserved.
 * The ruins of Timur's monumental palace in Shakhrisabz.
 * The quaint city of Kokand (spelled Qo'qan in Uzbek) was the capital of its own khanate centered on the Ferghana Valley until Russian annexation in the late 1800s.

While Tashkent is a very old city and was a stop along one route of the Silk Road, a devastating earthquake early into the Soviet period means that very little of the city's pre-Soviet architecture is still standing. Now, it serves as a modern contrast to the "traditional" cities elsewhere in the country, and its museums contain a lot of Silk Road related artifacts.

Turkmenistan:

 * The ruined city of Merv. Merv was the largest city in the world (1 million+ people) before its leveling by the Mongols in the 13th century.
 * Nisa, an ancient Parthian fortress-city, on the outskirts of Ashgabat.
 * Konye Urgench (lit. "Old Urgench" to differentiate it from the Urgench on the Uzbek side of the border). Perhaps the best example of what Samarkand or Bukhara looked like before restoration efforts. Home to many Sufi shrines and ruins that are just starting to lose their turquoise tiling.

Tajikistan:

 * The ruins of Panjakent and Sarazam, both in/near the modern city of Panjakent. Sarazam has over 6000 years of history, and ancient Panjakent was the "capital" of the Sogdian merchant confederation that controlled Central Asia prior to the migrations of the Turkic peoples. Both are directly across the Tajik-Uzbek border close to Samarkand.
 * Hisor fortress in the village of Hisor. A fortress had been built on this spot since the time of the Achaemenid Empire, although the modern structure dates from the 2020s. About an hour west of Dushanbe.
 * Small, hidden mountain forts dot the Tajik side of the Wakhan Valley, which splits the Pamirs between Tajikistan and Afghanistan. This was on the route that Marco Polo took during his journey into China.

While Khujand is the oldest still-inhabited city in Tajikistan (at about 3000 years in age), practically nothing survives from before the Soviet era. Still, the fortress was reconstructed in 2024 and its beauty is on par with sites like Samarkand and Kokand.

Kyrgyzstan:
The Kyrgyz were (and still are) semi-nomadic peoples, so there does not exist much in the way of permanent historic structures on the scale found in the aforementioned countries. there are still many sites, though: they're just generally located in what appears to be the middle of nowhere.

 * Burana tower (near the town of Tokmok). A lone minaret and some traditional humanoid headstones are all that remains of a mosque and traditional Kyrgyz burial ground. Due to its location not far from the main road between Bishkek and Lake Issyk-Kul, it's a popular site with most Kyrgyzstan tours.
 * Tash Rabat (in a very remote location close to the Kyrgyzstan-China border crossing at Torugart). Probably the best-preserved caravanserai in Central Asia that hasn't been turned into a hotel, shop, or other tourist-oriented attraction. Its remoteness (4+ hours by car from Naryn) means that very few people visit it unless they are going to/from China, in which case it is an easy stop to make.

Kazakhstan:
There is very little specifically "Silk Road" in Kazakhstan outside of the southern part of the country, since the Eurasian steppes were not traversed by normal Silk Road merchants. Even today, most of the towns in the steppes are recent (1700s) settlements, dating from the Russian or independent Kazakhstan periods.

 * Turkistan: Kazakhstan's answer to Samarkand and Konye Urgench, this old Silk Road city has partially-preserved mosques, madrassas, and tombs. Not far from Kazakhstan's third largest city, Shymkent, which is also directly across the Uzbek border from Tashkent.

Somewhere between the Kazakh city of Taraz and the Kyrgyz city of Talas was the location of the Battle of Talas (751 CE), where Muslim Arab forces faced off against the forces of Tang China. While the Arab victory did little more strategically than finalize the border between the two great empires, this battle marked the beginning of the conversion of the various Turkic peoples to Islam, as Turkic mercenaries began to view the religion as a "religion of victory". Both Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan claim that their city is the one where the battle took place, but the jury is still out until the battlefield is actually found (if ever).

Also scattered throughout the Kazakh and Kyrgyz steppes are various Scythian and Turkic burial mounds and stone monoliths.

Afghanistan:
Afghanistan has probably the largest concentration of historic sites in the region, since it was the crossroads of various Persian, Turkic, and South Asian states, but due to decades of warfare, vandalism, looting, and lack of finances for protection and restoration, many of these sites are threatened and/or not safe to visit. The most important sites include:

 * The Buddhas at Bamyan. Known now more because of their destruction at the hands of the Taliban in 2001 than for their aesthetics, these were two massive stone statues of the Buddha carved into living rock near the town of Bamyan when Buddhism was the dominant religion in the region. Now, today, only fragments of the Buddhas' legs and the alcoves they stood in remain.
 * The ancient city of Balkh. Balkh (in ancient times called Bactria) was the capital of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, one of the successor states to Alexander's empire. It historically was also a major city on the southern branch of the Silk Road, until its gradual decline and its incorporation into the country of Afghanistan during the Great Game. Balkh wasn't hit as hard during the events in Afghanistan in the 2000s as some other major cities.
 * Kabul: War-torn Kabul still retains a few historic sites that have been fortunate enough to survive the decades of conflict. Chief among these are the Bagh-e Babur (Gardens of Babur) which showcase Persian garden architecture, and the Bala Hissar, a fortress dating from the 5th century CE.

Many other places in Afghanistan have long histories, but with the recent wars, the status of historic sites is unknown.

Itineraries

 * Europe to South Asia over land
 * Istanbul to New Delhi over land
 * On the trail of Marco Polo
 * Moscow to Urumqi
 * Silk Road
 * Sven Hedin's voyages

The Trans-Siberian Railway passes a bit north of this area. In addition there are some other named Russian-built railways from the late 19th and early 20th century, all meeting near Tashkent:

 * The Trans-Aral railway goes from Orenburg in Russia (at the border between Europe and Asia) southeast across Kazakhstan; in the southern end the Turkestan-Siberia railway branches off to the east before the railway crosses into Uzbekistan and ends in its capital Tashkent.
 * The Trans-Caspian railway begins in Turkmenbashi at the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, goes through the length of Turkmenistan, passing the capital Ashgabad, Mary, and Turkmenabad. Then the railway continues into Uzbekistan passing Bukhara and Samarkand before arriving in Tashkent.
 * The Turkestan-Siberia railway: goes from Arys in Kazakhstan north of Tashkent to Shymkent and across southern and eastern Kazakhstan to Almaty and on to Barnaul and Novosibirsk in Siberia.

Do
With its vast nature and harsh seasonal differences, Central Asia is a challenging destination for outdoor life. It may be surprising, but there are ski resorts in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Each of the countries offer incredibly stunning natural vistas, and the remoteness of it all can be an attraction in and of itself. Most tourists come to Central Asia to see the Silk Road cities and ruins. The most well-known cities are mainly concentrated in Uzbekistan, and consist of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva. There is a smattering of archeological sites across the region, including Afrasyab near Samarkand, Panjakent across the border in Tajikistan, Merv and Gok Depe in Turkmenistan, and Turkistan in Kazakhstan.

Central Asia offers plenty of sites that can pique the interests of travelers who prefer more "niche" destinations. The easternmost region of Tajikistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast' (GBAO), contains the Pamir Highway, a high-altitude and extremely remote drive between Dushanbe and Osh, Kyrgyzstan, that is one of the world's finest destinations for the road trip lover. The city of Baikonur in central Kazakhstan is where Russian spacecraft are launched, and occasionally tours are offered and if you're lucky you can even watch a launch. And then, of course, there's Turkmenistan and Afghanistan, two of the most difficult countries to travel to in the world (one for politics and one for safety).

Buy
Central Asia is a relatively cheap destination for western standards, but more expensive than, e.g., Southeast Asia. Prices vary across the region, but they all are lower than compared to Europe, East Asia, the Persian Gulf, or the Americas. Turkmenistan is probably the most expensive Central Asian state for purchases and travel, with Afghanistan and Tajikistan being the cheapest in the region. Expect to be paying between US$2-12 per person per lunch or dinner meal at a mid-range establishment throughout the region, and a mid-range room in a hotel should cost between US$10-40 per night. Like elsewhere in the world, prices in big cities will be higher.

The southern parts of Central Asia have a long history of carpet making (and there is a growing industry in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan as well). In particular, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan are known for high-quality beautiful carpets, although the difficulty of getting to those places means that most travelers acquire Turkoman or Afghan carpets in a third country (usually Uzbekistan). The cities of Samarkand and Bukhara also have notable carpet making traditions. See the relevant country articles for more information. Be aware that carpets purchased in Turkmenistan require an export permission, which costs a notable sum of money per square meter. Many countries also have specific limits on exporting "antique" carpets (usually 50-100 years).

Eat
The cuisine of the region has been influenced by the Russian cuisine, Middle Eastern cuisine and Chinese cuisine.

The further south you are, the more flavorful the cuisine is. Afghanistan and Tajikistan have far different cuisine than the Mongolic or Turkic cuisines, which are mostly hearty, spice-free, meaty fare.

Bread holds an almost-sacred status in Central Asian societies. Never tear a piece with your left hand. If you happen to drop a piece on the floor, pick it up and return it to the table/your plate. And most importantly, it is considered crass to waste bread.

The most ubiquitous dish across Central Asia is plov (also called pilov, palov, or osh), a rice dish very similar to pilaf or paella. Its exact recipe varies across the region, but it generally uses a longer-grain rice, cumin, small date-like fruits, and your choice of meat (usually beef but sometimes lamb or horse). Another common dish is manty (also mantu), which are dumplings filled with meat and usually served in a soup (called a shurbo). In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, you can find beshbarmak, which is similar to Uyghur lagman noodles but with horse meat included.

As Central Asia is majority-Muslim, you will not be able to find anything with pork in it. In cities with large non-Muslim populations (like Almaty or Tashkent), though, you can find grocery stores catering to the expat community that carry pork products. Goat and horse meat are more common in the region than in many other parts of the world, although horse meat is generally not eaten outside of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and goat is generally reserved for ceremonial meals. Being landlocked countries, seafood is also generally not found, although river trout are widespread and are the go-to fish dish.

All Central Asian countries are heavily carnivorous. There are local vegetarians in all Central Asian countries (even Afghanistan) but they are in the minority. This means while you can go without meat and survive, you will attract odd looks. Leafy greens are uncommon in the region, so most "salads" and vegetable dishes will use cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, and carrots. Don't be surprised if you order a salad and you get a plate of cucumbers and tomatoes!

It is acceptable to ask for a "doggy bag" or to order food to go/takeaway. Simply say "с собой" (s soboy, literally "with yourself") and the waiter/waitress will bring your food to you in a takeout container.

Drink
Except Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, alcohol is not uncommon to drink in Central Asia. However, tea still remains the region's favorite beverage. In some countries, green tea is customarily consumed all throughout the day.

The nightlife scene is almost nonexistent in Central Asia. While the region is not the world's number one destination for clubbing, the Russophone party culture ensures a good time in places like Bishkek, Almaty, and Tashkent. In the capital cities (plus Almaty and minus Kabul), many new and/or hip bars double as nightclub-esque places. You can get drinks, listen to live music, and dance, but these are still first and foremost bars or even restaurants, so the atmosphere will be different compared to, say, Amsterdam.

Central Asia is the home of kumys, a drink made of fermented mare's milk. While you won't get drunk off it (there is alcohol in it, just very small amounts), it's something every traveler should try at least once.

Stay safe
Safety in Central Asia is a complex issue. While Afghanistan is notable for a high risk of kidnappings, terrorism, and the Taliban resurgence, most other Central Asian countries are safe for the average traveler. Some regions (particularly Karakalpakstan and the Pamirs) with large concentrations of ethnic or religious minorities can occasionally see outbreaks of violence. Occasionally, demonstrations and protests against governments or specific policies can become violent, although usually state-sponsored crackdowns on the protests by the armed forces are the actual cause of harm.

Most of the Central Asian nations' governments are very repressive, and while that rarely directly impacts tourists, do note that partaking in "anti-government activities" (whatever those may be) could see you arrested and/or fined. This is especially true in Turkmenistan, where the government very much does not like any criticism. The best way to stay safe is to avoid conversations that discuss the local politics.

Female and minority travelers
Female travelers may face extra challenges in Central Asia that they might not face in their home countries. Females traveling alone in public are often harassed with offers of marriage (or proposals to "set you up with someone"), but occasionally worse forms of harassment can occur. Some female travelers opt to wear a fake wedding ring while traveling in Central Asia (especially for those who plan on spending some time in the region). Female travelers in Afghanistan face even more restrictions from the Taliban government.

Central Asia is a grab-bag for LGBTQ+ travelers. Same-sex activity is legal in three states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan), but it is illegal in the other three (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan). LGBTQ+ people in Afghanistan can face the death penalty under Taliban-imposed laws. Even in states where it is legal, it may not be culturally accepted to be open with one's sexuality.

Weather
The weather in Central Asia is a land of extremes. Summertime on the steppes can reach 45° or even 50 °C while the winters can be brutally cold. In Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Kyrgyzstan, altitude sickness can be a major threat to one's trip. Across the region, pollution can pose health risks, especially during the winter when the smog from coal furnaces becomes unbearable in the cities. When packing, know what weather is usually expected in the region to which you're traveling, and pack accordingly.

It is recommended that you pack N95 masks when traveling in Central Asia (especially in colder months), as smog buildup is extremely common in cities and the masks can help mitigate the inhalation of particulate matter.

Stay healthy
In general, Central Asia is very safe vis-à-vis diseases. Malaria periodically shows itself in Afghanistan and southern Tajikistan, but beyond those places it is unheard of; other mosquito- or insect-borne illnesses are very, very rare in the region. The bigger threat to your health comes from the poor quality of healthcare in the region. In most of Central Asia, the medical system is not equipped to care for anything greater than a broken bone properly, and your best options would be to go to Istanbul, Seoul, or Dubai for treatment. Likewise, dental issues are better handled outside of the region.

Tap water is not safe to drink in any Central Asian country, and not recommended for brushing your teeth for short-term visitors. Buy bottled water and use that; if you cannot buy bottled water, boil any tap water before use. In some countries, like Tajikistan, the water also has heavy minerals which don't boil off.

title: Central Asia


text:
Central Bali

Central Bali is a mountainous area in Bali, mostly popular for its art, culture, temples and lakes.

Cities

 * — mountain lakes, the botanical gardens, Candikuning market and the famous Ulun Danu Bratan temple
 * — black sand beaches, Mount Batukaru, UNESCO World Heritage site of Jatiluwih and gateway to West Bali
 * — Batur Lake, Batur Hotsprings, Mount Batur and gateway to east Bali, Central Bamboo Crafts
 * — the centre of art and dance in the foothills, with an interesting small palace, monkey forest, and lots of arts and crafts shops

Understand
This by definition is a large and varied region. It is mostly known though for the artistic and cultural capital of Bali in Ubud and the mountains and lakes around Bedugul. Several of Bali's most notable archeological sites are also to be found here as well as two of the key nine directional temples.

With a prevalence of artistic, cultural, historical and scenic attractions, Central Bali appeals most those looking for break from the sun, sand and partying in South Bali or to those who are seeking a more thorough understanding of this complex island.

Climate
The climate in the elevated areas of this region is remarkably cooler than elsewhere on the island, especially around Bedugul. Bring some warm clothes as temperatures can get to a low of 10 degrees Celsius at night.

The rain is a lot less predictable here, especially when you get high up the mountains. When visiting Mount Batukaru, the humidity is particularly high and it rains a lot in this area.

By car
The central region is approachable by road from all other areas of Bali. The most commonly used routes are:

 * From South Bali to Ubud on the main Jalan Ngurah Rai bypass to Sanur and east Denpasar and then into Central Bali via the villages of Batubulan and Sukawati to Ubud. Time approximately 45 minutes.
 * From East Bali to Ubud using the main road from Klungkung through Gianyar. Time approximately 1 hour.
 * From South Bali to Jatiluwih. Time approximately 1h30.
 * From North Bali to Bedugul on the main southward route from Singaraja or Seririt. Time approximately 1 hour.
 * From West Bali to Bedugul on the north coast road to Singaraja and then south to Bedugul. Time approximately 2 hours.
 * From West Bali to Tabanan on the south coast road. Time approximately 2 hours.

By bus
Budget travellers are urged to check the services of Perama whose network covers some of the main areas of interest in Central Bali. There are Perama offices in Kuta, Sanur, Ubud and Bedugul. Many routes only run once per day, so plan your lodging accordingly.

There are also other scheduled private shuttle buses into Ubud from Kuta, Sanur, Lovina. Padang Bai and Candidasa which are widely advertised in those towns. Book one day in advance.

Ubud is served from Batubulan bemo terminal in Denpasar while bemos to Bedugul and Tabanan depart from Ubung terminal.

Get around
This is a large region with few taxis and also Go-car and Grab are not easy to find. Most visitors get around by renting a car with or without a driver or a motorbike. Expect to pay about Rp 500,000 per day for a good quality car with driver and including petrol. Many places also rent motorbikes for Rp 75,000-100,000 per day. Be warned that Bali roads are hectic and dangerous, and you should only undertake riding a motorbike if you are confident you can handle one safely.

In general, Bali tourist areas are fiercely opposed to Grab/Gojek, so tons of locals you walk by on the street will ask if you want to book their private taxi service. In general, these are 2-3x the price of a Grab/Gojek, if you are able to get one.

There are also no public buses, and bemos between cities can be hard to catch if you're not at a bus terminal.

Arts and Crafts
Ubud is rightly regarded as the arts and crafts capital of Bali. In around the town you will find many shops, galleries and workshops dedicated to various aspects of the art of Bali, both traditional and modern.

The areas immediately around Ubud have much to offer in terms of art and each village seems to specialise in a particular art form or craft. For woodcarving head to Mas, 2 km south of Ubud on the main road heading towards Sukawati and Sanur. For silver-work Celuk is further south on the same road. There are many high end jewellery galleries here and well as more humble workshops. Stonecarving is the deal in Singakerta and further south in Batubulan.

Historical and Archaeological Sites
The areas in and around Ubud, Gianyar and Tampaksiring have several sites of great archaeological interest and significance. A day devoted to visiting these would be a day very well spent.

The Goa Gajah (Elephant Cave) complex at Bedulu village is just 2 km south east of Ubud on the main road to Gianyar. The centerpiece here is a cave dating back to the 11th century the entrance of which is an ornately carved demon's mouth. Inside are some fragmentary lingam and yoni (phallus and vagina) statues, as well as a statue of Ganesha. Statues stand guard around pools near the entrance. A number of the relics here strongly indicate that the site has a Buddhist as well as Hindu past. Despite its great antiquity some parts of the Goa Gajah complex were not excavated until the 1950s. Tentatively nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Entrance fee is Rp 6,000 and the complex is open daily from 8AM-4PM.

Nearby are the far less well known rock carvings at Yeh Pulu. These date to the 14th or 15th century and are in a very attractive rice field setting. You can reach Yeh Pulu on foot through the rice fields from Goa Gajah but you will definitely need a guide for the 45 minute walk as there is no path to speak of. Alternatively turn off the Ubud to Gianyar main road about 400 metres east of the entrance to the Goa Gajah complex. Drive through Banjar Batulumbang until the road comes to an end. For here walk down the track to Yeh Pulu passing the small warung on your left. As well as the carvings there is a holy well here and the attendant priest will be happy to bless you with the well water. Temple dress code applies here. Yeh Pulu is a much under-rated and under-visited site - highly recommended. The historically important area of Tampaksiring is about 20 km northeast from Ubud town centre. 300 metres north of the bemo terminal in Tampsaksiring on the main road, the entrance track to Gunung Kawi (poet mountain) is signposted. Dating from the 11th century, this is presumed to be the burial complex of King Anak Wungsu and his many wives. Reached by climbing down 371 steps, the location at the bottom of the steep Pakrisan River valley is stunning. The smaller complex on the south side of the river is presumed to be for the king's wives, while the larger complex is thought to be for the King himself and perhaps his favourite concubines. About one km downriver there are further tomb cloisters. On the way back up, take a break at Cafe Kawi, which has cold drinks (Rp 10,000 & up) and fresh breezes (free). Entrance is Rp 6,000, open daily 8AM-4PM except during major religious hoildays.

About 500 metres to the north, off the main Tampaksiring to Penelokan road, is the temple complex of Tirta Empul. This splendid temple dates back to the 10th century and is one of the holiest in Bali. Bar a few relics though, most of what you see is a modern replica. The site was built around hot springs that still bubble in the central courtyard. This is a very important sacred site for the Hindu Balinese who come here to cleanse themselves physically and spiritually - a process called melukat. During Galungan festivals the sacred barong masks are bathed here. Entrance is Rp 6,000, open daily 8AM-4PM except during major religious holidays.

The Subak Museum in Tabanan is a repository that showcases the centuries-old Balinese agrarian way of life - the management of rice fields and its irrigation systems collectively known as 'subak'. Unique to Bali, the subak, as well as the wealth of traditional agricultural methods and tools, are collected, recorded and kept within this Subak Museum, located on Jalan Gatot Subroto, in the Kediri district of the Tabanan regency. The museum is approximately an hour’s drive from Bali’s capital city Denpasar, and only five minutes from the town centre of Tabanan.

Mountains and Lakes
The central mountain range of Bali contains some of the very best scenery and geographical features on the island as well as important temples. No visitor to Bali should miss this area.

The area known loosely as Bedugul is right in the heart of the central mountains and is framed by the three large crater lakes of Bratan, Buyan and Tamblingan. Pura Ulun Danu Bratan (Lake Bratan Temple) is perhaps the most photographed temple on the island and is certainly one of the great iconic images of Bali. The temple sits on the western shore of Lake Bratan and it can give the illusion of actually floating on the water. Built in 1633, the temple is devoted to Dewi Danu, goddess of the lake. A beautiful temple in a truly stunning setting. Open 7AM-5PM, daily and the entrance fee is Rp 5,000.

About 1 km back up the hill from Lake Bratan is the Bukit Mungsu traditional market. The highlands around Bedugul are cool and fertile and the area has become a key growing area for fruit and vegetables including those that demand a cool climate. All manner of very fresh local produce is for sale here as well the spices for which Bali is so well known.

Further west again from the market are the Bali Botanical Gardens (Kebun Raya Eka Karya). One of Indonesia's four official botanical gardens, the best and the cleanest among Indonesia's botanical garden with a lake and cactus greenhouse. The entrance road is identified by the presence of a giant stone corn on the cob! The gardens are huge covering some 160 hectares and any visitor with an interest in plants and trees could easily spend a whole day here to see 1,500 species of 16,000 plants. There is also an informative library and gift shop. Open daily 8AM-6PM, admission price Rp 6,000. Can get very busy during local school holidays.

Photo opportunities and stunning scenery are plentiful in this area but no more so than around the lovely mountain village of Munduk. From Lake Bratan continue north passing Lake Buyan and look for the immediate turn to the west (left) which takes you along the northern shore of Lake Buyan, past Lake Tamblingan to the villages of Munduk and Gobleg. Stop often, take it all in and absorb the truly magnificent scenery.

South and west from Bedugul, Bali's second highest peak Mount Batukaru dominates the landscape. There are many scenic drives in this area centering on the UNESCO World Heritage Site nominated Jatiluwih and the roads into the foothills of the mountain around the villages of Gunung Sari, Marga, Wongayagede, Sanda and Sarinbuana. Arm yourself with a good map and enjoy perhaps the best scenery in the whole of Bali. You can make a long trekking (around 3,5 hours) through the rice terraces of Jatiluwih (UNESCO World Heritage site) or do a tour on an electric bike. There are plenty of restaurants around or even in the rice fields all with breathtaking views. There are many waterfalls in the area to visit as well as hot springs. Pura Luhur Batukaru (Batukaru Temple) near Wongayagede village is one of Bali's nine key directional temples and a site of pilgrimage for the Hindu Balinese. Majestically situated on the slopes of Mount Batukaru since the 11th century, this is an especially sacred site, even by Balinese standards and all visitors must carefully read and abide by the temple rules posted clearly at the entrance. The temple is high on the slopes of the mountain and the often misty, drizzly micro-climate here just adds to its undoubtedly mystical atmosphere.

Do
There are many cultural dance performances in Ubud on an almost nightly basis and this town is also a haven for all kinds of spa treatments and other wellness centres.

Outdoors types might like to take a relatively gentle hike through the rice fields and valleys at Jatiluwih near Bedugul and for the more energetic and experienced, a climb of mighty Mount Batukaru is an option. Also longer trekkings are available through the rice terraces of Jatiluwih as well as more relaxed tours with electric bikes.

The region has limited coastline so opportunities for water sports are limited, but there is excellent white-water rafting available in the Sayan valley close to Ubud. This is relatively safe for the inexperienced because most is grade-2, with some grade-3, on the white-water rafting scale.

Central Bali's south coast from Tabanan to West Bali has beaches with black sand and rocky and scattered round stones. However, it also has two surfer beaches: Soka Beach just past Tanah Lot is a bit more than one hour's drive from Kuta and Balian Beach is 5 kilometers west of Soka Beach.

Eat
Eating in Central Bali is pretty much like elsewhere on the island, but an interesting try is the delicious traditional fruit market Bukit Mungsu in the village of Candikuning at Bedugul. There are plenty of restaurants with amazing views over the rice fields, particularly in Jatiluwih and Bedugul.

Drink
This is a quiet, cultural region and there is barely any nightlife to speak of. Ubud has a few places for a quiet drink but strictly enforced regulations ensure that all live performances and loud music end by 10:30PM.

Go next

 * Lovina is an interesting and easy-going beach in the north.
 * Pemuteran in north-west Bali has an interesting national park and is famous for good diving
 * East Bali is accessed easily via Klungkung

title: Central Bali


text:
Central Belt

The Central Belt of Scotland is the broad lowland strip between the Firth of Forth in the east and the Firth of Clyde in the west. It includes Edinburgh and Glasgow the two principal cities, and a string of other large towns: most of the Scottish population live here. It's bounded to the north by the Highlands and to the south by the Southern Uplands. Geographically it includes Fife north of the Firth of Forth, but on these pages that's described as part of North East Scotland.

Cities and towns

 * is a must-see for its castle and Royal Mile, and wealth of museums and galleries.
 * is confidently Victorian and needs several days to explore.
 * , birthplace of the Paisley Pattern, has a fine cathedral.
 * guards the road to the Highlands, with a stout castle and monuments to historic battles.
 * is industrial but has Strathclyde park, and nearby Hamilton has a palace that fell down a coal mine.
 * has an ingenious wheel to hoist boats between two canals.
 * has the ruined palace where Mary Queen of Scots was born.

Other destinations

 * starts at the edge of this region. Access the Trossachs via Callander and Loch Lomond via Balmaha.
 * is an islet with bird and marine life visited by summer boat trips.

Understand
Scotland and England were on separate continents until 400 million years ago, and you can still see the join, roughly along the line of the present border. Their collision produced a parallel fault line further north, and this strip of land sank as a rift valley. Down with it went Carboniferous deposits that over millennia turned into coal and oil. So what that created, once humans appeared, was fertile lowlands, a natural transport corridor, and easily-worked deposits of fuel. Edinburgh was important from the Middle Ages, while Glasgow was small until the 18th century then burgeoned into Scotland's largest city. A string of industrial towns grew between and around them, then slumped in the 20th century.

Travel to this Central Belt was for workaday practical purposes until the 19th century: cattle drovers bringing their herds down muddy trails to the market at Falkirk, troop movements first to keep the Highlanders in check and then to recruit them to patrol Britain's empire, and smallholders leaving their farms to seek a better life in the mills and foundries. As well as railways, that century invented "romantic scenery" to stoke a tourist industry, and this area has plenty. Edinburgh launched its Festival in 1947, to grow at a rate rivalled only by the Big Bang. Glasgow was slower to get off the mark but re-invented itself from the 1980s as a buzzing destination.

The two principal cities therefore both rank as must-see, but the other towns are also worth your time. To be sure there are plenty of drab tracts of brownfield and commuter-land, and the "New Towns" of Livingston, Cumbernauld and East Kilbride will only delight students of Brutalist 1960s architecture done on the cheap. But there are many expanses of open countryside, fine coastline, and hidden treasures.

By plane
Edinburgh and Glasgow  have flights from London, Europe, the Gulf States, and the main Scottish islands.

Aberdeen and Inverness  have flights from London and occasionally Europe.

Prestwick near Ayr only has flights to Med holiday destinations, and Dundee has very few flights.

For intercontinental flights, consider using Manchester, which has direct trains to Edinburgh and Glasgow.

By train
Trains from London Kings Cross, the West Country and Midlands run up the northeast coast via York and Newcastle to Edinburgh. Some continue to Aberdeen, Inverness or Glasgow.

Trains from London Euston, the Midlands and Manchester run northwest via Preston and Carlisle to Edinburgh, Motherwell and Glasgow.

A slow line from Carlisle loops through Dumfries and Kilmarnock to Glasgow.

The Caledonian Sleepers run overnight from London Euston via the northwest: the Lowland Sleeper to Edinburgh and Glasgow, the Highland Sleeper divides for Aberdeen, Inverness and Fort William.

The West Highland Line connects Glasgow with Oban (for ferries to Mull, Coll, Tiree and Colonsay), Fort William and Mallaig (for ferries to Skye and South Uist). The other Hebrides ferry ports are linked by bus.

By road
The major highways are:
 * A1 from northeast England through Newcastle, Berwick-upon-Tweed and Dunbar to Edinburgh.
 * Scenic shortcuts through the Borders are A68 from Scotch Corner, or A696 from Newcastle, or A697 from Morpeth.

 * M74 / A74(M) is the continuation of M6 from northwest England past Carlisle and Lockerbie to Glasgow, with a turnoff on A702 for Edinburgh. This is the surest route in wintry conditions: it crosses Beattock Fell but is kept open in all but the worst weather.
 * A7 is a scenic alternative from Carlisle via Hawick, Selkirk and Galashiels to Edinburgh.

 * A77 runs from Stranraer (for Northern Ireland ferries) via Ayr and Kilmarnock to Glasgow.
 * A9 runs from the far north and Inverness to Perth, where you take M90 for Edinburgh or M9 for Stirling and Glasgow.
 * A90 from Aberdeen, Dundee and Perth, dividing as from A9.

National Express coaches and Megabus run daily from London Victoria to Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Get around

See Scotland. Frequent trains link Edinburgh, Falkirk, Glasgow, Motherwell, Hamilton and Stirling, and are much the quickest transport between these cities.

There's a good speedy bus service between Edinburgh and Glasgow, the other routes are slow.

The highways between major cities are motorway or equivalent standard, but are often snarled. Never bring a car into Edinburgh or Glasgow without planning ahead where to park. For a day-trip the best option is Park & Ride: Edinburgh has a few around A720 Ring Road, transferring to bus, while Glasgow has railway station parking on its extensive suburban network.

See

 * Edinburgh Old Town is the highlight of any trip to Scotland, with the Royal Mile stretching down from the castle to the palace, and medieval alleys descending steeply either side of High Street.
 * New Town is the graceful street grid north of Old Town, with the principal art galleries, and the vantage point of Calton Hill with its ersatz Acropolis.
 * The East Lothian coast is attractive, with sand hills, gnarly old castles and cliffs through Gullane, North Berwick and Dunbar.
 * South Queensferry is where three bridges vault across the Forth: the iconic railway bridge, the 1960s road bridge with a walkway for viewing, and the modern motorway bridge.
 * Glasgow has a medieval cathedral, the flamboyant Kelvingrove gallery and museum, architecture by Charles Rennie Mackintosh including the retro-built "House for an Art Lover", and the Burrell Collection.
 * Stirling has a smaller version of Edinburgh Castle and Royal Mile. Monuments at Bridge of Allan and Bannockburn commemorate victories over the English, rather a long time ago.

Do

 * Edinburgh Festival is the loose term for three overlapping events in August, any one of which would fill the city to busting: official Festival, the Fringe, and the Edinburgh Tattoo. You'll struggle to find accommodation anywhere with 50 miles while these are on.
 * Rugby: Murrayfield in Edinburgh is where Scotland play internationals, and the premier event is the Six Nations in Feb/March. Edinburgh and Glasgow host the only two professional clubs in Scotland, playing in the United Rugby Championship, plus several semi-pro or amateur teams in lower tiers. Rugby League (13-a-side) is not played in Scotland.
 * Football: Scotland play soccer internationals at Hampden Park in Glasgow. Teams in the Premier League, the top tier, are Celtic and Rangers in Glasgow, Hearts and Hibs in Edinburgh, St Mirren in Paisley, and Motherwell and Livingston. There are pro teams in lower tiers in Falkirk, Hamilton, Stirling, Edinburgh and the industrial belt around Glasgow.
 * The West Highland Way is a long distance hiking trail from Milngavie near Glasgow up the east bank of Loch Lomond to Crianlarich and on into the Highlands.
 * The Union Canal snakes west along the contours from Edinburgh to Falkirk, where the Wheel hoists boats into the Forth and Clyde Canal between Grangemouth, Glasgow and Dumbarton. Both canals are navigable throughout and have firm towpaths for walking or cycling.
 * Go down a coal mine. Coal smoke gave Edinburgh its nickname of "Auld Reekie", and the seams stretched across the central belt from Fife to Lanark. At the National Mining Museum in Newtongrange you can descend into the old workings.
 * Golf courses are everywhere. The best are along the East Lothian coast through Gullane, and Dalmahoy west of Edinburgh.
 * Royal Highland Show at Ingliston near Edinburgh Airport is primarily an agriculture fair. There's more tartanry on display at the Highland Games in Stirling and the piping and pipe band competitions in Glasgow.

Eat

 * Both Edinburgh and Glasgow have top-class restaurants serving outstanding cuisine.
 * Cosmopolitan fare is also found in those cities: the cuisine of many nations, and menus for vegans and gluten-free. Yes, even vegan haggis.
 * Pub grub and the golf hotels might be your best bet in the small industrial towns.

Drink

 * All this region has high-quality tap water fresh from the hills, requiring minimum treatment. You don't need bottled water, however much the waiter insists.
 * Most of Scotland's brewing, and a large share of whisky-distilling, is in the central belt. Classic distilling country is further north but there are whisky distilleries you can visit near Edinburgh and Glasgow. Lowland malt whiskies are unpeated and mild, a good introduction for beginners.
 * Many small-town pubs remain drouthy, but plenty are family-friendly and serve decent food and yes, even wine.

Sleep

 * Edinburgh and Glasgow have lots of accommodation in all price brackets, but it sells out in summer, book early. Since these are all-year destinations, places stay open in winter.
 * Not much in the smaller towns, as visitors are fewer and usually day-trip. Look for chain hotels such as Premier Inn at their motorway junctions.
 * Very few campsites, and this busy area is mostly unsuitable for wild-camping. Yurts dot the Highlands (another symptom of climate change?) but have yet to populate these lowlands.

Go next

 * The Scottish Highlands start just north of Glasgow.
 * North East Scotland includes Fife (industrial in the west, scenic in the east), douce Perthshire and sonsie Aberdeen.
 * The South West standouts are Ayr and Dumfries (both haunts of Robert Burns), New Lanark Mills, and the island of Arran.
 * The Scottish Borders south of Edinburgh have former textile towns with grand ruined medieval abbeys.

title: Central Belt